Introducing

Education
Class XII
New Syllabus

West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education

Printed at
West Bengal Text Book Corporation Limited
(Government of West Bengal Enterprise)
Vidyasagar Bhavan
No tree was cut for printing this book Saltlake, Kolkata - 700091
 THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
PREAMBLE

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India

into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and
to secure to all its citizens :
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of
the Nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November,
1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS
CONSTITUTION.
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INTRODUCING
EDUCATION
Class XII
(New Syllabus)

By
Ms. Sunita Sen, M.A., M.Ed., PGDCA
Principal, Ballygunge Shiksha Sadan
Kolkata

West Bengal Council of

Higher Secondary Education
VIDYASAGAR BHAVAN
SALT LAKE, KOLKATA 700 091

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 COPYRIGHT

WEST BENGAL COUNCIL OF HIGHER SECONDARY EDUCATION

No portion of this book can be reproduced/rcprintcd/scanned in any form/font/
script/translation without prior written permission from Deputy Secretary
(Academic) of West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education.

First Edition : May, 2014

Published by : West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education

Printed and Distributed By :

Price : One hundred twenty five only.

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 West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education
Vidyasagar Bhavan
9/2, Block DJ, Sector - II Salt Lake
Kolkata - 700091

PREFACE

As per recommendations of State Government Expert Committee on School Education

and the Board of Studies in education of the Council and the subsequent approval of the
School Education Department, the text book on Education Syllabi XII for the session
2014-2015 is being published. We hope the students with a variegated flavor of Education
with the help of their teachers will have an over view of Education. In the classroom
teaching-learning process, the teacher should act as facilitators; they should read the text
with the students and help them to understand, to exploit the materials so that they can
have a comprehensive and in depth knowledge of the subject. I feel deeply indebted to the
author for her sincere endeavour to publish the work by putting together her knowledge in
the sphere of Education. At the same time my sincere thanks to the management, teachers,
staffs and students of her present institution for giving her the freedom to try her hands in
multifarious activities, thus serving the society at large. Finally, I am also extremely grateful
to the Institute of Educational Research and Evaluation for looking after the production
of the book and enabling us to publish the book in record time.
My best wishes both for the teachers and my dear learners.

Dr. Mahua Das

President
West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education
Vidyasagar Bhavan

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 EDUCATION (EDCN)
CLASS – XII
Full Marks : 100
Theory : 80 Marks
Project : 20 Marks

GROUP : A (30 Marks)

(Psychological and Statistical Perspective)
1. Learning
a) Learning—definition and nature, types (as stated by Gagne)
b) Factors of Learning
i) Maturation—Its role in learning
ii) Motivation—Definition, Role in Learning
iii) Attention—Definition, Characteristics, Role in Education
iv) Interest—Definition, Characteristics, Role in Education
v) Mental Abilities—Nature as described by Spearman and Thurston
 Intelligence—Definition and Characteristics
 Role of mental abilities in learning
2. Mechanisms of learning
a) Conditioning
i) Classical conditioning—experiment and educational implications
ii) Operant conditioning—experiment and educational implications
b) Problem Solving
i) Trial and error mechanism—experiment, major laws, educational implications
ii) Insightful mechanism—experiment and educational implications
3. Statistics in education
i) Tabulation of data
ii) Frequency distribution
iii) Graphical representation (frequency Polygon and Histogram)
iv) Measures of central tendency and their uses
GROUP: B (30 Marks)
Historical Development (Post-independent period)
4. Educational provisions in Indian constitution related to women’s education,
equal-ization of opportunity, education for minority, SC, ST
5. University Education Commission (1948-49) — First Education Commission in free
India, Aims of higher education and concept of Rural University

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6. Secondary Education Commission (1952-53), aims of secondary education, structure,
seven stream system and multipurpose schools
7. The Indian Education Commission or Kothari Commission (1964-66) and the modern
system of education in India
a) concept of general education in present India
 Stages of General education in present India
i) Pre-Primary education—Aims and objectives, structure, curriculum and
institutions
ii) Primary education—Aims and objectives, structure, curriculum and institutions
iii) Secondary education—Aims and objectives, structure, curriculum and institutions
iv) Higher Secondary—Aims and objectives, structure, curriculum and institutions
v) Higher education—mention the position of higher education according to Kothari
commission
b) Vocational and Technical education prevailing in India
i) Vocational and Technical education—concept, relation, types of institutions up
to secondary level
ii) Vocational and Technical education—types, curriculum and institutions up to
higher secondary level
c) Opportunities of education after higher secondary stage (names of courses)
8. N.E.P. (1986 as reviewed in 1992) —basic features.
GROUP : C (10 Marks)
(Current Issues in Indian education)
9. Education for the differently abled children
i) Visually impaired children—Categories and educational provisions
ii) Deaf and dumb children—Categories and educational provisions
iii) Common behavioural problems observed in class room situations and the role
of the Parents and teachers to overcome these problems (general study)
10. Universalization of primary education (U.P.E.)
i) Concept
ii) Measures taken to achieve the objectives of U.P.E—Audit Eduation programme.
Literacy drive programme, S.S.A.
GROUP : D (10 Marks)
(Education for the 21st century)
11. Global vision for education—Delores Commission—4 pillars of learning—
a synopic view

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12. Role of Technology in education
PROJECT WORK (20 MARKS)
 Study of interest pattern amongst secondary/higher secondary students.
 To study the achievement of students at secondary level in any two subjects and
analyse scores in terms of mean, median & mode
 To study the behavioural problems observed amongst the adolescents in a school
and suggest measures to overcome it
 To study the programmes or activities of S.S.A. in your locality
 To study the curriculum and types of primary schools (at least two in and around your
localty). A part from the suggested projet or field studies any relevant project based
or the syllabus can be undertaken.

