MODULE
143
MEASURING
PROUDLY SPONSORED BY
WATER
FLOW
DA24
Skills summary
■ What?
A guide to different measurement
techniques used when conducting
testing, adjusting and balancing There are a number of ways that the flow rate of water through a system
(TAB) of hydronic HVAC systems. can be measured. The majority of the methods rely on the measurement of
differential pressure across a device with a known flow rate-to-resistance
■ Who? ratio, commonly known as a Kv factor.
Relevant for those involved in
the process of testing, adjusting
and balancing hydronic systems This Skills Workshop discusses the main ways water flow is measured during
within the HVAC&R industry. testing, adjusting and balancing (TAB) of hydronic systems.
Use of circulating pumps It is not unusual to conduct a closed head test on a pump, where the
discharge valve is closed and suction and discharge pressures are measured,
for flow measurement followed by an open or operational head test.
Although the pump is not a meter, it can be used to give an indication Note: For large pumps, manufacturer’s guidance should be sought
of the flow rate for comparison with other system measuring devices. prior to performing a closed head test.
The differential pressure reading across a pump can be used in Pump closed head test
conjunction with the pump curve to establish the flow rate provided The test is typically carried out as follows
the following is known: (check manufacturer’s guidance):
• The accuracy of the instrumentation being used 1. Connect a suitable pressure gauge across the pump suction
• The shape of the pump curve and discharge pressure test points
• The pump performance without cavitation, air‑free operation 2. Start the pump and slowly close the discharge valve
and velocity pressure correction.
3. Determine the shut-off pressure differential (between suction
and pressure), then re-open the discharge valve
Pump flow rate 4. Measure the full-flow pressure differential (between suction
Several methods are used to determine liquid flow rate from a pump. and pressure), with the valve fully open
1. Delivery into a tank of known capacity, noting time to fill 5. Check the measured data against the manufacturer’s data for
2. Weighing the volume of water discharge in a given time zero flow. When the closed head test result coincides with
3. Inserting a venturi meter in the discharge line the manufacturer’s data for zero flow, the actual flow can be
determined from the manufacturer’s data or performance
4. Fitting a known, calibrated orifice plate in the discharge line
graph as supplied. When the closed head test result does
and measuring the pressure differential across it
not coincide with the manufacturer’s zero flow data, the
5. Measuring pump suction and discharge pressure, then plotting manufacturer’s pump performance curve should be modified
on the pump manufacturer’s pump performance curve by drawing a line parallel to it, but starting at the tested closed
6. The use of a magflow meter or temporarily installed head pressure. The actual water flows can then be read directly
ultra‑sonic flowmeter off the modified pump curve.
7. Adding up the sum of the volumetric flow rates through 6. Final pump flows should always be confirmed by using
the field terminals. another independent flow verification method.
The selection of the flow measurement technique will depend As well as establishing the measured pressures, it is also necessary
on the pump size and the accuracy of reading required. AS 2417 to verify the pump rotational speed in order to be able to accurately
should be consulted when making these decisions. plot the actual pump performance curve relative to the published
nominal performance curve.
Closed head testing
Closed head testing relates to the discharge valve being fully closed and the Measurement of pump speed
actual discharge pressure and suction pressure being measured and applied. A number of methods may be used for speed measurement:
This is done by subtracting the suction pressure from the discharge pressure
1. Tachometer
to obtain the actual system operating point and applying this to the pump
curve to obtain the actual water flow rate, and comparing to the actual 2. Stroboscope
field reading as a cross-verification. 3. Revolution counter.
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HVAC&R Skills Workshop
The revolution counter has the disadvantage of not indicating Where a pressure drop is measured, and the flow rate calculated by
fluctuations in speed. the normal process from a graph supplied by the valve manufacturer,
Readings should be taken over a significant period of time the following step should be performed to correct the reading:
√δw
( )
to give a representative average.
Where VSDs are installed, the pump speed and power Actual flow rate = x flow
consumption can be obtained from the drive. δf
Measurement of pump power
The power input to the pump for a three-phase motor is given by:
Flow-measurement and
regulating devices
√3 × V × A ×P.F.
Pi = Every circuit to be commissioned must be provided with a device that
1000 is capable of regulating the flow rate and isolating the flow to the circuit.
Where: Pi = power input (kW) V = voltage The names of some of these devices can vary, and the typical
nomenclature is outlined in Table 1.
A = current
Correct sizing of the regulating device is essential to ensure effective
P.F. = power factor. balancing without causing excessive (and energy-wasting) restrictions
Note: The power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined or excessive noise through high valve-face velocities.
as the ratio of the real power absorbed by the load to the apparent Flow measurement devices to be installed must be selected according
power flowing into the circuit. to the accuracy of the flow measurement required.
