Convention Papers

Technical Committee Advisors

Er. Dr. Hari Bahadur Darlami
Chair-Person Er. Dr. Narayan Pd. Adhikari
Er. Tapendra Bahadur Khadka Er. Rabi Bhushan Jha
Er. Tapendra Bahadur Khadka
Co-chairs Er. Umesh Kumar Gupta (Rauniyar)
Er. Narayan Hari Rijal
Er. Subash Neupane Editors
Er. Uday Raj Neupane Er. Dinesh Tripathee
Er. Vijay Bhushan Jha Er. Suraj Chapagain
Er. Rosy Shrestha
Members
Er. Ujjwal Koirala Reviewers
Er. Kailash Karki Er. Dr. Ajay Chandra Lal
Er. Abinash Aryal Er. Dr. Ajay Kumar Jha
Er. Iswor Aryal Ar. Dr. Bijaya Krishna Shrestha
Er. Dipendra Kharel Er. Dr. Bijaya Thapa
Er. Aayush Humagai Prof. Dr. Gokarna Bahadur Motra
Er. Samir Pokhrel Er. Dr. Kirti Kusum Joshi
Er. Arvind Kumar Karn Er. Narayan Hari Rijal
Er. Kamal Marasaini Er. Dr. Rajan Suwal
Er. Manisha Sharma Ar. Dr. Sanjaya Uprety
Er. Bisikha Subedi Er. Subash Neupane
Er. Dr. Surendra Shrestha
Member Secretary Er. Uday Raj Neupane
Er. Dinesh Tripathee Er. Vijay Bhushan Jha

The contents of the papers in this publication solely reflect

the personal opinions of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of NEA.

Nepal Engineers' Association

Pulchowk, Lalitpur, G.P.O. Box: 604, Kathmandu, Nepal
Tel.: +977 1 5010251, 5010252, Email: [email protected]
www.neanepal.org.np
 Nepal
NepalEngineers'
Engineers’Association
Association
33rd Central Executive Committee

Er. Dr. Hari Bahadur Darlami

President

Er. Dr. Narayan Pd. Adhikari Er. Rabi Bhushan Jha Er. Saroj Dhital Er. Dinesh Tripathee Er. Deepak Adhikari
Vice-President General Secretary Dy. General Secretary Treasurer Joint Treasurer

Executive Member

Er. Manish Mallick Er. Sagar Bhattarai Er. Kushalta Nyoupane Er. Hari Narayan Ray Yadav

Er. Suraj Chapagain Er. Nishan Nepal Er. Bidhya Baral Er. Binod Bahadur Pal

Er. Ishwor Pokharel Er. Anupam Parajuli Er. Ashes Niroula Er. Khum Bahadur Bhandari

Er. Ran Bahadur Bam Er. Roshan Subedi Er. Binod Pun Er. Ravindra Lal Mul
(Sudurpaschhim Province) (Koshi Province) (Karnali Province) (Gandaki Province)

Er. Vishwa Ranjan Mishra Er. Subrat Aryal Er. Sanjay Kumar Yadav
(Lumbini Province) (Bagmati Province) (Madhesh Province)
 NEPAL
NEPALENGINEERS’
ENGINEERS’ASSOCIATION
ASSOCIATION
2nd Provincial
Second Province
ExecutiveExecutive
CommitteeCommittee

Province
Koshi
1, Province
Second Executive Committee Madhesh Province,
Madhesh Second Executive Committee
Province
Er. Jayanath
Er. Jayanath
Yadavyadav Chairperson
Chairperson Er. Gauri
Er. Gauri Pandit
Pandit Chairman
Chairperson
Er. Suresh
Er. Suresh
Kumarkumar
Shrestha
Shrestha Vice Vice
Chairperson
Chairperson Er. Kartikesh
Er. Kartikesh Jha Jha Vice Vice Chairman
Chairperson
Er. Mahesh
Er. Mahesh
Dhital
Dhital Secretary
Secretary Er. Ram
Er. Ram Narayan
Narayan YadavYadav Secretary
Secretary
Er. Saroj
Er. Saroj
Bhattarai
bhattarai Joint Joint
Secretary
Secretary Er. Ram
Er. Ram Ishwar
Ishwar YadavYadav Joint-Secretary
Joint-Secretary
Er. Bibhash
Er. Bibhash
KumarKumar
Mishra
Mishra Treasurer
Treasurer Er.Narayan
Er. Tej Tej Narayan
YadavYadav Treasurer
Treasurer
Er. Subhash
Er. Subhash
KumarKumar
KarnKarn Member
Member Er. Neha
Er. Neha KarnaKarna Member
Member
Er. Dharmen
Er. Dharmen
KumarKumar
Chaudhary
ChaudharyMember
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Er. Sitesh Kumar Kumar
YadavYadav Member
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Member
Member Er. Anjali Thakur Member
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Er. Pradeep
Er. Pradeep
Parajuli
Parajuli Member
Member E. Pravin
E. Pravin KumarKumar
YadavYadav Member
Member
Er. Subarna
Er. Subarna
Basnet
Basnet Member
Member Er. Ravi
Er. Ravi KumarKumar
Sah Sah Member
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Er. Sachin
Er. Sachin
Mandal
Mandal Member
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Er. Priyansu GuptaGupta (Rauniyar) Member
(Rauniyar) Member
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Er. Manisha
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Member Er. Summi
Er. Summi Mishra
Mishra Member
Member
Er. Bheshraj
Er. Bheshraj
Ghimire
Ghimire Member
Member E. Rita
Er. Rita Kumari
Kumari Yadav
Yadav Member
Member
Er. Deepa
Er. Deepa
Gautam
Gautam Member
Member Er. Deepak
Er. Deepak KumarKumar Mandal
Mandal Member
Member
Er. Sudhir
Er.sudhir
Yadav
Yadav Member
Member Ar. Vinita
Ar. Vinita YadavYadav Member
Member

Sudur Paschim Province

BagmatiBagmati Province
Province, Second Executive Committee GandakiGandaki Province
Province, Second Executive Committee
Er. Rohini Paudel
Er. Rohini Paudel Chairperson
President Er. Brijendra KC KC
Er. Brijendra Chairperson
Chairman
Er. Surendra KainiKaini
Er. Surendra Vice V.
Chairperson
President Er. Santosh GC GC
Er. Santosh Vice Vice-Chairman
Chairperson
Er. Dinesh Neupane
Er. Dinesh Neupane Secretary
Secretary Secretary
Secretary
Er. Dr. Joint Joint
Secretary
Secretary Er. Subarna
Er. Subarna
Shrestha
Shrestha Joint Joint
Secretary
Secretary
Er. Bipin
Er. Bipin
Bhusal
Bhusal Treasurer
Treasurer Er. Khem
Er. Khem
Raj Timilsina
Raj Timilsina Treasurer
Treasurer
Member
Member Er. Asmita
Er. Asmita
Khanal
Khanal Member
Member
Er. Pramod
Er. Pramod
Mahat
Mahat Member
Member Er. Santosh
Er. Santosh
Kaphle
Kaphle Member
Member
Er. Prahlad
Er. Prahlad
Basnet
Basnet Member
Member Er. Rajiv
Er. Rajiv
Subedi
Subedi Member
Member
Er. Rohit
Er. Rohit
Paudel
Paudel Member
Member Er. Rabindra
Er. Rabindra
Paudel
Paudel Member
Member
Er. Chiranjibi
Er. Chiranjibi
Khatiwoda
Khatiwoda Member
Member Er. Bikash
Er. Bikash
Subedi
Subedi Member
Member
Er. Brizesh
Er. Brizesh
SinghSingh Member
Member Er. Biswash
Er. Biswash
Acharya
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Er. Gaurav
Paudel
Paudel Member
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Er. Krishna
Yam Krishna
Poudel
Poudel Member
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Member
Member Er. Yudip
Er. Yudip
Subedi
Subedi
Chhetri
Chhetri Member
Member
Er. Rakesh
Er. Rakesh
Bhattarai
Bhattarai Member
Member Er. Hem
Er. Hem
Prasad
Prasad
Gurung
Gurung Member
Member
Er. Prabin
Er. Prabin
Chhetri
Chhetri Member
Member Er. Sagar
Er. Sagar
Basyal
Basyal Member
Member
 NEPAL
NEPALENGINEERS’
ENGINEERS’ASSOCIATION
ASSOCIATION
Second
2ndProvince
Provincial
Executive
Executive
Committee
Committee

Lumbini Province,
Lumbini
SecondProvince
Executive Committee Karnali Province,Karnali
SecondProvince
Executive Committee
Er. Shailendra
Er. Shailendra
Prasad
Prasad
Shrestha
Shrestha Chairman
Chairperson Er. Hari
Er. Hari KC KC Chairperson
Chairman
Er. Lekha
Er. Lekha
Bahadur
Bahadur
Basnet
Basnet Vice-Chairman
Vice Chairperson Er. Janak
Er. Janak Bhattarai
Bhattarai Vice Vice Chairperson
Chairman
Er. Govinda
Er. Govinda
Pangeni
Pangeni Secretary
Secretary Er. Ram
Er. Ram Krishna
Krishna Acharya
Acharya Secretary
Secretary
Er. Arjun
Er. Arjun
Giri Giri Joint Joint
Secretary
Secretary Er. Shrawan
Er. Shrawan
Kumar
Kumar
Mahatara
Mahatara Joint Joint
Secretary
Secretary
Er. Sandeep
Er. Sandeep
RegmiRegmi Treasurer
Treasurer Er. Devendra
Er. Devendra
Bhattarai
Bhattarai Treasurer
Treasurer
Er. Bidhya
Er. Bidhya
Bhusal
Bhusal Member
Member Er. Nilam
Er. Nilam
BudhaBudha Member
Member
Er. Darshan
Er. Darshan
Tiwari
Tiwari Member
Member Er. Bijay
Er. Bijay RanaRana Member
Member
Er. Arjun
Er. Arjun
Pandey
Pandey Member
Member Er. Dhirendra
Er. Dhirendra KumarKumar
ShahiShahi Member
Member
Er. Tulsiram
Er. Tulsiram
WostiWosti Member
Member Er. Narendra
Er. Narendra
Bhatta
Bhatta Member
Member
Er. Pravin
Er. Pravin
Mishra
Mishra Member
Member Er. Dhirendra
Er. Dhirendra Jung Jung
ShahiShahi Member
Member
Er. Aarati
Er. Aarati
Devkota
Devkota Member
Member Er. Kiran
Er. Kiran KumarKumar
KC KC Member
Member
Er. Dipesh
Er. Dipesh
Ghimire
Ghimire Member
Member Er. Balaram
Er. Balaram Tiwari
Tiwari Member
Member
Er. Vinay
Er. Vinay
KumarKumar
GuptaGupta Member
Member Er. Prakash
Er. Tara Tara Prakash
KarkiKarki Member
Member
Er. Ishwor
Er. Ishwor
G.C. G.C. Member
Member Member
Member
Er. Shoaib
Er. Shoaib
Ahamad
Ahamad
Ansari
Ansari Member
Member Er. Ram
Er. Ram
Bahadur
Bahadur
KarkiKarki Member
Member

Sudurpashchim
Sudur Pachim Province, Second Province
Executive Committee
Er. Pradeep
Er. Pradeep KumarKumar
Pant Pant Chairperson
Chairman
Er. Bhaskar
Er. Bhaskar Chataut
Chataut Vice Chairperson
Vice-Chairman
Er. Padam
Er. Padam Bahadur
Bahadur Madai
Madai Secretary
Secretary
Er. Rajendra
Er. Rajendra Bahadur
Bahadur Saud Saud Joint Joint Secretary
Secretary
Er.Bahadur
Er. Bir Bir Bahadur
Bhat Bhat Treasurer
Treasurer
Er. Govinda
Er. Govinda Bhatta
Bhatta Member
Member
Er. Kapil
Er. Kapil Dev Bhatta
Dev Bhatta Member
Member
Er. Khagendra
Er. Khagendra Awasthi
Awasthi Member
Member
Er. Harendra
Er. Harendra Bikram
Bikram ShahShah Member
Member
Er. Janaki
Er. Janaki Badaila
Badaila Member
Member
Er. Saroj
Er. Saroj ShahShah Member
Member
Er. Ramesh
Er. Ramesh Bohara
Bohara Member
Member
Er. Umesh
Er. Umesh SinghSingh Kathayat
Kathayat Member
Member
Er. Deviraj
Er. Deviraj Neupane
Neupane Member
Member
Er. Rajendra
Er. Rajendra NathNath Member
Member
 Message from the President

Dear Friends,
We are honored to organize the 16th National Convention of Engineers.
This gathering of bright minds in our country highlights how pivotal
engineers are in shaping our nation's path forward. Engineering drives
progress and development. It's the backbone for infrastructure,
technology and innovation. In difficult times, our prosperity and
effective governance depend deeply on the dedication and creativity of
engineers.

In pursuing national prosperity, engineers have consistently led the way in creating
sustainable solutions that accelerate economic growth and enhance quality of life for all
citizens. Our work spans designing resilient infrastructure to pioneering clean energy
technology that combats climate change. Effective governance also relies on judicious use of
technology, data-driven decisions and continuous improvement in public services. Engineers
play a key role in designing and implementing systems that make governance efficient,
transparent and accountable. In the modern era, research and development connect the
power of IT, AI, energy and technology transfer to tackle challenges, streamline resource
utilization and enhance overall governance.
16th National Convention of Engineers was formerly scheduled by the 32 nd Executive
Committee of NEA for March 4 - 6, 2020, to be held in Kathmandu with the theme "Smart
Infrastructure for National Prosperity". However, it could not be organized due to the
unavoidable circumstances created by COVID-19. The 33rd Executive committee has decided
to organize the 16th National Convention of Engineers with the theme “Engineering for
National Prosperity and Effective Governance".
We express our gratitude to the dedicated engineers and architects whose contributions
played a crucial role in ensuring the remarkable success of this convention. A special
acknowledgment goes to the Technical Committee as well as the architects and engineers
who devoted countless days and nights to overcome challenges and ensure the convention's
excellence. Moreover, the continuous effort of NEA Secretariat has played an important role
for the success of this convention.
I look forward to the ideas and solutions that will emerge from this convention and I am
confident that, with your expertise and commitment, we can build a brighter future for our
nation.
Thanking you,

Er. Dr. Hari Bahadur Darlami

President
Nepal Engineers' Association
 Message from General Secretary

Dear esteemed engineers, architects, honored guests and distinguished

participants,
I am delighted to express my opinion associated with the 16th National
Convention of Engineers, centered on the vital theme of "Engineering for
National Prosperity and Effective Governance." Engineering is the
cornerstone of progress, shaping our nation's infrastructure, technology
and innovation. In this era of multifaceted challenges, we rely on engineers' innovation to
drive our nation's prosperity and enhance governance efficiency. As we pursue national
prosperity, engineers lead the way with innovative and sustainable solutions that stimulate
economic progress and improve lives. Our work, from resilient infrastructure to clean energy
technologies, contributes to a prosperous and sustainable future.
Effective governance pivots on technology, data-driven decisions and service improvements.
Engineers play an important role in creating efficient, transparent and accountable systems.
E-government, the application of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) within
public administration, provides government, the citizen and business with a set of tools that
can potentially transform the way in which interactions take place, services are delivered and
public administration reform and good governance goals are met. Together, we can address
complex societal issues and improve governance for all citizens.
The technical sessions of this convention have been entitled as: Engineering Leadership for
Effective Governance, ICT for Innovation and Technology Convergence, Technological
Innovation in Construction Industry, Tripling Global Renewable Energy Capacity and Double
the Progress in Energy Efficiency by 2030: Who Takes the Stake?, and Nepal's Engineering
Dilemma: A Roadmap to Solution. As we explore the theme "Engineering for National
Prosperity and Effective Governance," I encourage bold thinking and the embrace of
professional responsibilities. Together, we can drive our nation toward a brighter future
where governance truly serves all citizens.

I eagerly await the innovative ideas and practical solutions that will emerge from this
convention. With your expertise and dedication, we can make significant strides toward a
more prosperous and efficiently governed nation.
We are grateful to all the engineers and architects who have contributed for the success of
the 16th National Convention of Engineers. Further, we are thankful to all, including staff of
NEA secretariat and the volunteers, whose continuous effort has been important for the
successful organization of this convention.

Sincerely,

Rabi Bhushan Jha

General Secretary
Nepal Engineers' Association
 Message from the Chairperson – Technical Committee

Dear Valued Engineers, Architects and Readers

On behalf of the Technical Committee, I would like to extend a very warm welcome to
the readership of souvenir on this especial occasion of 16 th National Convention of
Engineers. I take this opportunity to thank our authors, reviewers, and editors; all of
whom have volunteered to contribute to the success of this journal.

The 16th National Convention of Engineers has adopted the theme “Engineering for National Prosperity and
Effective Governance,” to emphasize the significant role that engineering plays in shaping a nation’s future
and facilitating efficient governance. The inputs from the engineers and architects are the most to bring
prosperity in the nation. The convention has incorporated five technical sessions each of which incorporate
a keynote presentation followed by a panel discussion. This pre-print consists of the papers received from
the authors in response to our call for papers under seven different sub-themes.

The technical sessions have been entitled as: Engineering Leadership for Effective Governance, ICT for
Innovation and Technology Convergence, Technological Innovation in Construction Industry, Tripling Global
Renewable Energy Capacity and Double the Progress in Energy Efficiency by 2030: Who Takes the Stake?,
and Nepal's Engineering Dilemma: A Roadmap to Solution. Indeed, the technical sessions are cross-
disciplinary which have been expected to serve as a novel platform for technological exchange by capturing
knowledge and experience of the presenters and panelists.

We are happy to be part of 16th National Convention of Engineers, a momentous occasion organized by the
Nepal Engineers’ Association (NEA). It’s a celebration of the engineering community and an opportunity to
promote and foster the spirit of engineering excellence. This pre-print includes the papers received from
engineering professionals from various sectors, including industries, academic institutions, research and
development organizations, and government organizations. These papers aim to share experiences,
concepts, innovative ideas, research findings and other relevant insights to our readers.

It is my indeed pleasure and great honor working as chairperson of the Technical Committee of NEA. I believe
that this publication helps to disseminate the information about the technological innovation and its
application. It also helps to the reader to broaden their knowledge in various technical fields.

Finally, I would like to thank the highly experienced advisory team, editorial board and member of various
committees who helped a lot to make the convention successful. My sincere thanks to Technical Committee
Team as well as all architects and engineers and who have contributed for the success of this convention. At
last, but not the least on behalf of the technical committee, I am grateful to NEA’s 33rd Executive Committee
for providing us the great opportunity.

Thank you!

Er. Tapendra Bahadur Khadka

Chairperson
Technical Committee
Nepal Engineers’ Association
 Message from the Member Secretary
Technical Committee

Nepal Engineers’ Association, an umbrella organization of engineers and

architects of Nepal with about 40 thousand members, has a tradition of
conducting national convention of engineers in the span of every 2 years.
This 16th series of the convention is being organized in quite challenging
condition of the country facing inconvenient economic situation. After
entering into the federal structure and three tiers of government being
setup, the role of engineers for implementation of development policy has
been paramount.
In this transforming context, the engineering fraternity is facing new challenges and many
issues are to be addressed. Further, Nepal is also suffering weak governance which makes it
tough to achieve the development goals set forth to meet the public expectation. In this
backdrop, engineering leadership is necessary to advance the development of the country. In
line of this concept, the theme “Engineering for National Prosperity and Effective Governance”
has been chosen for the convention.
Engineers should be involved more on policy level and entrusted for leadership role for
prosperity of the nation. In the meantime, they should be capacitated with new approaches
continuously updating with the ongoing changes in technology across the globe. This
convention is the very right forum where wide range of engineers/architects working at
different sectors from local level to the central level; implementation level to planning level;
field level to policy level come together to share their experience, review each other’s
research works and problems faced as well as solutions achieved during their professional
practice.

Last but not the least, on behalf of the Technical Committee and on my own, I would like to
express my sincere gratitude to the authors of papers and reviewers who significantly
contributed for this publication with continuous and dedicated effort. I would also extend my
gratitude to NEA Secretariat whose rigorous efforts were instrumental in making this
convention possible.

Er. Dinesh Tripathee

Member Secretary
Technical Committee
 Message from the Member Secretary
Publication & Media Coordination Committee

The National Convention of Engineers is one of the most awaited events

for the engineers/architects of Nepal occurring every 2 years. The 16th
Convention of Engineers has been organized with the theme “Engineering
for national prosperity and effective governance.” With immense
pleasure, I welcome you all engineers/architects from different sector
within the country in this convention. I would also like to wish you all
Happy New Year 2024.
This publication is the result of relentless effort of not only the 33rd Executive Committee but
also painstaking effort of the authors and reviewers. Their commitment has given us
tremendous enthusiasm at times and also inspired our team to deliver more efficiently. On
behalf of the Publication Committee, I would like to express my sincere gratitude and
appreciation to all contributors for their valuable contribution in this publication and the
ongoing convention.
We do strongly believe that the papers incorporated in this publication would greatly support
the theme of the 16th National Convention of Engineers. Moreover, this publication will
support the practicing engineers at implementation level to better understand the technology
and provide new approach in dealing with the engineering challenges and issues.

Finally, I would like to express my deep gratitude to the 33rd Executive Committee, on behalf
of the Publication Committee for their support and motivation throughout the process of
publication. I would also extend my gratitude to the Technical Committee coordinating for
paper. I would also thank the NEA Secretariat, printing press for their commendable
performance to bring out this publication within stipulated time-frame.

Er. Suraj Chapagain

Member Secretary
Publication & Media Coordination Committee
 Content
Compliance of Strength, Core Cutter Test, and Non-Destructive Test 1
Shrestha J M, Shrestha P

Minireview on Environmental Economic Theories and Models for 13

Decision Making on Sustainable Solid Waste Management
Mukesh Ghimire, Sudeshana Pandey, JongRoul Woo

Damage Study of Buildings in Jajarkot Earthquake 2080 31

Rajan Suwal, Gokarna Bahadur Motra, Rupendra Bar Dhoj Thapa

A Comprehensive Framework For Structural Design Compliance In 40

Nepal’s Building Construction
Seiichiro Fukushima, Milan Karki , Masato Kawai, Kiyotaka Owada,
Sachin Sapkota

Addressing Earthquake Risk of the Kathmandu Valley 64

Yogesh P. Shrestha, Bijaya K. Shrestha, Shraddha Dotel

Identification of major problems associated with the performance of 79

contractor with special focus on Belaiya-Butwal road sector of
Rupandehi, Nepal.
Er. Darshan Tiwari , Dr. Khet Raj Dahal and Subik Shrestha

Gender Issues In The Technical Field: A Path Towards Equity 90

Deepa Poudel, Pitamber Subedi, Sushila Shrestha, Balaram Bhujel

Empowering engineering innovation through ICT: a multidisciplinary 111

approach to technology convergence
Suprima Shrestha, Nilima Sangachchhe

Entrepreneurship Ecosystem And A Case Study On Problems Faced 128

By Innovation Driven Enterprises In Nepal
Santosh Sharma

Assessment Of Roles Of Engineers For Disaster Management In The 148

Context Of Nepal
Pankaj Adhikari

Waste Water Treatment Using Duckweed 164

Ajay Kumar Jha, Hari Bahadur Darlami , Aavas Pokharel, Narayan Rai
Compliance of Strength, Core Cutter Test, and Non-Destructive
Test
Shrestha J M1, Shrestha P2

*Corresponding email: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Concrete is a widely utilized construction material renowned for its strength, durability, fire
resistance, and adaptability, allowing for the creation of diverse and innovative structures. In Nepal,
concrete grades ranging from M15 and above are commonly employed, with specific attention needed
to quality control during the complex concreting processes. The quality assurance of concrete is the
prime concern in construction since the inferior quality of concrete causes serious issues concerning
the strength of the structures. This paper outlines the required compressive strength of concrete at
28 days along with destructive and non-destructive tests.
The analysis, based on crushing 28-day sample cubes, guides the determination of concrete strength,
with 7-day cubes providing tentative indicative values. Non-destructive tests offer an alternative to
reduce core cutting, supporting compliance assessment. The compliance criteria involve the number
of samples, their average strength, and considerations for standard deviation. Failure to comply
necessitates further analysis through core cutting. This paper clarifies the acceptance criteria for
concrete. (The common misconception is that e.g. M25 grade concrete with a strength of 25MPa is
sufficient at 28 days) whereas as per IS 456:2000, the required strength for compliance is minimum
individual sample ≥ fck-3 & av. of group of 4 consecutive sample ≥ fck+3 or fck+1.65 std.dev.
whichever greater.
The paper also details the core cutting process, emphasizing the acceptance criteria. Correction factors
for core strength include length-to-diameter ratio, diameter, rebar presence, casting direction, and
concrete age. These corrections contribute to the determination of the corrected compressive
strength.
Keywords: Specimen, Sample, Compliance of Strength, Non-Destructive Test, Core Cutter Test

1. Introduction
Concrete stands out as a favored material across various construction applications, owing to
its strength, durability, fire resistance, and adaptability. Its ability to take on virtually any
shape facilitates the creation of imaginative and innovative structures. Additionally, the
readily available local ingredients used in concrete contribute to its widespread usage. These
qualities collectively make it a robust and enduring choice for a multitude of residential and
commercial settings, establishing concrete as the premier building material for sustainable
infrastructure. The utilization of different concrete grades has surged, particularly in the
construction of high-rise buildings, longer spans, and expansive infrastructures, necessitating

1
 larger sizes. In Nepal, concrete grades ranging from M25 to M45 are commonly employed,
with occasional use even up to M70 in specialized cases, such as corrosive environments. The
concrete mixture uses various ingredients and encompasses processes such as batching,
mixing, transporting, placing, compacting, and curing. Consequently, the quality control of
concreting becomes intricate and demands meticulous attention at each step, preferably
handled by experienced professionals. Any lapses in the quality control process could result
in the failure to attain the required strength.

Ensuring the quality of concrete is a primary focus in construction, as subpar concrete can
lead to significant strength and durability issues over the lifespan of structures. Unlike
metals, the immediate assurance of concrete strength is not possible upon delivery from the
production line, as it requires a reasonable amount of time to achieve its expected strength.
Consequently, trial mixes and slump testing are conducted before accepting concrete to verify
that it meets the specified strength requirements.

It's crucial to note that trial mixes are anticipated to demonstrate a higher mean strength
compared to the mean strength obtained from in-situ cast cube tests to minimize risks. The
failure of a single cube test result at the construction site does not necessarily indicate the
failure of the entire batch or a portion of the concrete in the structural element. This is
because assessments must be fair to both consumers and producers. Therefore, establishing
compliance criteria for concrete holds great importance for consultants.

2. Materials and Methods

Representative sample cubes will be extracted for both 7 and 28 days. The concrete strength
will be assessed based on the crushing of the 28-day sample cubes. The seven-day cubes
provide provisional indicative values for the 28day strength, and if these values are lower,
caution should be exercised in subsequent concrete processes.
Should the targeted 28-day strength not be attained, additional examination becomes
necessary, involving the crushing of core cuttings obtained from the concrete. If the cores
also fail to meet the required strength, load tests for flexural members must be conducted
under the full dead load of the structure plus 1.25 times the imposed load for a 24-hour
duration, after which the imposed load should be removed. Recordings of deflection caused
by the imposed load alone are then taken. Under these conditions, it is expected that 75
percent of the deflection should be recovered. Failure to achieve this requires a repeat test

2
after a 72-hour interval, with the expectation of an 80 percent recovery. Otherwise, the result
is considered non-compliant. Non-destructive tests also play a role in minimizing the need
for core cuttings, provided that they meet the corresponding core cutter strength criteria.
The determination of the required strength for the 28-day representative cube sample relies
on compliance with strength standards. The analysis is conducted using the available cube
samples, and the frequency of cube preparation aligns with the concreting quantities specified
in Table 1 (Clause 15.2.2 of IS456:2000)

Table 1 : Frequency of Cube Sample

Quantity (m3) No. of Sample

Up to 5 1

5.1 – 15 2

15.1 – 30 3

30.1 – 50 4

4 + 1 for each 50 m3 or
> 50
part thereof

A minimum of 3 specimens each for 7-day and 28-day strength is required, and the average
of these 3 specimens constitute one sample. Each 28-day strength specimen should not
deviate more than ±15 percent from the average sample value; failure to meet this condition
renders the result invalid (Clause 15.4 of IS456:2000). The variation may cause due to non-
homogeneity because of improper compaction and not level of specimens during preparation
of cubes sample. It could be minimized by simply levelling of cubes and proper vibration on
table (see figure 1) during preparation of cubes.

3
 Figure 1: Core cutting, measurement & testing
Additionally, for the first initial sample, the required strength must be ≥ (fck+4) N/mm2,
where fck represents the concrete grade used. In cases where 2 or 3 samples are available, the
minimum average strength required should be ≥ (fck+4) N/mm2, and each sample should be
≥ (fck-2) N/mm2. For samples ranging from 4 to 30, the minimum average strength of a
group of 4 non-overlapping consecutive samples should be ≥ (fck+0.825 Std. Dev.) N/mm2
or (fck+3) N/mm2, whichever is greater.

Table 2: Assumed Std. Deviation

Grade (fck) Std. Dev.

M15 3.5
M20, M25 4.0
M30 to M60 5.0

However, no single sample should fall below (fck-3) N/mm2. The standard deviation in this
scenario is determined according to Table 2 (Clause 9.2.4.2 of IS456:2000 Amd.4-2013). If
the sample size exceeds 30, average strength of group of 4 non-overlapping consecutive
required shall be ≥ (fck+0.825 Std. Dev.) N/mm2 or (fck+3)N/mm2 , whichever is greater
but no one sample shall not less than (fck-3)N/mm2. The standard deviation is taken in this
condition shall be from the actual calculation. When concrete cube samples fail to meet the
above conditions, further analysis is required through core cutting at the actual site, with
tests conducted on core cylinders. It's worth noting that in practice, there is often confusion,
mistakenly assuming compliance with strength standards based on the concrete grade
designation mentioned in Table 2. The above matter is simplified and summarized in table 3.

4
Table 3: Compliance of Strength of Concrete Cubes as per Table 11, IS 456:2000,
Amendment No 4

No. of Specified Individual

SN Mean
Sample Grade Test Sample
≥ (fck+4)
1 1
N/mm2
≥ (fck-2)
2 2 to 3 ≥ (fck+4) N/mm2
N/mm2
≥ (fck+3) N/mm2 or (fck+0.825 x Std.
M15 and ≥ (fck-3) Dev. from Table 2) N/mm2 whichever
3 4 to 30
above N/mm2 greater of 4 non-overlapping consecutive
groups
≥ (fck+3) N/mm2 or (fck+0.825 x
≥ (fck-3) Established Std. Dev.) N/mm2 whichever
4 >30
N/mm2 is greater of 4 non-overlapping
consecutive groups
Note:
The test results of the individual sample shall be the average of the strength of 3
specimens. The individual specimen variation shall not be more than ≤ ±15 % of the
average. If this criterion does not comply the result is invalid.

At least three cores are required from a site where the representative cube samples do not
meet compliance standards. Concrete in the structural member, as indicated by core test
results, is deemed acceptable if the average equivalent cube strength of the cores is at least
85 percent of the cube strength specified for the concrete grade at the corresponding age,
with no individual core having a strength less than 75 percent of the cube strength. In
instances where rebar is unavoidable in the core cutting sample from the site, there is no
specific standard size and rebar insertion condition. Extracting a vertical concrete core from
beams and shear walls may not be possible; in such cases, a horizontal core is taken. While
the standard age for cube samples is 28 days, core cutter samples are performed after
disputing the 28-day result due to non-compliance with strength standards, prompting the
decision to carry out core cutting. Concrete strength is also influenced by the age factor,
necessitating correction for factors such as core cylinder height-to-diameter ratio, diameter,
rebar presence, direction of core cutting, and age.

These corrections are briefly outlined below.

5
 The corrected core strength, once converted to a 28-day strength (in MPa), will be provided
as follows:

fcylinder(28d)=(FL/d X Fdia X Freb X Fdir X Fage) X Fcore (t) …………1

fcube =1.25 x fcylinder ………….2
Where,
FL/d = Length to diameter ratio strength correction factor
Fdia = Diameter strength correction factor
Freb = Rebar correction factor
Fdir = Casting direction strength correction factor
Fage= Casting age strength correction factor
Fcore (t) = Core cylinder strength on (t) day

1. Length-to-diameter ratio strength correction factor (FL/d)

The length-to-diameter ratio can be adjusted based on site conditions and standards. A ratio
of 2 is considered without correction, but for H/D values between 1 and 2, a correction factor
must be applied. Cores with an H/D ratio less than 1 produce unreliable results. The
correction involves multiplying the result by factors specified in the equation
FL/d= 0.893+0.107 (L/D-1), as per clause 5.6.1of IS 516:1959 Reaffirmed 1999,
Where, L/D=Ratio of height to diameter of cylinder.

Figure 2: Core cutting, measurement & testing

6
2 Diameter Strength Correction factor (Fdia)

In addition to the H/D ratio, the selection of core size is guided by a general principle that
the diameter should be at least 3 times the maximum size of the stone aggregate. Cores with
a diameter less than 3 times the size of the aggregate require an increased number of tests.
The standard permits the use of six-inch or four-inch cores, and even two-inch cores are
allowed. However, it is generally advised against using very small diameter cores, as they
exhibit greater variability in results compared to larger diameter cores. The diameter of the
core also influences its strength, with the standard considering four inches (100mm) as the
standard diameter with no need for correction (i.e., correction factor is 1). Conversely, for
diameters of two inches, three inches, and six inches, correction factors of 1.06, 1.03, and 0.98,
respectively, are required.

3. Reinforcement Correction Factor (Freb)

When obtaining a core sample from a reinforced element, it is uncommon to find a sample
without a reinforcement bar. Therefore, it is crucial to minimize the presence of steel bars,
and if they are oriented along the core cutting direction, such samples should be rejected.
This is achieved by scanning the surface to eliminate the minimum amount of rebar. Rebar
correction is necessary based on the number of bars and their distance from the nearer end of
the core. The correction factor for the reinforcement bar is determined by the formula:
Freb=1.0+1.5 (∅r h)/(∅c l)
Where ∅r= bar diameter
∅c = core diameter
h = distance of bar axis from the nearer end of the core
l = uncapped core length
For cores with multiple bars, the correction factor is calculated as per clause 7.2.2 of BS 1881
Part 120, using the expression:
Freb=1.0+1.5 (Σ(∅r h))/((∅c l))

7
 4. Strength Correction Factor for Casting Direction (Fdir)

The casting direction is performed layer by layer from bottom to top. The standard considers
the core extracted from top to bottom in the vertical direction. However, in specific cases
such as beams and walls, the core may be taken in the horizontal direction. In such instances,
a correction factor of 1.04 is applied.