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 CONTENT

Chapter 1 Learning 3 - 38
Chapter 2 Mechanism of Learning 39 - 50
Chapter 3 Statistics in Education 51 - 101
Chapter 4 Educational Provisions in the Indian Constitution 105 - 118
Chapter 5 University Education Commission (1948-49) 119 - 128
Chapter 6 Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) 129 - 136
Chapter 7 The Indian Education Commission or
Kothari Commission (1964 - 66) 137 - 153
Chapter 8 N.E.P. (1986 as reviewed in 1992) Basic Features 154 - 177

Chapter 9 Education for Differently Abled Children 181 - 191

Chapter 10 Universalisation of Primary Education (U.P.E.) 192 - 195

Chapter 11 Global Vision for Education 199 - 200

Chapter 12 Role of Technology in Education 201 - 213

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 GROUP - A
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND
STATISTICAL PERSPECTIVE
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Chapter - 1

LEARNING
MEANING AND DEFINITION OF LEARNING

L earning means to bring changes in the behavior of the organism. It is very difficult to
give a universally acceptable definition of learning because various theories developed
by psychologists attempt to define the term from different angles. Learning in psychology
has the status of a construct. Construct means an idea or image that cannot be directly
observed like electrons of genes but which is inferred from the behavior of the organism.
Melvin H. Marx defines learning as “Learning is a relatively enduring change in
behavior which is a function of prior behavior (usually called practice).”
The definition given above emphasizes four attributes of learning as a process-the first
is that learning is a permanent change in behavior. It does not include change due to
illness, fatigue, maturation and use of intoxicants. The second is that learning is not directly
observable but manifests in that it results in some change of enduring nature. The third
attribute of learning is that it results in some change of enduring nature. The fourth and
the last is that learning depends on practice and experience. Hilgard defined learning
as, ‘a change in a subject’s behavior to a given situation brought about his repeated
experiences in that situation, provided that the behavior change cannot be explained on the
basis of native response tendencies, maturation, or temporary states of the subject ( e.g.
fatigue, drugs, etc.)
Let us illustrate learning process with the help of a concrete example. Suppose there are
three children in a class from three different religions, one is form an orthodox Hindu
family, second is from a Muslim family and the third one is from a Sikh family. They greet
the teacher in three different ways one by “folding his hands” another by “salam sahib” and
the third by “sat sri akal” “You see, why is it so? It is the result of their early training and
experiences in home. The early training has brought a permanent change in their behavior.
This type of change can be termed as learning.
There are certain terms which are confused with learning such as instincts, imprinting and
maturation. If we examine the behavior of an organism we find that some behavior of the
organism is reflexive or inborn as for example we breathe, our heart pumps, our cells
apparently team with activity, our knee jerks etc. All these activities take place without the
benefit of learning. As we move to lower animals, reflexes and instincts account more and
more for their behavior. An instinct according to R. Haber 1966 is “A pattern of behavior,
usually complex in nature which is found universally among the members of a species,

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occurs without the need for prior learning or experience, as relatively invariant in form, and
is reliably elicited or released by a particular and usually very simple stimulus.” Imprinting.
Another term which is confused with learning is imprinting. At a certain crucial time,
sometime after emerging from their cells, a new born duckling can be induced to waddle
after anything from a football to an experimenter that is moving near by. This is accomplished
by simply exposing the duckling to a moving object. If the timing is right then they will
continue to follow these objects. This behavior is called imprinting. It is not learnt, but
rather a kind of instinctive reaction that capitalizes on a tendency which appears when the
time is ripe. It is the following behavior that is inborn not the choice of what is followed.

TYPES OF LEARNING

Learning has been classified in various categories as learning of motor skills such as walking,
writing, swimming, typing etc, which require the use of motor skills and verbal learning
involving verbal expression. Affective learning and cognitive learning emphasize the role of
learning emotional responses and learning of fact, understanding of facts and problem-
solving. It is very difficult to dichotomize learning into clear cut categories because one
category overlaps the other. Gagne has classified learning into eight types in a
hierarchical order as given below :
1. Signal learning.
2. S-R learning.
3. Chain learning.
4. Verbal associate learning.
5. Multiple discrimination.
6. Learning of concepts.
7. Learning of principles.
8. Problem-solving
(1) Signal Learning
Signal learning is commonly termed as classical conditioning. Classical conditioning was
developed by Russian Physiologist Pavlov. In classical conditioning, unconditioned stimulus
(food) and conditioned stimulus (sound of the bell) are paired together and presented to
the dog a number of times with the result that when CS (sound of the bell) is presented
alone, it elicits the saliva. This modification of behavior, causing salivation to the sound of
the bell, is called conditioning.

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(2) Stimulus-Response Learning : Operant Conditioning (Learning Type-2)

The study of operant or instrumental conditioning started from the puzzle box experiments
on cats by Thorndike. He placed a hungry cat in a box and a dish of food outside the box.
The cat in order to come out of the box had to manipulate a lever within the box. The
manipulation of lever is a response that is instrumental in producing the reward, escape
and food and for this reason this type of learning is called, instrumental conditioning.
Instrumental (operant) conditioning is more flexible than classical conditioning because the
responses that may be conditioned are not confined to natural or innate responses but to a
variety of responses. In instrumental conditioning the experimenter waits for the subject to
emit a response that approximates the one he wishes to establish and then reinforces it.
B.F. Skinner conducted series of experiments on animals and prepared ground for the use
of the principles in human learning.
(3) Chain Learning
There are mainly two types of chaining: motor and verbal. Chaining means the connection
of a set of individual S-R in sequence- There are sequences that are made up of motor
responses like that of turning on a TV set or washing machine. There are sequences which
are entirely verbal as greeting.
(a) Verbal chaining. It is a matter of connecting together in a sequence two or
more previously learning stimulus response (S,s-R’s). Our language is filled with
such chains of verbal sequence as horse and buggy, boy meets girl and daddy
and mummy are the examples of verbal chaining. In these examples the first
member of the sequence seems firmly tied to the second.
(b) Motor chaining. The example of motor chaining can be given by a simple task
of driving. The task of driving a motor consists of several learning chains of
motor activities. Guthrie in 1935 described a case of motor chaining :
A college girl developed the habit of dropping her coat on the floor. Mother asked the girl
to get out of the room and hang up the coat on the peg. The girl enters her house - keeps
coats on, approaches closet-hangs up the coat on the peg.
Another example of motor changing is unlocking a door by a child who has not learned the
sequence of unlocking operations. The following stimulus response connections from the
process of unlocking door are given :
(1) Key in hand, (2) facing the lock, (3) checking the key is right side up, (4) inserting it
into the lock until the stop is reached, (5) turns it until another stop is reached, and (6)
pushes the door open. It should be remembered that a chain cannot be established unless
the individual is capable of performing the individual links.