Use of manufacturer’s data Using flow‑measurement devices
for flow measurement There are a range of devices available for flow measurement,
Most manufacturers of components (e.g., terminal units, chillers, including fixed and variable orifices and nozzles, annular flow devices
boilers, heat exchangers, valves) provide nominal flow-pressure drop and flow meters (see Figure 1).
information for their products. In some cases, this may extend to In addition to flow-measurement devices, there are also flow meters
recording on the equipment nameplate specific information from that are based on a range of technologies:
an actual test performed at the factory. • Venturi nozzles/fixed-orifice devices
If the information is certified, this may be used to determine flow through • Variable-orifice devices
the device because, as the pump laws state (see 8.10), the flow rate will vary • Annular flow device
in accordance to the square root of the system pressure drop.
• Magflow meter/electromagnetic flow meter
Example:
• Ultra-sonic flow meter.
A chiller manufacturer has a catalogued flow-pressure drop relationship of
6.31L/s at 74.89kPa. An actual field measurement of 89.87kPa is recorded.
What is the actual flow?
FE RO FE
Using the pump laws: L/s2 = L/s1 x √(ΔP2 / ΔP1).
New Flow rate = √(89.87/74.89) x 6.31
= 6.91L/s.
Orifice Plate Restriction Orifice Venturi
Measuring pressure
differential – by gauge FE
Gauges or manometers may be used for the purpose of measuring
pressure differential. FI
Gauges are used for higher-pressure differentials, mercury
manometers for intermediate pressure differentials, and fluorocarbon Pitot Tube Variable Area
manometers for the smallest differentials. Annubar Flowmeter (Rotameter)
Using two gauges will greatly reduce the accuracy of the reading
(should the gauges not be calibrated) compared to using one Figure 1 Various flow-measurement instrumentation
calibrated gauge for both readings. The accuracy of the device
should be based on the full-scale deflection of the gauge. Device name Other names Device type
The commonly used unit for pressure in hydronic system balancing is kPa. Venturi nozzle • Venturi tube Venturi
(Note that at 15°C, 1.0 metre of water = 9.8kPa.) It should be noted that
• Venturi meter
the differential gauge reading is normally expressed in kPa, which can be
converted to units of metres head of fluid if required. • Venturi device
Provided this is done (the conversion to metres head), no further Orifice plate • Fixed-orifice flow- Orifice plate
correction is required to the Kv relationship to determine the actual measurement device
flow rate through the flow device, subject only to the manufacturer • Fixed-orifice device
having correctly stated the flow/fluid pressure relationship. • Metering station
If glycol solutions are used, it is important that a density correction be
made to all gauge readings (see 4.5) when these differential pressures Fixed-orifice • FODRV Globe, needle, ball
are used for the estimation of pump performance and flow rate from double- • Commissioning set/station or butterfly valve,
the pump curves. regulating close‑coupled to a
• Venturi commissioning
valve fixed orifice or venturi
Due to the shape of the pump curve, incorrect pressure difference valve
device
estimation caused by using an uncorrected gauge reading will
produce an error in the estimated pump-flow rate. Variable- • VODRV Globe valve with
orifice double- • Pressure-tapped pressure tappings
Effect of water/glycol mixtures regulating
valve
regulating valve across seat of valve
The use of anti-freeze agents in chilled water systems affect the derivation • Variable-orifice valve
of flow from the differential pressure actually read by the instrument, due
to an increase in specific gravity of the fluid compared to water. Table 1 Flow-measurement instrumentation – nomenclature
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HVAC&R Skills Workshop
Venturi nozzles/fixed‑orifice devices Magflow meter
For measurement of flow at pumps, chillers, boilers etc., the installation of An electromagnetic flow meter or magflow meter is a transducer that
venturi nozzles or fixed-orifice plates is recommended. will measure the fluid flow by measuring the voltage induced across
The venturi tube or orifice plate is a specific, fixed-area reduction in the path the liquid by its flow through a magnetic field.
of the fluid flow. The differential pressure generated by the device is related The magnetic field is applied to the metering tube, which results in a potential
to the velocity of the fluid; the pressure drop is equated to the flow rate in L/s, difference proportional to the flow velocity, perpendicular to the flux lines.
but the pressure drop is not equal to the velocity pressure drop. The principle applied to the use of magnetic flow meters is “Faraday’s law”.
Because of the entry and leaving conditions of the device, the venturi
tube produces a lower permanent pressure loss than an orifice plate Faraday’s law
at the same flow rate. Faraday’s law states that the voltage induced across any conductor
A full venturi tube can be extremely accurate, with no appreciable as it moves at right-angles through a magnetic field is proportional
system pressure loss, but to achieve this it must be extremely long. to the velocity of that conductor.