5. Age Correction Factor for Casting Strength (Fage)

The age of a concrete sample can extend beyond 28 days, with the concrete's strength
generally experiencing a noticeable increase up to approximately three months. After this
period, any further strength gain tends to be minimal. The relationship for the increment
factor from 28 days as per clause 5.2.1 of SP24 -1993 is expressed as
Fage = (4.7+0.833 t)/t
Where,
Fage = age strength correction factor, and
t = concrete age at the time of core testing from casting in days.

The value obtained after multiplying with correction factor is called corrected compressive
strength.

If the core test results fail to meet these criteria, or if such tests have not been conducted,
load tests may be employed. These tests involve applying the full dead load plus 1.25 times
the imposed load for a 24-hour period. Subsequently, the imposed load is removed, and only
the deflection due to the imposed load is recorded. If, within 24 hours of removing the
imposed load, the structure fails to recover at least 75 percent of the deflection under the
superimposed load, the test may be repeated after a 72-hour interval. If the recovery is less
than 80 percent, the structure is deemed unacceptable. As the load test is a cumbersome job,
strengthening of failed member is carried out. Some of the strengthening of member is
performed by jacketing, grouting, wrapping by carbon fiber etc. There will performed again
non-destructive test and if the later results are improved with sufficient strength by
comparing previous results and may considered as compliance by the Engineer.

8
Non-destructive Tests:

Non-destructive tests (NDT) are employed to estimate the properties of concrete within
structures. Two popular NDT methods are the Rebound Hammer test (Mechanical) and
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (Electrical) method. The Rebound Hammer test primarily assesses
surface hardness, while the UPV method involves the penetration of sound through concrete,
potentially relating the voids within the structure. Various factors, including the type of
cement, aggregates, moisture content, curing, age of concrete, and the presence of
reinforcement bars in the specimen, can impact NDT values.
Results obtained from NDT methods may vary by up to ±25% from actual values. Therefore,
these methods are not considered highly accurate and should not be solely relied upon for
predicting the concrete strength in a structure or for comparing inferior concrete with known
concrete strength members. Both methods provide a relative quality assessment of concrete,
ranging from excellent to poor, and are not intended as a sub stitute for compressive strength
testing. To enhance the accuracy and confidence in the results, the relationship between NDT
tests and compressive strength can be verified through tests on core samples from the
structure or standard specimens made with the same concrete materials and mix proportions.

Figure 2: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Meter & Schmidt Hammer

Qualitatively, the results provided by NDT methods can be presented as follows:

Table 4: Schmidt Hammer Values Applications and Approx. Impact energy

Impact Energy of Rebound Hammers for Different Applications
SN Applications Approx. Impact Energy (Nm)
1 For testing normal-weight concrete 0.25

9
 2 For light-weight concrete 0.75
3 For testing mass concrete as roads, 30.00
hydraulic structures, etc.

Table 5: Velocity Criterion of Concrete Quality Grading for UPV method

Velocity Criterion of Concrete Quality Grading for UPV method
SN Velocity (km/sec) Concrete Quality Grading
1 Above 4.5 Excellent
2 3.5 to 4.5 Good
3 3.0 to 4.5 Medium
4 Below 3.0 Doubtful
To address the limitations of both the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) and Rebound
Hammer (RH) tests, a combined approach known as SonReb (Sonic + Rebound) method is
employed. Various formulas have been developed by different researchers, and a notable
contribution to the understanding of the relationship with practical values is found in the

study titled 'Accuracy in predicting the compressive strength of concrete using the ‘SonReb

method’ by Di Leo & Pascale, 1994. One of the more effective expressions derived from this

study is as follows:

fc = 1.2x10-9 x RN1.058 x UPV2.446 MPa.

Where, RN = Rebound number and UPV = velocity in m/sec

3. Results and Discussions

From the Table 3 of Every structure is designed with a specific strength grade, optimized for
practical achievement. However, in construction, it is imperative to attain the expected
strength outlined in the design. Addressing the failure to achieve the required strength
presents a considerable challenge. Two primary factors contribute to non-compliance with
strength standards.

The first factor concerns the consistency of concreting. Even if sufficient strength is achieved,
it does not meet compliance if the average of three specimens differs by more than ±15
percent from each individual specimen. To address this issue, careful attention is needed

10
during the preparation of sample cubes, focusing on factors such as levelness and vibration
for compaction, mirroring the conditions in actual construction.

The second factor involves attaining less strength than the specified compliance
requirements. This may indicate poor-quality concreting corresponding to the sample, posing
a severe condition for construction. Since the cube sample represents only a portion of the
concrete quality, analysis is required based on the actual strength of cores obtained from the
concrete, utilizing a probabilistic approach. SonReb can also helps to assess the performance
more realistic to some extent as it is a combination of outer surface strength by rebound
hammer and internal strength by ultrasonic pulse velocity.

If one sample fails to meet compliance, it may be associated with a group of four non-
overlapping samples, suggesting that the individual poor strength corresponds with nearby
concrete before failure occurs. The required concrete strength is defined as the average of a
minimum of three cubes at 85 percent, with no individual core concrete falling below 75
percent of the specified grade. If the desired strength is not achieved through core samples,
an actual flexural test must be conducted through deflection analysis, a process that is both
costly and labor-intensive.

4. Conclusion
The structural designer bears the responsibility of selecting the concrete grade, especially in
the case of high-grade concrete in which achievement of strength is difficult due to high
grade. If achieving the required strength becomes challenging or is only attainable with great
difficulty using the available materials, consideration should be given to lowering the grade,
possibly necessitating a revision of the design. On the other hand, the construction
supervision engineer must pay careful attention to the proper selection of construction
materials and diligently supervise the concrete process, encompassing batching, mixing,
transporting, placing, compacting, and curing.

All engineers involved should possess a comprehensive understanding of the principles and
applications related to the compliance of strength in sample tests. Additionally, they should
be well-informed about the procedures to follow when the required strength is not achieved

11
 in the field. This proactive approach ensures that undesired conditions do not arise after the
concrete has been placed. If compliance of strength is not achieved, satisfactorily remedial
measures shall be performed and if not possible, it shall be demolished or if not possible, the
design load shall be reduced.

References

1. Concrete Technology –M.S Shetty, S. Chand

2. Reinforced Concrete Structures-Park R & Paulay,T, Wiley-Interscience new York
3. SonReb Method for Evaluation of Compressive Strength of Concrete-Narayan R Chandak,
Hemraj R Kumavat
4. Plain and Reinforced Concrete Code of Practice, IS:456-2000 ( Fourth revision )
5. Non-destructive testing of concrete- Ultrasonic Pulse velocity (IS 13311- Part 1 1992
(Reaffirmed 2004)
6. Non-destructive testing of concrete- Rebound Hammer (IS 13311- Part 2 1992
(Reaffirmed 1999)
7. Amendment no. 4 of IS456:2000 in May 2013
8. Testing of the strength of hardened concrete Part1/Section 1 2021
9. Explanatory handbook on IS code 456:2000-SP24 1983

12
Minireview on Environmental Economic Theories and Models for
Decision Making on Sustainable Solid Waste Management

Mukesh Ghimire1,2, Sudeshana Pandey1, JongRoul Woo1*

1
Graduate School of Energy and Environment (KU-KIST Green School), Korea University, Seoul, South Korea,
2
Alternative Energy Promotion Center, Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation, Government of
Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal
*Corresponding email: [email protected]; [email protected]

Graphical Abstract:

(Source: Drawn by authors based on existing literatures review)

Highlights:
• Environmental economic theories: Command and Control (CAC) and Economic Instruments
(EI) are briefly discussed.
• Waste management economic models and instruments: Contingent valuation method (CVM)
and Choice Experiment (CE) as demand-side instruments and Multi Criteria Decision
Analysis (MCDA)- Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) as supply-side decision-making
instruments are reviewed and analysed.

13
 • Applications of Contingent Valuation Method (CVM), Choice Experiment (CE) and AHP
models in waste management along with various software tools are discussed.
Abstract

Waste management is one of the global problems, which is multidisciplinary in nature covering the
demand and supply side perspectives, various complex technologies, stakeholders, and their behaviours.
Environmental economics attempts to address these multiple problems through various economic
theories & policy instruments, models, and tools. This review highlights the fundamentals economic
theories for waste management, econometric models and instruments for demand and supply side
perspectives of waste management, applications of economic theories and models in developed and
developing countries. Even though many developing countries are adopting more CAC tools and
instruments for environmental regulations than EI tools. EI instruments are more effective tools for
market intervention than the CAC based solutions. Findings revealed that CVM and CE are most widely
used models for the waste management especially for determining the non-use economic valuation of
environmental goods and services. Devising demand side policy instruments such as waste tariffs,
willingness to pay/acceptance (WTP/WTA), siting waste management facilities, identifying significant
determinants are commonly done through CVM and CE with the help of statistical software like R and
STATA. Complex decision making such as identifying, choosing alternatives, and ranking criteria,
barriers, risks, etc can be done with the help of MCDA tools such as AHP, ANP, etc. AHP is most applied
MCDA tools for solving waste management supply side perspective issues for policy decision analysis.

Keywords: Waste Economics Theories, Models, Tools, CVM, CE, AHP

1. Introduction

Waste management is one of the top global environmental problems (Kim et al., 2022). Global
annual waste is expected to grow to 3.40 billion tonnes by 2050 (Kaza et al., 2018). In 2030, the
global population of 8.5 billion is expected with the global solid waste production of 2.59 billion
tons (Peng et al., 2023). The World Bank report highlights that annually about 2.2 billion tons of
waste have been produced globally with the average waste per person 376 kg which is about six
times the weight of person (considering 62 kg/person) and the report also estimates that over the
next three decades, waste generation from the middle income countries will rise sharply in
comparison to the high income and low income countries, the estimates also showed that in
comparison to the global population, waste is growing three times the pace with population (Kaza
et al., 2018). This demands comprehensive approaches for reducing waste at source and its proper

14
management through different demand and supply side environment and economic approaches(Ye
and Wu, 2022).

Treating through environmental economics approach and tools, waste behaves as a property of
common goods and thus the proper management of waste through economic approach requires
the knowledge and understanding of environmental and resource economics (Şeren, 2019) .
Internalizing the “Externalities” consequences of waste are necessary interventions for the waste
management through economic approaches. Most of the environmental problems including
waste management have been traditionally dealt with the application of CAC regulations which
mainly deals with the regulation of behaviours through prescription of certain specific
regulations and legislation and standards through the use of fines and penalties as tools for
noncompliance (Perman, 2003), whereas the EI and tools like environmental subsidies and taxes
aim to change the behaviour through indirectly, with the change in relative prices (through
incentives and taxes mechanisms) which ultimately affect the individual or business entity.
Applying these EI instruments in the context of SWM, involve providing incentives for the waste
generators (consumers and producers) and to service providers for motivating them to reduce
waste generations and seek the alternatives for final disposal of waste to landfill (such as reuse,
recycling or recovery). The principle behind is that the polluter bears all the internal and external
environmental costs (Hoornweg et al., 2003).

Stated preferences and revealed preferences are the most commonly economic valuation method
of the environmental products and services, stated preferences is used for estimation of use and
non-use value whereas for the use value estimation, only revealed preference method is
commonly used(Yang et al., 2022, Schwarz, 2022). Among these stated preferences, which mainly
assume the hypothetical markets, contingent valuation and choice modelling are mostly used
techniques for the valuation. Demand side policy instruments such as waste tariffs, WTP/WTA,
siting waste management facilities, identifying significant determinants are commonly done
through CVM and CE (Pearce and Özdemiroǧlu, 2002) with the help of statistical software like
R and STATA. On the other hand, supply side and policy decision analysis on waste management
involves complex decision making steps and strategies such as identifying, choosing and ranking
various criteria, choosing and evaluating various alternatives, issues like peoples’ perceptions on
barriers, risks, etc. which can be done with the help of MCDA approach which utilizes the fuzzy
concepts and tools such as AHP, ANP, etc. (Vlachokostas et al., 2021) ((Abdullah et al., 2021) for

15
 the decision analysis. Most of these waste management economic theories, models and tools are
concentrated mainly for developed countries with the limited studies in developing
countries(Cárcamo and Peñabaena-Niebles, 2022, Li et al., 2022). Thus, based on the experiences
of those issues in developed and other developing countries, this study attempts to explore 1)
Environmental |Economic theories: Command and Control (CAC) and Economic Instruments
(EI) in general; 2) Waste management economic models and instruments: Contingent Valuation
Method (CVM) and Choice Experiment (CE) as demand-side instruments and Multi Criteria
Decision Analysis (MCDA)- Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) as supply-side decision-
making instruments; 3) Applications of Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) & Choice
Experiment (CE) and AHP models in waste management in developed and developing countries

2. Environmental Economic Theories: Principles & Applications

2.1 Environment Management Economic Theories & Valuation Techniques

Valuation techniques for marketed and non-marketed products and services are different.
Environmental products are non-marketed goods whose real market values are unknown or
unestablished, which greatly vary in the specific situation and peoples’ perception and behaviour.
(Pearce and Özdemiroǧlu, 2002) described the valuation techniques for both marketed and non-
marketed goods as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Economic valuation methods and techniques (Pearce and Özdemiroǧlu, 2002)

For the economic valuation of the environmental products and services, the most commonly used
method is stated preferences which is used for estimation of use and non-use value whereas for

16
the use value only revealed preference method is commonly used. Among these stated
preferences, which mainly assume the hypothetical markets, contingent valuation and choice
modelling are mostly used techniques for the valuation. Willingness to Pay (WTP) or
Willingness to Acceptance (WTA) are commonly used tools for the economic valuation. In
general, country specific policies for waste management such as tariff rates, waste fees, etc. has
to be formulated based on the analysis of the WTP which is mainly done in the developed
countries (Tassie and Endalew, 2020) whereas in most of the developing countries these policies
are not systematically prepared. In comparison to the EI based policies, more CAC types of
polices are mostly practiced in developing countries (Tang et al., 2020). Strong relationship
exists between the economic instruments and polluter pay principle (Hoornweg et al., 2003). Few
examples of EIs which are commonly used in the areas of waste management has been
summarized in Table 1, which mainly include product and input taxes, deposit-refund system
quantity-based waste collection charges, etc.

2.2 Environmental Management Economic Policy Instruments and their applications

Command and Control (CAC) and market-based solutions or Economic Instruments (EI) or also
called Incentive Based (IB) mechanisms are mostly used policy instruments in the field of
environmental regulation for the internalization of externalities. Additionally, some CAC type
regulations are also categorized as voluntary based. The global environmental management
policy instruments, tools and theories applied in the areas of different environmental fields have
been described in the Table 1.

Table 1: Environmental Management Policy Instruments

Policy Instruments/ Specific Policy Applied field Country Reference

Instruments Tools
Types
Command and Discharge Pollution discharge Overall China (Ren et al.,
Control (CAC) standard standard environmental 2018)
management
Restriction on Cleaner production Cement industry China (Ren et al.,
production standard 2018)
technologies

17
 Economic Environmental Pollution discharge Sewage treatment, China, Central (Ren et al.,
Instruments tax / Emission fee, Pollution charge, solid waste & Eastern 2018) ,
(EI) charge Taxes and fee management Europe, FSU (Anderson,
2002)
Emission Pilot tests for SO2 Environment and China, Chile, (Ren et al.,
trading / emission trading, energy, pollution and many other 2018),
Tradable emission permits, waste countries (Anderson,
permits effluent, water 2002)
rights, fisheries
access
Input or output Environmental Fossil fuels, China, (Ren et al.,
charges, Taxes, Exchange- wastewater, Thailand, 2018)
Fees, Carbon Maximum open environment Philippines (Anderson,
emission interest, carbon tax, 2002)
permits trading leaded gas tax,
fertilizer tax, water
user fee, sewer fee,
CFC tax
Subsidies for Subsidies for energy Energy and China (Ren et al.,
environmentally products, subsidies environment 2018)
friendly for industrial (Anderson,
activities pollution control, 2002)
agricultural activity,
municipal sewage
plants
Removal of Fuel subsidies, Energy, environment, China, Egypt (Anderson,
subsidies for agricultural agriculture 2002)
environmentally subsidies
harmful
activities
Liability Natural resource Natural resource Russia (Anderson,
damage assessment, management 2002)
FSU
Performance Bonds in mining and Mining, Timber Indonesia, (Anderson,
bond timber harvesting harvesting Philippines 2002)
Deposit Refund Beverage container, Environment, waste Korea, Greece (Anderson,
Lead acid battery management 2002)

18
 Voluntary Environmental Environmental mark Environment China (Ren et al.,
Environmental labelling certification 2018)
Regulations
Environmental ISO-14000 Environmental China (Ren et al.,
certification management 2018)

Environmental Measures for Environmental China (Ren et al.,

letters and visits environmental management 2018)
letters and visits
(2006)
Environmental Bulletin of Environment Mexico, China, (Ren et al.,
information environmental India, Korea, 2018),
disclosure conditions, Toxic Thailand (Anderson,
release information, 2002)
Product
characterization
Conservation Energy Energy and India, China, (Anderson,
programs conservation, water environment Bangladesh 2002)
conservation, cleaner
production

These EIs theories and models have been widely used in the context of developed countries since
1980s and experiences have shown that these theories and models are found to be effective for
meeting the environmental objectives to reduce waste or diverting less waste-to-waste disposal
facilities provided that the adequate enforcement mechanisms are in place (Nahman and Godfrey,
2010).

3. Waste Management Economics and Decision Analysis: Models, Tools &

Applications

3.1 Economic Models and Tools for Waste Management

Modelling is one of the approaches which is mainly used for the systematic identification of
solutions to a given problem. Modelling has been used in waste management since the 1970s and
the first model was used to optimize the costs with the limited scope of type of waste
management system and time (Morrissey and Browne, 2004). The models summary developed
during ?-1990s periods are given by (Gottinger, 1988, ML, 2001, Berger et al., 1999, Tanskanen,

19
 2000) and further model developed by (Baetz and Neebe, 1994) incorporates dynamic mixed
integer programming model. Multiperiod and multi-regional model were developed by (Everett
and Modak, 1996) whereas static non-linear programming model was developed by (Sundberg
et al., 1994). Further , (Berger et al., 1999, Tanskanen, 2000) pointed out the first optimization
models which dealt with the specific problems such as vehicle routing (Truitt et al., 1969) and
transfer station siting (Esmaili, 1972). The major limitations of the earlier models were that they
were not suitable for long term planning as they considered for only one time period, only one
processing option, recyclables rarely considered, etc. Later these models extended the system
boundaries and covered MSWM at system level. Computer programming also helped to deal
with more complex problems, they also tried to integrate the social equity issues and peoples’
attitudal issues (Motameni and Falcone, 1990). During the periods of 1990s, recycling and other
waste management models have been included for the MSWM (Morris, 1991, Chang and Wei,
1999)

The three basic categories of models are existing 1) Models based on cost benefit analysis; 2)
Models based on life cycle assessment; 3) Models based on multicriteria decision
making(Morrissey and Browne, 2004). The model could be of very simple in nature like
optimization of collection routes for vehicle whereas some models could be more complex like
evaluation of alternative waste management strategies. The models which are commonly used in
the waste management have been presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Basic Models, Theories and Software Packages for Waste Management Analysis

Model’s Model Model Different model Measurement Analysis Reference

category economic versions/ Elicitation Software &
theories Techniques Package
Based on Economic CVM Bidding game (BG) WTP/ WTA R (Icens, (Pearce and
cost valuation- Open-ended (OE) Determinants Dcchoice) Özdemiroǧlu
benefit stated Single-bounded STATA , 2002);
analysis preference: discrete choice (Schuermann
Random (SBDC) and Woo,
Utility Double-bounded 2022)
Theory discrete choice
(DBDC)

20
 Multiple-bounded
discrete choice
(MBDC)
Payment card
approach (PC)
CE Logit WTP/ WTA R (mclogit) (Pearce and
(Choice Nested Logit Determinants STATA Özdemiroǧlu
experime Conditional Logit (LIMDEP) , 2002); (Huh
nt, Probit et al., 2015)
Continge Mixed Logit
nt Multinominal Logit
ranking,
Paired
compariso
n,
Continge
nt
(conjoint)
rating)
Based on Life cycle Energy LCI analysis Life cycle SimaPro (Huh et al.,
life cycle analysis and and LCA assessment Environmental GaBi 2015);
assessme assessment, material Hotspot analysis impacts Solutions (Morrissey
nt ISO14040 flow Social life cycle cost Open LCA and Browne,
analysis analysis Umberto 2004)
Cradle-to- Brightway2
Gate TOTAL
Cradle-to- Database:
Grave ecoinvent,
Life cycle Federal
costs Commons

21
 Based on Multicriteria MCDA AHP Subjective EXPERT (Morrissey
multicrit decision Delphi measurements CHOICE and Browne,
eria analysis ANP for decision Transparen 2004);
decisions Fuzzy ANN making. t Choice (Pathak et al.,
Theory FMEA ELECTRE 2022);
DEMATEL Prioritization of TRI (Ilbahar et al.,
WASPSA projects and HiView 2022)
PROMETHE problems LOGICAL
DECISION
S

3.2 Common Welfare Measurement Methods in Waste Management: CVM and CE

The most applied econometric models for the consumer preferences and welfare measurement in
waste management fields are stated preference methods for examples as contingent valuation
method (CVM) and choice experiment (CE), which value the non-market benefits by creating a
hypothetical markets to elicit people’s willingness to pay (WTP) or willingness to acceptance
(WTA) for the changes in non-market goods to establish benefits (Jin et al., 2006). Solid waste
management (collection and disposal services) activities are generally under-priced or even non-
priced, thus is difficult for inferencing benefits from the market price from ordinary markets
(Anaman and Jair, 2000). Thus, the stated preferences techniques like CVM and CE are common
approaches for welfare measurement in waste economics.

CVM is the most commonly used non-market valuation method for the estimation of
environmental benefits of goods and services (Bishop and Romano, 1998, Carson et al., 2001,
Mitchell and Carson, 1989), which is very effective in the condition to analyse one attribute. CE
is another method for non-market valuation technique which is mainly suitable for the situations
where multiple attributes and options are to be considered (Diamond and Hausman, 1994,
Stevens et al., 2000). Both methods are based on random utility theory (Hanley et al., 1998a,
Hanemann, 1984, Hanley et al., 1998b). There are few research which highlights the differences
and comparison of these two approaches fit the similar environmental problem such as ecosystem
management (Stevens et al., 2000), water quality (Abou-Ali, 2003), solid waste management (Jin
et al., 2006) etc.

3.2.1 Theoretical models for CVM and CE

22
The utility theory, on which the CVM and CE are based on, compare the utility between the
alternatives available and the alternatives which provide highest utility shall be the preferred
choice (McFadden, 1973, Louviere et al., 2000, Adamowicz et al., 1998). The utility function of
each of the alternatives is expressed as:

𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖 = 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 + 𝜀𝜀𝑖𝑖 (1)

Where, 𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖 is overall utility, 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 is indirect utility; specified as a function of the characteristics of
that of an environmental goods or services, 𝜀𝜀𝑖𝑖 is unobserved attributes which affects the choices.

Probability of individual 𝑛𝑛 choosing alternative 𝑖𝑖 is given by.

𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 (𝑖𝑖 ) = 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 (𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ≥ 𝑈𝑈𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ; ∀𝑗𝑗 ∈ 𝐶𝐶, 𝑖𝑖 ≠ 𝑗𝑗) (2)

= 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 (𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝜀𝜀𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ≥ 𝑉𝑉𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ; ∀𝑗𝑗 ∈ 𝐶𝐶, 𝑖𝑖 ≠ 𝑗𝑗)

After assumption of the error term are as type I extreme values as distributed (McFadden, 1973)
, the choosing alternative 𝑖𝑖 probability is given by

exp𝜇𝜇𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (3)
𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 (𝑖𝑖 ) =
∑𝑗𝑗∈𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 exp𝜇𝜇𝑉𝑉𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
Where 𝛼𝛼𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is a scale parameter, which is usually assumed to be equal to 1 (Hanley et al., 1998b).

Assuming the utility function is linear and additively separable (Louviere et al., 2000) , the
indirect utility function of alternative 𝑖𝑖 for respondent 𝑛𝑛 can be expressed as:

𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝛼𝛼𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖 + 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝑛𝑛 + 𝛿𝛿(𝑌𝑌𝑛𝑛 − 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 ) (4)

Where 𝛼𝛼𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is a constant term that captures intrinsic preferences of respondent 𝑛𝑛 for alternatives
𝑖𝑖; 𝛽𝛽, 𝛾𝛾, 𝛿𝛿 are coefficients terms and 𝑋𝑋 represents the alternative 𝑖𝑖 characteristics; whereas C
represents bid offered in CVM or cost in CE; 𝑌𝑌 represents income; 𝑍𝑍 represents socioeconomic
characteristics of that respondent 𝑛𝑛.

3.3 Multicriteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) for Policy Decision

Multi criteria decision analysis (MCDA) is an extensively used approach for effective decision
making and policy analysis. MCDA is a popular framework which is employed in previous

23
 studies on municipal solid waste management that can help multiple stakeholders for the
evaluation of often-conflicting criteria, identifying and communicating their preferences, rank or
prioritize various kinds of MSWM strategies and also to finally agree on the strategies and also
to make an applicable and appropriate decision (Pavan and Todeschini, 2009). The MCDA
process has been illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2: a) Multicriteria Decision Process (Pavan and Todeschini, 2009) (Khan and Kabir,
2020); b) General Process of MCDA Technique (Belton and Stewart, 2002)

The different techniques under the MCDA depend upon their underlying philosophy,
assumptions, information for inputs, etc. (Vlachokostas et al., 2021). Common MCDA methods
are : 1) Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) / Analytical Network Process (ANP), 2)
ELimination Et Choix Traduisant la Realite (ELECTRE), 3) Preference Ranking Organization
METHod for Enrichment Evaluations (PROMETHEE), 4) Technique for Order Preference by
Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), 5) Multi-objective programming (MOP), 6) Simple
Additive Models (SAM), and 7) Other newer or less popular techniques (Vlachokostas et al.,
2021). Among these different methods AHP is most popular and commonly used method for
MCDA analysis(Abdullah et al., 2021).

24
Figure 3: Distribution of AHP and other MCDA models a) In waste management (Vlachokostas
et al., 2021) ;b)In water related drought events (Abdullah et al., 2021)

AHP is one of the basic theories and a widely used tool for the subjective measurement of the
decision making and prioritizing the projects and problems. It is based on the fuzzy theory of
mathematics, AHP involves following methodological steps for solving multicriteria decision
analysis problems. AHP model was first developed in the 1970s by Thomas L. Saaty (Saaty, 2004)
and is being continuously being used for the MCDA. Recent comprehensive review of MCDA
techniques by (Vlachokostas et al., 2021) and (Abdullah et al., 2021) highlighted in one of the
review of 163 case studies and 153 scientific articles revealed that AHP is mostly used technique.

4. Conclusion
This study conducted minireview and analysis of environmental economic theories, models and
decision-making tools on sustainable solid waste management. The key contribution of this
review research are in following three fonts: 1) Understanding of the environmental economic
theories: Command and Control (CAC) and Economic Instruments (EI) and their applications in
different environmental problems; 2) In-depth analysis of waste management economic models
and instruments: Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) and Choice Experiment (CE) as demand-
side instruments and Multi Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA)- Analytical Hierarchical Process
(AHP) as supply-side decision-making instruments; 3) Applications of CVM, CE and AHP
models in waste management in case of developed and developing countries along with
introduction of various software tools together;

Waste economic instruments and tools like CVM and CE are widely used stated preference
techniques for determining the economic valuation of environmental goods and services. These
tools are widely used in developed countries for determining waste tariffs, WTP/WTA, siting
waste management facilities, identifying significant determinants. Software like R and STATA

25
 are commonly used software for statistical analysis. MCDA tools are very useful for solving
complex decision-making problems such as identifying, choosing & ranking criteria, choosing
alternatives, identifying & ranking barriers, risks, etc. AHP is mostly applied tool for studying
and analysing MCDA problems in waste management sector for decision analysis.

Acknowledgments

The authors hereby kindly acknowledge the support from KU-KIST Green School and GETPPP
program.

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 Damage Study of Buildings in Jajarkot Earthquake 2080
Rajan Suwal1, Gokarna Bahadur Motra2, Rupendra Bar Dhoj Thapa3
1
President, Structural Engineers Association Nepal
2
Professor, Pulchowk Campus, Institute of Engineering, TU
3
Executive Member, Structural Engineers Association Nepal
Corresponding email: [email protected]

Abstract
Jajarkot Earthquake 2080 occurred in Jajarkot district on 3rd November. Epicenter of earthquake is in
Ramidada of Barekot Rural Municipality. This Earthquake killed 153 person and injured 364. It is
reported 26,557 houses have been complete damaged. Jajarkot, West Rukum, Salyan districts were mainly
affected with this earthquake. Main objective of this research is to find out the conditions and possible
solutions of earthquake affected buildings. In the methodology of works site visit of earthquake affected
area was done. Typology of buildings were studied. Damage pattern of buildings was found out. Building
materials and building technology which were used in building were studied. Observed real condition of
affected buildings. It was taken photograph of damaged buildings. Most of the buildings were constructed
with round river stone with mud mortar and few were constructed with quarry stone with mud mortar.
It was studied the ages of damaged buildings. The buildings which were constructed with river round
stone with mud mortar were damaged. In reinforced concrete building, it was observed minor cracks. It
was found out caused of building failure and given recommendation for retrofitting and rebuilding of these
type of buildings.
Key words: Jajarkot Earthquake, Stone Masonry, Mud Mortar, Damages, Buildings

1. Introduction

Jajarkot earthquake occurred on 3rd November 2023 at 23.47 in epicenter of Ramidada, Barekot
Rural Municipality, Jajarkot district, Nepal. Magnitude of this earthquake is 6.4 and located in
western part of country. Series of earthquake occurred after the main shocks. This earthquake
killed 153 people and injured 364 people.

According to the records maintained by the Nepal Emergency Operation Centre under the
Ministry of Home Affairs, the latest quake damaged over 26,500 houses fully and over 35,000
partially in Jajarkot, Rukum West, Rukum East, Salyan, Rolpa, Nawalparasi East, Dailekh,
Baitadi, Jumla, Kalikot and Pyuthan districts.

After earthquake site observation, it is found mainly stone masonry in mud mortars and few of
RC types of buildings. More than 80% buildings were constructed in stone in mud mortars. Only

31
 few buildings were constructed in RC frame structures. From the field study it observed that
most of the stone masonry buildings in mud mortars were collapsed and damaged.

The main objective of this paper is to find out the causes of failures, failure pattern of buildings
and give possible solutions for improvement in further construction.

2. Materials and Methods

Following methodology is considered in this research:
1. For detail study of work, site visit is done in damaged building areas.
2. Materials and construction technology used are studied.
3. Material qualities are studied.
4. It is taken photographs of damaged buildings for detail studies.
5. Possible causes of failure of building are discussed.
6. Possible solutions are discussed.
7. It is given recommendations for future construction of this type of buildings.

3. Results and Discussions

3.1. Weak construction materials
From the field observation it is seen that stone masonry with mud mortars are weak materials.
Most of the stones are river round stones and thick layer of mud. Bond between round stone and
mud mortar seems very weak. Quality of construction seems poor so most of the stone in mud
mortar walls fail. Most of the building age are old and survived number of small earthquakes so
might be micro crack between stone and mortars. Few pictures of this situation can be seen in
the following pictures.

32
Figure 1: Weak construction materials
3.2. No through stone in thickness of wall
Most of the buildings have separate layer of stones inside and outside of wall. In between the
wall layer it is not seen through stone block because of its wall fails separately outside, and inside
which is seen in figure 2.

33
 Figure 2: No through stone block in wall thickness

3.3. Out of plane failure

Certain buildings of stone masonry with mud mortar fail in out of plane failure. There is no
proper connection of main wall with transeverse walls. No bands connection is seen in the walls.
This type of failure is shown in figure 3.

34
Figure 3: Out of plane failure

3.4. Diagonal cracks

Diagonal cracks in the buildings are observed where there are no horizontal bands in buildings.
Length of transverse direction wall with respect to longer is comparatively very less so it seems
very less seismic resistance capacity in transverse direction. Because of it, it can be seen diagonal
cracks in transverse walls. This type of failure can be seen in figure 4. Horizontal timber bands
and increased the thickness of transverse wall help to prevent the diagonal cracks.

Figure 4: Diagonal cracks

35
 3.5. Corner failure
If corner bands (L type) are not provided in masonry walls, corner of wall fails. This type of
failure can be seen in following figure (figure 5). It can be restrained by providing corner and
horizontal bands in different levels. By adding corner connection stone and corner timber band,
corner failure can be resisted.

Figure 5: Corner failure

3.6. Failure due to heavy roof

It is found that the roofs with heavy weight fail the buildings. In roof construction it is found
that roof with timber, mud layer and above that stone slate which produces heavy weight. The
connection of roof and wall is also poor. Because of it these types of buildings collapsed. Typical

36
type of this roofs is shown in figure 6. This type of failure can be prevented by reducing weight
of roof that means using thin stone slates or GI sheets.

Figure 6: Building with heavy roof weight.

3.7. Vertical crack in opening

When deep opening is provided in buildings and between the windows there is inadequate
vertical height of masonry, vertical crack might occur. It might be occurred in the case of absent
of horizontal band also. Failure of these is shown in figure 7. Failure of these type can be
prevented strengthen the wall between openings vertically or reducing height of openings.
Strong horizontal bands can also reduce these types of cracks.

Figure 7: Vertical crack in opening

4. Overall Observation
• Most of the buildings are made of stone masonry with mud mortar, timber and
stone slates.

37
 • Floors are mainly timber with mud
• Age of buildings are old (age effect)
• It is seen poor quality of building materials.
• Horizontal timber bands are not provided in walls.
• Through stone in thickness of wall are not provided.
• Portion of mud in stone masonry wall in very high.
• Most of the stones are round type in stone with mud mortar wall.
• Damages of buildings in hill area are more means it is seen topographic effect of
earthquake in Khalanga, Jajarkot district.
• Less damage in epicenter of earthquake due to use of quarry stones and horizontal
timber band
• Most of the buildings are made of regular stones with timber band in walls do not
damage.
• RC buildings comparatively new and seen minor cracks in infill walls.
• Building bylaws and building design codes in Municipalities and Rural
Municipalities are not being used effectively.
• Building bylaws and building design codes in Municipalities and Rural
Municipalities are not being used.