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(4) Verbal Associate Learning

It is true that man is capable of a tremendous variety of performances with the use of his
legs, hands and arms, It is also even more true that his vocalizations show an enormous
versatility in social situations. Simplest verbal is illustrated in the activity if naming.
A child is shown an object as a doll. The next time if he sees the particular object he will be
able to say that it is a “doll”.
There are two chains involved in this :
(i) Observing responses Ss—R connection that connects the appearance of the
object and distinguishes it from other objects.
(ii) The second is the Ss—R connection that stimulates the child himself to say
“doll”.
S —————> R S —————> R
Object Observing Doll Doll
Mediating connections between each verbal unit and the next must have been previously
learned.
(1) Verbal units must be presented in the proper sequence :
(a) whole chain at a time,
(b) one after the other.
(2) The learner must actively make the response required by the chain.
(3) Cues may be used to learn verbal chains.
(4) Individual span of memory determines the length of chain that can be learned all
at once 7 ± 2 is limit of verbal chain. Progressive part method is most efficient.
There is no limit to verbal chain. People have learnt complete books verbatim.
(5) There must be provision for confirmation of correct responses in the learning
situation.
(5) Type-5 Discrimination
What is discrimination? In the development of discrimination, we take one aspect of the
environment and reinforce selectively some response to it. When the behavior shows a
specificity of response to one given stimulus to the exclusion of others, we may say that a
discrimination has taken place.
From the very beginning, the infant acquires simple discrimination and differentiation among
the objects in his environment. He learns the difference between a feeding bottle and a
simple bottle. In learning to walk and to talk, he differentiates more and more specific

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movements out of a mass of random activity. Discrimination involves higher mental processes.
It is the basis upon which we learn to think and solve problems.
Generalization. Watson conditioned fear response in Albert, by introducing loud sound.
It was found further training fear spread to white rabbits, and other white objects. This
spread of fear response is what we call stimulus generalization. When after initial conditioning
to some stimulus, other similar stimuli can also operate in calling out the same response; the
process is called stimulus generalization.
Another example is of Pavlov’s dog. If a dog is conditioned to salivate at the sound of a
tone of given frequency and intensity, other similar tones and spund stimuli will bring out
the same salivary response. If an organism is conditioned to respond to one stimulus, it
also responds to a variety of other stimuli bearing some relationship to the initial conditioned
stimulus.
Child learns the word “Daddy” in the presence of a given stimulus. He emits the same
word to other stimuli i.e., other men, old or young. It takes further conditioning to narrow
down the response “daddy” to one specific stimulus. Out of this process of generalization,
fine discriminations take place.
Differentiation and discrimination. In discrimination, the emphasis is placed on the
stimulus side but in differentiation, the emphasis is placed on the response side. In
discrimination, through selective reinforcement, we eliminate the responses to other stimuli.
In differentiation, through selective reinforcement of one of a number of related responses,
we develop a very specific type of response in the presence of some stimuli. The two
processes operate simultaneously in our personality development.
(6) Concept Learning
We deal with classes of objects as the stimuli, takes the class of object called tree. This
may include all tall, short oak- mango-orange-since these objects share some characteristics
in common. We discriminate them from other objects classed as dog, house or people.
We form concept by finding properties which a class of objects shares in common. We
learn generalization within classes and discrimination between classes.
We generalize within the dog class of objects to include those of various shapes, size,
colour, but we discriminate them from the class of objects like horse, tree, house etc.
(7) Learning of Principles
Learning of principles depends on learning of concept formation and other forms of learning.
Principles show regular relationship among two or more concepts. There are a large number

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of principles that every individual masters in order to function properly and to work more
efficiently. Most of the class room learning contributes to the development of principles.
(8) Problem Solving
Problem solving comes at the highest stage in the hierarchy of learning process. It depends
on learning of rules. We will discuss this important topic

FACTORS OF EDUCATION

MATURATION

The concept of maturation has been borrowed from biology. It means physiological
development of the child. Maturation and learning are closely related, For learning a definite
level of maturation is essential. Maturation is specifically used for qualitative changes in the
organism which are not induced by learning. Krogman defined maturation as aging. Baldwin
(1955) defined as ‘maturation is an increase in competency and adaptability’. Maturation
involves the biological processes of growth and differentiation. Training without attaining a
definite level of maturation does not yield good results. The learning and training should
start when a child reaches an appropriate level of maturation, which implies concept of
readiness for an activity. The teachers and parents must see that the child has attained a
definite level o maturation for learning. If training or learning is forced prior to the definite
maturational level, the time and effort go waste and do not yield good results.

IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING FOR TEACHERS

You may ask a simple question at this stage : why should a teacher study learning process
and the various theories developed by psychologists to explain this process? Needless to
mention that primary objective of instruction in school is to bring certain desirable changes
in the behavior of children through the process of learning. The prospective teachers have
to take the job of teaching after completing their training. They must know the operations
and approaches to learning to develop better teaching strategies. The teacher can be
benefited by studying the psychology of learning in a number of ways. He can understand
the individual differences in learning among learning and can adapt his teaching according
to their requirements by using different teaching methods. The most important contribution
of psychology of learning is the concept of motivation. The teacher may know the
needs and motives of children at different age levels. He can motivate them. He can know

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the concept of motivation as developed by various theorists of learning. He can organize

those activities which create interest and motivation in children. He can know the process
of remembering and forgetting and can utilize efficient methods to minimize the percentage
of forgetting. He can help the students to transfer skills and information acquired in the
class room to life situation outside the school. He can diagnose special difficulties of children
and help them individually to overcome those difficulties. Modern psychology of learning
lays more emphasis on social psychology of learning. The teacher can improve the social
climate for learning by providing conducive environment in the class. Briefly we can
summarize that the more a teacher knows about the fundamental principles of learning, the
more efficiently he can guide class, room teaching-learning process.

DEFINITION OF MOTIVATION

Tremendous research has been done on psychology of motivation in the last 40 years and
a number of new theories have been evolved to explain human behavior. K. B, Madson in
his book “Theory of Motivation” has given twenty-four theories of motivation which propose
different explanations of human behavior. It is not possible to reproduce all the’ definitions
here. We will follow sample approach and will mention four definitions.
Historically, the word ‘motivation’, comes from the Latin root ‘mover’ which means to
move. Thus we can say that in its literal meanings motivation is the produced ad regulated
through the release of energy within the tissues.
(1) H. W. Bernard “Motivation refers to all those phenomena which are involved in
the stimulation of action towards particular objectives where previously there
was little or no movement towards those goals.”
(2) Atkinson defined motivation as, “The term motivation refers to the arousal of
tendency to act to produce one or more effect.”
(3) Maslow has advanced the theory of hierarchy of needs ranging from basic
physiological needs ending, fluctuating and complex and that it is an almost
universal characteristic of particularly every organismic state of affairs.”
(4) D. O. Hebb, “The term motivation refers (i)v to existence of an organized phase
sequence, (ii) to its direction and content, (iii) to its persistence in given direction
or stability of content.”

