Unit 2
Topics covered:
Central Processing Unit
Course outline and schedule
Introduction
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Unit 2
Contents
❑ Central Processing Unit
❑ General Register Organization
❑ Stack Organization
❑ Addressing Modes
❑ Instruction Classification
❑ Program Control Instructions
Reference:
❑ M. M. Mano – Computer Systems Architecture –
Edition 3 – Pearson Publication1
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Central Processing Unit
❑ The part of the computer that performs the bulk
of data processing operations is called central
processing unit (CPU).
❑ The CPU is made up of 3 major components:
1. Register set : store intermediate result during
execution
2. ALU : perform arithmetic &logic operations
3. Control unit: instruct the ALU to perform the
desired operation and supervise the transfer of
info.
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List of registers for the basic computer
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GENERAL REGISTER ORGANIZATION
(important)
❑ The memory locations are used for storing pointers,
counters, return address, temporary results, and
partial product during multiplication.
❑ Having to refer to the memory location for such
application is time consuming. So most convenient and
efficient way is to store these intermediate values in
processor registers.
❑ When large no. of registers are included in the CPU, it
is most efficient to connect them through common bus
system.
Explain General Register Organization with the help of a
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neat diagram. (15 marks)
❑ The registers communicate each other for direct
data transfers, & for performing various
microoperations.
❑ Hence a common unit that can perform all the
arithmetic, logic, & shift microoperations in the
processor is necessary.
❑ A bus organization for 7 CPU registers is shown in
the following fig.
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❑ The output of each register is connected to two
multiplexers (MUX) to form the two buses A and B.
❑ The selection lines in each multiplexer select one
register or the input data for the particular bus
❑ The A and B buses form the inputs to a common
arithmetic logic unit (ALU).
❑ The operation selected in the ALU determines the
arithmetic or logic microoperation that is to be
performed.
❑ The result of the microoperation is available for
output data and also goes into the inputs of all the
registers.
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❑ The register that receives the information from
the output bus is selected by a decoder.
❑ The decoder activates one of the register load
inputs, thus providing a transfer path between the
data in the output bus and the inputs of the
selected destination register.
❑ The control unit that operates the CPU bus system
directs the information flow through the registers
and ALU by selecting the various components in
the system.
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Eg. to perform the operation: R 1 <--R2 + R3
❑ The control must provide binary selection variables to
the following selector inputs:
1. MUX A selector (SELA): to place the content of
R2 into bus A .
2. MUX B selector (SELB): to place the content of
R3 into bus B .
3. ALU operation selector (OPR): to provide the
arithmetic addition A + B .
4. Decoder destination selector (SELD): to transfer
the content of the output bus into R1.
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❑ CONTROL WORD: The four control selection
variables are generated in the control unit and must
be available at the beginning of a clock cycle.
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❑ Control Word:
◆ There are 14 binary selection inputs in the unit,
and their combined value specifies a control word.
◆ The 3 bits of SELA select a source register for
the A input of the ALU.
◆ The 3 bits of SELB select a register for the B
input of the ALU.
◆ The 3 bits of SELD select a destination register
using the decoder and its seven load outputs.
◆ The 5 bits of OPR select one of the operations in
the ALU
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❑ Eg. R 1 <- R 2 - R3
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STACK ORGANIZATION
❑ A stack is a storage device that stores information in
such a manner that the item stored last is the first
item retrieved(LIFO).
❑ The stack in digital computers is a group of memory
locations with a register that holds the address of top
element.
❑ This register that holds the address of top element of
the stack is called Stack Pointer (SP).
Explain Stack Organization in detail? (15 mark)
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Stack operations
❑ The operation of insertion into stack is called push.
❑ The operation of deletion is called pop.
❑ These operations are simulated by incrementing or
decrementing the stack pointer (SP) register.
❑ The binary content of SP will be the address of the
word that is currently on top of the stack.
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Implementation of stack
❑ In digital computers, stack can be
implemented in two ways:
◆ Register Stack
◆ Memory Stack
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REGISTER STACK
❑ A register stack is organized as a collection of finite
number of registers that are used to store temporary
information during the execution of a program.
❑ Fig. shows the organization of a 64-word register
stack.
❑ The stack pointer (SP) is a register that contains a
binary no. whose value is equal to the address of the
word that is currently on top of the stack.
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64 Word Register Stack
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❑ To insert a new item, the stack is pushed by
incrementing SP and writing a word in the next-higher
location in the stack.
❑ The first item stored in the stack is at address 1. The
last item is stored at address 0.
❑ To remove the top item, the stack is popped by reading
the memory word at that address and decrementing the
content of SP.
❑ During pop operation, item has been read out but not
physically removed.
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❑ In a 64-word stack, the stack pointer contains 6
bits because 26 = 64.
❑ Since SP has only six bits, it cannot exceed a
number greater than 63 (111111 in binary).
❑ When 63 is incremented by 1, the result is 0 since
111111 + 1 = 1000000 in binary, but SP can
accommodate only the six least significant bits.