5. Conclusion
• The quality of construction material should be good.
• It is required to use quarry stones and horizontal and corner timber band in walls
rather than river round stones in masonry walls.
• Through stones are needed to provide to make tie between outside and inside wall
layer.
• Must use seismic resistance construction technology to build this type of stone
masonry in mud mortar.
• Weight of roof should be reduced to make buildings less damaged in earthquake.
• It must be used horizontal timber bands in walls and need to provide gable bands to
resist failure of gable and other walls out of plane failure.

38
 • Must use seismic resistance construction technology to build this type of stone
masonry in mud mortar.
• Must follow bylaws and building design codes in Municipalities and Rural
Municipalities.

References
1. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2023/11/09/jajarkot-earthquake-raises-
concerns-about-poorly-built-houses
2. Nepal Emergency Operation Centre under the Ministry of Home Affairs
3. https://www.ucl.ac.uk/epicentre/news/2023/nov/jajarkot-nepal-ml64-earthquake
4. https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/experts-recommend-relocation-of-
jajarkot-settlements/

39
 A COMPREHENSIVE FRAMEWORK FOR STRUCTURAL
DESIGN COMPLIANCE IN NEPAL’S BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION
Seiichiro Fukushima1, Milan Karki 2*, Masato Kawai2, Kiyotaka Owada2, Sachin Sapkota2
1 RKK Consulting Co., Ltd.

2 Oriental Consultants Global Co.,Ltd.

*Corresponding email: [email protected]

Abstract
The seismic vulnerability of buildings in Nepal, particularly in smaller residential constructions,
has been a pressing concern due to a lack of adherence to quality construction practices. Addressing
this, the "Project for Promotion of Nepal National Building Code Compliance for Safer Building
Construction" introduces the "Building Construction Working Procedure" to fortify the building
permit system. A crucial aspect of this procedure is the incorporation of detailed structural
checklists based on the revised Nepal Building Code 105 to ensure structural design compliance.
The checklists, designed for both reinforced concrete and steel structures, addresses the
complexities from the five distinct design methods outlined in NBC 105. They offer a dual-step
examination process, covering linear and non-linear properties of materials. Emphasizing design
check uniformity, the checklists are made for designers and design checkers to check compliance.
This study emphasizes the innovative features of the checklists, focusing not only on the Equivalent
Static Method and Modal Response Spectrum Method but also on Elastic Time History Analysis,
Non-linear Static Analysis, and Non-linear Time History Analysis. Thorough investigations into
building features, modeling adequacy, actions on the buildings, analysis results, member design,
and performance checks ensure a comprehensive approach to seismic resilience. The proposed
framework, embedded in the BCWP, aims to make buildings in Nepal stronger during earthquakes
by promoting commitment to the national building code. The checklists function as tools for
municipalities and third-party experts, facilitating compliance verification and contributing to safer
building constructions nationwide.

Keywords: Structural checklists, Nepal Building Code 105, Compliance verification, Building
Construction Working Procedure (BCWP), Building permit system

40
1. Introduction
In the domain of seismic resilience, nations have systematically dedicated resources to fortify
building construction, advance building codes, and elevate earthquake awareness. Developed
nations, firm in their commitment to stringent building codes, consistently exhibit lower
casualties in the aftermath of seismic events.

Navigating compliance issues is more pronounced in developing nations, where

guidelines for design often lack clarity, and the roles of stakeholders involved in construction
are ambiguous.

Despite the establishment of Nepal Building Code (NBC) in 1994, challenges persist,
especially in the residential sector where adherence remains elusive. In countries like Nepal,
where a comprehensive building code framework is conspicuously absent, informal
construction practices prevail. Owners and builders frequently engage in construction
without explicit adherence to any specific code, thereby exacerbating risks, particularly in
regions prone to seismic activity. (Dixit, A. M., 2004)

There is a lack of standard working procedures and guidelines to carry out design
works as per prevailing building bylaws and building code. The role and responsibilities of
the major stakeholders of building constructions are not clearly defined. Even though some
municipalities conduct checks at the plinth level and upon completion, these measures prove
to be less effective. Moreover, the informal stakeholders of building sectors lack training,
proper equipment, and awareness regarding building norms, criteria, quality control, and
detailing to safeguard the building stocks from potential natural disasters, particularly
earthquakes. Realizing these adverse situations on building sector, Department of Urban
Development and Building Construction (DUDBC) has taken initiation to revise Building
Construction Working Procedure (BCWP) based on Building Act 1999 to support
municipalities to enforce building regulations following building bylaws and building code of
Nepal. BCWP serves as a practical guide to ensure buildings are designed and constructed
with due consideration for seismic resilience, highlighting their crucial role in addressing
vulnerabilities. The main purpose of the revised building construction working procedure is
to officially stipulate the building approval process under the compliance of NBC and bylaws
in accordance with the building act. Accompanying the BCWP, practical guidelines and
manuals were crafted, detailing the roles of stakeholders - municipalities, building owner,
designer, supervision consultant, contractor and mason in the building approval process
illustrated in Fig. 1. The NBC 105 has undergone revision, but the design check supporting

41
 checklist hasn't been updated. Hence, there's a requirement to formulate structural checklists
based on material types and various analysis methods.

Guideline for
Designers

Figure 1: Guidelines supporting BCWP

The “Guideline for Designers” is part of BCWP, helping with checklist completion
and verification. As seen in Fig. 2, the Guideline for designers has three sections: 1) General,
2) Checklist Instructions, and 3) Annexes.

The "General" part aids designers in following building laws, ensuring quality
designs for earthquake resilience.

The second part checks if designers understand code requirements and apply them to
the building's design. It explains checklist parameters briefly.

42
 The "Annexes" contain checklists which serve as a means of verification by
municipalities or third-party experts.

General Checklist
Instructions
Annexes

Figure 2: Three volumes of the “Guideline for Designers”

Additionally, the introduction of structural checklists serves as a practical tool to

ensure that buildings are designed and constructed with due consideration for seismic
resilience. This research sheds light on the many aspects to code compliance, especially in the
context of residential construction. The main aim is to encourage using BCWP and structural
checklists more to make buildings safer. This, in turn, contributes to the mitigation of seismic
risks and the creation of safer structures in regions prone to seismic vulnerabilities.

2. Research Methodology
As depicted in Fig. 3, the research methodology unfolds through a series of fundamental steps.
These important stages guide the progression of our study and include:

43
 1. Literature review: The selection of parameters for this checklist was primarily based on
a thorough review of building codes, encompassing both national and international
building codes.

2. Identify Gaps: The gaps related to design checks were identified along with finding the
need for the research.

3. Develop preliminary parameters: An initial list of parameters and a sample checklist were
developed, followed by consultations with professionals and experts associated with NBC.

4. Meetings + Group Discussions: Collaboration with government organizations and

experts was actively pursued, and their input during meetings significantly influenced
the selection of parameters. Subsequently, additional parameters were incorporated based
on insights gained from these consultations, leading to the creation of other necessary
checklists.

5. Final checklists: This collaborative process culminated in the formulation of the final
checklists, enriched by valuable comments and feedback from the involved stakeholders.

Figure 3: Flowchart of the research methodology

44
3. Types and components of structural checklist
In section 3.1 of NBC 105:2020, a range of methods for analyzing a building’s structure is
presented. Section 3.2 outlines where each method is most suitable, and this information is
well presented in the table 1.

Table 1: Applicability of different analysis methods

For Structural For Performance

Analysis Methods
design Check
Equivalent Static Method (ESM) ✓ ✓

Modal Response Spectrum Method (MRSM) ✓ ✓

Elastic Time History Analysis (ETHA) ✓ ✓

Non-linear Static Analysis (NLSA) × ✓

Non-linear Time History Analysis (NLTHA) × ✓

A total of 10 separate checklists has been developed based on two different criteria:
analysis methods (Equivalent Static Method (ESM), Modal Response Spectrum Method
(MRSM), Elastic Time History Analysis (ETHA), Non-linear Static Analysis (NLSA) and
Non-linear Time History Analysis (NLTHA)) and construction materials (Reinforced
Concrete (RC) and Steel). The checklists have been prepared to verify that the Designer has
correctly interpreted the requirements of the design codes, applied in the preparation of
analytical model of the building and then undertaken the design and detailing of various
structural elements. While the prime responsibility of applying the codal provisions to
produce safe building structure satisfying the functional requirements of the Building Owner
lies with the Designer himself/herself, the objective of the checklist is not only to document
the basic parameters as design basis but also to provide a means of verification of them by
Municipality or other third-party experts when needed. In the following section, brief
explanations on the various parameters included in the checklist have been given. In case of
ambiguity, the Designer shall refer to the relevant clauses of NBC 105:2020 as well as other
codes. The components of the checklists are divided into 6 parts similar to that of the design
process given in Fig. 4.

45
 Figure 4: Components of checklist

The checklist is a two-step checklist in which the items filled by the designers can be
verified by a third party which can be municipality or other design checkers. Fig. 5 shows the
features of the checklist. If the designer or the design checker gets confused regarding what
needs to be checked, they can refer to the relevant clauses of the designer’s guideline.

Filled by design
Filled by Designer
checker/ Third Party

Figure 5: Features of the checklist

46
3.1 Features of the Building:

In this part of the checklist, various parameters describing the configuration of the building,
element sizes, foundation types and types of structural system adopted are described. In the
evaluation of the building's features, careful consideration is required for the following items:

⚫ General Information of Building

⚫ Element Sizes

⚫ Structural System & Foundations

3.2 Adequacy of Modeling of Building:

In this part of the check list, various parameters required for the preparation of analytical
model of the building, such as material properties, section properties, section modifiers, types
of diaphragms, accidental eccentricity, boundary condition at the support, etc. are to be given.

The data provided in the checklist shall match with those in the analytical model file
as well as with data described in the structural design report. In case of any discrepancy
between them, municipality will notify the Designer to correct them. In the process of
modeling the building, it is imperative to thoroughly examine and verify the following list of
items:

⚫ Material Properties

⚫ Stiffness Modifiers

⚫ Diaphragm Type

⚫ Accidental Eccentricity

⚫ Support Condition

⚫ Structural Analysis Software Used

⚫ Inclusion of P-Delta Effect in the analysis

⚫ Assignment of non-linearity and control node

While the first six items are relatively straightforward, items regarding P-delta effect,
the assignment of non-linearity and control node require further elaboration due to their
complexity in structural analysis. The details are as follows:

47
 3.2.1 Inclusion of P-Delta Effect in the analysis
P-Delta Effect is a second order geometric non-linearity, which accounts for the effect in
laterally displacing structures under gravity load. P-delta effect is prevalent in tall multi-
storeyed buildings having gravity loads and lateral displacement due to seismic or wind effect.
A simple cantilever column has been used in Fig. 6 to illustrate P-Delta Effect.

P P
∆

V V

L
L

M=VL M=VL+P∆

Undeflected shape Deflected shape

Figure 6: P-Delta Effect

3.2.2 Assignment of non-linearity and control node

For the non-linear analysis (Nonlinear static and nonlinear dynamic), non-linearity is
induced in the structure at material level. In non-linear time history analysis, the behavioral
characteristics of members such as pinching, stiffness degradation, and strength degradation
depending on the reversed motion can have a significant influence on the response of the
structure. In particular, a moment resisting frame is more flexible than shear walls or braced
frame structures, and the behavior of the whole structure is dominated by the hysteresis
characteristics of these frame members as it needs to resist seismic forces through the frame
action of columns and beams. Therefore, a suitable hysteresis model with actual behavior of
the frame members should be applied when performing non-linear time history analysis. Fig.
7 shows some examples of hysteresis model.

48
 Figure 7: Hysteresis models

For the normal tri-linear model, it is noted that degradation in stiffness does not occur.
However, for the degrading tri-linear model, stiffness decreases based on the maximum
displacement up to the point.

3.3 Adequacy of the Actions on the Building:

In this part of the checklist, various parameters required for the application of loads or actions
on the analytical model of the building, such as load patterns, load combinations, mass source
for seismic weight calculations, load cases for non-linear modeling, etc. are defined. The
following parameters contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the applied loads and
actions:

⚫ Load Patterns Considered

⚫ Load Cases Considered for Analysis

⚫ Mass Source used for Seismic weight Calculation

⚫ Detailed Load Calculation

⚫ Seismic Load Calculation Parameters

⚫ Ground Motion Selection Parameters

⚫ Load Combinations

49
 While many of these parameters are well understood by engineers in Nepal and are
relatively straightforward, it's crucial to highlight the unique nature of 'Ground Motion
Selection Parameters.' This particular aspect is a new topic in the NBC 105:2020, and its
explanation has been given due to its unfamiliarity in the local context.

3.3.1 Ground Motion Selection Parameters

In case of dynamic analysis, proper set of ground motions with magnitude, fault distance,
site-conditions etc. should be checked as it greatly affects the analysis. If simulated ground
motions are used, fitting criteria should be checked. Being a complex problem by itself, proper
ground motion selection governs the reliability of the seismic design.

Characteristics of ground motion are determined by the amplitude characteristics and

time characteristics. In the engineering field, the amplitude characteristics are often given by
the response spectrum, that is an indirect expression of amplitude characteristics of input
ground motion. It is noted that the response spectrum is also given as the product of
amplitude and spectral shape. For understanding, a sample of target response spectrum and
a time history ground motion can be seen in Fig. 8. In many seismic design codes, the
amplitude is determined from seismic hazard map, and spectral shape is determined based on
the soil condition. ESM and MRSM employ the response spectrum as a design target
spectrum to obtain the response of the structure under seismic action. Therefore, it can be
said that the amplitude characteristics are essential to determine the design seismic force.

On the other hand, the time characteristics are necessary in case of conducting the
dynamic analysis, since the response of the structure may differ per ground motions though
the amplitude characteristics are identical. The time characteristics are often divided in to
two parts; duration time and envelop function. There are several ways to determine them.

(b) Time History of Ground motion

(a) Response Spectrum for Soil Type D
(El centro EW)

Figure 8: Response Spectrum and Time History Ground Motion sample

50
 One of the practical ways is to employ the earthquake records observed in the past
earthquakes. As well as the amplitude characteristics, the time characteristics depends on the
seismic magnitude, focal distance, site ground condition and so on. It is noted that amplitude
characteristics of the earthquake records are not maintained by the adjustment of amplitude
to the target spectrum, however time characteristics remains.

Followings are the points to select ground motions from the records:

1. Location of Observation Station: It is preferable to select the ground motion record

observed at the station close to the building site since the effect of path and site condition
will be automatically included.

2. Intensity of Ground Motion: It is preferable to select the ground motion record that have
an adequate ground motion intensity so that the scaling factor remains in the range stated
by Building Code.

3. Earthquake Type: It is preferable to select the ground motion records considering the
earthquakes surrounding site. It is noted the number of the selected earthquakes need
not to be unity.

4. Magnitude: It is preferable to select the ground motion record caused by the earthquakes
with large magnitude. The magnitude may preferably be 5 or greater.

5. Duration Time: It is preferable to select the ground motion record with large duration
time so that the building oscillation reaches to the steady state. This is important for the
building with the long natural period and small damping, such as steel high-rise building.

Figure 9 illustrates the Ground Motion Selection Parameters for pre-recorded

earthquakes outlined in the checklist, providing a visual overview of crucial considerations
for seismic design.

51
 Confirmation by the Designer Checking
Tallys with Arch.
Drawing(A)/
Model(M)/
Input by the Relevant
Unit Report(R)/
Designer Clauses
S.N. Parameters Considered Structural
of
Drawing(S)/NBC
guideline
105(N)

Yes/N
Reference
o/NA

C.5.3 Base Shear from Linear Time History

Method of Analysis:
C.5.3.1 Seismic Load Calculation Parameters
C.5.3 Selection of ground motion parameters
C.5.3-01 Total No. of ground motions selected
C.5.3-02 Ground motion taken from
Type of ground motion selected (Pre recorded
C.5.3-03
earthquakes/ Simulated)
Checking of ground motion parameters for pre
recorded earthquakes
Ground motions with appropriate magnitude
C.5.3-04 [ ] Yes [ ] No
considered?
Ground motions with appropriate fault type
C.5.3-05 [ ] Yes [ ] No
considered?
Ground motions with appropriate fault depth and
C.5.3-06 [ ] Yes [ ] No
focal distance considered?
Ground motions with appropriate maximum
C.5.3-07 [ ] Yes [ ] No
acceleration taken?
Ground motion with appropriate duration
C.5.3-08 [ ] Yes [ ] No
considered?
[ ] Time domain
C.5.3-09 Method used for spectral matching
[ ] Frequency domain

Figure 9: Ground motion parameter checks for pre-recorded earthquakes

For the selection of ground motion parameters for simulated ground motions, target
spectrum compatible to design location based on NBC 105:2020 should be used. Fitting period
range shall be consistent with NBC105. The number of fitting point used in general practice
for Japan is 200 to 300. General criteria for the condition of fitting in Japan has been used as
an example:

Fig. 10 illustrates the concept of ground motion generation by spectrum fitting.

52
 Inverse Fourier Transform

Fourier Transform Response Analysis

Response Spectrum
Target Spectrum

Fourier Spectrum

Target Spectrum
Modified Fourier Spectrum Adjustment=
Response Spectrum

Figure 10: Ground motion generation from spectrum fitting

After the generation of the ground motion by spectrum fitting, some criteria such as
minimum spectral ratio, maximum spectral ratio and coefficient of variance needs to be
verified. The maximum spectral ratio should be less than or equal to 1.4. The minimum
spectral ratio needs to be greater than or equal to 0.85. Coefficient of variance should be lesser
than or equal to 0.05.
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(𝑇𝑇 )
Maximum spectral ratio: [𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷(𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖 )] ≤ 1.4 (1)
𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(𝑇𝑇 )
Minimum spectral ratio: [𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷(𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖 )] ≥ 0.85 (2)
𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

∑(𝜺𝜺𝒊𝒊 −1.0)2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖 )

Coefficient of variance,𝑣𝑣 = √ ≤ 0.05 where 𝜀𝜀𝑖𝑖 = (3)
𝑁𝑁 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷(𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖 )

The minimum and maximum spectral ratio has been depicted in the Fig. 11.

53
 1.4
𝜀𝜀 ൌ

0.85

Natural Timeperiod, T(s)

Figure 11: Maximum and minimum spectral ratio

In case that the above criteria do not match the thresholds, ground motion shall be re-
adjusted as illustrated in Fig. 10.

Fig. 12 illustrates key considerations for seismic design, showcasing Ground Motion
Selection Parameters outlined in the checklist and emphasizing simulated earthquakes.

Confirmation by the Designer Checking

Tallys with Arch.
Drawing(A)/
Model(M)/ Relevant
Input by the
Unit Report(R)/ Clauses
S.N. Parameters Considered Designer
Structural of
Drawing(S)/NBC guideline
105(N)
Yes/N
Reference
o/NA
Checking of ground motion parameters for
simulated ground motions
C.5.3-10 Target response spectrum is adequately set? [ ] Yes [ ] No
Ground motions to be scaled are adequately
C.5.3-11 [ ] Yes [ ] No
selected?
Simulated ground motions have enough duration
C.5.3-12a [ ] Yes [ ] No
time for the building of concern?
C.5.3-12b How long are the duration times?
C.5.3-13a Fitting has been done correctly? [ ] Yes [ ] No
Range of period for fitting and number of fitting
C.5.3-13b
point
Maximum spectral ratio: [Sa(Ti) / DSa(Ti)]max≤
C.5.3-13c
1.4
C.5.3-13d Minimum spectral ratio: [Sa(T) / DSa(T)]min≥0.85
2 0.5
Coefficient of Variance: （Σ(εi-1） /N） <=0.05，
C.5.3-13e
εi=Sa(Ti) / Dsa(Ti)
Overlying Sa and Dsa shows good agreement
C.5.3-13f [ ] Yes [ ] No
(Visual check)

Figure 12: Ground motion parameter checks for simulated earthquakes

54
3.4 Analysis of Building:

In this part of the check list, the modal behavior of the building is checked. The modal shapes
give us an insight of the dynamic characteristics of the building. Any warning messages along
with modal stability check may also be considered post analysis.

⚫ Modal Analysis Results

⚫ Dual System Check (only for Moment Resisting Frame+ Shear Wall System Buildings)

⚫ Analysis Duration and Analysis Time Step size

⚫ Damping factor

⚫ Adequacy of response quantities used for design

The check items for the analysis of buildings have been explained below in detail:

3.4.1 Modal Analysis Results

In this part of the checklist, number of modes, modal mass participation ratio and modal
combination methods are to be mentioned.

While carrying out dynamic analysis, it is required that sufficient number of modes
are to be included in the analysis so that the majority of seismic masses are participating in
the building vibration within the number of modes included in the analysis. Clause 7.3 of NBC
105:2020 requires that the number of modes included shall be such that at least 90% of the
total seismic mass are participating in a direction under consideration.

The Designer also has to mention the modal combination method used for combining
the modal effects such as storey shear, bending moments, storey drifts, displacements, etc.
NBC 105:2020 clause 7.5 permits the use of SRSS, CQC or any other generally accepted
methods for the modal combination rules. However, it is to be noted that that SRSS method
for modal combination shall be used only when the modes are not closely spaced. Modes are
said to be closely spaced if the difference in frequencies of any two consecutive modes is less
than or equal to 15% as per the clause 7.4(b) of the code.

3.4.2 Dual System Check (only for Moment Resisting Frame+ Shear Wall System Buildings)

A dual system is a structural system consisting of a combination of moment resisting frame

and shear walls. Codal provisions require that the moment resisting frame shall be designed
to resist at least 25% of the design base shear.

55
 3.4.3 Analysis Duration and Analysis Time Step size

In the time domain analysis, it is required that the oscillation of buildings reaches to the
steady state. For this, duration time of input ground motion need to be long enough as stated
in “Selection of Ground Motion Parameters”. Therefore, the duration time of analysis shall
be long as the duration time of ground motion at the shortest. In reality, the identical duration
time of analysis is used regardless of the duration time of input ground motions which may
be different to one another to make the analysis simple. In case that the duration time of input
ground motion is shorter than analysis duration time, the building shows the free vibration.

From the viewpoint of accuracy of analysis, the analysis time step needs to be as short
as possible. However, the extremely short time step may bring the excessive calculation time
by which the analysis is not realistic.

The time step of 0.01s is often adopted for linear (elastic) time history analysis in Japan
as a practice. However, shorter time step such as 0.005s is adopted for nonlinear time history
analysis to reduce the error caused by the changes in stiffness and in restoring force in each
time step. Though some analytical techniques exist to reduce the error, it is noted that
adopting shorter time step is still effective.

3.4.4 Damping factor

Damping factor based on the material of the structure should be chosen. Not using a
compatible damping factor may have influence in the peak response levels. Table 2 shows the
damping factor used in Japanese practice for RC and steel buildings.

Table 2: Damping factors for RC and Steel buildings

Reinforced
Analysis Methods Steel
Concrete
Linear analysis 5% 3%

Non-linear analysis 3% 1%-2%

3.4.5 Adequacy of response quantities used for design

If less than 7 numbers of ground motion records are used, maximum values of the response
quantities from these ground motions shall be used. If the number of ground motions used
are equal to or more than 7, then the average values of the considered number of ground

56
motions shall be used for the response quantities. Refer to Fig. 13 for a visual representation
of the checklist items related to analysis check parameters for LTHA.

Confirmation by the Designer Checking

Tallys with Arch.

Drawing(A)/
M odel(M )/
Relevant
Report(R)/
S.N. Parameters Considered Clauses of
Input by the Designer Unit Structural
guideline
Drawing(S)/NBC
105(N)

Yes/N
Reference
o/NA
D. Analysis of Building
D.3 Analysis Duration and analysis time step
D.3-01 Analysis duration of dynamic analysis sec
D.3-02 Time step of dynamic analysis sec
D.4 Damping check
D.4-01 Is the damping factor compatible to the structural type? [ ] Yes [ ] No
D.5 Check for adequacy of response quantities used for design
Is the maximum value of response quantities used for the
design if less than 7 Ground Motions are being used? If
D.5-01 [ ] Yes [ ] No
the number of ground motion is more than 7, are the
average values of the response quantity used for design?

Figure 13: Analysis check parameters for LTHA

3.5 Adequacy of Member Design:

In this part of the check list, various outputs obtained from the software such as deflection of
beams, column-beam capacity ratios, maximum and minimum percentage of reinforcements
in beams & columns, indication of whether all members have passed in the design or not, etc.
are verified. If all of these parameters are found to be OK, it shows that the member design
carried out by the software is acceptable. If any one or more parameters are not found OK,
redesign after modifying the section properties or material properties may be required.

⚫ All Members Passed

⚫ Check for Column-Beam (C/B) Capacity Ratio

⚫ Maximum & Minimum Percentage of Reinforcement in Beams, Columns and Shear Walls

⚫ Design of Slabs

⚫ Design of Beams

⚫ Design of Columns

57
 ⚫ Check for Ductile Detailing

⚫ Design of Foundations

Among the comprehensive list of considerations in the member design check, only
certain key items have been explained below:

3.5.1 Check for Column-Beam (C/B) Capacity Ratio

For assuring compliance with the strong column-weak beam criteria in a RC framed structure,
the Clause 4.4.4 of the Annex-A of NBC 105:2020 requires that at every beam-column
junction in a frame, the summation of the moment capacities of the column end sections shall
be greater than 1.2 times the summation of the beam end moment capacities.

3.5.2 Design of Slabs

There will be a number of slab panels at a floor level of a RC building. The Designer has to
include the detailed design of the critical panel of the slab in the structural design report.

3.5.3 Design of Beams

This check is carried out for the deflection check of beams in case of simply supported or
continuous beams in a steel and RCC framed buildings. This is the simplified version of the
check. For cantilever beams with span more than one meter, it is suggested to carry out
deflection check for all span lengths through detailed calculation for deflection check.

For long span beams with span greater than or equal to 6 m, long term deflection
check is also required. For such beams, deflection check by L/d approach may not be sufficient
and hence detailed calculation using the procedure given in the code IS 456: 2000 under
Clauses 22.3.2, 23.2.1, 42.1 and Annex C is to be adopted. The designer shall submit such
detailed calculation for long span beams in the structural design report.

3.5.4 Design of Columns

This check is carried out whether the RC columns in the RCC framed buildings are slender
or not and if slender, whether this effect has been considered in the design or not.

3.5.5 Check for Ductile Detailing

This part of the check list pertains to the verification of detailing shown and presented in the
structural drawings of a RC or steel framed building against the provisions indicated in the
Annex-A of the code for ductile detailing compliance of a RC or steel building.

58
 As shown in Fig. 14, anchorage of beam longitudinal reinforcement in exterior beam-
column joint is also to be checked as proper reinforcement anchorage is essential to enhance
the performance of joints. If the provided horizontal anchorage length does not satisfy the
requirements, exterior stubs should be provided.
1 COLUMN SIZE ON THE BASIS OF HORIZONTAL DEVELOPMENT LENGTH

Figure 14: Anchorage of beam longitudinal bars (NBC 105:2020, Annex A)

For FE 500 and M20 For FE 500 and M25
Provided Provided
Required
db of bar Dc- db of bar Required Dc- Dc-
Ldh (mm) concrete between members is necessary to be checked.
(mm) For steel structures, the(mm)connection
Ldh (mm) Dc- column
column column size (mm) column
concrete size (mm) cover
size (mm) size (mm)
Bolts and welds cover (mm)shall not be designed to (mm)share force in a joint. The connections shall be
8.00 184.42 40 224.42 300 8.00 164.95 40 204.95 300
designed so as 40to limit
10.00 230.52 270.52 300localization10.00 206.19 of plastic
40 strains,
246.19 300 high residual stresses and prevent
12.00 276.63 40 316.63 325 12.00 247.42 40 287.42 300
fabrication
16.00 368.84
defects.
40
Connections
408.84 425
fabricated
16.00 329.90
by means
40 369.90
of
375
full penetration butt weld satisfies the
20.00 461.04 criterion.
overstrength 40 525
501.04 Adding 20.00 412.37
stiffness 40 the
to 452.37beams 475 is an approach to the reduction in
25.00 576.31 40 616.31 625 25.00 515.46 40 555.46 575
vibration in the40structures.
28.00 645.46 685.46 700 While 28.00designing,
577.32 40 proper 617.32 size
625 of beam and girder should be chosen
32.00 737.67 40 777.67 800 32.00 659.79 40 699.79 700
and checked against the vibration criteria. Other methods of controlling the vibrations are
providing multiple
For FE 500 and M30 bays, splitting floorsForand
FE 500 andadding
M35 tuned mass dampers.
Provided Provided
Required
db of barAdding stiffness Dc-to the dbbeams of bar is an
concrete approach
Required Dc- Dc- to the reduction in vibration in the
Ldh (mm) Dc- column Ldh (mm)
(mm) concrete column (mm) cover column size (mm) column
structures. While size (mm)
cover (mm) designing, size (mm) proper size (mm) of beam and size (mm)girder should be chosen and checked
8.00 150.58 40 190.58 300 8.00 139.41 40 179.41 300
against the vibration
10.00 188.22 40
criteria. Other
228.22 300 10.00 174.26
methods40
of controlling
214.26 300
the vibrations are providing
12.00 bays,
multiple 225.86 splitting
40 300
265.86 floors and12.00adding
209.11 tuned40 mass 300
249.11 dampers. The checklist in Fig. 15 serves
16.00 301.15 40 341.15 350 16.00 278.81 40 318.81 325
as a 20.00
reference 376.44 for
40 these 416.44 425 detailing20.00checks,
348.52 40encompassing
388.52 400 a range of considerations for steel
25.00 470.55 40 510.55 525 25.00 435.65 40 475.65 500
structure
28.00 527.02design. 40 567.02 575 28.00 487.92 40 527.92 550
32.00 602.31 40 642.31 650 32.00 557.63 40 597.63 600

For FE 500 and M40 and above

Provided
Required
db of bar Dc-
Ldh (mm) Dc- column
(mm) concrete column
size (mm)
cover (mm) size (mm)
8.00 130.40 40 170.40 300
10.00 163.00 40 203.00 300 59
12.00 195.60 40 235.60 300
16.00 260.81 40 300.81 325
20.00 326.01 40 366.01 375
 Confirmation by the Designer Checking
Tallys with Arch.
Drawing(A)/
Model(M)/
Relevant
Report(R)/
Clauses
S.N. Parameters Considered Structural
Input by the Designer Unit of
Drawing(S)/NB
guideline
C 105(N)
Yes/
No/N Reference
A
E.7 Check for Ductile Detailing
E.7.3 Connections between members
Welding and Bolting connection
Check if the number of bolts is adequate or in case
E.7.3-01 [ ] Yes [ ] No
of welding check the adequacy of the welding
Is the bolt-to bolt distance and bolt-to-edge
E.7.3-02 [ ] Yes [ ] No
distance checked?
Is full penetration welding done in case normal
E.7.3-03 [ ] Yes [ ] No
stress is acting?
Column Splices and gusset plate
Does the splice plate and gusset plate have enough
E.7.3-04 [ ] Yes [ ] No
capacity to transfer member forces?
Are column splices provided away from the beam
E.7.3-05 column flange connection and provided on both [ ] Yes [ ] No
sides of the web?
Beam-column connection
Is rigid beam column connection provided in case
E.7.3-06 [ ] Yes [ ] No
of moment resisting frames?
E.7.4 Buckling prevention
Are the structural steel sections taken either
E.7.4-01 [ ] Yes [ ] No
plastic or compact?
E.7.4-02 Is global and local buckling avoided ? [ ] Yes [ ] No
E.7.5 Fatigue
E.7.5-01 Is excessive vibration avoided? [ ] Yes [ ] No

Figure 15: Detailing checks for steel structure

3.6 Adequacy of Performance of Building:

Besides the structural design, NBC 105 requires the check of building performance for 2 limit
states: Serviceability Limit State (SLS) and Ultimate Limit State (ULS). For verification of
performance, check for storey drift ratio and irregularities are performed in a structure.

⚫ Check for Storey Drift Ratio

⚫ Check for Structural Irregularity

60
3.6.1 Check for Storey Drift Ratio

NBC 105:2020 requires the checking of inter-storey drift ratio for the ultimate limit state as
well as for serviceability limit state. Clause 5.6.3 of the code states that for the ultimate limit
state, the ratio of inter-storey deflection to the corresponding storey height, which is also
known as inter-storey drift ratio, shall not exceed 0.025. For the serviceability limit state, the
ratio of inter-storey deflection to the corresponding storey height shall not exceed 0.006.

Table 3: Inter-Storey Drift Limit for ULS and SLS

Inter-Storey
Limit State Type
Drift Limit
ULS 0.025

SLS 0.006

3.6.2 Check for Structural Irregularity

In this part of the checklist, the Designer has to state whether the checks for the torsional
irregularity, soft storey, in-plane discontinuities of vertical LFRS, mass irregularity, re-
entrant corner irregularity, diaphragm discontinuity irregularity, out-of-plane offset
irregularity, etc have been carried out or not. These irregularities from NBC 105 can be seen
in Fig. 16.

Torsion Irregularity

In-plane discontinuity

Soft-Storey

Re-entrant corner

Out-of-Plane Offset

Diaphragm Discontinuity

Figure 16: Structural Irregularity (NBC 105:2020, Clause 5.5)

61
 4. Results and Discussion
Several training and workshops were conducted to distribute and explain the checklist.
Engineers were equipped with essential architectural and structural documents, including
drawings, reports and models, to facilitate checklist completion and verification. As a result,
engineers were able to fill the checklists. The training and workshops also served as a
platform for valuable suggestions and feedback, which were later considered to enhance and
refine the checklist for improved effectiveness.

5. Conclusions
This paper introduces the structural checklists and the parameters that can be used for
different analysis method and material types. The checklists developed encompasses a
thorough examination of various parameters crucial for ensuring the safety, efficiency and
reliability of building’s structural design. The emphasis on consistency across architectural
and structural drawings, structural reports and structural model tends to increase the
reliability in the structural design. The inclusion of specific checks for seismic considerations,
such as ground motion parameters and modal analysis results, highlights the importance of
addressing dynamic forces in the design process. The structured organization of parameters
covering various aspects such as general information, checking modeling adequacy, load
considerations, analysis and member design provides a firm framework for assessing and
verifying the key elements in the structural design process.

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to specially thank the Department of Urban Development and
Building Construction (DUDBC), Earthquake Resistant Technology Consultancy Pvt. Ltd.
(ERTech Consultancy) for helping prepare the checklists and providing their valuable time
and suggestions for the discussion and improvement of the guidelines and checklists.

62
References
Seismic Design of Buildings in Nepal, NBC 105: 2020. Department of Urban Development
and Building Construction, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2020.

CSI America. (2016). CSI Analysis Reference Manual.

Dixit, A. M. (2004, August). Promoting safer building construction in Nepal. In 13th World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering.