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FUNCTIONS OF MOTIVATION

Psychologists have analysed the motivated behavior of an organism and observed the
following functions of such type of behavior.
(1) Motives energize and sustain behavior. Motives energize the behavior of the
organism and arouse him for action. The energy can be physiological as in drives
or reintegrative resonator activity aroused by similarity between present action
and residues of past ones that were emotionally significant for the person. The
energy is supplied in proportion to the amount of energy output for a task.
Motives not only energise the behavior but they sustain our interest and behavior
for longer period in the activity. According to Hebb, efficiency and adequacy
are increased in motivated state of behavior.
(2) Motives direct and regulate our behavior. Motivated state is often described
as guided, directed and goal-oriented. The motivated behavior moves in a specific
direction. The behavior of the organism is purposeful and persistent. The direction
of motivational behavior is, no doubt, very complex because of the structure of
the situation and the action determine the behavior.
(3) Behaviour is selective. Under motivated condition, the behavior of the organism
does not move in haphazard way. It is directed towards a selective goal which
the individual sets for himself. For example the student who is motivated to
secure high grades in the examination, concentrates on his studies by selecting
appropriate means to reach his goal. The motive is terminated by the achievement
of the goal.
Motivation in the Class
In the preceding part of this chapter, we have briefly surveyed the development of the
concept of motivation and its major theories. Now we will deal with the practical aspect of
motivation in the classroom teaching-learning situation. Every teacher daily faces a number
of behavior problems. For the explanation of these problems, he needs to turn to psychology
of motivation . This is a great problem for teachers, parents and administrators and for
those who are interested in the improvement of performance and learning of people for
action. Students in the class-room learn to receive constant motivation from the teacher so
that maximum use of their talents may be made for their welfare and also for the welfare
and progress of the society. Though the process of motivation is highly individualized
activity in the sense that causes underlying behavior are always multiple and complex
rather than single and simple. A learner may be motivated for an action in a particular
situation and the other learner may not be motivated in that situation and even the same

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learner may not be motivated under the same situation on some different occasions. A
number of variables operate in the process of motivation which cause variation in the
individuals. The socio-economic condition, previous experience, age and social climate in
the class-room effect the process of motivation.
Psychologists have development some common techniques which may be used by
class-room teacher to motivate children in their work. The teacher should be strictly adhere
to one theory of motivation but he should make use of various approaches in his teaching,
keeping into consideration the individual differences among the studies. Below are given
some of the important techniques of motivation in the class-room teaching-learning situations.
(1) Use the principle of pleasure and pain. The oldest theory of be- behavior
holds that pleasant experiences which give satisfaction are sought and painful
experiences are avoided by the organism. This theory has direct implication in
class-room teaching-learning in the sense that the teacher must provide pleasant
and satisfying experiences to his students. Such type of experiences will motivate
students for further learning.
(2) Use rewards and punishment. The teacher must occasionally administer reward
and punishment in his class-room teaching. Rewards create interest in the
students. They are motivated to get the reward. The teacher must use punishment
very sparingly because punishment creates behavior troubles. He may use reward
of different types, as material, symbolic and psychological. Rewards have a
positive effect in motivating children for learning. The teacher must remain cautious
that the reward should not become an end in itself but it should create learning
desire in the learner. Recent studies conducted on reward have proved that
reward in the form of grades tends to encourage conformity and inhabit creativity
in the learners.
The teacher must see that rewards for learning should be so engineered that after serving
their introducing role, they should lead learners to independent learning beyond the classroom
situation.
(3) Aspiration level. It means the level of performance to which one aspires for
future. The teacher must see that the activity of the class is tailored in accordance
with the aspiration level of the students. The teacher should design the level of
difficulty of class-room task keeping into consideration the level of aspiration of
the class. According to Barow (1956) level of aspiration depends on several
factors like intelligence, socio-economic status, relation and expectation from
children. The teacher should organize activity in such a way that student should

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keep striving and give a promise of goal attainment. Classroom goals should be
attainable and the students should feel that they are able to achieve them. School
work must be sufficiently varied and paced so that every pupil may succeed at
his level. The students should be encouraged to participate in learning activity in
the class. The students active participation is vey essential to arouse their interest
in learning.
(4) Use praise and blame. It is human nature that everyone wants some praise for
his achievement. An experiment was conducted by Hurlock to study the effect
of praise and blame on children. She found that praise in more effective than
blame for motivating children. Praise and blame have different effect on individual
students. Some students may be praised for minor achievement because of their
limited abilities but others will be motivated by praise for most worthy
accomplishment related to their high ability. Praise can be used in many ways,
like a nod of teacher, smile, a good look, and verbal praise etc. The teacher
should be cautious while using praise in the classroom. For each and every
activity, children should not be praised. Blame should be sparingly used because
it creates personality maladjustment. Successful use of praise and blame depends
upon the students, their personality, and prior learning experiences.
(5) Use of competition and cooperation. Teacher should stress friendly relations
rather than rivalry that breeds interpersonal antagonism among the students.
Competition should involve a degree of equality among contestants.
Competition may be of three types :
(a) Interpersonal competition among peers.
(b) Group competition
(c) Competition with oneself.
The teacher can use all the three types of competition in his teaching. Like competition,
cooperation is also a strong incentive for motivating children. Lowry (1969) has concluded
on the basis of his studies that cooperation is most basic form of intergroup relationship.
Competition and cooperation both can be used in the class-room learning for gaining
high scores. The teacher should encourage active participation of all the students in
learning activities.
(6) Knowledge of the result (feed-back). It is true that some events following a
response tend to increase the frequency of the response. The events are commonly
called as reinforcers and constitute a broad category of events. Some of the
reinforcers have been mentioned above as pleasure and pain, reward and
punishment, praise and blame etc.