❑ Similarly, when 000000 is decremented by 1, the
result is 1 1 1 1 1 1 .
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❑ The one-bit register FULL is set to 1 when the
stack is full, and the one-bit register EMPTY is
set to 1 when the stack is empty of items.
❑ DR is the data register that holds the binary data
to be written into or read out of the stack.
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❑ The push operation is implemented with the following
sequence of microoperations;
Initially, SP <- 0, EMPTY <- 1 and FULL <- 0.
SP <- SP + 1 Increment stack pointer
M[SP] <- DR Write item on top of the stack
If(SP = 0) then (FULL <-1) Check if stack is full
EMPTY <-0 Mark the stack not empty
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❑ The pop operation consists of the following sequence
of microoperations:
A new item is deleted if the stack is not empty
(EMPTY <- 0).
DR <-M[SP] Read item from the top of stack
SP <-SP – 1 Decrement stack pointer
If(SP = 0) then (EMPTY <- 1) Check if stack is empty
FULL <- 0 Mark the stack not full
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MEMORY STACK
❑ The stack can be implemented in a random-access memory
attached to a CPU.
❑ The implementation of stack in the CPU is done by assigning
a portion of memory to a stack operation and using a
processor register as a stack pointer.
❑ The starting memory location of the stack is specified by
the processor register as stack pointer.
❑ Figure shows a portion of computer memory partitioned into
three segments: program, data, and stack.
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Memory Stack
❑ The program counter PC points at the address of
the next instruction in the program.
❑ The address register AR points at an array of
data.
❑ The stack pointer SP points at the top of the
stack
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❑ The three registers are connected to a common
address bus, and either one can provide an address
for memory.
❑ PC is used during the fetch phase to read an
instruction.
❑ AR is used during the execute phase to read an
operand.
❑ SP is used to push or pop items into or from the
stack.
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❑ In the fig. the initial value of SP is 4001 and the
stack grows with decreasing addresses.
❑ Thus the first item stored in the stack is at
address 4000 , the second item is stored at
address 3999, and the last address that can be
used for the stack is 3000.
❑ No provisions are available for stack limit checks.
❑ The items in the stack communicate with a data
register DR.
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❑ A new item is inserted with the push operation as follows:
– SP <-SP - 1
– M[SP] <-DR
❑ A new item is deleted with a pop operation as follows:
– DR <-M[SP]
– SP <-SP + 1
❑ The stack limits can be checked by using two processor
registers: one to hold the upper limit (3000 in this case), and
the other to hold the lower limit (4001 in this case).
❑ After a push operation, SP is compared with the upper-limit
register and after a pop operation, SP is compared with the
lower-limit register.
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❑ The advantage of a memory stack is that the CPU
can refer to it without having to specify an
address, since the address is always available and
automatically updated in the stack pointer.
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Reverse Polish Notation (important)
❑ A stack organization is very effective for
evaluating arithmetic expressions.
❑ The common arithmetic expressions are written in infix
notation, with each operator written between the operands.
◆ A * B
❑ Polish notation (prefix) , places the operator before the
operands.
◆ *AB
❑ The postfix notation, referred to as reverse Polish
notation (RPN), places the operator after the operands.
◆ AB*
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❑ A + B Infix notation
❑ + AB Prefix or Polish notation
❑ AB + Postfix or reverse Polish notation (RPN)
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❑ The reverse Polish notation is in a form
suitable for stack manipulation.
❑ The expression
A*B+C*D
is written in reverse Polish notation as
AB * CD * +
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The reverse polish notation(RPN) is evaluated as
follows:
❑Scan the expression from left to right. When an
operator is reached, perform the operation with the
2 operands found on the left side of the operator.
❑Remove the two operands & the operator & replace
them by the no. obtained from the result of the
operation.
❑Continue to scan the expression & repeat the
procedure for every operator encountered until
there are no more operators.
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Conversion from infix to RPN
❑We should consider the operational hierarchy
adopted for infix notation.
◆ It tells that we first perform all arithmetic
inside inner parentheses, then inside outer
parentheses, and do multiplication and division
operations before addition and subtraction
operations.
❑(A+B)*[C*(D+E)+F]
❑RPN form is
◆ AB+DE+C*F+*
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Evaluation of Arithmetic Expressions using Stack
❑ Reverse Polish notation, combined with a stack
arrangement of registers, is the most efficient
way known for evaluating arithmetic expressions.
❑ The procedure consists of first converting the
arithmetic expression into its equivalent reverse
Polish notation.
❑ Scan the expression from left to right.
❑ The operands are pushed into the stack in the
order in which they appear.
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Evaluation of Arithmetic Expressions (Cont.)
❑ Consider the arithmetic expression
❑ (3 * 4) + (5 * 6)
❑ In reverse Polish notation, it is expressed as
❑ 34 * 56 * +
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Assignment
❑ ..\COA ASSIGNMENT march 11.pdf
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