IS 1893 (Part1):2016. Indian standard criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures,
5th revision. Bureau of Indian Standards, Manak Bhavan, 9 Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg, New
Delhi; 2016.

I.S. 456:2000, "Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete". Bureau of Indian
Standards. New Delhi, India.

63
 Addressing Earthquake Risk of the Kathmandu Valley

Yogesh P. Shrestha1, Bijaya K. Shrestha 2 Shraddha Dotel 3,

*Nest Pvt. Ltd.
Corresponding email: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

The Kathmandu valley, the capital region of Nepal, comprises of diverse social fabrics in terms of land
characters, population density, land use and housing typology and above all socio-economic condition of
residents. As a result, making valley earthquake resilient has become a challenging task. The objectives
of this study are four folds: (i) identifying the natural hazards and ranking them in terms of damages in
the past, (ii)analyzing the vulnerability, (iii) capacity and linking the causes of intensification of
vulnerability, and (iv) proposing some key recommendations. The study methodology combines the
critical review of numerous documents and consultation with experts and stakeholders engaged in
disaster risk reduction and management. Based on the damages caused by the past disaster (1971-2023),
the earthquake has been found the most devastating one. Urban growth in the absence of risk sensitive
land use plan and without basic infrastructure provision, change in building use on ad-hoc basis,
dominance of owner-built houses, vertical division of traditional houses, increase in building floor area
ratio without increasing capacity of road network all have intensified earthquake risk in the valley. These
issues are not being addressed through the existing legal and institutional framework. Formulation of
risk sensitive land use plan, development of planning regulations and urban design guidelines and linking
them to the incentive mechanism can reverse the present trend of development. Site specific programs
with incentive packages is suggested to make the existing settlements safer and community resilient.

Key words: Earthquake risk, vulnerability and capacity, disaster resilient, Kathmandu valley.

1. Introduction

The Kathmandu valley comprising 18 municipalities and some wards of additional two rural
municipalities cover an area of 721 sq. km is the national capital region of Nepal (Fig. 1).
Vulnerable to multiple hazards such as earthquakes, flood and landslides, the valley has sensitive
geology and vulnerable ecology due to its soft floor and bowl-shaped geography surrounded by
weak mountain. It comprises of diverse urban (and social) fabrics: planned vs. unplanned and new
vs. old settlements (Shrestha and Vaidya, 1978; Shrestha, 2011). These segments are

64
characterized by diverse infrastructure quality and inhabitants with different socio-economic
capability, reflecting the prevailing regulations of different political periods. Urban system made
up of a historic core area surrounded by peri-urban areas and further satellite towns are becoming
a single spatial unit due to integration of their economic and human flow (Muzzini and Aparicio,
2013). However, they have been administered and their urban growth is being regulated by
twenty different local governments, after restructuring of municipalities in 2017.

Figure 1 Kathmandu valley: 18 different municipalities and few wards of additional two rural
municipalities

Poverty, occurrence of natural disasters, poor education and health facilities in the rural regions,
on one hand, and adaptation of centralized policies thereby concentrating socio-economic
investments in the limited urban centres, on the other hand, have encouraged huge population
migration into the valley thereby causing rapid urbanization with haphazard urban growth and
transformation in the buildings in the urban centres.

Except the planned areas (land pooled area and private sector-built housing estates), many
peripheral urban growths occurred on an ad-hoc basis are often characterised by building
structures built by inappropriate and informal methods, road layout of inadequate width and
insufficient space, lack of open spaces and other social amenities (Bhattarai and Conway 2010;

65
 Shrestha 2010). It is believed that the valley alone contributes around 30% to national gross
domestic product (GDP), which was increased from 23.4% one decade before (MOUD, 2015).

Against such a backdrop, this paper aims to assess the earthquake risk of the valley with four-
fold objectives. First, it demonstrates various natural hazards of the valley and then rank them
in terms of loss of lives and property damaged by the past disasters. Second, it analyses the key
activities responsible for increasing vulnerability and then assesses the capacity of the valley for
emergency situation. Third, it relates those weaknesses to the existing legal and institutional
framework of the municipality and valley level agencies to check their effectiveness. Fourth and
last, it draws a conclusion and proposes some key recommendations.

2. Materials and Methods

This study combines both qualitative and quantitative research techniques. Numerous
documents associated with urban development and disaster risk reduction and management were
critically reviewed. Literature related to hazards, vulnerability and capacity in the form of plans,
programs, legislation, regulation and Acts including municipal annual investment were focused.
Various fragmented hazard maps were updated. Municipalities of the valley and Kathmandu
Valley Development Authority (KVDA) staffs were also interviewed, besides consulting with
private real estate companies, service providing agencies and non-government organizations
working on disaster mitigation.

Vulnerability is both a product and a process that results from physical, social, economic and
political factors within a given society and culture. The human factor through ‘structural process’
plays a decisive role than natural phenomenon itself in increasing vulnerability on community
(Hamza et al., 1998). Risk can be expressed as R = H (hazard) × V (vulnerability) / C (capacity).
‘Capacities’ refers to people reacting suitably during and in the immediate aftermath of disasters.
However, this equation can be better rewritten in the form of R = H × V × LC, where LC
represents lack of capacity to respond to disasters. Such separation of vulnerability and capacity
is desirable for identifying the causes of vulnerability and their solutions (Davis et al., 2004).
Improvement in any component of either physical vulnerability or socio-economic vulnerability
reduces the level of risk (Aysan, 1990); however, it does not guarantee community’s safety unless
other precaution measure is carried out. Individual self-protection through good income and
better housing will have little meaning unless one’s surroundings including the working and

66
entertainment places are safe and other emergency services are available at that particular place
at the time of emergency.

Analysis of urban growth trend of five different periods in the valley reveals that there has been
growth of settlements in all directions (Table 1). Significant spatial growth can be observed
between 2000 and 2010, which was mostly contributed due to Maoist’s insurgency in the country.
Agriculture land has been reduced from 409.86 sq. km to 181.08 sq. km in the same period. There
has been significant reduction of forest land (planted area, which might be of private ownership
too) between 1990 to 2000.

Table 1: Urban growth in Kathmandu valley (trend from 1983-2020)

Land use Land coverage (sq. km)

1983 1990 2000 2010 2020
Built up 29.01 84.01 125.27 202.84 242.99
Forest 493.49 444.21 186.76 337.97 233.47
Agricultur 200.62 193.67 409.86 181.08 245.34
e

Note: information derived from GIS map and satellite images of various years

The general trend shows that with increase in valley’s population, the agriculture land is
decreasing. With increase in population, there has also been increase in vehicular registration
number and accordingly, the pollution is also rising (Fig. 2).

67
 Figure 2 Development activities against different factors
3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Hazard ranking

While reviewing the impacts of past disasters in the Kathmandu valley from 1971 to 2023, it has
been revealed that major disasters of the valley include landslides, flood, earthquake, fire and
heavy rain. Each disaster severely impacted all three districts: Kathmandu, Lalitpur and
Bhaktapur. In the past more than fifty years, landslides alone occurred more than six dozen times,
causing death of 79 persons, injuring 44 persons and affecting 218 people in Kathmandu district
alone (UNDRR Disinventar Sendai (no date); Ministry of Home Affairs, GON (no date)). The
incidents also destroyed 78 no of houses and additional 48 no of houses were damaged. In the
case of flood, human casualties have been found large number in Lalitpur district but Bhaktapur
district has more affected people. Similarly, earthquake and fire has impacted both human and
property loss in all three districts.

Among major disaster events in the past, the earthquake ranks first in terms of human casualties
(death and injury) and buildings collapsed and destroyed (Table 2). The economic loss inflicted
by the earthquake is likewise enormous and will persist for many years. Floods come in first place
when simply the number of persons affected is considered, as they have affected a large number
of people. The fire disaster ranks second in all areas, including the number of events. This
calamity alone killed 809 people, injured 809 people, and affected 6,832 people, while also
demolishing 1,038 completed houses and injuring an additional 1,312 buildings. In terms of

68
human casualties, landslides have become the valley's third deadliest hazard. However, floods
have destroyed more structures in the valley than landslides in the past (1971-2023).

Table 2: Hazard ranking based on the past disaster impacts in the Kathmandu valley
Hazard No.of Casualties of people Building impacts (no) Economic
rankin disaster (no) loss (NRs in
g events Death Injured Affected House House million)
destroyed damaged
First Earthquak Earthquak Earthquak Flood Earthquak Earthquak Earthquake
e (23) e (1766) e (13,294) (14,118 e (103,759) e (74,689) (huge,
) exact
information
no
available)
Second Fire (2971) Fire (254) Fire (809) Fire (6832) Fire (1038) Fire (1312) 4646.29911
5
(fire)
Third Landslides Landslides Landslides Heavy rain Flood Flood 201.27573
(160) (131) (96) (2337) (256) (804) (flood)
Fourth Flood Flood Flood (33) Landslides Landslides Heavy 47.429025
(152) (100) (1001) (227) rain (landslides)
(231)
Fifth Heavy rain Heavy rain Heavy rain Earthquak Heavy rain Landslides 23.8707
(104) (11) (32) e (72) (56) (heavy rain)
(538)
Note: Though Kathmandu valley covers around half of Lalitpur district, the data shown
belongs to whole district
Source: Compiled from UNDRR DesInventar Sendai (no date) in
https://www.desinventar.net/DesInventar/profiletab.jsp and NDRRP (Nepal Disaster Risk
Reduction Portal),
Ministry of Home Affairs, GON (no date) in http://drrportal.gov.np/

3.2 Earthquake hazard of the Kathmandu valley

Earthquake hazard of the Kathmandu valley is due to four major geophysical processes. First,
the valley (and Nepal) lies in an active earthquake belt between Tibetan and Indian plates that is
constantly pushing each other thereby developing stresses in the main central active fault,
Mahabharat thrust and main boundary active fault. The recent study by installing GPS points in
the Himalayas of Nepal indicates that India is moving North-East (NE) at the rate of 58 mm/year
and the Southern Tibet is shifting towards North East (NE) at the rate of 36 mm/year resulting
shortening of Nepal by 2cm per year (Bilham, 1999). Formed by a collision between the Indian
plate and southern Tibet some 50 million years ago, the Himalaya was under great earthquakes

69
 in the past. Four 300 km long ruptures slipped each by more than 5 m in the past century and
the areas between those ruptures are the most probable sites the next great earthquake that hits
in the Himalaya (ibid.). Second, many active fault lines have criss-crossed the Kathmandu valley
particularly on the western and southern parts and movement of any of them can cause a great
disaster. Third, the whole Valley is located on the bed of a drained lake, making the land unstable
and flood prone. It is believed that the Valley’s geological development took place around one
million years ago in three phases - (i) 200 m thick sediment on the rock bed during the five
hundred thousand year (ii) about 200m to 300m thick special type of clay deposit during the
following five hundred thousand year and (iii) about 20m thick mixture of clay and sand deposit
during the next fifty thousand year (Pandey, 1999). This type of soil can easily be compacted by
the ground vibrations induced by the earthquake, resulting in the development of excess
hydrostatic pore water pressures of sufficient magnitude to cause liquefaction of the soil.
Moreover, soft soil contributes amplification of seismic waves resulting in strong ground
shaking. River banks of the valley are highly prone to subsidence, erosion and flooding as well
as to liquefaction. Finally, there is a great chance of reoccurring earthquake event in the area that
has been hit by past earthquakes after certain year of interval depending on the magnitude of
earthquake. In the last century alone, great earthquakes ranging from five to eight Richter scale
had hit Nepal and the surrounding regions seventy-one times.

3.3 Urban activities increasing vulnerability

3.3.1 Haphazard urban growth in hazardous areas

Significant percentage of the existing settlements in the municipalities lie in earthquake
hazardous zone. Spatially looking at the map of earthquake hazard of the valley, the major
settlements of the three principal cities namely KMC, LMC and Bhaktapur municipalities lie in
very high hazardous areas. The southern part of the valley, Godawari, Mahalaxmi, Kirtipur and
Chandragiri municipalities have also part having ‘very high’ hazardous area. In terms of absolute
area, LMC, KMC and Godawari municipality become the first three with larger area lying to
‘very high’ hazardous zone.

Private sector and government agencies are gaining momentum in developing valleys, with
private housing concentrated in north, south, west, and east directions, and high-rise apartments
in existing ring road areas and its peripheral areas. Even planned development areas are located
in vulnerable sites (Figure 3a and b). The risk sensitive land use plan (RSLUP) of Kathmandu

70
valley prepared by KVDA with support from UNDP was not officially approved. The existing
and even proposed some of housing estates, land pooled areas are located in hazardous sites,
closed to fault lines and around liquefaction site. Land assembly in the sloped areas and along
the riverbanks is comparatively easy and hence many private sector-led housing developments
are located in such areas.

(a) Planned development near the fault line (b) Planned development near high liquefaction areas
Figure 3: Housing and apartments built by real estate company vs hazardous sites

3.3.2 Increasing slums and squatter settlements in the valley

The squatter settlements in the valley started in the early 1950s when rural migrants moved into
cities for employment (Toffin, 2010). There were only 17 squatter settlements in the valley in
1985. By 2000, there were 61 squatter settlements with 2031 households and 11,851 people which
increased to 64 by 2003, increasing the squatter households to 2134 and population to 14,500
(Table 3) (Lumanti, 2003). In 2008, Lumanti identified 45 informal settlements, of which 40
recognized themselves as squatters. These 40 squatter settlements included 12,726 people (6612
male and 6114 female) living in 2735 households (Lumanti, 2008). An additional 40% of squatters
were estimated to be occupying public lands making the total squatter population up to nearly
20,000. Toffin (2010) reports 75 squatter settlements have been identified in the valley, out of
which 65 are located in Kathmandu metropolitan city. Another study confirmed the 24,021
settlers were living in 46 informal settlements in Kathmandu in 2013. In the span of 25 years,
the squatter population increased from 2134 in 1985 to 25,000 in 2010, almost 11.71 times with

71
 annual growth of 42.8%. The number of settlements and their population has further increased.
However, there is no updated documentation of their origin, number, location, population, and
overall situation and those existing are incomplete and even conflicting. Accurate documentation
is challenging due to internal and external migration.

Table 3: Demographic status of squatter settlements in the Kathmandu valley

Year Status/no of squatter settlement Population No of households
Early 1950s Squatter settlement emerged na Na
1985 17 2134
1988 24 3665 348
1992 33 6355 1271
1996 47 8927 1783
1998 49 10,323 2021
2000 61 11851 2031
2003 64 14,500 22,134
2008 40 12726 2735
2010 71 25,000 Na
2013 46 24021
Source: compiled from Lumanti, 2003; 2008; Tanaka, 2009; Toffin, 2010; DUDBC, 2010;
Dangol and Ay, 2017

The majority of squatter settlements in the valley are located along the riverbanks or in public
lands with limited or no access to basic services. Encroachment of dilapidated religious buildings
and structures is also rampant, particularly in the valley. Squatting in private land is very rare.
Urban poor living along the river banks, sloped lands and in the old buildings in the historic core
of Kathmandu and Lalitpur are vulnerable not only because of their building structure and
location of housing but also due to their low affordability level, poor education and lack of funds.
Emergency, rescue and relief work would be difficult in such locations.

Weak public policies and institutions allowed the expansion of informal settlements and poorly
regulated development in such areas exposed to hazards. Being illegal settlements and occupied
by squatters, the planning regulations are difficult to implement. They are not entitled to receive
formal assistance to improve housing and infrastructure. Without external supports, they are

72
unable to improve their housing and infrastructure of the habitat. These people mostly depending
on daily wages are living in slums and squatter settlements are highly vulnerable to seismic
hazard not only due to the location of their housing along the riverbanks and sloped areas but
also because of their inability to afford basics, poor education (or illiteracy) and lack of funds to
assist in their recovery (Shrestha, 2013).

3.3.3 Decreasing public open spaces

Public safety is enhanced with improved access for emergency vehicles, whilst the earthquake
hazard from falling buildings is reduced through wider streets and increased open space for
evacuation. Open space and recreational area essential for disaster relief and rescue work in case
of an earthquake should be about 5% of total municipal area (MOUD, 2013). However, in
Kathmandu and Lalitpur 0.48% and 0.06% of municipal area can be categorized as open space
(MOUD, 2015). World Health Organisation (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organisation
(FAO) suggest a minimum availability of 9 sq. m. per person of green open spaces for the city
dwellers. KMC has only 0.25 sq. m. per person as per its periodic plan. Destruction of community
spaces, provision of only 2.5-5% of open space in the planned residential neighbourhoods and
existence of only 6% open space (compared to 10-12% in other metropolitan cities of the world)
with per capita organised open space of less than 1.0 sq. m. in Kathmandu (Pradhan, 2003) all
demonstrate that the value and meaning of public spaces are yet to be understood.

3.3.4 Vulnerable individual buildings (old and new)

When parental properties are equally divided among sons, it has become the norm to divide
traditional building stocks vertically and then create new openings randomly on the load-bearing
front walls, provide restrooms and staircases in the divided portion by demolishing the portion
of the existing structure, and add habitable rooms by either converting the ground floor into a
room or by adding new floors frequently of different materials, floor heights, and construction
techniques on the top of the existing buildings. These kinds of operations are frequently done
without consulting licensed engineers and without obtaining permission from the relevant local
governments. The entire rebuilding process has made the old homes in the historic core less
resistant to seismic activity. This includes the formation of soft storeys, discontinuities in the
load transferring system, lateral stiffness and strengths that cause a torsional effect, the creation
of a ‘pounding effect’ due to differences in the floor and building heights, and the materials and
construction techniques used in the neighboring buildings. The valley's traditional homes are

73
 particularly vulnerable because of their weak foundation, lack of a damp-proof course, uneven
size and lack of tie at the corner walls, heavy roof tiles set in mud mortar, loose joints between
facing and inner brickwork, and weak building materials. The combined effect of these actions
was evident in the 2015 Gorkha earthquake, which destroyed many old houses in the historic
core of old cities of the valley.

Individual owner built new buildings on the peripheral areas are also not safe against earthquake.
They often comprise of many building structures built by inappropriate and informal methods,
road layout of inadequate width and insufficient space for vehicle turning place thus making the
entry of fire fighters and ambulance impossible during emergency situation, and lack of open
spaces and other social amenities, needed for rescue and relief operation. Though modern
materials such as cement, concrete, iron, etc. are used in new buildings, the construction trend -
generally five and half storey height with soft storey on the ground, three-foot projections from
the second floor onwards, and often characterised by ‘weak columns and strong beams’ and ‘short
column’– produces vulnerable structures. Lack of quality control on construction work and
building materials, wrong detailing of bars in slabs and columns and absence of supervision on
the site have further weakened those new buildings. Exposing reinforced bars of columns and
slabs for many years aiming at future expansion is also dangerous as it diminishes the strength
of the structures due to rusting of the bars.

Penetration of new economic activities resulting from the commercialization of space has not
only caused the conversion of ground floors of buildings, even located inside courtyards without
vehicular access, into shops but has also accelerated the replacement of small open spaces
available in the form of building setbacks, kitchen gardens or storage shed by new high-rise
structures thereby converting the narrow pedestrian lanes, street squares and courtyards into
parking lot, garbage dumping site, and above all into ‘death traps.’

3.3.5 Prevailing building use change

Numerous private schools, colleges and private nursing homes are running their activities in
ordinary residential buildings, built by informal process (owner built without hiring professional
contractor and supervision by qualified technicians). Lack of vehicular access to the building,
absence of playground and open spaces and other safety measures such as fire extinguishers are
common in such ‘mass gathering’ facilities. These buildings should generally act as ‘evacuation
shelters’ as well as ‘mass treatment center’ during emergency are the first to be hit by earthquake.

74
3.4 Capacity to deal with disaster emergency

As there is no proportionately increase in emergency facilities compared to growth of population,

the level of preparedness at individual and city levels is not satisfactory in the valley. Most of the
government hospitals and private nursing homes are located in the urban centres will find
difficult to provide effective services during emergency situation due to the limited number of
beds, medical staffs and the medicine stocks needed for mass treatment. Moreover, immediate
rescue and first aid treatment will be hampered due to blockage of streets and pedestrian lanes
from the debris of the collapsed surrounding buildings during the earthquake emergency.
Though hospital buildings might be safe and medicine stockpiling might be available, but during
emergency period, in many cases, there would be difficult to bring the earthquake victims (as
well as together hospital staffs) in the hospitals due to blockage of road network. Those medical
staffs would not be able to give services if there is no electricity, no water supply despite safety
storage of equipment. Rescue and relief operation would be very difficult and challenging in the
historic core area with compact and dense settlements served by narrow lanes and paths, as seen
during the earthquake of 2015. The available fire brigade number, its capacity is simply
inadequate to provide services to huge population and larger areas that also comprise of high-
rise apartments, many petrol pumps within the city centres and urban sprawl in the peripheral
agricultural lands. Recently, free ambulance service is being operated in the valley under the joint
program of Kathmandu metropolitan city and Nepal ambulance service. Such services cannot be
expected to be effective in the emergency situation when mass injuries need to transfer from
different disaster sites to the hospitals through the valley’s narrow congested streets.

Five fire engines are stationed in the New Road fire station, three in the Lalitpur metropolitan
city, and two in the Bhaktapur municipality in the valley (Maharjan, 2022). Only three are
operating at KMC. It has the capacity to control fires up to 10 storied buildings only. At present,
10 fire bikes are in operation for narrow places. Underground water pipe line is completed in
Ason (ward 24) and is underway on other wards especially on the narrow and inland road that
cannot reach the fire station. Chemical foam is also used for fire control. The city is trying to
procure three sophisticated fire equipment including a 60 m high ladder and a 6,000 liter capacity
water tank (ibid). Kathmandu city has three fire stations: Basantapur, Bauddha Ramhiti and
Balaju and two more stations – Maharajgung and Balkhu - will be established in coming years.

75
 4 Existing legal and institutional framework
Many improvements have been carried out in legal and institutional framework associated with
disaster risk reduction and management. The National disaster risk reduction policies and
strategic action plan (2018-2030) based on Sendai framework of DRR has clearly set out targets
as well as activities to be carried out. Similarly, National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Authority has been established. Many emergencies operating units have been
formed at district level as well in KMC. Each municipality has localized National Disaster
Management Act and also formed disaster management committee in the municipal organization.

Despite all these legal and institutional improvement, the earthquake risk in the valley is not
decreasing. The reasons are numerous. First, urban development activities are not linked with
disaster mitigation components and techniques as environed in the Acts and policies. The KMC
has increased the floor area ratio (FAR) for building construction even in the dense urban area
without considering the emergency rescue plan. Disaster fund allocated in each municipality is
generally used for construction of gable walls along the riverbanks and tree plantation only. In
some cases, as the case of Kirtipur municipality, such fund has been transferred into other
activities. Second, significant percentage of the existing settlements with critical facilities are
located in hazardous areas but hardly any municipality has plan to mitigate them. The building
bye-laws and National Building Code would be activated only for new construction. In many
cases, the renovation and reconstruction work including addition of floors are carried out without
taking permission from the concerned municipalities.

Third, there is a lack of coordination among municipalities of the valley to deal with emergency
situation. Around 82 different open spaces have been identified for evacuation purpose but such
open space does not serve the purpose during rainy season and extreme cold weather. Lack of
toilet, drinking water facility and electricity would further complicate the situation. The
Kathmandu valley development authority does not have any section to deal with disaster risk
reduction and management of the whole valley integrating all twenty local governments.

5. Conclusion and recommendations

Despite improvement in legal and institutional framework of disaster risk reduction and
management, the earthquake risk of the valley is yet to be effectively address. Numerous urban
activities associated with urban growth and individual building construction lack integration of
disaster mitigation components and techniques. To reverse the present trend, the following two

76
key recommendations are suggested.

(a) Prepare risk sensitive land use plan (RSLUP) of the whole valley as well as of individual
municipality. According prepare municipal development plan. Make mandatory that municipal
annual plan is based on the RSLUP.

(b) Bring special program (plans with budget provision) to make existing settlements
(infrastructure and buildings) safer against earthquake by formulating flexible urban design
guidelines and linking them to the incentive mechanism. Such program might be site specific as
well as time bound.

References

Aysan, Y. (1990). Social and Cultural Aspects of Community Vulnerability and Risk Communication,’ In
John Handmer and Edmund Penning-Rowsell (Ed), Hazards and the Communication of Risk, (pp. 319-
336). Vermont, U.S.A.: Gower Publishing Co.

Bilham R (1999) Himalayan Earthquake (available on

http://www.cires.colorado.edu~bihlam/indexHimEq.html)

Dangol, N., & Day, J. (2017). Flood adaptation by informal settlers in Kathmandu and their fear of
eviction.

Davis, I., Haghebaert, B. & Peppiatt, D (2004) Social vulnerability and capacity analysis, ProVention
project: tools for community risk assessment & action planning, ProVention Consortium, Geneva.

De Bono, A. (2013). Global exposure database for GAR 2013. Geneva, Switzerland: UNISDR, 39.

LSGS (Lumanti Support Group for Shelter) (2003) A Situational Analysis of Urban Poor Communities in
Kathmandu and Lalitpur, Kathmandu: Lumanti (unpublished paper).

Maharjan, S. (2022). Poor access to tackle fire in capital. The Rising Nepal.
https://risingnepaldaily.com/news/10621

MoUD (2013). Planning norms and standards. Department of Urban Development and Building
Construction. Available at: https://dudbc.gov.np/uploads/default/files/11fc96caa8c2194ab728796
d5e9144cd.pdf

MOUD (Ministry of Urban Development) (2015). National Urban Development Strategy 2015. Ministry
of Urban Development. Government of Nepal

77
 Muzzini, E., & Aparicio, G. (2013). Urban growth and spatial transition in Nepal: An initial assessment. World
Bank Publications.

Pandey (1999), Kathmandu Valley’s Earthquake Vulnerability. Kantipur, Kantipur Publications,

Kathmandu, 4 May (in Nepali).

Pelling, M. (2003a). Viewpoint: Disaster risk and development planning: the case for integration.
International Development Planning Review. 25(4). pp. i–ix.

Pelling, M. (2003b). The vulnerability of cities: natural disaster and social resilience. Earthscan, London.

Pradhan, M. G. (2003). Urban Open Spaces in Kathmandu – Problems and Prospects. Vaastu, 5, 45-46.

Shrestha, B. K. (2010). Housing provision in the Kathmandu Valley: Public agency and private sector
initiation, Urbani izziv, Vo. 21, No. 2, pp. 85-95.

Shrestha, B. K. (2011). ‘Planned Housing Development in the Kathmandu Valley: From Land Pooling
Projects to Private Housing Schemes,’ Administration and Management Review, a Journal of the Nepal
Administrative Staff College, January, Vol. 23, No.1, pp. 51-79.

Toffin, G. (2010). Urban fringes: Squatter and slum settlements in the Kathmandu Valley
(Nepal). Contributions to Nepalese studies, 37(2), 151-168.

78
Identification of major problems associated with the performance
of contractor with special focus on Belaiya-Butwal road sector of
Rupandehi, Nepal.
Er. Darshan Tiwari 1*, Dr. Khet Raj Dahal2 and Subik Shresstha3
1
Himali Danfe C. And Associate, Rupandehi, Nepal
2
LIAST- Lalitpur Kathmandu, Nepal
3
Water Resources and Irrigation Development Division Office, Doti
3
Urban Development and Building Office, Doti
3
Technical University of Munich, Germany
*Corresponding email: [email protected]

Abstract
The construction business is alongside with resource scarcity, institutional weakness and general inability
to deal with external issues like COVID-19 pandemic. Time, cost and quality control are important factors
in construction systems. Character, increase in development and profit measure the establishment’s
success. The construction sector seems alone because it's running with liberal government guidelines.
There's also evidence that the problems have extended and inflexibility in recent times, affecting and
reducing the service production of contractor. The purpose of this study was to find out the causes
contributing to the performance of contractor in road projects. This was conducted from April to
September 2021. Documents reviews regarding Butwal- Belahiya road of Rupandehi district. ID and KI
interview were carried out in this study. Total 72 repliers having experience of road construction were
tracked. The achieved result suggested the contributing causes and effect of poor performance of a
contractor and strategies to optimize the performance and output. Major causes contributing to the weak
performance are payment interruption, absence of a competent project management team, ineffective
planning of contractor, inadequate time and cost estimates, resource shortages, change in government
regulations and traditional technology. Important strategies to optimize the performance were selection
of a competent team to handle project management, review of a low bid awarding system and strict reward
and punishment rule. Studies concluded ways of optimizing performance. Recommendations for this study
are; timely payment; retention release; selecting a capable team, motivating management regularly; use
of technology for project planning and controlling mechanism.
Keywords: contractor’s problems, project delay, performance, and strategies

79
 1. Introduction
Nepalese Construction business is fast growing industry inside the country which contributes
around 10 to 11 percentages to GDP. Around 35 percent of government budget is procured with
national contractors (Baral, 2009). In developing country construction industry is significant job
creation and infrastructure. The inadequate progress of construction projects hampers
development in many developing economies and can be linked to the insufficient implementation
of project management best practices, project performance metrics, and critical success factors.
These elements collectively form a complex set of variables that impact construction projects.
Furthermore, this issue extends to a lack of understanding regarding the correlation of these
variables, which may not be immediately apparent. Moreover, (Chen, 2012)emphasized the
interconnection of these variables, highlighting their mutual influence. Understanding the
dynamics of these relationships becomes crucial for effective management, resource allocation,
and control. This research aims to explore the relationbetween project performance measures
and project management practices from the perspective of a developing country. The outcome
will be the formulation of a model that elucidates the mechanisms governing their relationships
in the management of construction projects.

A study related to Nepalease contractors (Adhikari, 2013) highlights the challenges of industry
as the primary challenges faced by contractors involve the completion of projects within
stipulated timeframes while maintaining quality, a task often deemed challenging. This difficulty
may arise from the inadequate availability of full-time technical personnel, equipment, or
financial resources owned by the concerned firms. Reputed and well-established contractors
encounter harassment from various political parties and hooligans, demanding substantial sums
of money. This situation has instilled a sense of insecurity among these contractors. Inconsistent
and ineffective government price escalation techniques, unfavorable contract terms for
contractors, and intense and unhealthy competition during tendering, driven by existing policies,
rules, and guidelines, contribute to demoralization within the contracting profession. Approval
of the Lowest Bid; Taxation System; price change; brain drain; unavailability of construction
material; user group as major problems of the industry (Baral, 2009). Federation of Contractor’s
Association of Nepal (FCAN) representative said “The government has not made the full
payment of the remaining amount of the previous fiscal year. Around Rs. 4 billion as per the
billing, is yet to be disbursed. The money of different suppliers involved in different projects is
still due, therefore, suppliers are not being able to supply materials and give payments to their
workers. How to work like this? The government needs to reduce projects which cannot see their
completion.” (Dahal, 2023).

Performance measurement, in construction business, are done as a systematic way of judging

project performance by assessing the inputs, outputs and the final project outcomes (Roshana

80
Takim, 2002). Contractor performance is considered based on their (i) capacity to use resources
efficiently, (ii) concern on being reasonable during contract modifications, (iii) ability to structure
and work with teams, (iv) ability to continuously improve their internal employee capabilities
through training, (v) complete project on time, and (vi) use of high quality materials and quality
output (Tumutegyereize, 2013). The performance are also measured in terms of cost, time and
quality. Nowadays sustainable development has been included into consideration to evaluate
performance of contractor (Cooke-Davies, 2002). The same study identified ten possible
indicators for effectiveness measures and are reviewed (client satisfaction on service, user
satisfaction with product, project effectiveness, project functionality, free from defects, value for
money, profitability, absence of any legal claims and proceedings, learning and exploitation and
generate positive reputation). As per the other study, the contractor's financial stability, the
contractor's past number and size of jobs completed in terms of quality and management
capabilities, the contractor's failure records, and the contractor's capacity measures the overall
performance of the contractor (Hosney, 2013).

A good construction practice of any construction project refers that it is free from defects, right
things at right time and the continuous improvement of the project. It is measured with the time,
cost, quality, and safety of the project which correlates with the finding of chiluwal and mishra
(Chiluwal K, 2018).

The use of IT tools and software help Control and disseminate information, making it readily
available and useful to project teams. (Bindu Aryal, 2023). As a result, the construction industry
can benefit from increased productivity, cost savings, and improved project outcomes. Lack of
sufficient digital expertise and the slow adoption of technology within the construction industry
have been associated with cost inefficiencies, project delays, poor quality performance,
uninformed decision-making, and overall poor outcomes in terms of productivity, health, and
safety (A. Nikas, 2007). A study recommended measures for performance involve improved
planning and monitoring, resolving technical issues, ensuring sufficient construction resources,
realistic contract durations, effective team coordination, addressing political and climate
concerns, proper budgeting, managing contracts, enhancing project management, and fostering
better communication among construction project stakeholders (Bhatterai, 2023).

This study aimed to determine the major problems associated with performance of contractors
in project execution like causes, effects and the probable strategies for solving them. This study
was conducted on the TRIP Belhiya-Butwal area. The research has been concluded based on
qualitative data which might be biased and limited respondents were consulted.

2. Materials and Methods

81
 This research had attempted to access problems associated with the contractor working on road
projects of Rupandehi District. Both explanatory as well descriptive research designs were
employed in this research with the use of both primary and secondary data for analysis.
Quantitative and qualitative method was being applied. Focus group discussion (FGD), in-depth
interview (IDI), questionnaire survey, field observation of case study and review of official
publication and certificates issued were implemented for this study.
Data collected from primary sources were coded and entered in excel sheet. Data were analyzed
using excel. Major nine problems influencing performance were carried out through secondary
and primary data collection methods respectively and also validated through statistical methods.
These problems are; project related, design related , Client related , consultant related ,
contractor related problems, material related , labor related & equipment related , and external
factors influencing performance. The RII of each cause contributing for weak performance were
found out in these nine separate groups based on the views of the three types of respondents.
Subsequently, based on RII value so obtained, ranking of all the attributes was done under each
related group separately, based on the views of each respondent group. Nine groups are sub-
divided into total 50 problems, top ten most significant problems affecting for performance of
contractor were identified based on combined view of the respondents. Similarly six effects of
lower performance are ranked and finally 10 top ranked strategies are suggested.
The RII is used to evaluate the ratings of the respondents. In this research, Likert 5-point scale
has been used to determine relative importance index (RII) for the factors indicating status of
problems, causes and effects of problems, solutions for the construction problems of settling basin
construction. The value of RII is in the range of 0 to 1 (0 not inclusive). The higher the value of
RII, the more important the attributes/variables of respected topic and ranked at top.
Table 1: Likert 5-point scale
Strongly
Item Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree
disagree
Scale 1 2 3 4 5
Item Very poor Poor Good Very Good Excellent
Scale 1 2 3 4 5

The formula for deriving RII for each factor is given (Duratul Ain, 2021)as follows: -
∑W 5n5 + 4n4 + 3n3 + 2n2 + 1n1
RII = =
AN 5N

where W the load given to each factor by the respondent, ranging from 1 to 5; n5 number of
respondents selecting total strongly agree or always; n4 number of respondents selecting agree
or often; n3 number of respondents selecting neutral or sometimes; n2 number of respondents
selecting disagree or rarely; n1 number of respondents selecting total strongly disagree or never;

82
and N the total number of respondents.