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Some confusion exists between the term reinforce and knowledge of the result (feed-back).
Let us first clarify it with the help of an example : A child is given a chocolate for remaining
quiet in the presence of a visitor, and this increases the probability that quiet behavior will
occur next time, a visitor comes. The chocolate here works as a reinforce. Second example:
A child correctly responds to a question in the class. The teacher says “that is right” the
statement of the teacher is likely to reinforce the behavior of the child. Here the teacher is
providing information (feed-back) about the correctness of the response. Generally
psychologists classify these events under the broad head reinforcers on the basis of their
consequences. Reinforcers include food, praise, nod of head, smile and giving information
etc. There are various aspects of reinforcing events which are sometime called knowledge
of the results or feed-back.
As already mentioned B.F. Skinner has developed a technique of learning called
programmed learning. The learner immediately gets the knowledge of his performance in
programmed learning whether he is right or wrong. This knowledge of the performance of
the learner works as motivating force in learning task. Learners continually remain involved
in the learning activity. Learning is faster and effective when the learners are provided with
the knowledge of their progress. It has been experimentally established by psychologists
that knowledge of result facilities motivation and improves content mastery of the learners.
The teacher should provide feed-back to the students to motivate them in learning.
(7) Novelty. Every novel thing creates interest in the individual, teacher must introduce
novelty into his teaching. Novelty has merit when teacher points out the relation
between the new and already known, uses familiar procedures and himself shows
enthusiasm or the expansion of knowledge into new areas. The teacher should
present subject matter in a variety of ways to bring novelty in his teaching. No
doubt the development of such a situation taxes the teacher’s ingenuity to the
limit and often calls for more free time than any teacher can give. Some
encouragement of this approach is found in present trends toward giving teachers
time during school hours when they can develop such materials but many schools
have limited resources for such activities.
According to Travers, one of the essential ingredients involved in energizing pupils in the
classroom is the provision of materials that permit them to move into ever new fields of
exploration. The subject matter should be presented in novel ways so that curiosity and
interest of students may be maintained.
Travers is of the opinion that the teacher may turn the task into game, particularly, small
children camiot sit idle in their seats in silent contemplation of their work but they do like to
play games with other children. Some components of many different subject matter can be
converted into games that two or more pupils can play. The school subject in which game
has been used to the greatest advantage is mathematics.

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(8) Setting of goal. Motivation is goal-oriented behavior that leads to drive-

reduction in the organism. We can mention that the goal, which the student sets
for himself, plays an important role. If a student has a worthwhile goal, then he is
willing to forego immediate pleasure ad even expose himself to some suffering in
his effort brings him closer to his goal. Goal-setting is an important component
of human motivation. Teacher should set goals both for individuals and the class
goals which are attainable.
(9) Avoid the use of stressful procedures. No doubt, some amount of mild anxiety
accelerates the problem solving efforts of the student but too much anxiety and
tension disorganizes the congnitive process and hinders the performance of the
learners. The teacher should create mild tension in his students to motivate them.
(10) Provide real life and symbolic models. It is a fact that most of the learning in
human beings is acquired through the process of observation and imitation. The
teacher can influence the behavior of his students by his attitude and ideal living,
written or verbal presentation and by use of audio-visual techniques.
(11) Create needs to learn and involve students. The teacher must create
psychological and social needs for learning in his students. The importance of
class room learning should be related to future life of the students. The students
should be actively involved in learning task.
In the following paragraph, we are giving twelve practical methods of motivating people.
These methods have been identified by McCielland (1962) from researches conducted by
him.
1. Goal setting. Describe and set goals that learners will achieve.
2. Giving reasons. Tell the learners that the course us important for successful
living.
3. Teaching thoughts that motivate. Drive and determination lead to success.
Create confidence in learners.
4. Relating thoughts to action. Learners should be encouraged to study in library,
take interest in doing things and show interest in others.
5. Relate the course to life. Tell the learners how learning experiences in the
class-room are related to life.
6. Keep a record of progress. Teacher should keep the record of progress of
learners and should inform them from time to time to reinforce their behavior.
7. Give warmth and support. Teacher should give warmth and support to the
learning experiences.
8. Provide good environment. Conducive environment should be created in the
classroom.

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9. Deal with cultural values. Inculcate cultural values.

10. Get commitment from the learners. Get some verbal commitment to a level
performance form learners.
11. Demonstrate progress. Keep charts on individual learners.
12. Use group dynamics. Make use of group dynamics.
There are many other techniques which have been successfully used in other countries.
The important techniques are team teaching, use of discussion method, developmental
task, success and failure and programmed text. We can also use these techniques in our
schools and can test their affectivity.
In spite of all the techniques referred above, the place of the teacher remains supreme, his
method of teaching, warmth and his techniques of handling class-room problems play an
important role in the process of motivation in the class-room teaching.

THE GENERAL NATURE OF ATTENTION

ATTENTION is always present in conscious life and is common to all types of mental
activity-knowing, feeling and willing. It is the primary pre-condition of them all. We must
attend before we know, feel or act. It is a characteristic of all conscious life. But attention
is mote essentially cognitive. It is the concentration of consciousness upon one object
rather than another. Attention is the heart of the conscious process. When we are conscious
of an object, it means that we aware of its presence in the environment. To attend to an
object means to be aware of it more keenly and intensely than of anything else, to hold it in
the focus of consciousness. While we are conscious of every object we attend to, we do
not attend to every object we are conscious of. Consciousness is a wider field and includes
that of attention. We attend only to a part of the field of consciousness; the rest is not
attended to. Thus there are two fields: one of attention and the other of inattention. The
former coincides with the margin of consciousness. Reading a book I am conscious of a
large number of objects in the room and on the table. I am conscious of the ticking clock,
the table lamp, the pen-stand, papers, myself sitting in the chair and numerous other objects
but I am more distinctly and clearly aware of the words and sentences that I read and of
the ideas they mean. That is, I am aware of a large number of objects about me but I
attend only to some of them. This may be illustrated by referring to a lighted room. Objects
near the lamp are seen clearly and distinctly while objects removed from it are seen dimly
vaguely. Similarly the field of consciousness contains a central portion where objects are
clearly apprehended and a marginal area of objects apprehended indistinctly. The former
is the field of attention, the latter of inattention.

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But though attention is the core of consciousness, it is not an end in itself. Attention is for
the sake of something else. It is an attitude of readiness or preparedness for action. Wood
worth cites familiar instances of it in the military command of ‘Attention:’ and the athletic
call of ‘Ready’. It is this sensitively conscious and preparatory attitude of mind which is
characteristic of attention.

CHARACTERISTICS

Perhaps the nature of attention can be better understood by describing its general
characteristics.
In the first place, attention is not a fixed state nor a faculty or power of mind. It is an
activity, a growing process and like every mental act it cannot be centered round any one
object for a long time. It is constantly shifting from one object to another. Even when we
attend to the same object for some time, attention shifts from one aspect of it to another. In
reading we attend to the changing, growing argument and different stages are attended to
in quick succession. We have distinguished between the focus and the fringe or margin of
consciousness, and the former we have called the field of attention. Now objects are
constantly passing from the margin to the centre of focus. It is very common to compare
the entire field of consciousness to a dome of stimuli trying to attract attention. To this
dome there is a base and an apex. Objects attended to stand at the apex of the dome,
while objects of which we are altogether unconscious lie at the base. The objects of
attention stay at the apex or in the focus of consciousness for the shortest possible time
and are displaced by others.
Secondly, the process of attention has all the three aspects of conscious life, knowing,
feeling and willing. Not only does it help us to see and know objects clearly, but it is also
a kind of striving and is accompanied by some feeling in the form of interest. We attend to
reach a goal and because that goal and because that goal is determined by our dispositions,
instinctive or acquired, the idea of its achievement gives us pleasure and interest and the
goal is seen and apprehended more clearly and distinctly. Attention is cognitive, co native
and affective.
Thirdly, attention is selective. We do not attend to everything that comes our way. Only
those stimuli which have some advantage are able to attract attention, others are ignored.
The passage of objects from the margin of consciousness to the focus is regulated. Even
when we attend to the same object for some time we attend to some aspects of its more
carefully and clearly than to others. Attention represents a narrow field and is selective.
Most of our achievements in life are due mainly to this selection. If we try to attend to
everything without limiting our range, we will not be able to achieve anything.