A modified version is available with a shortened entry and recovery Faraday’s formula states that:
cones that still provide an acceptable accuracy and system pressure loss
(less than the orifice plate for the same accuracy). E is proportional to V × B × D
A fixed-orifice double-regulating valve uses the pressure drop across a close- Where: E = the voltage generated in a conductor
coupled venturi tube or orifice plate as the means of determining flow rate. V = the velocity of the conductor
B = the magnetic field strength
Variable-orifice devices D = the length of the conductor.
Flow-measurement orifice devices can be fixed or variable. For As the magnetic sensor is very sensitive to air bubbles at the electrodes,
measurement of flow at terminal units and branches or sub-branches, the sensor must be mounted at a 45 to 135-degree angle in the pipe work.
a fixed- or variable-orifice valve can be used.
A simple in-line orifice (see Figure 2(a)) is the most elementary
method for controlling flow.
Ultrasonic flow meter
Ultrasonic technology offers the advantage of no moving parts,
An orifice can be a drilled hole in a fitting, in which case it is fixed; or it may be
giving these meters an increased life-span and more accurate
a calibrated needle valve, in which case it functions as a variable orifice (see
and reliable degree of measurement.
Figure 2(b)). Both are non-compensated flow-control devices.
Ultrasonic flow meters can provide data on many parameters, such as heat and
A variable-orifice double-regulating valve uses the pressure drop across its
cold consumption, total energy spent on heating and cooling, temperatures,
plug as the means of determining flow rate, using pressure tappings across
seat of valve. The valve also has a regulating ability and can be locked in its set and current energy consumption. They are also compact and can be mounted
position, with a valve setting indicator to enable the setting to be recorded. horizontally or vertically, offering a great degree of flexibility.
Ultrasonic flow meters use sound waves to determine the velocity
of the fluid flowing within the piping system. When the fluid is stationary,
the frequencies of the ultrasonic wave are transmitted into the pipe
and the reflections from the fluid return unchanged; when the fluid
is in motion, the frequency of the reflections will increase linearly.
There are two types of ultrasonic flow meters available that will measure
either the Doppler effect or transit time:
1. The ultrasonic transducer measures the average fluid velocity
along the path of the emitted beam of ultrasound by averaging
the difference in measured transit time between the pulses of
Variable Orifice ultrasound propagating into and against the direction of the flow,
(a) (b) or by the measuring of the frequency shift from the Doppler effect
2. A Doppler flow meter is a volumetric flow meter that requires
Figure 2 Fixed and variable orifices particulates or bubbles in the flow.
Both meter types use ultrasound to make measurements and are non‑evasive,
Annular flow device but both measure flow by very different methods.
An annular flow device is a flow-sensing device that operates on Ultrasonic flow meters are ideal for wastewater applications
an adaptation of the principle of the Pitot tube. They are differential or any dirty liquid that is conductive or water-based.
pressure‑flow meters that were developed to overcome the problem
of dirt build-up in front of the orifice plate in liquid streams. Installation of
With the upstream and downstream tube pressures sensing a velocity
pressure equal to total pressure minus static pressure at this point, flow‑measurement devices
this pressure is transmitted to a gauge. When installing a flow-measurement device, a location in which the fluid has a
The pressure differential when referred to the appropriate laminar flow profile and is not affected by any disturbances should be selected.
calibration/manufacturer’s data will indicate the flow rate in L/s. This may require a minimum of 10 pipe diameters of straight piping upstream
To obtain the correct flow-rate reading, the manufacturer’s recommendation and five diameters of straight piping downstream. In some situations
for the correct method of installation must be strictly adhered to. A 3°C change the required pipe diameters upstream may be 20 diameters or more.
in the vertical plane or a greater than 3°C change in the horizontal plane will Manufacturer’s installation and calibration instructions should be followed. ■
render the annular flow device inaccurate for measuring flow.
Care must also be taken to ensure that air entrainment does not affect the
accuracy of the readings. This can be achieved by ensuring that the device is Next issue: R32 refrigerant information guide
always mounted below the centreline of the piping being analysed.
The biggest difference between an annular flow device and a Pitot tube
is that an annular flow device takes multiple samples across a section
of a pipe simultaneously (rather than requiring a traverse). In this way, This month’s skills workshop has been taken from
the annular flow device automatically averages the differential DA24 Hydronic System Balancing – in HVAC.
pressures and accounts for variations in flow across the section.
For more information go to
A Pitot tube will give a similar reading to an annular flow device if the www.airah.org.au/da_manuals
tip is located at a point in the pipe cross-section where the flowing
velocity is close to the average velocity.
Summer 2021 | www.airah.org.au/nation | HVAC&R Nation | 17