Related desk review, Field observation, in-depth interview, focus group discussion, and
questionnaire are the major tools used during field investigation of this study. The study was
conducted during the period of April to September 2021.

Table 2: List of case study road construction projects with major works asphalt paving drain
and footpath construction work
S.N. Contractor Chainag Budget of Contract, Below Bid
Name and Id of Road e in KM Percentage And Progress Status
Projects Estimate Below bid Status
Amount in % %
1. TRIP/3372124/BB/
1 Biruwa- 0+000- 228850396 17
Rs. 70
073/074-001
. Construction 0+750
2. TRIP/3373124/BB/
2
Belahiya-Bypass
0 Pvt.Ltd
Biruwa/-
.
071/072-002 6+200- 635005548 23
Shrestha/Ape 100
0
Achalpur- 9+000
x J.V
Lakhanchowk
3. TRIP/337312/BB/0
3 Tele -
.
71/72-05 Comunication 15+000- 684916196 18
100
0
Shakhuwani-Crimson India 18+000
Hospital Ltd.(TCIL)
4. 4 Tele -
TRIP/337312/BB/0
. Comunication 9+000- 675455478 0.9
71/72-03 Lakahn 100
0 India 12+000
chowk -Kotihawa
Ltd.(TCIL
5. 5
TRIP/337312/BB/0
. Kalika/- 12+000- 676516704 0.2
71/72-04 Kothihawa 100
0 Raymahji J.V 15+000
-shakhuwani

6. CQMP/TRIP/BB-
6 0+750-
Kalika/-
01-070/71
. 2+200& 459821459 0.1
Tamanag/Pa 100
Dhandapul
0 - 5+000-
cific J.v
Achalapur 6+200
7. 7
TRIP/3373124/BB/ The -
.
073/074-003 kanchanjunga 24+500-
0 534390226 18.9 65
Chauraha - -Biruwa JV 27+500
Chidiyakhola kathmandu
83
 3. Results and Discussion
Classification of respondents based on Profession
Out of a target of 100 respondents for the questionnaire survey, 72 valid responses were
collected. The respondents included a maximum of government engineers (22%) related to road
projects in Rupandehi and a minimum of consultants (12%) working in the design and study of
road projects.

Profession N=72
16% 1 Government Enginner
22%

2 Contractors Enginner
13%
3 Consultant

4 Contractor
15%
5 Construction Manager
22%
12% 6 Contractors
Representative

Figure 1: Classification based on profession (Field survey, 2021).

Problems in Performance of Contractors
Based on field observation and focus group discussion, 6 effects are assessed. The relative
importance index (RII) is calculated using 5-point likert scale based on questionnaire survey.
The survey results that common are time and cost overruns.
Table 3: Construction Problems
SN Construction problems RII
1 Payment interruption 0.881
2 Absence of competent management team in project management 0.864
3 Improper Coordination with project stakeholders 0.856
4 Inadequate time and cost estimates of client 0.839
5 Labor and construction material shortages 0.839
6 Ineffective planning and scheduling of project by contractor 0.836
7 Fails to manage of special equipment like Asphalt plant, paver, distributors etc. 0.822
8 External related problems like severe weather, pandemic, earthquake, strike etc. 0.822
9 Slow production rate due to heavy traffic and pedestrian 0.819
10 Change in government rules and regulations 0.819

84
Problems in Performance of Contractors (Case Study)
Table 4: Problems in Performance of Contractors (Case Study)
Major factors influencing
S.N. Name Road Sections
performance
✓ Interruption of Payment due to
Election, Earthquake
1. 1
Belahiya-Bypass
. ✓ National Festivals,

0 ✓ Unavailability of Material
✓ Heavy traffic
✓ Change of contractor personnel
2. 2 ✓ Several Payment delay
✓ Covid 19 Pandemic,
Achalpur-Lakhanchowk
. ✓ Unavailability and Price
✓ Contractor Negligence
0 Inflation of Material
✓ ,Nepal Banda
✓
✓ 2015-Earthquake
Partial Payment
✓
✓ Contractor
Election Negligence
3. 3 ✓ unavailability of construction
Shakhuwani-Crimson
. materials
Hospital
0 ✓ Disputes with users
✓ Loss of life safety issues
✓ material scarcity, strikes
4. 4 ✓ Improper coordination
✓ Contractor Negligence
Lakahn
. chowk -Kotihawa ✓ Payment delay due to election, strike
0 ✓ Local festivals and Whether

5. 5 unavailability
✓ ✓Cause of Rainfallof materials
Kothihawa
. -shakhuwani ✓ Payment delay due to election,
0 strike
✓ Local payment
✓ Many festivals interruption
6. 6
Dhandapul -Achalapur ✓ unavailability
✓ Three electionsof materials and
.
0 ✓ Labor
Inflammation in bitumen
✓ Change of project managers
✓ Stay Order from High court
Tulsipur Dated 25th April 2018,
7. 7
7th August 2019
Chauraha
. - Chidiyakhola
✓ Hold of contractor payment
0
✓ Price inflation
✓ Fail to manage heavy equipment
Effect of Problems in construction projects ✓ Heavy traffic
A total of six effects that can arise from the cause of above problems in project are denoted by

85
 “P” were identified and respondents’ views were collected in 5-point scale. Relative importance
of the impact of delays was found out by using RII methods.
Table 5: Major Causes of Construction Problems
SN Effects in performance due to problems RII
1 Time and cost overruns 0.836
2 Low quality output 0.814
3 Disputes among Projects stakeholders 0.808
4 Loss of reputation of client and contractor 0.783
5 Loss in revenue generation of country and 0.783
6 Poor management of projects 0.728

A number of variation orders are experienced in all contracts; hence, the estimates are not
adequate, and all projects experience time and cost overruns. Time overruns are illustrated in
Figure (3).

N=7 Initial Project

70 61 61 61 Duration in
60
50
months
50 45 45
40
40
36 36 Extended
31 30
25 25 25 Project
30
Duration in
20 months
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Figure 2: Time over runs of above listed projects

Strategies for optimizing contractor performance

Based on field observation and focus group discussion, a total of thirty factors for optimizing
contractor performance relevant to this study were identified through review of previous studies.
Relative importance of the strategy causes was found out by using RII methods. The ranking of
the strategies for optimizing the performance of construction is presented in Table 4 in
decreasing order of relative importance index.

Table 6: Strategies to optimize contractor performance

SN Strategies to optimize performance RII
1 Quick payment mode to contractor 0.867
2 Selection of competent management team 0.864
3 Coordination of project stakeholders in control and monitoring 0.858
4 Subsidy to contractor from government to buy equipment and up gradation of 0.853

86
 SN Strategies to optimize performance RII
industry
5 Review of low bid evaluation system and polices to motivate contractor 0.853
6 Training to contractor for project management skills and techniques
0.850

7 Real time cost and time estimates 0.847

8 Series of meeting should be held within projects stakeholders 0.847
9 Political stability and rigid guidelines with proper reward and punishment
0.836
system
10 Use of new technology for planning and monitoring like BIM, PMIS, Drones 0.830
etc.

In IDI and FGD the factors influencing the performance of contractor in TRIP-project were
discussed. The expert and seniors of industry Standouts payment system of government offices
as lengthy process, absent of technical manpower to handle project, improper coordination as
key problems. They quote time and cost overrun as effects and they suggest for quick payment
mode of client and selection of competent project management team of contractor and client with
establishment of proper communication.

4. Conclusions
The study concludes that delay makes cost overruns to employee and employer. Important
factors reducing performance of contractor are payment related problems (RII=0.88) as same
from case studies is the major problems for project execution of contractor. Change of
government rules and regulations (RII=0.81) is a minor problem. In case studies also there is no
any change in performance of contractor while many rules regarding procurement amendment.
Absence of Competent management team (RII= 0.86) is next severe problem in managing day
to day progress of contractor. These problems lead to cost, time overruns in project (RII=0.83)
which is undesirable in projects as a result poor management of project (RII=0.72) is traced. To
overcome this contractor has to pay timely (RII=.86) and Selection of competent management
team (RII=0.86) are major strategies suggested optimizing contractor performance. To
overcome from financial difficulties retention money can be paid to contractor after receiving
bank guarantee. Nepalese construction industry needs capable managers to cope with
changeable environment. Lastly industry is in need of collaboration with new technology
(RII=0.83).

87
 Acknowledgements
I am very much thankful to Er. Krishna Prasad Parajuli, Er.Sushil Bhusal(MoI) and Er. Subexya
Sharu (DOR) and Project family of TRIP Project Rupandehi for their valuable suggestions and
encouragement.
This research would not have been possible without the collective efforts of these individuals and
institutions. Thank you for your invaluable contribution.

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89
 Gender Issues In The Technical Field: A Path Towards Equity

Deepa Poudel1, Pitamber Subedi1*, Sushila Shrestha1, Balaram Bhujel2

1. Institute of Engineering, Thapathali Campus, Tribhuvan University
2. Institute of Science and Technology, Trichandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University
*Corresponding email: [email protected]

Abstract
This paper aims to examine gender dynamics within the technical field, with a specific focus on
engineering education and the workforce. Acknowledging the complex interplay between gender
identities, the research explores the nuances of social norms that sustain inequality in STEM fields
(Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics). The persistent gender gap in STEM is
highlighted by global statistics, which has prompted a thorough investigation of the difficulties faced
by women in technical field. Using a mixed-methods approach, the study combines information from
the Nepal Engineering Council (NEC) and survey data, interviews, and insights from the Population
Census of Nepal 2078 BS. The findings demonstrate intricate patterns of gender disparity in STEM
education, with variations between urban and rural environments and between various ecological
belts. In particular, during educational experiences and field visits, the paper emphasizes the impact
of societal beliefs and biases that lead to unequal opportunities and biased treatment. Workplace issues
like leadership discrepancies, wage discrimination, and political influence highlight the ongoing
gender gap. The research provides detailed insights into the gender gap in engineering by analysing
data from NEC. To effectively address gender disparities in engineering, the paper concludes with
recommendations for targeted interventions at the workplace, educational institutions, and policy
levels. Thos policies that support women in technical fields, inclusive workplace cultures and equal
opportunities should be encouraged. This research serves as a crucial tool for understanding and
dismantling deeply ingrained biases, contributing to the ongoing discourse on gender equity within
the context of engineering in Nepal.
Keywords: Gender Disparities; STEM Inclusion; Workplace Diversity; Technological Equity; Education
Challenges

1 Introduction
Gender, a complex interplay of identities, disparities, equity, and efficiency, profoundly
influences human society, including the workplace. Traditionally categorized as male or
female for simplicity, gender is now acknowledged as multidimensional, encompassing roles,
attractions, and more.

90
This nuanced perspective leads to gender dynamics causing imbalances, culminating in
pervasive gender inequality across life aspects, intricately woven into areas like marriage,
families, work, the economy, politics, religions, arts, culture, and language. While recognizing
a broader spectrum of gender identities, a binary classification is pragmatically used for
analytical ease.
This perspective maintains the strength of the original paragraph, understanding gender as
multidimensional. These dynamics contribute to the multifaceted issue of gender inequality
woven into various aspects of life, including marriage, families, work, the economy, politics,
religions, arts, cultural productions, and language.
The gender gap in science and technology becomes apparent as male and female approaches
diverge, influencing life trajectories. Women show a greater interest in roles involving people,
while men are drawn to positions featuring physical objects and abstract concepts,
contributing to barriers and biases, notably in STEM fields.
Global statistics from UNESCO (2009) reveal that women constitute 29 percent of
researchers globally, with regional variations. While Latin America achieves gender parity,
Asia lags with only 18 percent female researchers. In Africa, women make up approximately
33 percent of researchers, with female participation exceeding 50 percent in biological
sciences but remaining below 30 percent in physics, computer sciences, and engineering
globally. The field of STEM, which is praised for its innovative and dynamic nature, still
reflects a troubling scarcity of gender equality. Women remain disproportionately
underrepresented in these important fields despite global advances in education and societal
advancement, which raises serious issues with equity, diversity, and growth. Gender
stereotypes give rise to the pitiful notion that women are less gifted and are thus less inclined
toward the fields of science and technology. Although there are different formulations of the
problem, the general issue is that females less often study mathematics, physical sciences,
engineering, computer studies, and allied fields at every level of education from elementary
school to graduate school (Robertson, 1988; Statistics Canada, 1990).. Sociological research
on the gender gap explores shared beliefs influencing various facets, including housework,
childrearing, math and science ability, occupational selection, and career trajectories.
On the other hand, attitudes toward gender and society have changed with time. Some sex
differences in performance on mathematics tests, which once prompted complex bio-
psychological theories of innate cognitive differences between males and females, have all but
disappeared over time (Chipman & Thomas, 1987; Linn & Hyde, 1989; Sadker et al., 1991).
However, outdated ideas continue to cast doubt on female representation in important
disciplines that prioritize creativity and reason.

91
 This study explores gender issues in technology, uncovering disparities' roots. Surveys and
literature review unveil factors contributing to gender gaps in the Technological sector.
Emphasizing industry perspectives, the research aims for a more inclusive Technological
environment, recognizing gender disparity's broader impact on innovation and societal
progress.
Additionally, the research addresses gender differences in engineering, examining a national
sample of male and female engineers(Chipman & Thomas, 1987, p. 398) Beyond diagnosis, it
explores strategies for gender equity, emphasizing male involvement, proactive measures,
and advocating equitable opportunities. These efforts align with broader initiatives to reduce
the gender gap in STEM fields.

2 Methods and Methodology

2.1 Data Collection

2.1.1 Questionnaire Survey

Google Forms was used in the study's survey-based methodology to gather primary data.
The purpose of the survey, which consists of a few questions, was to investigate various
viewpoints on gender issues in the technical profession. Internet platforms that catered to
those who were either directly or indirectly active in STEM were used to reach the
participants. The participants submitted their own opinions in response to the Google Forms.
Ethical principles were closely adhered to during the data collection process in order to
guarantee confidentiality.

2.1.2 Physical interview

Interviews were conducted with students, entry-level, mid-level, and professional individuals
working in the technical sector using this data gathering strategy. When addressing gender-
related issues, comparatively inconsistent outcomes were seen. The researcher's own
experiences, which are a crucial component of this work, were also taken into account.

92
2.1.3 Secondary Data Collection via Census of Nepal
We obtained secondary data by doing a thorough review of the literature. Previous research
studies from various sources were compiled and included in this investigation. During this
process, webinars and video interviews with a number of well-known people were also
assembled. Desk study of data from Nepal Engineering Council (NEC), Nepal Engineers’
Association (NEA) and Census of Nepal was done to support our objective.

2.2 Data Clean-up and Validation

The data collected from various source is subjected to different amounts of venerability. The
primary data should be cross checked before using and the sample Space should be selected
in such a way that the sample data model the population. Selection of sample space is a tricky
concept but very important for projecting the result for the population. The data thus
collected from primary sources and secondary sources should be validated before using it.
The data Processing was done to retrieve the necessary data only. The data was then
subjected to different hierarchical data structures the primary goal of data pre-processing is
to reorganize the necessary data and look whether the data given is valid or not.
The hierarchical data structures is like the table where primarily the data is divided into 2
superclass (STEM and NON-STEM). The STEM class was primarily made up of fields:
(Science and Technology, Health and Medical Science, Engineering, Agriculture, Animal
science and Fishery, Forestry, Computing and Information Technology) and rest from Non-
STEM. The STEM data is then further classified into Engineering and other faculty as the
research primarily focuses on gender disparity in engineering field. Each division is further
classified or categorized in two ways; one based on the development (Urban and Rural) and
another based on the ecological belts (Mountain, Hill and Terai).
The Structure, Representation and hierarchy of data can be represented as follows
Table 1: Classification of Students Based on Choice of Field

 Ǧ

ƒŽ‡ ͺͺͳ͹͵ ͳ͹Ͳ͸Ͳ͸͸

‡ƒŽ‡ ͳͷͺͻʹ ͳͷͻ͸ʹʹͻ
Source : 1DWLRQDO3RSXODWLRQDQG+RXVLQJ&HQVXV

Table 2: Classification of STEM Students

‰‹‡‡”‹‰ –Š‡”

93
 ƒŽ‡ ͺͺͳ͹͵ ͳ͹Ͳ͸Ͳ͸͸
‡ƒŽ‡ ͳͷͺͻʹ ͳͷͻ͸ʹʹͻ
Source : 1DWLRQDO3RSXODWLRQDQG+RXVLQJ&HQVXV
Table 3: Classification of Engineering Students Based on Origin of Development

”„ƒ —”ƒŽ

ƒŽ‡ ͺͺͳ͹͵ ͳͶ͹ͳͻ

‡ƒŽ‡ ͳͷͺͻʹ ͳͺͶͻ
Source : 1DWLRQDO3RSXODWLRQDQG+RXVLQJ&HQVXV

Table 4: Classification of Engineering Students Based on Ecological Belts

‘—–ƒ‹ ‹ŽŽ ‡”ƒ‹

ƒŽ‡ ͶͲͳ͵ ͷ͵ͺͺͲ ͶͶͻͻͻ

‡ƒŽ‡ ͸ͶͶ ͳͳʹ͹ͻ ͷͺͳͺ
Source: 1DWLRQDO3RSXODWLRQDQG+RXVLQJ&HQVXV

TOTAL STUDENTS

STEM NON-STEM

ENGINEERING OTHERS
Development Ecological Belt

Urban Rural Mountain Hill Terai

Figure 1: Hierarchical representation of data

94
 2.3 Data Visualisation and Analysis
The data typically provides more than mere numerical values; it unveils underlying patterns,
and the probability of occurrence signifies much more than a standalone figure. It offers an
opportunity to extract specific data from a randomly selected pool, revealing the distribution
of data across the population and illustrating the dynamics within. The hierarchical structure
of the data, as depicted in Figure 1, signifies more than just a probability; it embodies
conditional probability. This implies that the occurrence of an event is not isolated; instead,
it is contingent on the selection of a preceding event. This concept delves into conditional
probability and explores the implications of Bayes' theorem in the realm of probabilistic data
analysis.
The graph in Figure 2 presents a substantial urban population (357,095 males and 214,544
females) as compared to the rural population (67,198 males and 31,532 females). Gender
imbalances are apparent, with urban areas showing a larger male population. In contrast, the
rural areas exhibit a more even distribution between males and females. The graph highlights
a potential urban-centric gender disparity, highlighting the need for a deeper investigation
into the factors contributing to this imbalance. Urbanization appears to influence gender
dynamics, warranting attention to policies that address the unique challenges faced by males
and females in both urban and rural settings.

Figure 2: Urban and Rural people studying STEM

The graph in Figure 3 illustrates a substantial gender disparity in engineering studies, with a
significantly higher number of males (88173) compared to females (15892). This gap persists
in both urban and rural areas, emphasizing the need for targeted efforts to address gender

95
 inequality in STEM education. The data underscores a broader issue and calls for initiatives to
encourage and support female participation in engineering across diverse settings.

Figure 3: Urban and Rural people studying Figure 4: STEM and Non STEM
engineering

The graph in Figure 4 illustrates a stark gender disparity, revealing significantly higher
representation of males in STEM fields compared to females. In contrast, non-STEM fields
show a less pronounced gender gap. These findings underscore the ongoing challenge of
gender inequality in STEM disciplines.
The graph in Figure 5 illustrates significant gender disparities in STEM education across
ecological belts, with a notably higher number of males pursuing STEM in mountain and
terai regions compared to females. In contrast, the hill region displays a more balanced
distribution, indicating a potential area of progress in addressing gender inequality in STEM
education. The findings underscore the need for targeted interventions to promote female
participation in STEM fields, particularly in mountain and terai communities.

96
Figure 5: No. of students studying STEM in different ecological belts

Figure 6: Probability of occurrence for students studying STEM

97
 The graph in Figure 6 illustrates that the probability of male students pursuing STEM is
highest in the hill region at 0.62, while female students show a slightly lower probability of
0.39 in the same region. Overall, the data highlights a gender disparity in STEM enrollment,
with males having a higher likelihood of choosing STEM, particularly in the hill region.
The graph in Figure 7 illustrates a notable gender disparity in STEM education, with urban
areas showing a higher probability of students choosing STEM (0.063) compared to rural
areas (0.033). This discrepancy highlights a potential urban-rural divide in opportunities or
preferences for pursuing STEM fields, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions to
address gender inequality in STEM education across diverse settings.

Figure 7: Probability of students studying STEM in urban and rural areas

2.4 Limitations
Convenience sampling's inherent bias potential is one of the study's primary shortcomings.
The reliance on online platforms for participant enlistment may have resulted in biases among
the sample population, hence affecting the findings' generalizability.

3 Results and Discussions

The online survey comprised 53% female respondents and 47% male. Among them, 74% were
from Engineering, 11% from Architecture and 15% from other faculties (Geology,
Information Technology, Agriculture, Management and Health sector). Domestic

98
respondents from within the country were 90% and the remaining 10% were from other
countries. 47 % of the total respondents were students, 25% job holders, 10% both and 18%
were unemployed.69 % participants were found to be below 25 years of age and 31% were
above 25 years of age. Experience-28%mid-level (1-2 years of experience), 12% professional
(2-7 years of experience), 60 % technical field students and entry level (less than 1 years of
experience).

3.1 Educational Section

32% of the respondents complained of having witnessed biased treatments during lab and
field works while the remaining 68% assured of neutral treatments. Lack or insufficiency of
female instructors, and issues that affect women such as inadequate facilities for women in
academic labs and classrooms (lack of sanitary supplies, private toilets, etc.) were found to not
be given as much emphasis. Channeled patriarchal norms was found to be widely prevalent.
Women have expressed dissatisfaction about not having had the opportunity to fully explore
lab labour and investigations. Unfair treatment in lab tests, internal evaluations, viva, and
other situations have been reported.

99
 3.2 Entry Level
79% of the respondents agreed to the influence of politics in various organizations and 21%
disagreed.

Table 5: Insights based on Category

Category Insights

‡‘‰”ƒ’Š‹ • • ‡†‡” ‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ǣ ‡•’‹–‡ ƒ •‡‡‹‰Ž›

„ƒŽƒ ‡† ‘˜‡”ƒŽŽ ‰‡†‡” †‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ ȋͷ͵ǤʹΨ
ƒŽ‡ǡ Ͷ͸ǤͺΨ ˆ‡ƒŽ‡Ȍǡ –Š‡ ƒƒŽ›•‹• ”‡˜‡ƒŽ•
—†‡”Ž›‹‰‰‡†‡”†‹•’ƒ”‹–‹‡•‹‡†— ƒ–‹‘ƒŽƒ†
’”‘ˆ‡••‹‘ƒŽ •’Š‡”‡•Ǥ • ‡Žƒ–‡† ‹‡Ž†ǣ Š‡
†‘‹ƒ ‡‘ˆƒŽ‡•‹‡‰‹‡‡”‹‰ȋ͹ͶǤ͹ΨȌƒ†
–Š‡ ‹‹ƒŽ ”‡’”‡•‡–ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ ˆ‡ƒŽ‡• ‹
ƒ” Š‹–‡ –—”‡ ȋͳͳǤͶΨȌ ’‘‹–• –‘ †‡‡’Ž› ‹‰”ƒ‹‡†
‰‡†‡”‘”•†‹ –ƒ–‹‰ ƒ”‡‡” Š‘‹ ‡•Ǥ
• –—†›‘—–”›ǣŠ‡‘˜‡”™Š‡Ž‹‰ ‘ ‡–”ƒ–‹‘
‘ˆ”‡•’‘†‡–•‹‡’ƒŽȋͺͻǤͻΨȌ—†‡”• ‘”‡•–Š‡
‡‡†–‘ƒ††”‡••‰‡†‡”‹‡“—ƒŽ‹–›™‹–Š‹–Š‡Ž‘ ƒŽ
‘–‡š–Ǥ

• –ƒ–—•ǣ Š‡ ’”‡˜ƒŽ‡ ‡ ‘ˆ •–—†‡–• ȋͶ͸ǤͺΨȌ ƒ†

–Š‡ †‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ ‘ˆ Œ‘„ Š‘Ž†‡”• ȋʹͷǤ͵ΨȌ ƒ†
—‡’Ž‘›‡† ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ• ȋͳ͹Ǥ͹ΨȌ ”‡ˆŽ‡ – –Š‡
„”‘ƒ†‡”•‘ ‹‘‡ ‘‘‹ Žƒ†• ƒ’‡™Š‡”‡‰‡†‡”
†‹•’ƒ”‹–‹‡•’‡”•‹•–Ǥ
ƒ„š’‡”‹‡ ‡• • Š‡ ‹†‡–‹ˆ‹ ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ ‰‡†‡”Ǧ„ƒ•‡† ‹‡“—ƒŽ‹–›
ȋ͸͹ǤͳΨȌ™‹–Š‹Žƒ„‡š’‡”‹‡ ‡•Š‹‰ŠŽ‹‰Š–•–Š‡‡‡†
ˆ‘”•›•–‡‹  Šƒ‰‡•–‘‡”ƒ†‹ ƒ–‡„‹ƒ•‡†–”‡ƒ–‡–ǡ
—‡“—ƒŽ ‘’’‘”–—‹–‹‡•ǡ ƒ† „‹ƒ•‡† ‹•–”— –‘”
ƒ––‡–‹‘Ǥ • Š‡ ƒŽƒ”‹‰ ”‡˜‡Žƒ–‹‘ –Šƒ– ͸ʹΨ ‘ˆ
”‡•’‘†‡–•Šƒ˜‡‘„•‡”˜‡†—‡“—ƒŽ†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆ
‹–‡”ƒŽ ƒ”• •‹‰ƒŽ• ƒ •‡”‹‘—• ‹••—‡ ƒˆˆ‡ –‹‰
ƒ ƒ†‡‹ ’”‘‰”‡••‹‘Ǥ
‹‡Ž†‹•‹–•
• ‡†‡”Ǧ”‡Žƒ–‡† †‹•’ƒ”‹–‹‡• †—”‹‰ ˆ‹‡Ž† ˜‹•‹–•
ȋͳ͸ǤͷΨȌ ‡š’‘•‡ •ƒˆ‡–› ‘ ‡”•ǡ Žƒ  ‘ˆ
”‡ ‘‰‹–‹‘ǡƒ†”‡•‹•–ƒ ‡–‘ˆ‡ƒŽ‡Ž‡ƒ†‡”•Š‹’ǡ
’‘‹–‹‰ –‘ †‡‡’Ž› ”‘‘–‡† •‘ ‹‡–ƒŽ ‘”•
‹’ƒ –‹‰’”‘ˆ‡••‹‘ƒŽ‡˜‹”‘‡–•Ǥ

 ƒ†‡‹ ’’‘”–—‹–‹‡• • Š‹Ž‡ ͹ʹǤʹΨ „‡Ž‹‡˜‡ ‹ ‡“—ƒŽ ƒ ƒ†‡‹

‘’’‘”–—‹–‹‡•ǡ –Š‡ ‡š‹•–‡ ‡ ‘ˆ ƒ •‹‰‹ˆ‹ ƒ–
ͳͷǤʹΨ™Š‘ƒ”‡—•—”‡•—‰‰‡•–•ƒŽƒ ‘ˆ Žƒ”‹–›
ƒ† ’‘••‹„Ž› Žƒ–‡– ‰‡†‡” „‹ƒ•‡• ‹ˆŽ—‡ ‹‰
‡†— ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‘’’‘”–—‹–‹‡•Ǥ

100
 ‹‡Ž†‘ˆ‰‹‡‡”‹‰ • Š‡’‡” ‡’–‹‘‘ˆ‘†‡”ƒ–‡ˆ‡ƒŽ‡’ƒ”–‹ ‹’ƒ–‹‘
ƒ”–‹ ‹’ƒ–‹‘ ȋͶͶǤ͵ΨȌ ‘—’Ž‡† ™‹–Š –Š‡ ƒ ‘™Ž‡†‰‡– ‘ˆ
Ž‘™ ’ƒ”–‹ ‹’ƒ–‹‘ ȋͶ͵ΨȌ —†‡”• ‘”‡• –Š‡
ŠƒŽŽ‡‰‡•ˆƒ ‡†„›™‘‡‹’—”•—‹‰ ƒ”‡‡”•‹
‡‰‹‡‡”‹‰Ǥ
‘„’’‘”–—‹–‹‡• • Š‡ ‘„•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘ –Šƒ– ‰‡†‡” ‹ˆŽ—‡ ‡• Œ‘„
‘’’‘”–—‹–‹‡• ȋͳ͹Ǥ͹ΨȌ ƒ† ’‘–‡–‹ƒŽ •ƒŽƒ”›
†‹• ”‹‹ƒ–‹‘ ȋʹͻǤͳΨȌ Š‹‰ŠŽ‹‰Š–• •–”— –—”ƒŽ
‹••—‡• ™‹–Š‹ –Š‡ ’”‘ˆ‡••‹‘ƒŽ Žƒ†• ƒ’‡ –Šƒ–
’‡”’‡–—ƒ–‡‰‡†‡”‹‡“—ƒŽ‹–›Ǥ
‘”’Žƒ ‡˜‹”‘‡– • Š‹Ž‡ͷͺǤʹΨ•‡‡ƒˆƒ‹”†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆŽ‡ƒ†‡”•Š‹’
”‘Ž‡•ǡ –Š‡ ƒ ‘™Ž‡†‰‡– „› ͶͳǤͺΨ ‘ˆ
”‡•’‘†‡–• ™Š‘ ‘„•‡”˜‡ ’ƒ––‡”• ™Š‡”‡
ˆ‡ƒŽ‡• Žƒ‰ „‡Š‹† —†‡”• ‘”‡• –Š‡ ’‡”•‹•–‡–
‰‡†‡”‰ƒ’‹™‘”’Žƒ ‡Ž‡ƒ†‡”•Š‹’Ǥ

‡†‡”  Ž—•‹˜‹–›
• Š‡ Ž‹‹–‡† ’ƒ”–‹ ‹’ƒ–‹‘ ‹ ‰‡†‡” ‹ Ž—•‹˜‹–›
‹–‹ƒ–‹˜‡•
–”ƒ‹‹‰ ȋʹ͹ǤͺΨȌ ‘—’Ž‡† ™‹–Š –Š‡ ’‡” ‡’–‹‘
–Šƒ– ”‡ ”—‹–‡– ƒ† ’”‘‘–‹‘ ’”‘ ‡••‡• ƒ”‡
‰‡†‡”Ǧ‡—–”ƒŽ ȋͶͻǤͶΨȌ ”ƒ‹•‡• “—‡•–‹‘• ƒ„‘—–
–Š‡‡ˆˆ‹ ƒ ›‘ˆ —””‡–‹‹–‹ƒ–‹˜‡•Ǥ
‡‰ƒŽ™ƒ”‡‡•• • Š‹Ž‡Ͷ͵Ψˆ‡‡Ž™‡ŽŽǦƒ™ƒ”‡‘ˆŽ‡‰ƒŽ”‹‰Š–•ǡ–Š‡ˆƒ –
–Šƒ–ͷͷǤ͹Ψƒ –‹˜‡Ž›•‡‡—’†ƒ–‡•‘”‡Ž‡˜ƒ–Žƒ™•
•—‰‰‡•–•ƒ ‘–‹—‘—••–”—‰‰Ž‡ˆ‘”‰‡†‡”Œ—•–‹ ‡ǡ
”‡˜‡ƒŽ‹‰‰ƒ’•‹Ž‡‰ƒŽ’”‘–‡ –‹‘ƒ†ƒ™ƒ”‡‡••Ǥ

‡’‘”–‹‰‡ Šƒ‹•• • Š‡ƒ„‹˜ƒŽ‡ ‡–‘™ƒ”†•”‡’‘”–‹‰‡ Šƒ‹••ǡ

™‹–Š ͶͶǤ͵Ψ ‘•‹†‡”‹‰ –Š‡ ‹‡ˆˆ‡ –‹˜‡ǡ
Š‹‰ŠŽ‹‰Š–• ƒ ”‹–‹ ƒŽ ƒ”‡ƒ ˆ‘” ‹’”‘˜‡‡– ‹
ƒ††”‡••‹‰ ‰‡†‡”Ǧ„ƒ•‡† ‹••—‡• ƒ† ˆ‘•–‡”‹‰ ƒ
•—’’‘”–‹˜‡ƒ†”‡•’‘•‹˜‡‡˜‹”‘‡–Ǥ

‡–‘”•Š‹’”‘‰”ƒ• • Š‡ ’‡” ‡’–‹‘ –Šƒ– ‡–‘”•Š‹’ ’”‘‰”ƒ•

•—’’‘”–„‘–Š‰‡†‡”•ȋͶͺǤͳΨȌƒ†–Š‡•‹‰‹ˆ‹ ƒ–
‡—–”ƒŽ•–ƒ ‡ȋʹͻǤͳΨȌ—†‡”• ‘”‡–Š‡‡‡†ˆ‘”
–ƒ”‰‡–‡† ‡ˆˆ‘”–• –‘ ‡Šƒ ‡ ‡–‘”•Š‹’
‘’’‘”–—‹–‹‡•ˆ‘”™‘‡‹‡‰‹‡‡”‹‰Ǥ

‡ ”—‹–‡–ƒ† • Š‹Ž‡ ͶͻǤͶΨ ’‡” ‡‹˜‡ –Š‡•‡ ’”‘ ‡••‡• ƒ• ™‡ŽŽǦ
”‘‘–‹‘”‘ ‡••‡• †‡•‹‰‡† ˆ‘” ‰‡†‡” ‡—–”ƒŽ‹–›ǡ –Š‡ •—„•–ƒ–‹ƒŽ
‡—–”ƒŽ •–ƒ ‡ ȋʹͻǤͳΨȌ ‹†‹ ƒ–‡• ”‘‘ ˆ‘”
‹’”‘˜‡‡– ‹ ƒ‹‰ ”‡ ”—‹–‡– ƒ†
’”‘‘–‹‘‘”‡–”ƒ•’ƒ”‡–ƒ†‡“—‹–ƒ„Ž‡Ǥ

101
 ‘ˆ‘”–™‹–Š ‘„ • Š‡˜ƒ”›‹‰Ž‡˜‡Ž•‘ˆ ‘ˆ‘”–™‹–ŠŒ‘„ ‘†‹–‹‘•
‘†‹–‹‘• ȋͶͶǤ͵Ψ ‘ˆ‘”–ƒ„Ž‡ǡ ʹ͹ǤͺΨ ‡—–”ƒŽǡ ʹͲǤ͵Ψ ˜‡”›
‘ˆ‘”–ƒ„Ž‡Ȍ ”‡˜‡ƒŽ –Š‡ —ƒ ‡† ‡š’‡”‹‡ ‡• ‘ˆ
‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ•ǡ ‡’Šƒ•‹œ‹‰ –Š‡ ‡‡† ˆ‘” –ƒ‹Ž‘”‡†
‹–‡”˜‡–‹‘•–‘‡•—”‡ƒ•—’’‘”–‹˜‡™‘”’Žƒ ‡Ǥ

ƒ• ••‹‰‡– ’ƒ –

‘‘ˆ‹†‡ ‡ • Š‡„‡Ž‹‡ˆ–Šƒ––Š‡ƒ••‹‰‡–‘ˆ–ƒ••„ƒ•‡†‘
‰‡†‡” ”‡†— ‡• ‘ˆ‹†‡ ‡ ȋ͵ͻǤʹΨȌ „”‹‰•
ƒ––‡–‹‘–‘–Š‡’•› Š‘Ž‘‰‹ ƒŽ‹’ƒ –‘ˆ‰‡†‡”‡†
–ƒ• ƒ••‹‰‡–•ǡ —”‰‹‰ ƒ ”‡ ‘•‹†‡”ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ
’”ƒ –‹ ‡•ƒˆˆ‡ –‹‰’”‘ˆ‡••‹‘ƒŽ•‡ŽˆǦ‡•–‡‡

”ƒ•’‘”–ƒ–‹‘ —’’‘”–
ˆ‘”˜‡”‹‰Š– • Š‡Žƒ ‘ˆ–”ƒ•’‘”–ƒ–‹‘•—’’‘”–ˆ‘”ͶͲǤͷΨ‘ˆ
”‡•’‘†‡–• ƒ† — ‡”–ƒ‹–› ȋ͵ͶǤʹΨȌ ƒ„‘—– ‹–•
ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„‹Ž‹–› •Š‡† Ž‹‰Š– ‘ ’”ƒ –‹ ƒŽ ŠƒŽŽ‡‰‡•
ˆƒ ‡†„›™‘‡‹‡‰‹‡‡”‹‰ǡ‡š’‘•‹‰‰ƒ’•‹
•—’’‘”–•›•–‡•Ǥ
‘—‹ ƒ–‹‘ ‘ ‘„
‘†‹–‹‘•
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–”ƒ•’ƒ”‡ ›‹”‡ ”—‹–‡–’”‘ ‡••‡•Ǥ

Figure 8: Current Provincial Committee of NEA

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The chart in Figure 8 starkly reveals gender inequality in the Nepal Engineers’ Association
(NEA) provincial committees, as the female participation across provinces is uneven, with
several provinces having minimal or no female representation. Additionally, the historical
absence of a female president in NEA committee underscores the fact that females have a
lower interest towards leadership positions which might be a result of an unsupportive
environment and low-morale. The lack of female participation in the Nepal Engineer's
Association might be attributed to the passive nature of female involvement in politics and
leadership roles within the organization. This phenomenon underscores the need for targeted
efforts to overcome barriers and encourage more active participation and leadership from
women in engineering and related professional associations.