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THE IMPORTANCE OF ATTENTION

Attention is a preparatory attitude and involves important physical adjustments. Watch a

student fully absorbed in listening to the teacher and you will have a picture of such
adjustments helping the attentive process. These bodily adjustments are very necessary
and bring out the value and importance of attention.
In the first place, attention increases efficiency. Before the race starts the runner is
ready to jump off as soon as the signal is given, Are you ready?’ is the signal which brings
about an increased state of motor readiness and he responds very quickly to the second
shout, ‘Go!’.
Secondly, attention greatly improves sensory discrimination. It seems to have the
effect of a bright searchlight throwing up the details of the whole landscape. It does so in
two ways. In the first place, all objects attended to attain a degree of prominence in
consciousness which they lacked before they were attended to. Attentions to them makes
them ‘stand out’ more conspicuously than the surrounding objects. Secondly, objects
attended to are ‘separately discerned’. We isolate them from the rest of the environment
to examine and know them more comprehensively, and to realize some purpose with
regard to them. Owing to attention our awareness of objects which was vague and
indeterminate becomes distinct, definite and clear. That is why we speak of attended
objects as having entered the ‘force of consciousness’, or the field of concentrated
consciousness.
Thirdly, attention is necessary as a means to the acquisition of skill. The typist, the
cyclist or the tennis player must attend closely to his hands and movements, to their coordination
and control, and it is only when he attains proficiency that attention drops out.
Lastly, attention is very helpful to remembering. Those experiences which are carefully
attended to are remembered more accurately and fully and those which we notice only
cursorily are soon forgotten.

CONDITIONS OF ATTENTION

Such being the value of attention, it is very necessary that it should be controlled; and one
of the tests of sound education is that ir promotes such control and direction of attention
into desirable channels, Mention has been made of the fact that there are certain factors of
advantage in the securing and holding of attention. Let us now discuss those factors of
advantage or conditions which determine the passage of stimuli from the field of
inattention to that of attention. Such conditions are of two kinds, objective and subjective,
those that are found in the objects and those that lie within the person.

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Of the objective conditions the first is intensity of a stimulus. Other factors being equal, a
strong or intense stimulus will attract attention. A loud noise has the advantage over a low
murmur; a street band compels attention while a low hubbub does not. The second is size.
A large building will be more readily attended to than a small’hut. The advertiser uses large
type in his notices to attract attention. The third is change. To attract attention the change
should not be gradual but sudden. We do not notice the clock ticking on the wall but it
arrests attention as soon as it stops. Fourthly, repetition secures attention. Objects
presented again and again cannot help being attended to. The fifth is novelty and contrast.
New objects or objects different from what, we are used to attract attention more rapidly.
We are aware how familiarity detracts attention. Common household objects are not
attended to because they are too familiar.
The subjective conditions determining attention may be summed up in one word,
interest. We attend to objects in which we are interested and we do not attend to those
which do not interest us. Interest and attention go hand in hand. We are interested in
objects to which we attend and we attend to objects in which we are interested. Interest
means making a difference. We are interested in objects because they make a difference
to us, because they concern us. Interest may be most defined as ‘the felt value of an end’,
as the feeling which accompanies special attention to some object. It is obvious that the
two factors, attention and interest, are inseparable and that they develop simultaneously.
Ordinarily interest is less dependent on the objects outside than simple attention; it is
more a function of the person himself. That is why interest has a more enduring and
persistent quality that attention lacks. As education lays stress on stable and enduring
aspects of experience, most of the teaching is devoted to securing interest rather than
attention, and most of the useful material on the subject of attention is presented under
the head of interest.
Interest is both cognitive and affective. When we are interested in an object, we observe
and study it, we want to know more about it, it gives us a feeling of satisfaction and we
may act to change it, or keep it unchanged. Since interested predisposes the organism to
react in certain ways both to know and to act and is tinged with feeling and emotion, and
there may be endless variety in these ways, we have begun to speak of interests rather
than interest. But a pleasant feeling of satisfaction and a dynamic tendency to seek the
object, to understand more about it and to do something with it always accompanies our
interest or interests. Interest in history means one enjoys studying it, attending to facts and
movements historical. A measurement of one’s interests is also a measurement of what one
will do or what one can do.

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TYPES OF ATTENTION

Attention is usually of two type, the involuntary and the voluntary. Involuntary attention
is passive and free. It depends upon the striking qualities of the stimulus and the way in
which the stimulus affects the person attending. Involuntary attention is given to an interesting
object, as when a charming speaker holds us spellbound, or when a thrilling story absorbs
us, or when we open the door to find out who is shouting. When we attend naturally,
easily, spontaneously, without any effort of will, attention is involuntary. Any object will
attract such attention if it is brightly coloured or makes a loud sound, if it moves quickly, or
is repeated, or is repeated, or if it arouses our interest. When the teacher wants to attract
attention he should present objects to pupils in such a way that they show these qualities.
Attention is voluntary when it is given to uninteresting objects, when it requires some
struggle, effort of will. It is sustained, active, forced. It is not given whole heartedly, like
involuntary attention, but under the stress of some problem, difficulty or end to be achieved,
as when we go through a railway time-table to find out a suitable train, or try to understand
a difficult argument or lesson, solve a sum in arithmetic, or check a bill. We prescribed
ourselves a goal and to accomplish it we have to attend to it. In involuntary attention, we
yield ourselves to the stimulus, in voluntary attention we make up our mind to attend. Both
types of attention are governed by the subjective and objective factors described above.
But in some causes there is a fluctuation of attention between conflicting stimuli of which
one is easier, pleasanter then the other. When we attend to the more difficult and uninteresting,
attention is voluntary. Fortunately attending to an uninteresting object often makes it interesting
if we succeed in our task and are satisfied, and voluntary attention is re-placed by free,
involuntary attention. In teaching, attention in the beginning is voluntary, the teacher explains
the value of the subject or the lesson and the pupils address themselves to understand it. But
the aim of the teacher should be to make it effortless and involuntary by making the lesson
interesting and by arousing the instinctive and acquired interests of his pupils.