Figure 9: List of registered engineers in NEC? (2057 BS to 2078 BS)

The chart in Figure 9 portraying the distribution of registered engineers across various
disciplines from 2057-58 to 2078 Ashwin reveals a glaring gender inequality in the field of
engineering. The stark contrast in the numbers of male and female engineers within each
specialty highlights a systemic issue that transcends individual disciplines. This gender gap
can be attributed to a complex interplay of societal, educational, and workplace factors.
Societal norms and stereotypes often discourage young women from pursuing careers in
engineering, contributing to a lack of early interest and encouragement. Moreover, workplace
environments within the engineering profession might not be conducive to gender diversity,
potentially discouraging women from entering or staying in the field.

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 Figure 10: No. of students in different Engineering Faculties

The donut chart, derived from Nepal Engineering Council data, illuminates the popularity of
civil engineering as the preferred discipline, likely influenced by historical demand and
perceived job prospects. However, a concerning trend of gender inequality pervades all
engineering fields, with consistently lower female participation. Notably, architecture bucks
this trend, attracting more female students, suggesting potential insights for fostering gender
diversity. To unravel why females may avoid engineering, societal expectations and
stereotypes need addressing, emphasizing the urgency of targeted interventions such as
empowering and encouraging female students from higher secondary levels to create
inclusive environments and encourage women to pursue engineering careers.

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 Figure 11: Probability of occurrence of students studying engineering with specific STEM
from different ecological belts

The graph depicting the probability of individuals pursuing engineering within specific
STEM fields across ecological regions reveals notable patterns. In terms of gender
distribution, the probability of female students in the mountain region choosing engineering
within STEM is 0.002, while for males, it is 0.005. Similarly, in the hill region, female and
male probabilities are 0.023 and 0.0065, and in the terai region, they are 0.012 and 0.053,
respectively. These probabilities reflect the likelihood of randomly selecting a student from
each region pursuing engineering within STEM, indicating distinct trends in gender
representation. Notably, the hilly region exhibits the highest probabilities for both genders,
emphasizing the need for further examination of factors contributing to these disparities in
the pursuit of STEM education, particularly in engineering, across different ecological belts.

4 Conclusions
In conclusion, the survey data presents a multifaceted view of gender dynamics in the
Engineering landscape of Nepal. It reveals the challenges and insights into gender inequality
in the field of STEM as a whole. Distinctive experiences faced by women highlights the
gender disparities in the field. The survey also revealed unequal opportunities and biased
treatment, especially during lab experiences and field visits. Instances of gender-based
inequality, such as prioritizing male students in physically demanding tasks and prevalent
stereotypes about female capabilities, surfaced as significant issues.

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 Educational inequalities were exposed through experiences of few female students in certain
departments, leading to limited opportunities to fully explore their potential. The revelation
that 67.1% of respondents noticed gender-based inequality in college lab experiences in itself
presents a systemic problem that demands immediate concern. The conclusion that women
are often underestimated, assigned to certain roles, and face biased treatment in various
aspects of their career life, further highlights the need for comprehensive reforms.
Within educational institutions, the hidden layers of gender bias can be observed in the
disparity in the distribution of internal marks based on gender (62% affirming this) and the
belief that not all students have equal access to lab resources (47.1% confirming this issue).
These findings not only highlight the prevalence of biased treatment but also emphasize the
need for a systematic reform to ensure fairness in academic evaluation and resource allocation.
Moving into the professional realm, the survey delves into gender-related challenges in the
workplace. A notable 60.8% of respondents acknowledged the influence of political
connections in job opportunities. Salary discrimination (26.6%) averaging both in Academia
and Industrial sector and the distribution of leadership roles (41.8%) were also recognized
issues, suggesting a gender-based glass ceiling under which women's professional growth
impedes. Although, it seems that the leadership is individual characterization ; which is true
if viewed for a person , but when it comes for the population characterization, the selection of
certain path, thinking pattern are resultant of their upbringing whether it is in school,
workplace and thus development of the harsh mentality resulting the avoidance of path by
most of them,
Similarly, analysis of data from secondary source also adds on the facts that women are
lagging behind in the STEM field in general as the probability of occurrence from the Figure
6 and Figure 7 suggests. The probability of finding women studying from rural area is even
low as in Figure 6 to around 3% only. This data gives us the enormous hit on fact of the lack
of STEM education in general in Mountain region of country, but in the sophisticated
ecological region as hill, there seems more skewness in gender biasness from 60% for male to
40% for female. The no. of women studying engineering is even low around 0.5% which is
negligible as shown in Figure 11. The graph is furthermore supported by the surveys where
it become clear for gender related biasness.
The workplace environment further came under scrutiny, with concerns about safety during
overnight shifts, accessibility of support systems for gender-related grievances, and the
notable finding that females were more commonly assigned tasks like making tea, indicating
the persistence of traditional gender roles.

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From our perspective, this survey serves as a powerful tool for exposing the intricate web of
gender inequalities ingrained in both educational and professional spheres in Nepal. The data
highlights not only the existence of these challenges but also the urgent need for targeted
interventions, policy changes, and cultural shifts to dismantle the deeply rooted biases and
create environments that foster true gender equality. The inclusion of qualitative responses
adds a rich layer to the quantitative findings, providing a nuanced understanding of the daily
struggles faced by women in engineering. This paper, therefore, contributes significantly to
the ongoing discourse on gender issues, urging stakeholders to take concrete steps for a more
equitable future.

5 Recommendations:

5.1 In the Workplace:

a) Equal Opportunities:

● Provide equal opportunities for employment, promotions, and career growth

regardless of gender.
● Establish and implement laws prohibiting gender discrimination.

b) Flexible Work Policies:

● Promote remote work choices and flexible work hours.
● Provide men and women with family-friendly policies, such as parental
leave.
● Promote and practise menstrual leave.
c) Inclusive Workplace Culture:
● Promote a varied and inclusive work environment where every individual
is valued.
● Provide diversity and inclusion training to all staff members.
d) Leadership Development:
● Encourage women in technical roles to participate in leadership
development programs.
● Support and guide women in leadership roles.
e) Networking Possibilities:

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 ● Arrange forums and networking events where women in technical roles
can interact, exchange experiences, and lend mutual support.
f) Address Implicit prejudice:
● Hold training sessions to increase knowledge of implicit prejudice and its
effects.
● Put procedures in place to reduce bias in hiring and performance reviews.
g) Accountability and Transparency:
● Report and evaluate gender diversity metrics inside the company on a regular
basis.
● Make the leadership responsible for creating an inclusive atmosphere.
h) Employee Education Support:
● Give women in the STEM field access to continual training and
educational opportunities to help them stay up to date and updated.

5.2 Educational Institutions:

● Promote gender inclusivity in academic projects and extracurricular

activities.
● Provide leadership opportunities for female students and encourage their
active participation in labs and field visits.
● Offer scholarships to female students, especially those from remote areas
in fields like engineering.
● Enhance gender-friendly facilities, such as separate toilets and access to
sanitary products, to ensure the well-being of female students.
● Conduct awareness programs on gender discrimination and biases within
educational institutions.
● Establish a GEDSI (Gender Equality, Diversity, and Social Inclusion)
consultant in educational institutions.
● Encourage female students to pursue STEM education and create
programs that break stereotypes and foster inclusivity.
● Ensure equal distribution of resources and opportunities for male and
female students in labs and other academic spaces.

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 5.3 Policy Level

• Reservations for women in each hierarchy in institutes and offices to ensure

women leadership in technical field (NEA, NEC, college administration, etc).
• Institutions like NEA and NEC should organize events targeting female
population during their higher secondary education to encourage their
involvement in technical field.
• Hard implementation of existing policies targeting women empowerment and
involvement.
•

Acknowledgement
The Nepal Engineering Council, Minbhawan, Kathmandu; Nepal Engineers’ Association,
Pulchowk, Lalitpur; and the Nepal Statistics Office, Thapathali, Kathmandu are sincerely
acknowledged for their invaluable contributions in providing Census data and various
secondary data essential to this research.
Appreciation is extended to all volunteers who, directly and indirectly, dedicated their time
and efforts to the survey, data analysis, and the formulation of policy-level recommendations.
Their unwavering commitment significantly contributed to the success of this research.
Recognition is also given to Er. Shree Ram Pokharel, Er. Deepak Poudel and all other
individuals and organizations that played a pivotal role, offering guidance, resources, and
encouragement throughout the research process. Their collective efforts have been
instrumental in bringing this research to fruition.

References
[1]. Beura, D. (2017, June 30). Gender gap in science and technology. Granthalaya, 5(June
2017), 324-330. Gender gap in science and technology
[2]. Beutel, A. M., & Marini, M. M. (1995). Gender and values. American sociological
review, 436–448.
[3]. Charles, M., & Bradley, K. (2002). Equal but separate? A cross-national study of sex
segregation in higher education. American sociological review, 573–599.
[4]. Gaskell, J., & McLaren, A. (1991). Women as mothers, women as teachers. Women
and Education, 20–32.

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 [5]. Gaskell, J., McLaren, A., & Novogrodsky, M. (1989). Claiming an education:
Feminism and Canadian schools (Vol. 7). James Lorimer & Company.
[6]. Megarry, J. (1984). Introduction: sex, gender and education. Acker, Megarry, Nisbet
and Hoyle (eds), World Yearbook of Education, Kogan Page, New York.
[7]. Sadker, M., Sadker, D., & Klein, S. (1991). Chapter 7: The issue of gender in
elementary and secondary education. Review of research in education, 17, 269–334.
[8]. Johnson, R. W., Sambamoorthi, U., & Crystal, S. (2002). Gender differences in pension
wealth and their impact on late-life inequality. Annual Review of Gerontology and
Geriatrics, 22, 116–137.
[9]. Konrad, A. M., Ritchie Jr, J. E., Lieb, P., & Corrigall, E. (2000). Sex differences and
similarities in job attribute preferences: a meta-analysis. Psychological bulletin, 126,
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[10]. .Chipman, S. F., & Thomas, V. G. (1987). Chapter 9: The Participation of
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research in education, 14(1), 387-430

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 Empowering engineering innovation through ICT: a
multidisciplinary approach to technology convergence
Suprima Shrestha-1, Nilima Sangachchhe-2,
1
College of Biomedical Engineering and Applied Sciences
2
College of Biomedical Engineering and Applied Sciences
*Corresponding email: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has accompanied a new line of innovation,
aiming to transform various engineering disciplines through its incorporation. This paper presents
the ample role of ICT in facilitating the convergence of technologies, particularly emphasizing its
potential impact in biomedical engineering. We explore pioneering advancements in the medical
field in diagnosis and how the synergy of machine learning (ML), data analytics and advanced
communication technologies leads to the creation of smarter and more efficient systems in medical
field. This has been done by extensively examining pertinent literature indexed in databases like
PubMed/Medline, Science Direct, SpringerLink, Scopus and EMBASE.

Here, we delve into practical applications of ICT, including machine learning driven cancer
detection, MRI-based brain tumor identification and the reduction of high-dose X-ray radiations
through deep learning image reconstruction (DLIR) techniques. This study further discusses ICT’s
contributions toward enhancing sustainability safety and resilience in bioengineering practices.

The research demonstrates the incorporation of ICT into healthcare, presents a significant
opportunity to enhance disease diagnosis, and treatment selection and reduce radiation dose by 65-
68 % with DLIR without compromising quality. Extensive datasets and ICT tools have been utilized
to detect patters in medical data beyond human capability to keep track of intense data, improving
various healthcare facets such as patient outcomes and preventive care, with greater accuracy, time
efficiency and fewer human errors. Moreover, currently the highest accuracy for many ML diagnosis
algorithms like skin cancer is at 87 %, which could be further enhanced by data manipulation
techniques and comprehensive research.

Keywords: Machine learning; MRI; image reconstruction technique; deep learning; image reconstruction
algorithm; data manipulation technique

1. Introduction
The dawn of the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) era has ushered in a
transformative wave across various sectors, it is currently reshaping the engineering Field .
This paradigm shift is most notable in the field of biomedical engineering. In this realm of
engineering, the boundaries are being reshaped with the fusion of ICT. It is creating new
hopes in biomedical engineering.

The healthcare industry is forever considered to be having challenges. As we move forward,

the world demands better accuracy, efficiency and less invasive medical procedures. This
requires a re-evaluation of traditional methodologies with the integration of ICT. As it can

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 handle large datasets, process complex information, and facilitate rapid communication, it is
indispensable in current medical industry progress .

The current research activities in the world underscore the integration of ICT in
revolutionizing healthcare facilities. With ICT, new diagnostic tools could be developed
which are accurate, efficient and less invasive . ICT in medical field includes various
techniques such as Artificial Intelligence which further consist of Machine learning (ML)
and deep learning (DL). DL model can recognize complex patterns in pictures, text, sounds
and other data to produce predictions or accurate outputs. In medical field, DL in
exclusively used in biomedical images or sounds due to its abilities in extracting deep
information.

This capability has led to significant contributions in areas like early cancer detection and
brain tumor identification. For instance, the areas having data could be processed by the
machine learning algorithm for its accurate detection of diseases. Furthermore, ICT plays a
crucial role in mitigating the side effects of existing technologies. For instance,
advancements in machine learning algorithms have allowed for generation of higher quality
medical imaging at lower X-ray doses (McCollough et al., 2009).

Moreover, ICT is helping equally in remote health service access with various technologies
such as telemedicine or telehealth which have capabilities of tracking remote monitoring
such as high blood pressure, diabetes, heart conditions, asthma and so on. With the prompt
response of the technology to the patients suffering from diseases, it has been trying to
balance the available resources to the needful. Whereas the development has helped human
being in medical aspects, the aim of ICT is not replacing medical professionals but making a
revolution in traditional aspects of treatment .

However, integrating ICT in biomedical engineering is not without its challenges. Issues
surrounding data security, patient privacy and the ethical implications of automated
healthcare decisions are subjects of ongoing debate. The technical and infrastructural
demands, especially in resource-limited settings, also pose significant challenges .

This paper aims to explore the medical industry's various areas and analyze specific ICT
applications in biomedical engineering, focusing on machine learning for cancer and brain
tumor detection. The paper further aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of ICT's role
and its broader impacts on sustainability, safety and resilience in biomedical practices.
Ultimately, this paper underscores the indispensability of ICT in the evolution of healthcare

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technologies and its potential to enhance safety, sustainability, and resilience in the
bioengineering community.

2. Materials and Methods

Strategy for literature search and criteria for selection

The research involved systematic exploration of recognized databases, including

PubMed/Medline, Science Direct, SpringerLink, Scopus and EMBASE. This work was
conducted without any time constraints but was confined to publications in English
language.

Protocol for databases and key technologies used.

In analysis focusing on ICT's role in healthcare environment, we employed a thorough

keyword search strategy. This strategy included various terms such as 'ICT in healthcare',
'ML in healthcare', 'DL in healthcare', 'AI in personalized medicine', 'AI in patient
monitoring', 'AI and ethical considerations in healthcare', 'predictive analytics in healthcare',
'AI in medical diagnostic processes' and 'AI applications in healthcare sectors'.

Process of data collection

The selection of relevant publications was carried out through a detailed evaluation of their
titles and abstracts or body paragraph. And, those studies that aligned with the predefined
inclusion criteria were considered for further analysis.

3. ICT in biomedical engineering: a paradigm shift

Biomedical engineering stands at the forefront of healthcare innovation and ICT is

currently serving at the edge of its innovative transformation. Accuracy, efficiency, and
non-invasive procedures in the medical industry are not just ideal now, but with the help of
ICT, they are achievable realities(Pantanowiz et al., 2020).

3.1 Advanced diagnostic tools

With ICT, many diagnostic tools can be developed. Convolutional Neural Networks
(CNNs) have been trained to classify and segment brain tumors in MRI scans. For example,
the BraTS ( Brain Tumor Segmentation) challenge has produced numerous deep learning-

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 based approaches that are capable of distinguishing between different types of brain tumors
with high accuracy .

Another case study is application of machine learning in dermatology. Algorithms have

been trained on vast datasets of skin lesion images, aiding images in the early detection of
skin cancers. This is a demonstration of how ICT can amplify the capabilities of medical
practitioners and extend their research beyond the constraints of human limitations. As
human beings are unable to keep records of large datasets and process them manually, ICT
comes into play with big storage space .

ICT integration can slowly eliminate the traditional medical practice of biopsy and autopsy
which requires rigorous medical expertise, consumes time and is cosmetically dangerous.
ICT can be shown to reach what ideal non-invasive procedures in medical industry are
aimed.

3.2 Enhancing treatment efficacy

Robotic surgery is one of the most prominent advances in medical procedures, whose
accuracy comes from its integration with ICT. These surgeries are performed with robotic
systems with ICT and controlled by surgeons. The key aspects are such as first of all, the
robotic arms are capable of producing minute movements which can reduce human errors
during rigorous surgeries. Second, robotic surgeries use sensors with high precision and
controls allowing for quick action by the medical surgeons. Third, many robotic surgeries
are performed using minimally invasive techniques, requiring only small incisions. This is
beneficial for patients as it typically leads to less postoperative pain, lower risk of infection,
shorter hospital stays and faster recoveries .

Additionally, prosthetics and implants have sensors that can respond to neural commands
which helps it mimic and give users the satisfaction of natural limb movement. This is an
ICT contribution to enhance the quality of life for amputees.

3.3 Deep learning in medical image processing

Medical Imaging in radiology is a field of medicine in which medical professionals recreate

various images of parts of the body for diagnostic or treatment purposes. Medical imaging
procedures include X-rays, Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Ultrasounds, CT scans and
others. In these places, precise image analysis plays an important role in decision-making, in
the patient care process, including detection, characterization, staging, and treatment

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response assessment as well as guiding interventional procedures, surgeries, and radiation
therapy. The large amount of data makes it difficult for radiologists and physicians to
maintain efficient and accurate patient care.

Deep learning's capacity for pattern recognition has redefined medical image analysis. It is
because early studies of deep learning applied to lesion detection or classification have
reported superior performance compared to those traditional techniques or even better than
radiologists in some tasks. This section will delve into a few algorithms and their
applications, providing a detailed examination of the current state of Medical Image
Processing (Arguello & , Kali S. Thomas, 2017).

3.3.1 Early detection of skin cancer

The occurrence of skin cancer has been on the rise in recent years (Thomasian et al., 2022).
There are various types of skin cancer and some are lethal because they are widely spread
through the body’s lymphatic vessels and blood vessels. Thus, early detection/classification
of skin cancer is very demanding .

However, classifying different types of skin cancer is difficult because of the subtle
differences in how various categories look. The current landscape of skin cancer
encompasses several well-known types including Actinic Keratosis, Basal Cell Carcinoma,
Benign Keratosis, Dermatofibroma, Melanoma, Melanocytic Nevi and Vascular Moreover,
very few dermatologists can properly diagnose skin cancer accurately with the highest
accuracy of the best dermatologist accuracy being 80%. In this case, biopsy for proper
identification comes into play carrying with itself huge challenges such as invasiveness
which leads to scarring and other difficulties (Kadampur & Al Riyaee, 2020).

So, detecting the features with the help of a machine learning algorithms like VGG-16,
Resnet, U-net and others is the current focus and area being well researched. In the realm of
early detection and classification of types of cancers, the emphasis is on identifying
algorithms that offer high accuracy and reliability .

There is no specific rule for parameter setting for models, but its selection plays a critical
role in accurate classification . The algorithm selection can vary from various factors such as
data types, quantified data and the number of classes to be identified and so on.

Recent algorithmic Approaches and performance matrix have been seen working well on
the ISIC 2016 dataset using DenseNet for four classes of skin cancer with 98% classification

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 accuracy (Rajarajeswari et al., 2022). With the EfficientNet model for seven classes of
cancer, the best accuracy has been 87.91 % as explained below.

Outcome with EfficientNet AlgorithmIn 2022, the HAM10000 dataset was trained on
EfficientNets B0-B7, having 10015 images with 7 classes with 87.91% accuracy in the B4
variant. The accuracy could be increased by various approaches such as resolution scaling,
data enhancement, noise removal and fine-tuning the CNN model. For the reliability of the
model, various things are to be looked after such as metrics, accuracy and sensitivity.

In conclusion, the accuracy of the model could be increased by feeding qualitative data; data
has a significant role in transferring the invasive detection of cancer to non-invasive
detection of cancer/disease. The integration of these deep learning algorithms in medical
imaging tools can significantly advance the early detection of cancer, ultimately leading to
better patient outcomes and treatment strategies .

3.3.2 Brain tumor identification

Brain tumor identification is an arduous task for medical personnel and it becomes more
difficult when it comes to classifying their types as there are various kinds of brain tumors
such as meningioma, pituitary tumor and Gliomas. Noticing nuance details makes it very
hard for human beings to classify tumors. Whereas the machine learning algorithms using
their deep learning features can classify the tumors correctly, allowing for the needful
treatment in a particular technique .

As brain tumor detection is one of the tedious processes in the health care areas, its data
mining, classification and early diagnosis of diseases are more challenging steps to be
followed. Deciphering every concealed detail within the brain images is an exceedingly
challenging task. So, manually identifying various alterations across different regions
proves to be an arduous endeavor. Moreover, while analyzing the images manually, it is
time consuming, vulnerable to error and not efficient. Due to this, for early diagnosis and
on-time treatment of brain tumors to increase the survival rate of patients, algorithms of
machine learning involving various image enhancement techniques can provide effective
ways for diagnosis of brain tumors.

Different multimodal features like morphology, texture, etc. can be extracted from the MR
images along with the use of certain robust machine learning techniques that includes
support vector machine, Decision Tree, Logistic regression classifier and so on. These

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techniques can then decide the tumor in the brain after applying to the available data sets of
brain images. Also, the main objective being performed these days is to identify which
particular techniques would cater the highest accuracy that ultimately lead to the better
identification of brain tumors. Therefore, computer aided diagnosis has been built up to
increase the efficiency to distinguish particular brain tumors for radiologists .

As brain tumor has been a deadly cancer across the world, identifying the abnormal one
itself is a challenging task whilst to point out such on the basis of size, grade, shape and area
would be more difficult. For classifying these variations, machine learning and deep
learning can take a giant leap with the inclusion of techniques for extraction, segmentation
and classification purposes .

For instance, Glioma, being one of the common brain tumors, specific model has been
developed with the utilization of image processing and artificial neural network. This
developed model is an automated glioma detection procedure where Histogram
Equalization, for improving the contrast of an image and Gray level co-occurrence matrix,
for feature extraction are processed. After the performance accuracy is trained and tested by
Probalistic neural network classifier, tumor location can be perceived. In fact, the use of this
classifier has been proven to be 90.9% accurate. This accuracy rate can be increased using
other efficient optimization techniques such as Particle swarm optimization .

This shows that there are different options available to increase the accuracy, sensitivity and
specificity. Realizing this, it tends to be a difficult task for manual handling and
identification of brain tumors. Thus, this depicts how the use of neural network classifier
provide us the efficient way to view the brain tumor in an automated way. Not only
incorporation of medical imaging and deep learning architecture can evolve but can change
the manual analysis of any brain images into fully automated platform. In the same way, to
eradicate the vulnerability to error, evolutionary algorithms and reinforcement learning
through transfer learning can be deployed so as to illustrate multi-classification of brain
tumors. Here, the automated classifier has been developed by the utilization of different
CNN Models in which the best one with higher accuracy accounted for NASnet . This
presents how the computer aided diagnosis with high precision can fulfill the void in the
current scenario of brain tumor identification and classification.

These researches are just some instances that machine learning algorithms significantly aid
in identifying and analyzing brain tumors by swiftly processing vast amounts of brain

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 images, enabling accurate predictions and informing healthcare professionals about insights
into diagnosis, prognosis and treatment options.

3.4 Reducing risks with innovative imaging

The risks associated with medical imaging, particularly radiation exposure, are significant.
This section will focus on innovative methods that ICT has developed to mitigate these
risks.
3.4.1 Image reconstruction techniques

Prolonged, high-dose radiation exposure during a CT scan can cause adverse health effects,
such as skin erythema (reddening), skin tissue injury, and birth defects following in-utero
exposure. There is also a small probability of mutation in offspring and cancer due to the
high radiation dose . ICT has played a good role in reducing such risk by maintaining the
quality of imaging with low-dose.

The decrease in dose is possible with the help of techniques such as deep learning image
reconstruction (DLIR) techniques. Along with that there are various ways for image
reconstruction techniques such as Filtered Back Projection (FBP), Model-Based Iterative
reconstruction (MBIR) and other. Starting from 5 minutes per scan to a few seconds now
technology has played a major role (Koetzier et al., 2023). In research conducted in 2021,
the radiation dose was reduced by 65-68 % on comparable quality images, one with DLIR
and one normal. In 2023 this technology further advanced reducing dose by 75 % keeping
SNR high and less noise in the image quality for chest X-ray . Amongst all image
reconstruction techniques, DLRT has good performance because it depends on the quality
of the trained data, the more qualitative the training data, the output is more noise free.
This method is proven to have fewer artifacts and noises than the other methods.

Using deep learning techniques/ algorithms such as U-net can create a high-quality image
in a short time with shorter projections . Various ML models such as U-net can reduce the
patient exposure to X-rays which is a significant contribution of ICT in radiation therapy.

ICT has great impact in the field of radiology with the help of cutting-edge techniques,
enabling significant reductions in radiation exposure during scans, improving the speed and
efficiency of imaging processes and enhancing the overall quality of diagnostic images. This
evolution marks a critical stride in balancing patient safety along with increasing the
technological efficacy of radiation therapy.

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3.5 Broader Impacts of ICT in Biomedical Engineering

One of the impactful contributions of ICT in BME is Telehealth, which is a combination of

computer science, medical technologies and informatics. For example, patients can get rid of
their chronic diabetes with sensors connected to them and medical professionals can keep
track of them which helps prevent the situation get worse. More than 1.6 billion people have
anemia which exists among underprivileged children and women due to iron deficiency.
Due to the contribution of ICT, a smartphone/smart watch can analyze the anemia with a
drop of blood which can be accessed remotely by medical personnel. These innovations with
the help of ML algorithms also get rid of waiting weeks to get an appointment.
Cardiovascular diseases take 17.9 million lives each year. So, scientists are developing
wearable devices that can detect early sign of Atrial fibrillation (AF) and congestive heart
failure (HF) which can help patient cure in future.

These technologies have transformed the healthcare system, changing from a need for
physical presence to remote monitoring with technologies such as the Internet of Things
(IoT), cloud, blockchain and techniques such as reinforcement learning which can help in
the early detection of diseases.

This increasing need for AI in the medical field in both diagnosis and preventive care has
suggested the demand for the ICT-Medical field in the future .

3.5.1 Sustainability in healthcare technology

Healthcare, especially clinical labs, is significantly known to contribute more carbon

emissions and waste to the environment whereas digital transformation aims to enhance
healthcare service effectiveness and reduce waste. The following points justify ICT for
sustainability in healthcare .

3.5.2 Balancing systems for sustainable healthcare

Telehealth has the potential to reduce carbon emissions due to the reduced daily commute
of health professionals, although research is limited. Recently, economic models have
changed from the linear “take-make-dispose” to circular models based on recycling and
upcycling that have the goal of keeping products, components, and materials at their
highest utility and value. The previous linear models threaten human health and well-being
and harm natural ecosystems .

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 Digital transformation promotes resource efficiency within healthcare organizations which
is sustainable within the organization.

3.5.3 Smart waste management and ehealth initiatives

Digital transformation can improve smart waste management, reducing the cost of services.
Examples include national e-prescription systems and widespread use of ICT for e-health
applications, leading to decreased paper use and waste generation.
There is growing interest in sustainable development throughout the worms which is
further depicted by software-as-a-service(SaaS) solutions for environmental and social
protection (Sciarretta et al., 2022).

3.6 Ethical and Privacy Considerations

In the era of data-driven healthcare, protecting patient privacy has become important. With
machine learning (ML) and deep learning systems increasingly used for predictive analytics
using sensitive user data, there's a growing concern such as bias, quality data, privacy, data
protection, medical consultation, sympathy and empathy.

3.6.1 Data privacy and security

With the increasing digitization of health records, ensuring the confidentiality of patient
data becomes very important. However, there's a risk of unauthorized access, data breaches,
and misuse of sensitive information . The problems associated with it are like unauthorized
use of personal data, the use of big data in healthcare raises moral questions, especially when
it comes to unauthorized use of personal data in predictive analytics. This not only poses a
threat to patient trust but also risks exposing sensitive information like genetic sequences
and medical histories. Also, AI technologies profoundly affect HIM practices. Automated
medical coding, data management and governance are all areas where AI's influence is
evident. However, these advancements come with concerns about patient confidentiality and
data privacy.

Solutions for privacy preservation:

First of all, patients should be fully informed about how their data is used and must consent
to it, especially for purposes beyond direct healthcare, like research . Along with that,
collecting only the data that is necessary for the intended purpose respects patient privacy.
After doing so, implementing robust security protocols, encryption and access controls is

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essential to protect data from cyber threats . Adhering to regulations like HIPAA in the
U.S., GDPR in Europe and other local data protection laws is crucial . Furthermore,
instilling Homomorphic Encryption (HE) allows for computations on encrypted data,
maintaining privacy and enabling secure processing without decryption Finally, using
secure Multiparty Computation (SMPC) enables collaborative computation of sensitive data
without exposing individual data sets, achieved through methods like garbled circuits and
secret sharing .

As healthcare continues to integrate more deeply with technology, finding a balance

between leveraging big data for medical advancements and protecting patient privacy
remains a critical challenge. Implementing robust security measures and adhering to ethical
guidelines is not just a technological necessity but a moral imperative in preserving the
trust and safety of patients in the digital healthcare era .

3.6.2 Data biases

AI algorithms in healthcare are influenced by biases present in healthcare data. This

includes both explicit and implicit biases, which can arise from various factors such as
clinical trial eligibility, real-world treatment decisions and demographic variables like sex
and ethnicity .

These biases can lead to healthcare inequities, affecting clinical decision-making and the
effectiveness of AI in healthcare. This is particularly evident in the poor implementation
rates of healthcare services and AI tools in specific demographics, including rural areas,
racial and ethnic minority groups, uninsured or underinsured individuals and those with
lower education and income.

Addressing these inequalities requires a comprehensive approach, but it's challenged by the
need for diverse data, transparent algorithm development and a diverse research team.
Additionally, the adoption of AI in healthcare is hindered by the lack of adequate
infrastructure, especially in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) .

Solutions includes Public Health Approach by Khoury et al, this approach suggests targeted
interventions, policy development and establishing efficient delivery systems as key
strategies.

First, it involves community engaging with communities to understand and address their
specific healthcare needs. Second, focusing on diverse data collection: gathering data from

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 varied demographics to reduce biases in AI algorithms. At last, ethical algorithm
development by developing AI algorithms transparently and ethically to ensure that they
do not perpetuate existing biases.

3.6.3 Data quality in AI applications in healthcare

The integration of Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) into healthcare, especially for
processing non-imaging data such as genetics, clinical data and imaging, faces significant
challenges, primarily due to the need for large datasets and the current limitations in data
availability. CNNs require substantial and diverse datasets to train effectively and make
accurate predictions.

However, in healthcare, there's often a scarcity of such large-scale, high-quality data, partly
due to privacy concerns, logistical challenges in data collection and the need for data that is
not only extensive but also highly accurate and representative of various patient
demographics. This scarcity and the resulting data quality issues can severely impact the
performance and reliability of CNN models in healthcare applications. Additionally, the
complexity of transforming different types of healthcare data into a format suitable for CNN
processing adds another layer of difficulty, further emphasizing the need for robust and
comprehensive data collection and pre-processing methods in the healthcare sector .