SPAN OF ATTENTION

By the span of attention is meant the number of objects to which we can attend at any one
time. Speculations in the past fixed the number at five or six but today we have experimental
data. We can attend to only one thing at a time. This may be said to be contrary to
common experience. In reading one can attend to many letters and also words. The span
of attention with regard to vision is measured by an insirument called a tachistoscope. The
subject is given a momentary glance at an irregular group of dots, and is required to report
how many he has observed. It has been found that an adult can note at the most six dots.
But they are not attended to separately but as a whole, as forming one single situation. We
can attend to a number of objects only in so far as they form parts of a single complex
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whole. The object of attention at any one moment is a single one though not a simple one.
Where this unit is lacking we cannot attend to more than one object. The different facts
fuse together and form one process. The man in the street will cite cases where two
entirely different processes are carried on simultaneously. In all such cases either there is
an oscillation of attention or the two are attended to as parts of one.

SOURCES OF INTEREST

The primary source of all interest is to be found in our native desires and urges, instincts,
primary needs and motives. Living brings are so constituted that they are interested in
certain things from their very birth because they satisfy their natural desires and needs. The
chicken is interested in pecking, the wasp in mudhouse building, the birds in nests, infants
in bright moving objects, growing-up children in games and sports, because original natural
has inclined them that way. A thirsty person does not attend to anything but water, a
mother may be deaf to the noises in the street but she is alive to any sound how every faint
coming from the next room where her baby is sleeping, and children in a class prick their
ears when the teacher says ‘Let me tell you a story’ because their interest in stories is
natural and strong. To catch and hold the attention of children we arouse their curiosity,
appeal to their love of mastery, make them compete and emulate. Instinctive drives are
powerful motive forces in behavior and give us a fund of interest to be directed into
useful activities.
We have already listed a number of instincts and needs. They give the individuals
impetus to act which we call drive. A drive is an urge or push from within, it has no
direction but is just focused energy but through learning the individual acquires goals and
purpose which impart a direction to that fund of energy. Then we speak not of instincts,
needs or drive but of motives. A motive is a drive which through learning has
acquired a direction through aims and objects, goals and purpose. These motives
are spring of interest.
But apart from primary needs we have psychological needs of security, affection, recognition,
new experiences and self-actualisation. They are acquired through social experience and
are learned. Since most of our activity has social implications these motives provide very
strong interests for effort and attention.
Since acquired interests differ with different individuals a number of persons behave
differently in the same situation. A professor a confectioner, a bookseller and a child will
behave differently when they are placed in a library. The professor will select books for
reading and study, the confectioner, if he does anything at all, may select books of large
size thinking they would give him enough waste paper for packing sweets; the bookseller
may start calculating how much profit he would have made if all those books has been

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bought at his shop, and the child will surely choose those books which either have brightly
coloured covers or contain nice pictures. Such differences I attention and behavior are
due to differences in acquired interest.
Much of acquired interest may be traced to our sentiments and complexes. A person who
has a sentiment of patriotism is likely to attend to everything that will affect the welfare of
his country; if we have a sentiment of love for a particular person we attend only to his or
her good points and fail to notice his or her faults. One who has an inferiority complex will
readily attend to and mark the mistakes, weaknesses and faults of others and will fail to
attend to their merit or accomplishments.
Our iitterest is also determined by our attitude and mood of the moment. If we have a
friendly attitude towards a person or are in a cheerful frame of mind, we attend to his good
points and emphasise them. If we are in a mood to worry, we try to find out things that will
find us with imaginary dangers.
Our interest also depends on our education and training. A tailor will notice the dress of the
passer-by; a barber, his hair; a boot-black, his shoes; a pick-pocket, his pocket; a tonga
driver, his hurried pace and possible destination and so on. In the course of life and
experience we all acquire goals and purpose, principles and ideals which determine what
things we are interested. Habits, attitudes, customs and the limit the field of our interest.

THE PLACE OF INTEREST IN EDUCATION

Interest is the feeling which prompts us to spontaneous activity. It has been described as
‘the felt value of an end’. It is something urgent, active and stimulating. We have an interest
in constructing things, in buildings, in telling, in finding out, in competing. We have already
seen that our instincts are powerful sources of interest. There is a tendency among many
psychologists to identify interest with instinct but there are important differences. Instincts
are racial characteristics, interests are individual and subjective. It is possible to kill and
root out interests without much injury to the person. A child’s interest in harmful books is
not difficult to eradicate bit it is not desirable nor easy to root out instincts of curiosity or
construction. Interest also grows out of acquired dispositions like tastes and sentiments,
complexes and habits, moods and attitudes.
Interest is both an end and a means in education. From the point of view of the child,
interest is a means, for with its help he is to acquire knowledge and realize his purposes.
For the teacher, it is an end. Once interest is aroused in good conduct, studies, games or
literature, the child will consider no sacrifice and effort too great to attain proficiency.
Every wise teacher aims not a communicating knowledge to young people but at stimulating
them to acquire it themselves. For him, awaking or building a strong wholesome interest in
the subject is itself an end towards which all teaching methods and practices are directed.

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The place and function of interest in education is the subject of a keen controversy. One
view is that the school is a preparation for adult life and since adult life is full of bitter
struggle whose knocks are hard and unrelenting, discipline in the school should be strict
and merciless and the child’s path should be strewn with trials and tribulations so severe
that they teach him to face hardships and put forth strenuous effort against odds. Such an
education will fit the child for life admirably. They condemn the ‘interest school’ as ‘soft
pedagogy’ or ‘sugar-coating’ which will lead to flabbiness of character, killing effort and
endurance among young pupils.
On the other hand, it is maintained that education is not a mere preparation for life, it is
life itself and the joy which children in doing, constructing, collecting or finding out,
should not be lost to them in the school. Interest is the pleasure tone of self-expression
and self-activity and is a great asset to teaching and learning. Undue emphasis on effort
makes the child work from a sense of fear and kills his spontaneity and initiative. It is
psychologically false and morally wrong to turn the child’s work into drudgery, and
expect him to do his best.
Both these views are based on a misconception that interest and effort are mutually exclusive
forces. They are neither mutually exclusive nor forces which influences learning and behavior
from without. Interest is not a quality which belongs to the subject-matter and which will
solve all difficulties. It is something within the child, and the question is not how to make a
lesson interesting but how best to interest the child in the lesson. Making lessons interesting
does not mean making them easy and simple but arousing, stimulating or direst children’s
interests in the lesson. Interest is a subjective feeling and, when it is aroused for the
achievement of a goal, the individual puts forth his greatest effort. Interest and effort are
not opposed to each other. The promptings of interest lead effortful striving. The end of
interest is not entertainment or amusement but activity, effort, accomplishment. It has already
been stressed in dealing with play-way methods in education in the last chapter that interest
leads to effort and induces children to do their best from inner necessity Again, things
begun with effort soon acquire interest. Many schools make games compulsory for children
and though children in the beginning do not like it, they develop an interest for them later
on. When effort brings achievement and satisfaction, it inspires children with a new zest
and enthusiasm and is converted into an interest. The child begins because he has to, but
he continues because he wants to.
But if effort is to awaken interest and if interest is to lead to efforts, the teacher should
secure both through worth-while ultimate goals and not through immediate superficial
objectives. Let children not be asked to work for prizes and marks, for cheap applause or
even mere examination success, but for life purposes, chosen ideals, noble aims and
aspirations. No doubt the former group have their place and value but they should be
subordinated to higher aims and ideals.