To effectively address the challenges faced by Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) in

healthcare, particularly around the need for large and high-quality datasets, a multi-faceted
approach is necessary. Firstly, enhancing data collection and sharing is crucial. This
involves establishing more robust mechanisms for data collection across healthcare
institutions and encouraging data sharing, while carefully respecting privacy and ethical
considerations. This approach would significantly increase both the volume and diversity of
available data .

Additionally, implementing advanced data augmentation techniques can artificially expand

existing datasets, creating a broader training base for CNNs. Ensuring data quality is also
paramount which can be achieved through meticulous pre-processing, cleaning and
validation processes. Another promising solution is leveraging federated learning, allowing
for the training of CNN models on decentralized data, thereby addressing privacy concerns
effectively. Specialized techniques to transform non-imaging healthcare data into a format
suitable for CNN processing are also essential, ensuring the integrity and significance of the

122
original data are maintained. Furthermore, fostering public-private partnerships can
provide access to more extensive datasets and advanced AI technologies .

Finally, supportive regulatory frameworks and incentives for data sharing can motivate
more institutions to participate in collaborative data pooling efforts. Together, these
strategies can help overcome data limitations and quality issues, enhancing the performance
and reliability of CNNs in healthcare applications.

4. Conclusion

In "Empowering Engineering Innovation through ICT: A Multidisciplinary Approach To

Technology Convergence", the potential of ICT in healthcare, especially in biomedical
engineering, is immense. This convergence has shown promising results in areas like early
cancer detection, brain tumor identification and the reduction of high-dose X-ray radiations
through deep learning image reconstruction techniques. However, there remains a
significant need for further research to enhance the accuracy of these technologies. Our
studies based on recognized databases, including PubMed/Medline, Science Direct,
SpringerLink, Scopus and EMBASE have demonstrated the possibility of reducing radiation
dose by 65-68% without compromising quality and achieving up to 87% accuracy in skin
cancer diagnosis using machine learning algorithms. These advancements, while impressive,
underscore the need for continuous innovation and meticulous research, particularly in
refining data quality, addressing privacy concerns, and improving the precision of
diagnostic tools. The integration of ICT in healthcare promises not only to revolutionize
patient care and outcomes but also to lead us towards a future where healthcare is more
accessible, efficient, and patient-centric, provided we commit to overcoming the current
limitations and exploring new frontiers in technology and medical science.

It is important to address limitations such as data privacy and security, bias and lack of
quality data to ensure equitable and effective use of AI. Several measures must be taken to
ensure responsible and effective implementation of AI in healthcare.

Firstly, comprehensive cybersecurity strategies and robust security measures should be

developed and implemented to protect patient data and critical healthcare operations.
Collaboration between healthcare organizations, AI researchers, and regulatory bodies is
crucial to establishing guidelines and standards for AI algorithms and their use in clinical

123
 decision-making. Investment in research and development is also necessary to advance AI
technologies tailored to address healthcare challenges.

AI algorithms can continuously examine factors such as population demographics, disease

prevalence and geographical distribution. This can identify patients at a higher risk of
certain conditions, aiding in prevention or treatment. Edge analytics can also detect
irregularities and predict potential healthcare events, ensuring that resources like vaccines
are available where most needed.

Public perception of AI in healthcare varies with individuals expressing willingness to use

AI for health purposes while still preferring human practitioners in complex issues. Trust-
building and patient education are crucial for the successful integration of AI in healthcare
practice. Overcoming challenges like data quality, privacy, bias and the need for human
expertise is essential for responsible and effective AI integration.

Collaboration among stakeholders is vital for robust AI systems, ethical guidelines and
patient and provider trust. Continued research, innovation, and interdisciplinary
collaboration are important to unlock the full potential of AI in healthcare. With successful
integration, AI is anticipated to revolutionize healthcare, leading to improved patient
outcomes, enhanced efficiency and better access to personalized treatment and quality care.

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 Entrepreneurship ecosystem and a case study on problems faced by
innovation driven enterprises in Nepal
Santosh Sharma1
1 Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, Nepal
*Corresponding email: [email protected]

Abstract
Objective: The main objective of this research is to investigate the problem faced by Innovation
Driven Enterprises (IDEs) in Nepal under the conceptual framework of Entrepreneur Ecosystem
(EE) Model.

Methods: Field surveys and literature study of existing information to gather our findings.

Results: The study illuminated the pivotal role of innovation in amplifying business efficacy and
refining product and service quality. Key challenges faced by IDEs encompassed limited institutional
support, hesitancy in scaling operations, and apprehensions regarding economic uncertainties. A
conspicuous gap in accessing risk capital tools further curtailed their growth trajectories. Notably,
universities were identified as vital agents in addressing societal imperatives through research. The
need for immediate establishment of incubation hubs for both students and researchers was
emphasized to cultivate a culture of innovation. Additionally, the research underscored the
significance of fostering partnerships between academia and businesses. Moreover, the sluggish pace
of technology diffusion, particularly by large corporations, emerged as a deterrent to innovation.

Conclusion: Government should prioritize ease of risk capital and incubators to start making a
conductive environment for IDEs. Businesses should also focus on key areas like farming, information
technology, white goods products, tourism product in context to Nepal.

Keywords: Innovation and entrepreneurial systems, innovation driven enterprises, university & research
institutes, incubators, venture capitalist, SMEs

1. Introduction

Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) play a major role in most economies,
particularly in developing countries. SMEs account for the majority of businesses
worldwide and are important contributors to job creation and global economic
development. They represent about 90% of businesses and more than 50% of employment
worldwide. Formal SMEs contribute up to 40% of national income (GDP) in emerging
economies (The World Bank, 2023).

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 The distinctions between Innovation Driven Enterprises (IDEs) and SMEs are
important for all. For governments looking to create jobs by promoting entrepreneurship,
clarity on different types of entrepreneurship is necessary but often lacking, not least
because government fundamentally are not entrepreneurial organizations, and often are
staffed by people who lack entrepreneurial experience of either the IDE or SME type. As a
result, policies frequently lump both sorts of entrepreneurs together, even though their
needs are substantially different policies (Aulet & Murray, 2013). The table 1 below tries
to make some differentiation between these two types of entrepreneurship.
Table 1. Difference between SME and IDE adapted from (Aulet & Murray, 2013)

SME Entrepreneurship IDE Entrepreneurship

Focus on addressing local and regional Focus on global markets.

markets only.

Innovation is not necessary to SME The company is based on some sort of

establishment and growth, nor is innovation (tech, process, business model)
competitive advantage. and potential competitive advantage.

“Non-tradable jobs”—jobs generally “Tradable jobs”—jobs that do not have to be

performed locally, e.g. restaurants, dry performed locally.
cleaners, service industry.

Most often family businesses or businesses More diverse ownership base including wide
with very little external capital. array of external capital providers.

The company typically grows at a linear The company starts by losing money, but if
rate. When you put money into the successful will have exponential growth.
company, the system (revenue, cash flow, Requires investment. When you put money
jobs, etc.) will respond quickly in a positive into the company, the revenue/cash
manner. flow/jobs numbers do not respond quickly.

The government have implemented various measures such as several technical assistance
schemes, programs aimed at promoting enterprise and small business development, and
inclusion of entrepreneurship education in academic syllabus. Diverse private organizations like
Nepal Entrepreneur Hub; Nepalese Young Entrepreneur Forum; Entrepreneurs for Nepal;
Nepal Entrepreneurship Forum; Next Growth Conclave; Udhyami Innovation; One to Watch;
Nepal Startup Investment Company; Antrapreana; STARTUPS Nepal; Dolma Impact Fund;
True North Associates, are working to promote entrepreneurship development through

129
 providing training, education and investment. Yunus Social Business Center at King’s College,
Kathmandu University BIC, Microsoft Innovation Center Nepal, NSB, I-cube Business
Incubation Program, Idea Studio, etc., are some incubation centers that are promoting the
entrepreneurship-related curriculum and program. Despite significant investments by
government and non-government organizations to develop and promote entrepreneurship in
Nepal, country has not seen expected increase in dynamic entrepreneurs, industries, and
employment opportunities, with industrial statistics showing slight change (Prajapati & Khanal,
2023).

Many firms die during the transition between a new scientific or engineering discovery and
its successful transformation into a commercial application. In US it is seen that the government
has played a leading role not only in the early stage research, but also in commercial viability
stage. Venture capital funds tend to be concentrated in areas of high potential growth, low
technological complexity and low capital intensity, since the latter raises the cost significantly
(Mazzucato, 2013).

Based on the scenario presented SMEs in global economies, particularly in developing

nations have a major role in contributing to job creation and economic development. It is
necessary to distinguishing between SMEs and IDEs for effective policymaking, noting the
challenges arising from the conflation of their distinct entrepreneurial characteristics. The key
differences between SME and IDE entrepreneurship are but not limited to, market focus,
innovation, ownership, and growth dynamics. Despite governmental and private initiatives to
foster entrepreneurship in Nepal, the anticipated increase in dynamic entrepreneurs, industries,
and employment opportunities has not materialized. The role of government and venture capital
is crucial in supporting the various stages of innovation development, underscoring the need
for a strategic approach to address challenges in transitioning scientific discoveries to
commercial applications. There are limited literatures available in Nepalese context to study the
problems faced by the IDEs in Nepal. Accordingly, following research objectives are set for our
study:

1. Explore the key elements comprising the Entrepreneurship Ecosystem (EE) for growth of
IDEs at national level.

2. Investigate the challenges encountered by Nepalese IDEs.

We address the research objectives above through a literature and empirical study. In the
literature section we discuss stakeholders of EE. In the empirical part of the paper, we have
explored the IDEs’ perspective about the EE and the challenges faced by them during their start
and in operation. After the analysis, conclusion are made.

130
2. Materials and Methods
Descriptive and exploitative research design using structured questionnaire and literature
reviews is undertaken to understand the problems faced by IDEs in Nepal. The data collection
in both cases involved field research, using online resources, participating in events, following
local media, and meeting personnel from local IDEs.

2.1 Research design and data collection

Utilizing a descriptive and exploitative research design, this study employs a structured
questionnaire and literature reviews to comprehend the challenges faced by IDEs in Nepal. Data
collection involves field research, online resources, event participation, and interactions with
local IDE personnel. The research follows a dual approach, first understanding the global EE
and then generating primary data from recognized IDEs in Nepal.

2.2 Questionnaire development and conceptual framework

Drawing on literature findings, a conceptual framework is created to guide the
development of structured and semi-structured questionnaires. These instruments aim to
extract insights from IDE leaders, exploring historical, economic, and sociological factors
hindering IDEs. Interviews delve into the social origins of entrepreneurs and their experiences
in transforming ideas into businesses.

2.3 Sampling and data analysis

Qualitative research focuses on exploring opinions rather than numerical counts.
Entrepreneurs incubated in Idea Studio Nepal are chosen for interviews. Seventy-five innovators
are randomly selected via snowball sampling, with survey questionnaires sent and follow-up
conducted by phone. Quantitative analysis involves disaggregating, categorizing, and
presenting data based on frequency and percentage using Microsoft Excel. The study
acknowledges limitations, such as the exclusion of provincial and local government initiatives,
reliance on secondary government data and sometimes the biasness of the entrepreneurs as
success rate of entrepreneurship is quite less.

3. Results and Discussion

The results and discussion is presented in two sub headings. The first section is about
the literature research to reach a conceptual framework for identifying the components
of EE for IDEs and then designing a questionnaire based on the components. The second
section is about the data presentation based on responses via filled-up questionnaire.

131
 3.1 Entrepreneurial Ecosystem (EE)

Entrepreneurial innovation involves the disruption of existing industries and creation of

new ones. Integrating the National Innovation Systems (NIS) literatures, which has been
focused upon structures and institutions, and the entrepreneurship literature that has been
mostly about the individual or the firm, through understanding the context within which
entrepreneurial innovation occurs is important. Different type of contexts influencing
entrepreneurial innovation are: industry and technological, organizational, institutional
and policy, social, temporal and spatial contexts which are strongly interrelated (Autio,
Kenney, Mustar, Siegel, & Wright, 2014).
The NIS is often discussed in two perspectives. NIS in a narrow perspective, in tune with
the earlier analyses of national science systems and national technology policy aimed at
mapping indicators of national specialization and performance with respect to innovation,
research and development efforts, and science and technology organizations. In contrast, the
broader approach to NIS takes into account social institutions, macroeconomic regulations,
financial systems, education and communication infrastructures and market conditions as far
as these have impact on the learning and the competence-building process (Lundvall, Josepth,
Chaminade, & Vang, 2009).
Entrepreneurial ecosystems are frameworks that explain entrepreneurial activities within
regions and industrial sectors (Cantner, Cunningham, Lehmann, & Menter, 2021). These
ecosystems aim to nurture economic development by promoting entrepreneurship, small
business growth, and innovation. They provide a contextual environment for entrepreneurship
and contribute to policy debates on regional economic development (Meshram & Rawani, 2019).
EEs is a relatively new concept that has piqued the curiosity of legislators, researchers and
professionals. Research on entrepreneurial ecosystems is growing, but the literature is
fragmented. Emergence of EEs is poorly understood, with conceptual research dominating in
recent years. Cooperation, knowledge exchange and innovation at the higher levels are more
likely to produce favorable entrepreneurship environments (Wadichar, Manusmare, &
Burghate, 2022). The sustainable development of entrepreneurship is a priority in the emerging
field of entrepreneurial ecosystems (Kang, Li, Cheng, & Kraus, 2021).

The most commonly co-occurring keywords in context to EE are innovation,

entrepreneurship, performance, knowledge, and entrepreneurial ecosystem. The three key
themes are: innovation (linked to performance, technology, university, and industry),
entrepreneurship (with a focus on ecosystem, management, and business), and knowledge
(with an emphasis on growth, policy, and networks). There is intensified multi-disciplinary
interest in entrepreneurial ecosystem research, underlining the diverse international
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attention that it has amassed over the last quarter-century (Robertson, Ferreira, Pitt, & Pitt,
2022).

EE is essential for maintaining a successful interaction among different components such as

human capital, technology, resources, talent, knowledge and others. Entrepreneurial ecosystem
is all about improvement of entrepreneurs or start-up companies which leads to the development
of society economically and environmentally (Monir, 2023). Table 2 is to illustrate the phases
through which new innovations are developed keeping in mind the EE system.
Table 2. EE system with stages adapted from (Majava, Kinnunen, Foit, & Kess, 2017)

Phase Description Stakeholders

1. Idea generation Basic Research, Applied Universities, Research Institutes,

and technology Research Large Companies, SMEs, R&D
development Funding Bodies

2. Early stage work Intellectual Property (IP) Innovation Service Offices,

to support protection, Exploring Incubators, Pre-accelerators
commercialization potential application

3. Start-up Business model development Business angels, Incubators, Pre-

establishment and firm establishment, accelerators, Business service
Acquisition of pre-revenue providers
(pre-seed) funding

4. Seed/early stage Acquisition of the seed and Business angels, VC Firms, Funding
funding early stage (1st stage and 2nd agencies, Business service providers,
stage funding Accelerators

5. Growth phase / Commercial success, later Funding agencies, Investors, Local

later stage funding stage funding rounds (3rd talent pool, Trade associations and
stage / pre-IPO), more services organizations
people are recruited

6. IPO, acquisition Initial public offering, sale of Large investors and financial
or merger the company or merger with institutions, legal service, large
another entity companies

The work of (Mason & Brown, 2014) believes EE concept, rooted in diverse intellectual
inquiries, offers a novel perspective on economic clustering and firm growth. It introduces a
metaphorical device, emphasizing the external environment's role in firm growth over internal
characteristics. The ecosystem perspective shifts the focus from individual firms to the entire
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 context, recognizing the dynamic and evolutionary nature of ecosystems. Contrary to the
emphasis on firm size, it views size as a temporary state, acknowledging that high-growth firms
contribute significantly to economic growth. The policy implication is to foster ecosystems
supportive of ambitious entrepreneurs. The work suggests a shift from conventional
transactional incentives to newer, customized policies.
The work of (Schwarzkopf, 2015) through his book based on his research have proposed four
circles of entrepreneur to interact which are both internal and external. His comprehensive
framework considers the entrepreneur at the center, acknowledging the influence of personal,
social, education, and public/business factors on entrepreneurial success. It provides
multifaceted approach to analyzing and fostering entrepreneurship within a specific country.
The characteristics and elements of each circle can be understood better from table 3.

Table 3. Circles of Entrepreneurs adapted and edited from (Schwarzkopf, 2015).

Circles Characteristics and Elements
• Personal characteristics of the entrepreneur
• Entrepreneurial mindset and vision
1. Personal Circle
• Entrepreneurial skills and competencies
(Entrepreneur)
• Risk-taking propensity
• Motivation and passion

• Supportive family and friends

2. Social Circle • Role modeling and mentorship

(Family and Friends) • Financial support and encouragement

• Social entrepreneurship values

• Accessible Entrepreneurship Education

3. Educational Circle • Quality training and skill development

• Academic support and innovation
• Research and development opportunities

• Government support and policies

• Media influence and recognition
• Public perception and awareness
4. Public and Business Circle
• Corporate engagement and collaboration
• Market opportunities and competition
• Internationalization and global presence

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 • Financial infrastructure and risk financing
• Business network and collaboration
• Public and investor trust
• Regulatory Environment

3.1.1 Innovative Entrepreneurs Ecosystem Framework

In contrast to most small and medium-sized enterprises, nowadays IDEs are proving
themselves as efficient investments. These IDE start-ups are formed with the explicit intent to
build competitive advantage based on new innovations (that can have their origins in scientific
insights, technical change, new business models, supply chains, etc.), to grow quickly and scale
well beyond local markets, and aspire to significant growth. With general entrepreneurship
being so globally widespread, it is clear that the subset of innovation-driven entrepreneurs
derives particular benefit from being in resource rich innovation ecosystems (Budden & Murray,
2019). So IDEs can be regarded as entrepreneurships where knowledge is the major asset.
As discussed earlier the core element of the framework are Entrepreneurs which needs a
major and both ways support from National Innovation Systems. The innovative entrepreneurs
are start-ups aiming for competitive advantages based on innovations, often emerging from
knowledge-rich background. NIS are structures and institutions supporting innovation and
entrepreneurial activities, major of which are knowledge creating and managing institutions.
All components of NIS are moreover covered by the EE, adding and stressing on new
components like incubators, accelerators, business service providers, market, etc. EE advocates
on adding multiple source of equity capital including Angel Investors, Crowd Funding, etc. A
conceptual framework drawn by the author based on the literature review is presented in figure
1.

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 Figure 1. EE Conceptual Framework for IDEs developed by Author
Entrepreneurial culture has a significant impact on entrepreneurship. Founders and
managers of private cultural enterprises recognize the importance of entrepreneurial behavior
and competences for success (Konrad & Vecco, 2022). The direct and total effects of culture
on entrepreneurship vary across countries, with dimensions such as future orientation, gender
egalitarianism, assertiveness, and institutional collectivism having positive effects, while
uncertainty avoidance has a negative effect (Mornah & MacDermott, 2023). Entrepreneurial
culture plays a crucial role in the success of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in
developing countries, as it encourages exploration of new opportunities, innovation, and
proactive market actions (Gjorevska, 2023). Overall, national culture influences
entrepreneurial activity, with different dimensions of culture having varying effects.

University and research centers play a crucial role in the development of entrepreneurship.
They provide students with the necessary learning opportunities and motivation to think and
act entrepreneurially (Ayunni, Daud, & Mohd, 2023). Entrepreneurship centers within
universities are particularly important in fostering entrepreneurial mindset and competencies
among students (Ndou, Secundo, Schiuma, & Passiante, 2018). Universities conducting
research have a responsibility to implement the results of their scientific research into practice
in an entrepreneurial business environment (Suryanto, 2019). However, there are still areas
where the roles of universities and research centers can be further optimized, such as
curriculum application and collaboration with external institutions.

136
 Business incubators play a vital role in entrepreneurship development by providing
resources, support, and an enabling environment for entrepreneurs (Vaz, Teixeira, &
Carvalho, 2022). These incubators contribute to the growth and success of startups by
offering services such as physical infrastructure, networking, financial support, and business
assistance (Siddiqui & Ahmad, 2022). Additionally, incubators create value by focusing on
intangible resources, social and relational aspects, and providing mentorship and
collaborative environments (Burton, Zakaria, & Wang, 2023). Overall, incubators are valuable
tools for supporting entrepreneurship and driving innovation in various contexts.

Startups and spin-offs play a crucial role in entrepreneurship, particularly in the transfer
of scientific knowledge and technology into practical applications in society (Lima, Camara,
Ficher, & Magalhaes, 2022). These ventures have been found to have different outcomes and
impacts over time, with factors such as origin, technology, financing, and performance
measures influencing their development (Auerswald & Branscomb, 2003). However, starting
a company involves inherent risks, and not all startups are successful in bringing a product
to market (Acs & Amoros, 2008). Entrepreneurship, including startups and spin-offs, is
recognized as a vital mechanism for economic development through employment, innovation,
and welfare effects.

The government plays a crucial role in fostering the growth and development of
entrepreneurship. Government policies, such as entrepreneurship policy interventions and
monetary policy, have a positive impact on entrepreneurship growth and development (Salami
& Ekakite, 2023). Governments can support entrepreneurship through initiatives that provide
funding, such as grants, debt financing, and venture capital programs. Additionally,
governments can contribute to the development of entrepreneurial ecosystems by providing
financial support for entrepreneurship education and research, enacting favorable laws and
regulations, and fighting corruption and red tape (Casanova, Cornelius, & Dutta, 2018).
Despite the good intentions, government efforts to promote entrepreneurship through
financing have faced challenges and structural issues, making sustained successful efforts
difficult.

Equity funding is important in the growth, development, and survival of entrepreneurial

ventures. It is a form of financing that allows entrepreneurs to access capital directly from a
large number of investors through online platforms (Kazem & Volkmann, 2020). Different
types of equity financing, such as venture capital, angel investment, and crowd-funding, have
been examined, with crowd-funding gaining significant interest (Wald, Holmesland, & Efrat,
2019). Factors influencing individual investment decisions in equity crowd-funding include
the allocation mechanism used by the platform and the information provided by the
entrepreneur and other investors (Hornuf & Schwienbacher, 2017). Equity funding is thus an
important aspect of entrepreneurship that continues to be explored and understood by

137
 researchers.

Multinational corporations (MNCs) play a significant role in entrepreneurship by driving

globalization through the transfer of innovation and cultural values (Ratten, 2022). Corporate
entrepreneurship plays a crucial role in driving growth and innovation within organizations.
It involves creating an environment that supports and encourages innovation, value creation,
and continued growth (Kim & Park, 2022). Globalization has forced businesses to re-evaluate
their strategic approaches and embrace corporate-level entrepreneurship to improve
productivity and promote economic growth (Westhuizen & Ransburg, 2022). Countries need
strategies to utilize big corporates and MNCs for innovation and entrepreneurship.

Summarizing the components of conceptual framework, we are convinced that IDEs stand
out among SMEs due to their focus on leveraging new innovations for competitive
advantages and significant growth. They thrive within knowledge-rich innovation
ecosystems, benefiting from support systems like NIS and EE. Cultural factors significantly
influence entrepreneurial success, with varying dimensions like future orientation positively
impacting entrepreneurship. Universities and research centers play pivotal roles in fostering
entrepreneurial mindsets and translating research into practical applications. Business
incubators further bolster startups by offering essential resources and mentorship. While
startups and spin-offs facilitate the transfer of scientific knowledge, government interventions
are vital but face challenges in promoting entrepreneurship effectively. Equity funding,
especially through platforms like crowd-funding, venture capital, emerges as a critical aspect
for entrepreneurial ventures, and multinational corporations drive global innovation and
economic growth through corporate entrepreneurship.

3.2 Problems faced by IDEs in Nepal

Idea Studio is an oldest platform to turn promising ideas into solutions and ultimately ignite
social change by enabling youth potentials in favor of entrepreneurship through innovation in
Nepal (Idea Studio Nepal, 2023). This research has tried to study seventy-five of the
owners/managers of startups whose ideas were preached in Idea Studio Nepal through the
survey questionnaire. The survey was carried in early 2023. Forty-one such entrepreneurs
responded. The questionnaire were divided into seven distinct section, which are entrepreneurs
individual and firm’s demographic information; innovation and entrepreneurship aspect of firm;
access to risk capital and funding; roles of university and research centers; corporates’ role in
entrepreneurship; role of government and inputs from IDEs. The semi structured questionnaire
also contained essay type questions. The summary of responses are presented in the seventh
section. The calculations in percentage from the responses is round-off to nearest whole number.

138
 3.2.1 Demographic and other characteristics of entrepreneurship

The general demographic information captured included the gender, age, level of education, role
and duration being involved in the innovative firm, etc. The socio-demographic characteristic of
respondents can be better understood from table 4.
Table 4. Socio-demographic characteristic of respondents
Characteristics Range/Type Frequency Percentage (%)
Male 34 84
Gender
Female 7 16
20-34 22 53
Age 35-44 19 48
45 and above 0 0
High-school or below 2 5
Education Bachelors 26 63
Masters and above 13 31
One to two years 5 12
Engagement in Two to three years 13 32
Entrepreneurship Three to five years 7 17
More than five years 16 39
Owner/MD 28 68
Role in
Manager Director 5 11
Entrepreneurship
Others 8 21

Out of the responses on the type of industry, here top three field of entrepreneurships is
identified. Twenty-seven percentage were from education, training and consultancy business;
twenty-two percentage of respondents were engaged in information and communication
technology business; twelve percentage respondents were from construction, architecture and
interior business. More insights on other aspects of entrepreneurship is presented in table 5.
Table 5. Characteristics of Enterprise
Characteristics Choice Frequency Percentage (%)
Original and unique 9 21
Existing concept from foreign 17 42
Concept of Business
countries
Existing concept from Nepal 15 37
Sole proprietorship 11 26
Legal Status Partnership 15 37
Others 15 37
Less than two years 4 10
Enterprise
Two to five years 20 49
Establishment
Above five years 17 41
Kathmandu valley 10 25
Market All Nepal 16 40
Nepal and abroad 15 35

3.2.2 Innovation and entrepreneurship aspect of firms

This section of questionnaire was focused on collecting data on entrepreneurs understanding

139
 of IDEs, on how idea was generated, current economic status of firms, engagement in
accelerators or incubators, innovative risk taking capabilities, etc. Top three responses on the
their understanding of innovation twenty-seven percentage replied added value to customer;
twenty-two percent of respondent think innovation to be new business model; seventeen
percentage think it is new product development and the other seventeen percentage think
quality improvement of current product or service. More insights in this topic can be better
understood from table 6.
Table 6. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Aspect of Firm
Questions Choice Frequency Percentage (%)
A copy of similar business abroad. 23 56
How your business
Self-learned 9 22
idea was created?
Taught in current education system 9 22
Proactively (distributing to 2 5
Is your business in shareholders)
profit? Running on breakeven 23 56
Loss 16 39
Have you been None 23 56
incubated or Business incubation 12 30
accelerated? Supported by accelerator program 6 15
Entrepreneurs’ risk High 17 42
taking abilities Moderate 12 29
Conservative 12 29
Lot of opportunities 12 29
Understanding of Dominated by few players 10 24
Nepali Market Less transparent 7 17
Unknown (lack of market research) 12 29
Economic risk and inflation 7 17
Supplies problem (technical delay, price 5 12
fluctuation)
Firms barriers to
Legislation and regulations policies 4 10
innovation
Market (competition and access) 4 10
No government support on scaling up 4 10
others 17 41

3.2.3 Access to capital by IDEs

For IDEs availability of capital for starting and growing business, moreover risk capital which
are generally banks, venture capital, crowd-funding, etc. were accessed by the survey
questionnaire. The responses on financial assistance from traditional financial and new non-
financial institutions, key investors, etc. is presented in the table 7.

Table 7. Access to Capital by IDEs

Questions Choice Frequency Percentage (%)
Support from From holdings, bank, finance, banks, etc. 4 10
traditional financial Mixed (certain from innovator and 4 10
institutes like banks certain from tradition financial institutes)

140
 None 33 80
Support from non- Government challenge funding 4 10
financial institutes Equity funding (VC, accelerators) 4 10
like equity funding, Crowd funding 4 10
VC, crowd funding, None 29 70
etc.
Family/Friends/Relatives 26 63
Crowd funding 3 7
Current investors Traditional banks, corporative, etc. 7 17
Private equity or VC 2 5
Others 3 8

3.2.4 Inputs from Universities and Research Centers in Innovation

Questionnaire developed to take the entrepreneurs views on input from universities and
research centers during their entrepreneurship cycle till the day was taken. The questions in
this section was more focused on contributors from knowledge centers (universities and
research centers), overview about university education system in Nepal, most innovative
university, etc. The results are presented in table 8.

Table 8. University and Research Centers inputs for IDEs

Questions Choice Frequency Percentage (%)
Supplying competent human 15 36
How can universities resources
and research centers Taking the burden of research 8 21
contribute in innovation Collaboration in innovation 17 41
None 1 2
No research and innovation oriented 18 44
University education Its improving in last couple of years 15 36
system in Nepal Its degrading 5 12
None 3 8
Industry-University Collaboration 11 27
not happening
Problems in University No incubators in university 10 24
to support innovation No enough funding in university 10 24
and entrepreneurship research by government
University bureaucracy 6 15
others 4 10

3.2.5 Roles of corporates for IDEs

Questionnaire was developed to get the respondent view about the role of corporates and
multinational companies in promoting innovation and entrepreneurship in Nepal. The results are
presented in table 9.
Table 9. Role of Corporates for Innovation
Questions Choice Frequency Percentage (%)
How corporates have Setting examples for business 11 27
contributed in processes

141
 innovation and Setting standards for quality 11 27
entrepreneurship Creating new vendors 7 17
Inspiration for innovators 4 10
They haven’t contributed in Nepal 8 19
Corporates (less than 250 staffs) 15 37
Large enterprises (more than 250 5 12
The leaders of business
staffs)
sector in innovation
Multinationals 9 22
New enterprises and start-ups 12 29
Should multinationals Yes 24 58
be subsidized to No 17 42
promote innovation

3.2.6 Roles of government for IDEs

Government is one of the strong pillar in NIS or EE. The survey questionnaire contained
questions on government role to promote innovation and enterprises. Questionnaire was
focused on funding and regulations aspect. The respondents were also asked which sector to
prioritize for sustained innovation. The results are presented in table 10.

Table 10. Role of Government in promotion of EE

Questions Choice Frequency Percentage (%)
Research 10 24
Ease of doing business (removing 9 22
Where should
administrative hurdles)
government invest to
Education and training 8 20
promote IDEs?
Accelerators and incubators 7 17
Others (not specific) 7 17
Ministry of Finance 2 5
Which ministry should
Ministry of Industry Commerce and 13 32
lead innovation and
Supplies
enterprise
Ministry of Education, Science and 26 63
development?
Technology
Government and industry together 20 49
Who should invest in
All components of ecosystem 17 41
research?
Others 4 10
Which sector should Agriculture, forestry and fishing 10 24
government prioritize Product manufacturing 7 17
for research and Information and communication 9 22
innovation technology
Education training and consulting 4 10
Tourism and hospitality 5 12
Others 6 15

3.2.7 Recommendations from IDEs

From our essay type questions, we were able to get valuable inputs from our respondents on
the most difficulty faced by them during their business and how to flourish EE. As the
questions was subjective, so most stressed points are taken for each question. The responses
142
 are presented in table 11.
Table 11. Essay type questionnaire inputs
Questions Views and recommendation
Registration and operations hurdles
Human resources out-flows
Challenges faced by startups in
Lack of management skills (business incubation)
Nepal
Lack of support from financial system
Lack of incubation facilities (technology incubation)
Unclear industry and enterprises policy and acts
Entrepreneurs’ barriers in Research funding
promoting innovation practices. Use of knowledge centers
Availability of competent human resources
Open and very impressive return
Primary strength of Nepali market Youth population
Competition
Views on how to strength national Basic services should be maintained first (like better
innovation and entrepreneurial customs services, education, water, electricity and
capacity connectivity). The foremost environment for innovation.
Sustained and increased research and innovation fund
Academia-Industry-Government collaboration in research
Risk sharing by the government / financial enterprise /
venture capitalists

The questionnaire survey lead us to get some overview of the entrepreneurship

challenges in Nepal and also it helped us to gain insights of the EE from the entrepreneurs’
point of view. It is seen that IDEs in Nepal are male dominants. 84% of snowball sampling
respondents were male. The age-group who are engaged in IDEs are 20-34 and most of them
have completed Bachelor’s level as their education achievement. The majority of respondents
were CEOs of the IDEs. It is seen that most of the IDEs in Nepal are a copy of startups in
foreign countries, which is because they seem to understand less of Nepali market and have
no innovation inputs from their higher education institutes. Most of IDEs respondents had
an existence of 2-5 years which is the toughest part of the entrepreneurship cycle, so quite
few were actually making profit. Many responded that they are in the breakeven point and it
would take about a couple of additional years to make some money. So, this means they feel
that there is little chance of scaling up and getting merger or IPOs from other big companies.
More than fifty percent of IDEs were not incubated. They themselves feel because of different
market and capital constants, their risk taking ability is not as that as expected. Eighty
percent of enterprises or entrepreneurs were not supported by any means of financial sources
and sixty three percent of firms are still owned by family and friends. Knowledge system from
university and research centers and also from corporates have little input to the entrepreneur
ecosystem as their major role is generating innovative entrepreneurs.

The summary from the questionnaire survey is that Nepal has potential human resources
which needs to be nourished to make them innovate. Government funding are not sufficient

143
 in the research phase, in the incubation phase and also government policy and acts are not
revisited urgently to make them venture capital friendly. The roles of academia is still not
that satisfactory. Foreign direct investments and the multinationals have contributed in
technology transfer slowly but they have not contributed in innovation culture establishment
and thus small local innovation driven enterprises are not benefited. The respondents
advocated an urgent need of sustained support to entrepreneurship ecosystem to make our
country a knowledge based innovative economy.

4. Conclusions
A conceptual framework is drawn integrating three distinct systems. The National
Innovation Systems, the entrepreneurial ecosystem and cycle of start-ups which are mostly
innovation driven. Generating new IDEs are influenced by the entrepreneurial culture of a
region or country backed by the knowledge creating and utilizing institutes like university
and research centers, incubators, training institutes, innovation promoting agencies, etc.
Innovation promotion through incubators is the heart of the framework backed by non-
financial and easy access to capital of any form during the start-up or spin-off phase.
Government presence is mandatory for introducing innovation through research funding,
providing validating services, risk sharing in equity funding, technology transfer via
multinationals, protecting the intellectual property rights and also prioritizing innovation
based on social and economic need. Private sectors are actual drivers of innovation and
entrepreneurships.

The problems faced by the innovation driven enterprises can be summarized as availability of
skill and semi-skilled manpower, traditional industrial act and policies, lack of research
funding and unavailability of start-up friendly research institute, administrative hurdles to
open and run a business, limited access to non-traditional capital market, etc.

Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge all staffs from Science and Technology Division of Ministry of
Education, Science and Technology Nepal for their motivation for conducting this research
and publish this paper.

144
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 Assessment of Roles of Engineers for Disaster Management in
the Context of Nepal
Pankaj Adhikari1*
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University
*Corresponding email: [email protected]

Abstract:
Nepal has been repeatedly affected by different disasters. The engineers are considered to be one of
the significant stakeholders for disaster risk reduction by the United Nations Sendai Framework of
Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030). However, the roles of engineers and challenges faced by them
in implementing disaster risk management is understudied in the context of Nepal. Therefore, this
research is carried out with an overall objective to analyse the role of engineering leadership for DRR.
The specific objectives are: (i) To explore the roles of engineers in reducing the disaster risks (ii) To
identify the prevailing challenges in the engineering sector. For the purpose, a mixed method was
applied. The relevant literature regarding the engineering leadership were fetched from online sources
and critically reviewed. Secondly, Key Informant Interview was conducted with engineers and policy
makers (n=16) to fathom the challenges observed in the field. The result reveals that engineers
belonging to different disciplines have been contributing through various capacities for disaster
management in Nepal. Likewise, the major challenges noticed are lopsided capacity development
programmes, communication gap with public and insufficient focus to DRR knowledge in
undergraduate level of engineering curriculum. It is recommended that for the effective
implementation of disaster management, the stakeholders ought to prioritize the capacity
development of engineers such as training for risk assessment, Remote Sensing analysis and Machine
Learning models. Moreover, the communication gap between engineers, public and DRR institutions
should be narrowed down through regular interaction and effective coordination.

Keywords: Engineers; Disaster Management; DRR; Nepal

1. Introduction
The huge damages and suffering ensued by disasters throughout the globe are the issue of
growing importance for the international community (Crosweller, 2022). Entire South Asia
is frequently exposed to severe climate-related disasters, a situation that has been further
complicated by unprecedented population growth (Mall et al., 2019). Therefore, in recent
decades a dramatic rise in global cooperation on Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) has been
taking place (Enia, 2020). The emergence of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction

148
(2015-2030) (UNISDR, 2015) is one of the significant steps in the initiative of reducing the
impacts of disasters. This framework highlights the fact that the state has the primary role to
reduce disaster risk but that responsibility ought to be shared with local government, the
private sector and other stakeholders. One of the pivotal and contributing stakeholders are
the engineers.

Nepal has been repeatedly affected by different disasters. The engineers are considered to be
one of the significant stakeholders for disaster risk reduction by the United Nations Sendai
Framework of Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030). However, the roles of engineers and
challenges faced by them in implementing disaster risk management is understudied in the
context of Nepal . Therefore, this research is carried out with an overall objective to analyse
the role of engineering leadership for DRR. The specific objectives are: (i) To explore the
roles of engineers in reducing the disaster risks (ii) To identify the prevailing challenges in
the engineering sector. For the purpose, a mixed method was applied. The relevant literature
regarding the engineering leadrship were fetched from online sources and critically reviewed.
Secondly, Key Informant Interview was conducted with engineers and policy makers (n=16)
to fathom the challenges observed in the field.

Engineering is a collaborative enterprise based on specialised technical expertise distributed

among the participants, accessed through a network of trusting relationships shaped by
workplace social norms (Trevelyan, 2019). Perry et al (2017) in their study argue that the
skill sets required for engineering jobs and leadership roles are often distinct. For example:
engineers learn technical principles required for their specific engineering discipline, whereas
effective leaders require strategy, communication and other skills. On the other hand,
Walther et al (2017) point out that engineering and social work may seem an unlikely
combination of disciplines but they share a range of remarkable similarities. The collaboration
during emergencies and disasters is not always smooth and free from frictions (Uhr, 2017).
Citing the case of 2011 Japan earthquake and the consequent Fukushima nuclear disaster
triggered by it, Amir & Juraku (2014) state that over relying upon engineered-system
robustness and underestimation of the disaster impacts from the technical experts had had
harmful consequences. It clearly demonstrates the significance of engineers in times of
disasters and emergency.

A number of studies have been carried out by various researchers on the matter of
engineering and disaster managment. For example: Broadbent & Broadbnet (2013) studied
the role of professional engineers for disaster management and argue that a disaster manager

149
 has to develop an understanding and knowledge of dealing with these issues based on lessons
learnt by experienced practitioners and from academic studies of past incidents. Likewise,
Sharma & Sharma (2019) have studied the role of civil engineers in disaster management in
India. Bozza et al (2017) have explored the concept of urban resilience thorugh the perspective
of civil engineers. Despite the crucial significance of engineering leadership for disaster risk
reduction, surprisingly the quantity of research works on the matter is limited. Many of the
disaster prone nations have not devleved into such studies.

Nepal is one of the nations which needs to pay attention to this matter. Due to the coupling
effect of the seismo-tectonic movement and the Asian monsoon, the occurrences of disasters
in Nepal are very common (Adhikari & Gautam, 2022). It has witnessed some of the big
disaster events such as the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake (Manandhar et al., 2022), the 2017 Terai
Floods (Thapa et al., 2020) and the 2021 Melamchi Flood (Adhikari et al., 2023) which have
claimed the lives of thousands of people and destroyed assets worth billions. Thus,
implementation of proper engineering is pivotal for disaster management in Nepal. Notably,
engineering is one of the highly reputed and well regarded professions in Nepal. It has
formidable impact in the psyche of people due to its contribution to society and relatively
secure and lucrative earning. Every year around 8,000 engineering graduates are produced
from more than four dozens educational institutes throughout the nation (Online Khabar,
2023).

There have been plethora of studies (Guragain & Doneys, 2022; Thompson et al., 2020;
Wanner, 2022) on the scientific, engineering and social aspects of disasters in Nepal. Likewise,
different engineering aspects such as job satisfaction (Thapa & Shrestha, 2018), quality
assurance of engineering education (Joshi & Joshi, 2015), gender issues in engineering
(Liebrand & Udas, 2017), professional ethics (Shah & Alotaibi, 2018), employability (Sharma,
2023) and importance of linguistic skills for engineers (R. N. Shrestha et al., 2020) have been
studied. Some studies for example by Upreti (2022) highlight the role of security forces in
disaster management with references to Nepali security forces. The research conducted by
(Shrestha & Pathranarakul, 2018; Shrestha et al., 2021), while discussing about the disaster
management during 2015 Gorkha Earthquake, have noted the contribution of engineers in
the response and reconstruction phase. However, the comprehensive coverage on the issues
of engineers in DRR sector is missing in the prevailing literature. However, in the context
of Nepal, the prevailing literature does not shed light into the issue of engineers in DRR
sector. Thus, it is a matter of dire introspect that the role of one of the significant stakeholders
i.e. the engineers is understudied in a disaster prone nation.

150
In this backdrop, the study aims to contribute to further explore the prevailing status and
role of engineers for DRR. The overarching objective of the study is to analyse the
engineering leadership for Disaster Risk Reduction in the context of Nepal. The specific
objectives are: (i) To explore the roles of engineers in reducing the disaster risks (ii) To
identify the prevailing challenges in the engineering sector. For the purpose a critical review
of documents and policies related to engineering and DRR in the context of Nepal was carried
out. Similarly, Key Informant Interview (KII) was conducted with engineers and policy
makers to understand about the ground scenario.

The article is divided into four sections. After the introduction part, the methodology is
discussed in the second section. The overall findings and discussions are highlighted in the
third section which further delves into importance of engineering leadership for DRR and
prevailing prospects and challenges. Finally, conclusion is presented in the last section.

2. Methodology
In this study, the mixed-method approach was applied to fulfil the research objectives. First
of all, the literature related to engineering leadership and DRR were collected (Shown in
Annex: Table-2). They were fetched from various sources such as the websites of Ministry of
Home Affairs (MoHA), National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority
(NDRRMA) and national DRR portal. For peer reviewed articles relevant to the study, search
was conducted in sites such as Google Scholar and Science Direct. Critical review of these
studies was performed and the prevailing status of Engineers in DRR sector was analysed.

Likewise, Key Informant Interview (KII) was conducted with total sixteen participants
(mostly engineers and policy makers representing different sectors such as governmental,
private sector, International Non-Governmental Organizations. The interviews (Refer
Annex: Table 3 for questions) were conducted at different times during August- October 2022
and October 2023 through in person meeting, telephone conversation and virtual chat
(online). The participants include:

(i) Engineers (n=10) actively working in different sectors. Out of these participants, two each
represented Gandaki , Lumbini and Bagmati province where as one each belonged to Koshi,
Madhesh , Karnali and Sudurpaschim province; Out of the 10 engineers, there were four
female interviewee. In terms of working area, out of the 10 participants, (n=3) were working

151
 in earthquake sector, (n=3) in construction sector, (n=2) in flood management, (n=1) in
landslide prevention and (n=1) in fire hazard control.

(ii) Senior engineers and DRR policy experts (n=6).

The overall methodology diagram is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Overall Methodology Diagram

152
3. Results and Discussion:
3.1 Engineering Leadership for Disaster Management
One of the strategies of Disaster Risk Reduction National Strategic Plan of Action (2018 –
2030) clearly specifies: “to build capacity of engineers through training and awareness raising
program for disaster resistant and better reconstruction”. This clearly demonstrates the
degree of significance being awarded to engineers in the policy making level. Some of the
examples of contributions by different disciplines of engineering are demonstrated in Table-
1.

Table 1: Examples of contributions by different discipline of engineering for DRR

SN Discipline Contribution for Disaster Management Examples

of Pre Disaster Post Disaster
Engineering
1 Structural - Formulate building - Formulate and Building
Engineering codes for earthquake Implement the Permit System
resistant structures retrofitting and in Kathmandu,
- Effective reconstruction Lalitpur
implementation of the codes metropolitan
codes and proper - Design and city and other
investigation whether reconstruct urban
the codes are structures after municipalities
implemented the disaster has
- Design of structures taken place
such as embankments, - Carry out the
dams for flood and research work
tunnels and retaining on the
walls for landslide effectiveness of
building codes
and pre disaster
designs and
update them as
required.

153
 2 Geotechnical - Investigation of subsoil - Carry out the The soil
Engineering in the earthquake and research study of investigation in
landslide prone areas the soil in the the landslide
- Assessment of landslide/earthq prone areas of
liquefaction of soil uake site Krishna Bheer
before starting any of Dhading
projects district
(Sharma & Sharma, 2019)

3 Electronic - Establishment of a - Develop a post Development

Engineering robust communication disaster of Initial Rapid
system in the Early information and Assessment
Warning System (EWS) communication (IRA) mobile
- Development of mobile system for applications for
applications for disaster updating the quick and easy
data storage, update and data of the data record
assessment disaster victims after the
disaster event
4 Computer - Development of - Develop a post BIPAD and
Engineering software, applications disaster DRR Portal for
useful for storing the information and information
disaster information communication storing of each
- system for local
updating the governments
data of the
disaster victims
5 Transportati - Identification of the - Rapid Quick repair
on proper evacuation route reconstruction and
Engineering and shortest and safest and maintenance maintenance of
path for transportation of the damaged the Araniko
of relief and rescue highways Highway in
materials Bhaktapur
(Lacuarin & Palmiano, section after
2010) the 2015
earthquake

154
The relatable example for engineers regarding the preparedness of disaster is the
 earthquake

The relatable example for engineers regarding the preparedness of disaster is the
implementation of earthquake resistant building codes while constructing new houses (Mesta
et al., 2023). Many urban municipalities of Nepal have started to make it compulsory for the
house owners to receive the municipal building permit. The civil/structural engineers in the
respective local governments check and verify whether the buildings comply with the
building code and whether the permit be given or not. The effective implementation of this
system is very significant to reduce the loss due to future earthquake events. This practice,
however, is still an alien notion in most of the rural municipalities of Nepal. Likewise,
engineers belonging to the security forces such as Nepal Police, Armed Police Force and
Nepal Army have been contributing in the rescue and reconstruction as well as the
preparedness phase. In collaboration with the local governments, they have also conducted
various simulation exercises and drills for flooding, fire and earthquake and fire hazards.

Moreover, it is well known that well developed information sharing and communication
system is vital for disaster risk reduction( Shrestha et al., 2021). Computer and electronic
engineers have been playing a lead role in the development of software system to store and
update the nationwide disaster data in a single platform such as ‘BIPAD’ and DRR portal.
Similarly, another example is the development of Initial Rapid Assessment (IRA) mobile
application used for the collection of information such as the locality and impact of disaster
within 24 hours of the disaster event (International Organization for Migration, 2020). It is
easy to use, stores information quickly and provides the assessment report on the basis of
provided information. This is helpful for the respective agencies to mobilize security forces
for rescuing and searching for disaster affected people and distribute the relief materials.

The electronics and civil engineers in collaboration with other stakeholders can contribute
through development of a robust early warning system especially for flood in the context of
Nepal. Engineers have been working in team with various national and international agencies
for developing EWS, Disaster Management Information System (DMIS) and contributing in
enhancing preparedness and capacity of an individual and communities. There is a division under
Ministry of Energy and water resources dedicated to Water Induced Disaster Management, led by

155
 engineers which is aimed at strengthening the capacity of the nation and contributing in enhancing the
resilience of society and nation.

One of the laudable contributions by engineers was during the response, reconstruction and
recovery phase of the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake. The mega disaster caused 8790 casualties
and 22,300 injuries; in the 31 affected districts, 498,852 private houses were fully destroyed
and 256,697 private houses were partially damaged (Gautam & Cortés, 2021). For an
underdeveloped nation like Nepal, it was a devastating blow in terms of human and ecSonomic
loss. Immediately after the disaster took place, engineers (belonging to different discipline
such as civil, computer, electronics and architect) were deployed to affected districts (Panthi
et al., 2021). Diverse sets of roles and responsibilities had to be carried out by them. A group
of senior engineers in collaboration with the government started formulating strategies to
conduct the response and recovery actions post-earthquake. Whereas other groups led and
coordinated the teams of young and recent passed out undergraduate engineers in the field
level. Hundreds of them reached out to each and every earthquake affected villages. Their
initial duty was to perform the damage and vulnerability assessment of structures, record the
disaster data of each affected household and provide the output slip to the house owners. The
immediate relief especially financial assistances were provided to house owners on the basis
of assessment report. The government with the help of engineering experts published several
design catalogues for reconstruction of earthquake resistant houses and repair and retrofit
manuals for buildings that needed retrofitting( Shrestha et al., 2021). In the reconstruction
phase, the engineers had been mobilized to monitor the construction process of individual
houses, public buildings; impart trainings to mason and collect data and report to higher
authorities.

It is to be noted that besides their own specialized fields, the engineers have to work in
multidisciplinary teams which includes professionals from various sectors such as
sociologists, economists and administrators. Heeding to voices from different sections and
implementing measures for DRR initiatives is always a demanding task. Likewise, the
engineering education needs a greater connection to practice from the first day (Passow &
Passow, 2017). It needs more linkage to the society and there is need of inclusion of
multidisciplinary skills such as negotiation, facilitation, understanding of other disciplines
and sensitivity towards Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI). For majority of the
engineers, the Gorkha earthquake was the biggest disaster event of their lifetime as last such
massive quake had taken place around eight decades back in 1934. The participation in
earthquake response and reconstruction activity was crucial for engineers (especially the

156
young ones) in terms of developing leadership and making key decisions1. It offered them first
hand opportunity to deal with challenges prevailing in the ground level, work with
multidiscipline team, be familiar with GESI issues and use their skills to solve problems.
Thus, proper exposure to challenges would further sharpen the engineering leadership and
disaster management would be more effective.
3.2 Challenges:

Due to wider exposure of people to international arena, good opportunities in other sectors
and easy admission due to a large number of engineering colleges, the reputation of
engineering profession is not as it used to command till the late 1990s 2. Furthermore, time
and again there are news regarding the malpractices in the engineering sector. However, it
would be gross injustice to the profession to generalize a conclusion on the basis of few
incidents. Challenges are prevalent which are generic in nature i.e. applicable to whole
engineering and others are specific to DRR. They are listed as follows:

i) Lack of mainstreaming of DRR into the curriculum of engineering:

Engineers who have passed their undergraduate do not necessarily seem to have
the knowledge of hazard, risk and vulnerability, as the formal curriculum of the
course does not have compulsory subject for DRR. Due to this many engineers are
oblivious about the comprehensive knowledge of DRR despite having formal
engineering degree. As a matter of fact, a senior academician who has influence in
policy making in engineering education revealed that the leading educational
institutions of engineering are back tracking from multidisciplinary course to a
simple Masters in Civil Engineering Course undermining the international
practices.
ii) Lopsided capacity development trainings:
The trainings for building codes is abundant which is a positive development but
similar priority is not given to trainings for flood/landslide/GLOF risk
assessment3. There have been initiations for imparting training on Geographical
Information System (GIS). However such initiations mostly last for short span of
time (2 to 3 days) for a course that requires detailed and longer duration (at least
a week). The training programmes for Remote Sensing (RS) and machine learning
with respect to DRR are almost non-existent. Another problem is the beneficiary

1
Interview with engineer who was active in the field level during aftermath of earthquake
2
KII with a senior civil engineer
3
Opinion expressed by an engineer working in the sector of Remote Sensing

157
 of such trainings work are mostly the government job holder engineers. The one
representing private sectors are still lagging far behind in terms of exposure to
capacity development.
iii) Communication gap between engineers and public:
It is a general problem in the engineering sector. However, the degree of
communication gap seems to be more in the context of disaster of management.
For example: the public tend to use the terms ‘hazard’ and ‘disaster’
interchangeably which actually have different meanings. Similarly, the concept of
‘risk’ and ‘vulnerability’ which is understood by the engineer may not match with
the concept of public. Thus, due to technical jargons and varied definitions from
the daily life, engineers struggle to properly communicate with the public.
iv) Dearth of Coordination of NDRRMA with engineers:
NDRRMA has been actively engaging a wider set of stakeholders for DRR and
has been more visible. However there still prevails the dearth of coordination
especially with engineers. An engineer working in DRR sector said that
NDRRMA does not have done enough to reach out to at least the engineers
working in DRR sector if not all engineers.4 Similarly, there is lack of academia:
Research and innovations in EWS, IEC material production, model shift homes
development

4. Conclusions
Although engineers play a pivotal role in Disaster Risk Reduction, there is dearth of literature
that explores this subject matter. That is why this research was carried out with an overall
objective to analyze the engineering leadership for Disaster Risk Reduction in the context of
Nepal. The specific objectives are: (i) To explore the roles of engineers in reducing the disaster
risks (ii) To identify the prevailing challenges in the engineering sector. For the purpose, a
mixed method was applied which included critical review of relevant literature and KII with
engineers and policy makers. It was observed that engineers belonging to different disciplines
have been contributing through various capacities for disaster management of Nepal.
Furthermore, their contributions were listed out along with the relevant examples. Likewise
the challenges faced by engineers in the DRR sector of Nepal was identified. Some of the
major challenges are lack of mainstreaming of DRR notion in the engineering curriculum,
lopsided capacity development programmes, communication gap with public and weak

4
KII with engineer working in DRR sector

158
coordination with NDRRMA. Thus, it is the responsibility of the government to prioritize
DRR capacity development for engineers. The experts and policy makers in engineering
education sector need to incorporate the basic notions of disaster management as the
compulsory topic. Likewise, trainings and awareness programmes should be launched to
aware the public about disaster risk and reduce the communication gap with engineers.
Further studies in the engineering leadership and DRR sector would contribute in effective
implementation of disaster risk reduction.

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 Annex
Table 2: List of documents reviewed for the study

SN Documents
1 Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030)
2 National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act, 2017
3 Nepal Disaster Risk Reduction National Strategic Plan of Action
(2018-2030)
4 National Building Code (NBC): 105:2020
5 Vikas: A Journal of Development, 2021
6 Progress in Disaster Science: Nepal’s Post Earthquake Reconstruction
And Recovery Special Issue Vol I, 2021
7 Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into Construction works
Resilient Infrastructure A Hands on Training to Engineers, 2021
8 Manual for Hands-on Training to Engineers on Slope Stabilization
Techniques 2021
9 DRR Localization Manual

Table 3: Questionnaire for KII

SN Questions
1 How do you view the present status of engineering leadership for
DRR?
2 What are some of the prominent examples of engineer’s contribution
to DRR?
3 What are the challenges for engineer especially in the sector of
disaster management?
4 In your personal experience what has been the memorable issue
regarding the disaster management?
5 What could be the future way outs for DRR initiatives and
engineering leadership to align with each other?

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 Waste Water Treatment Using Duckweed
Ajay Kumar Jha1,*, Hari Bahadur Darlami 2, Aavas Pokharel3, Narayan Rai4

1, 2
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Pulchowk Campus, Institute of engineering,
Tribhuvan University, Nepal

3, 4
Center for Pollution Studies, Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University, Nepal

[email protected], [email protected], [email protected],

[email protected]

Abstract

The growth in production of waste water poses a great challenge in dealing with environmental
sustainability. Various types of waste water treatment plants are developed already but most of them
are technology hungry and requires great deal of management. Duckweed has a great potential in
serving as a cheap and effective way of treating waste water. In this research paper, we investigate
the effectiveness of duckweed cultivation in treating waste water. We conducted a controlled
experiment in two ponds monitoring and analyzing water quality parameters over a two-month
period. The experiment led to a significant decrease in harmful characteristics. Notable changes
include pH of water reaching near seven, neutralization of electrical conductivity (560 µS/cm pond 1,
290 µS/cm pond 2) and total absorption of ammonia and iron. The measured parameters were
compared with the WHO set guidelines and the result shows that the water quality significantly
increased. Our finding suggest that duckweed can be valuable tool for wastewater treatment.

Keywords: duckweed, waste water treatment, water quality

1. Introduction

The ever-increasing burden of wastewater generation poses a significant challenge to global

environmental sustainability. Conventional wastewater treatment methods, while effective, are
often energy-intensive, expensive, and reliant on harsh chemicals. In this context, the humble

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duckweed plant emerges as a promising and eco-friendly alternative. Unlike hydrophytes which
cannot adapt well to high ammonia concentrated swine wastewater, microalgal and duckweed
plants are more promising in the removal of nutrients (Xiang Li, 2020). These unassuming
aquatic marvels, with their rapid growth rates and remarkable nutrient-absorbing abilities,
present a unique opportunity for decentralized and sustainable wastewater treatment. It is an
affordable technology which uses plants as environmental cleansers in wastewater treatment also
serving as cheap manure and fertilizers (Ekta Chaudhary, 2014).

Duckweed, a collective term for several small, free-floating aquatic plants belonging to the
Lemnaceae family, thrives in nutrient-rich environments. Their rootless existence allows them
to readily absorb pollutants and excess nutrients directly from the water column. This natural
filtering capacity makes them adept at removing organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, and even
heavy metals from wastewater. Unlike conventional systems, duckweed-based treatment relies
on natural biological processes, requiring minimal energy input and avoiding the use of harmful
chemicals. Even if the plant is effective in controlling pollution, high protein content, and control
of negative impact of traditional waste water treatment, their extensive use is still difficult due
to the requirement of high amount of land area and ceasing of growth in winter (Bonomo L,
1997)

Furthermore, the rapid reproduction of duckweed allows for efficient biomass production, which
can be harvested and repurposed into various valuable products, such as biofuel, fertilizer, or
animal feed. This adds another layer of sustainability to the entire process, transforming waste
into valuable resources (Bonomo L, 1997).

Given the multifaceted benefits of duckweed-based wastewater treatment, this research paper
delves into the intricacies of this promising technology. We will explore the mechanisms by
which duckweed purifies water, evaluate its effectiveness in treating different types of
wastewaters, and assess its potential for real-world application. Through a comprehensive
analysis of the scientific literature, field studies, and economic considerations, we aim to shed
light on the transformative potential of these tiny titans in revolutionizing wastewater
management and paving the way for a more sustainable future.

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 2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Location and Cultivation

The experiment was performed in two artificial ponds in the premises of Pulchowk Campus,
Lalitpur. One of the test sites was the pond behind the Center for Energy Studies (CES),
Pulchowk Campus (latitude 27°41'00.9"N, longitude 85°19'16.6"E) (Pond 2). The water already
present in the pond was used as sample waste water. For the second site, two ponds were dug
behind the campus canteen (latitude 27°40'52.2"N, longitude 85°19'25.4"E) with dimensions
(5×5.4×0.7) m3 (Pond 1). The waste water coming from the canteen was used as sample waste
water. The waste water was not replaced during the whole period of experimentation.

Seeds and saplings of duckweed are placed in the ponds for cultivation. Duckweed is a rich source
of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium. Duckweed grows faster than most other plants.
Generally, it doubles their mass in 16 hours to 2 days under favorable conditions. This cultivated
duckweed is used for producing biofuel and biogas after its treatment with wastewater from the
hostel and canteen. The duckweed is harvested using the manual skimming of the plant from the
pond surface using net.

2.2 Operation and Sampling

Initially a series of tests were done on the wastewater and the results were recorded. Table 1
shows the characteristics that were obtained from the test. For Pond 1, Turbidity was found to
be 7.7 NTU along with pH 6.49h and electric conductivity 1970 µS/cm. The total alkalinity as
CaCo was 225.62 mg/l, total hardness as CaCo3 was 389.88 mg/l, Calcium hardness as CaCo3
was 171.55 mg/l, Magnesium hardness was 218.33 mg/l, Calcium as Ca was 68.69 mg/l,
Magnesium content was 53.49 mg/l, total Iron as Fe was 17.64 mg/l, total Ammonia as N was
6.85 mg/l. Similarly, water from Pond 2 had the initial turbidity of 0.5 NTU, pH of 6.64 and
electrical conductivity of 230 µS/cm. Total alkalinity as CaCo was 56.98 mg/l, total hardness as

166
CaCO3 was 128.66 mg/l, calcium hardness as CaCO3 was 122.81 mg/l, Magnesium hardness was
5.85 mg/l, Calcium as Ca was 49.17 mg/l, Magnesium content was 1.43 mg/l, total ammonia as
N was 0.8 mg/l.

Table 1 Parameters of waste water before duckweed cultivation

Pond 1 Pond 2 WHO Methods

Parameters
Limits
Turbidity (NTU) 7.7 0.5 <5 2130 B APHA 22nd
pH 6.49 6.64 6.5-8.5 4500 H APHA 22nd
Electrical Conductivity 1970 230 <1250 2520 B APHA 22nd
(µS/cm)
Total Alkalinity as CaCO 225.62 56.98 <500 2320 B APHA 22nd
(mg/l)
Total Hardness as CaCO3 389.88 128.66 <500 2340 B APHA 22nd
(mg/l)
Calcium Hardness as 171.55 122.81 3500 Ca APHA 22nd
CaCO3 (mg/l)
Magnesium Hardness 218.33 5.85 3500 Mg APHA 22nd
(mg/l)
Calcium as Ca (mg/l) 68.69 49.17 <200 3500 Ca APHA 22nd
Magnesium as Mg 53.49 1.43 <150 3500 Mg APHA 22nd
(mg/l)
Total Iron as Fe (mg/l) 17.64 0 up to 0.3 3500 Fe APHA 22nd
Total Ammonia as N 6.85 0.8 up to 1.5 4500 NH3 APHA 22nd
(mg/l)
Chloride as Cl (mg/l) 260.09 19.12 up to 4500 Cl B APHA 22nd
250
Nitrate (mg/l) 28.27 7.41 <45 4500 NO3 B APHA 22nd

167
 Sulphate (mg/l) 37.052 3.794 up to 4500 SO4 E APHA 22nd
400
TSS (mg/l) 5 5 100 2540 D APHA-AWWA-WEF
PPM 2017 23rd Ed
VSS (mg/l) 2540 E APHA-AWWA-WEF
2017 23rd Ed

Similar tests were conducted periodically to determine the improvement in the quality of water.
During the process, the by-product is produced which is enriched with protein. This process was
resumed only after the duckweed started regrowing.

3. Results and Discussion

After the preparation of test sites and sample waste water collection, duckweed seeds were
introduced into them. The plant started to sprout in about 2 days. The initial quality of water
was tested for both ponds and recorded. Table 2 shows the parameters that were tested for in the
waste water after 63 days of the cultivation of duckweed. The results were then compared against
WHO limits to observe the waste water treatment ability of duckweed plant.

Table 2 Parameters of waste water after duckweed cultivation

Parameters Pond 1 Pond 2 WHO Methods

Limit
Turbidity (NTU) 0.3 0.2 <5 T 2130 B APHA 22nd

pH 6.74 7.01 6.5-8.5 4500 H APHA 22nd

168
Electrical Conductivity 560 290 <1250 2520 B APHA 22nd
(µS/cm)
Total Alkalinity as 116.3 61.53 <500 2320 B APHA 22nd
CaCO (mg/l)
Total Hardness as 89.67 181.29 <500 2340 B APHA 22nd
CaCO3 (mg/l)
Calcium Hardness as 70.18 134.5 3500 Ca APHA 22nd
CaCO3 (mg/l)
Magnesium Hardness 19.49 46.79 3500 Mg APHA 22nd
(mg/l)
Calcium as Ca (mg/l) 28.1 53.85 <200 3500 Ca APHA 22nd

Magnesium as Mg 4.776 11.46 <150 3500 Mg APHA 22nd

(mg/l)
Total Iron as Fe 0 0 up to 3500 Fe APHA 22nd
(mg/l) 0.3
Total Ammonia as N 0 0 up to 4500 NH3 APHA 22nd
(mg/l) 1.5
Chloride as Cl (mg/l) 50.68 27.73 up to 4500 Cl B APHA 22nd
250
Nitrate (mg/l) 5.44 3.39 <45 4500 NO3 B APHA 22nd

Sulphate (mg/l) 13.5 9.05 up to 4500 SO4 E APHA 22nd

400
TSS (mg/l) 80 80 100 2540 D APHA-AWWA-WEF
PPM 2017 23rd Ed

169
 VSS (mg/l) 0 0 2540 E APHA-AWWA-WEF
2017 23rd Ed

The result shows considerable change in the water characteristics. Both water samples were
within WHO limit for safe water after plantation of duckweed. It shows that duckweed
cultivation can be a good way to reduce water pollution. In both ponds pH levels rise from acidic
to more neutral or basic level.

Turbidity of water of pond 1 reduced to 0.3 from 7.7 NTU. Conductivity reduced drastically to
560 µS/cm from 1970 µS/cm. Alkalinity of water dropped to 116.3 mg/l from 225.62 mg/l.
Hardness level as CaCO3, Calcium hardness and magnesium hardness also reduced to more safe
levels, 70.18 mg/l and 19.49 mg/l respectively, along with reduction in Calcium to 28.1 mg/l,
Magnesium to 4.776 mg/l, Nitrate to 5.44 mg/l and Sulphate to 13.5 mg/l. Iron content and
Ammonia were not detected in the final water sample indicating complete absorption by
duckweed.

Similarly, test pond 2 also shows improvement in the quality of water. The turbidity reduced to
0.2 from 0.5 NTU. pH neutralized to level 7.01. Electrical conductivity increased to 290 µS/cm.
Alkalinity as CaCO increased to 61.53 mg/l and total, calcium and magnesium hardness all
increased. Calcium and Magnesium contents also increased. But they all lie within the acceptable
WHO limits.

3.1 Effect on the pH level

The pH of water on both the samples increased from more acidic to more neutral state (Figure
1). Both the ponds were observed to be habituated by algae after about 3 days. The increase in
pH can be associated to the depletion of carbon dioxide in water and, consequently, a high water
pH. The drop in pH was due to the increase in duckweed coverage density to about 100%, which
led to the depletion or disappearance of algae biomass.

170
Figure 1 pH level against days

3.2 Effect on Turbidity

The Figure 2 reveals a clear downward trend in the water's turbidity as the number of days with
duckweed cultivation increases. This suggests a strong link between the presence of these plants
and improved water clarity. Two potential mechanisms likely contribute to this effect: firstly, the
physical filtration provided by the duckweed's roots and leaves, which trap suspended solids and
prevent their re-suspension. Secondly, the increased dissolved oxygen levels arising from
duckweed photosynthesis could facilitate the decomposition of organic matter, further reducing
turbidity.

Figure 2 Turbidity (NTU) against days

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 3.3 Effect on Electrical Conductivity

In pond 1, the electrical conductivity is seen to reduce from 1970 µS/cm to 560 µS/cm. This can
be explained by the fact that duckweed plant is efficient in removing dissolved ions like nitrates,
phosphates and potassium. Pond 1 was filled with water coming from campus canteen which is
high in calcium, chloride, nitrate, sulphate and magnesium. The duckweed plant can absorb these
minerals reducing salinity, consequently, the electrical conductivity. While in pond 2, the
electrical conductivity increases by some amount. This can be attributed to the presence of algae
already in the pond. The growth of duckweed reduces the amount of carbon dioxide in the water
which leads to elimination of algae. The dead algae releases ions like nitrates, phosphates and
potassium which can increase the overall electrical conductivity.

Figure 3 Conductivity (µS/cm) against days

4. Conclusion

Treatment of waste water from different sources is a major challenge in the present time to
ensure environmental sustainability. Cultivation of duckweed was a simple, cheap and effective
way to treat waste water and neutralize their properties. This study shows that duckweed can
significantly improve water quality. Regular tests and monitoring prove that the water
characteristics are within acceptable range set by WHO. Cultivation of duckweed can not only
work as reasonable way to treat waste water, but can also serve as biomass for biogas production

172
due to richness in protein and nutrients. Further studies are necessary to understand the major
advantages and application of duckweed.

Acknowledgements

Authors would like to express immense gratitude to EnergizeNepal and “Center for Pollution
Studies (CPS), IOE” for providing the finance, opportunity and expertise to conduct this research
via the project “Clean Energy Generation using Duckweed (PID: ENEP-RENPII-22-03.
Authors would like to express gratitude to Dr. Bijay Thapa, Program Manager, EnergizeNepal,
Mr. Subir Karn for their valuable inputs to this research.

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Nepal Engineers' Association
Engineer Bhawan, Pulchowk, Lalitpur, G.P.O. Box: 604, Kathmandu, Nepal
Tel.: +977 1 5010251, 5010252, Email: [email protected]
www.neanepal.org.np