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HOW TO AROUSE INTEREST IN A LESSON

Attention makes for great efficiency in adjustment and learning and one of the major problems
of education is to secure the attention of the child to the lesson that is in progress. The
objective and subjective factors on which attention depends have already been described
ad no doubt every teacher will bear them in mind in. preparing and presenting lessons to
his classes. All that is aimed at in this section is an emphasis on broad principles of teaching
by which children’s attention and interest can be easily secured.
In the first place, the teacher must recognize that children’s interest varies with age,
and he must know what differences in interest arise at different stages of their
development. The centre of teaching is the child, not the lesson, and it is the lesson which
is to be adapted to the needs and interests of the child, not the child to the lesson. At
different stages of child like certain well marked interests predominate. The teacher should
be familiar with them and should adjust both the subject-matter and the method to the
capabilities and mental development of his pupils. The standard of leaching should not be
so low that pupils consider it unnecessary nor too high that they consider it beyond their
reach. It should be well within their power of understanding. For example, in the infant
classes children acquire knowledge mostly through their senses, and systems of education
like the kindergarten and Montessori have a greater appeal. Later, memory and imagination
mature and the pupil cannot only remember well but also represent what he has read. Still
later, though and reasoning develop and he is interested in knowing the ‘why’ of things.
Thus to expect small children to think and argue will be futile. Children’s curiosity, a dominant
factor in all learning should be kept alive and the appetite for knowledge should not be
allowed to run low.
This leads us to the second principle. Interest cannot be aroused unless we justify to
the pupils the value and importance of what they are going to learn. It means that
for learning a lesson pupils should have a motive, and this motive comes to them wither in
terms of the practical value of what is to be learned or in terms of the appeal the lesson
may have to their urgent instinctive desires. Most teachers of science, grammar or arithmetic
begin their day’s work with a commonplace fact and lead the class to the lesson through
stages which impress upon the class the need and value of the new knowledge. Such
lessons are attended to with interest.
Thirdly, all new knowledge should be related to that which the class already possess.
The teacher should know intimately what are the acquisitions of his pupils and plan his
lessons in such a way that they appear to children as a continuation of what they have
already learnt.
Fourthly, the teacher should avoid monotony, for that kills interest. Variety is a
safeguard of interest and should be preserved by presenting lessons from a new angle. The

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subject-matter should be frequently re-cast and reviewed to provoke thought among pupils.
Often a new point of view., an emphasis on a different aspect of the subject, a new
organization of the material, will arouse active interest.
Lastly, the teacher should approach the class and his work of teaching with great
enthusiasm and interest. This fact about the teacher’s attitude cannot be over-emphasized.
A teacher who enters the class smartly, smiling and giving a good impression about his
earnestness and interest in his work, will receive greater consideration, attention and interest
at the hands of his pupils than the one who is listless, indifferent and tired. Interest is the
feeling tone of conscious life and is contagious. The teacher has not only to take interest in
his work but also show that he is truly interested. There are teachers who fill the classroom
with an atmosphere charged with electricity, their mere presence sends a wave of enthusiasm
among young pupils, and they are able to secure attention and interest by a mere look, a
question or a gesture. Their vitality, sense of humour, interest and love for work, do the trick.

HOW INTERESTS EXPAND

A commendable aim and means of effective education is expansion of the interests of

young people. A plea has already been made that teachers should closely study the native
interests of children and base their teaching programmes and efforts on the. This is not
difficult and when taking children’s interests as the starting point the teacher offers them
experiences that have some immediate connection with them their interests will naturally
grow and expand. There are endless ways in which this can be accomplished. For example
children are very much interested in dogs. They may be asked to narrate what they know
about them, to read about different breeds of dogs from books in the library, to collect
stories about dogs and to write a composition about them, and so on. They will gather
much more information in this way and the range of their experience, knowledge and
interest will be greatly enlarged. William James in his famous book. Talks to Teachers on
Psychology writes: ‘Any object not interesting in itself may become interesting through
becoming associated with an object in which an interest already exists. The two associated
objects, grow, as it were, to- gether; the interesting portion sheds its quality over the
whole; and thus things not interesting in their own right borrow an interest which becomes
as real and as strong as any natively interesting thing.
Such enlargement of experience and interest is made possible because things in this world
are closely associated so much so that one thing leads to another. Man, animals, plants,
climate, soil, health, medicine, doctors, hospitals, social welfare are all bound together in
one systematic whole and the teacher can carry children’s interest from one item in that
system to another. Here lies the great merit of the project method of teaching in which we
teach through purposeful units of experience and work and the various subjects of study
are inter-connected and taught through projects. Girls running a sweet shop at the school

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fair learn not only how to cook and make eatables but also how to sell them, to keep
account and calculate gains. Boys running a school magazine will learn much about
composition printing, proof correcting, grammar, and business practice. Such activities
and experiences will expand and enrich their interests.
The absence of distraction is an important condition of effective attention. Distraction may
be defined as any stimulus whose presence interferes with the process of attention or
draws away attention from the object to which we wish to attend. Ordinarily, noise or
absence of quiet is considered the main distraction, but the conditions of distraction are
varied. Some seek solitude to concentrate attention, others find solitude itself a great
distraction. Dead silence is not conductive to profound mental application: for one thing, it
does not challenge the mind to greater effort to concentrate attention.
Of the conditions which hinder attention, the more common and prominent are abnormal
temperature-too cold or too hot rooms, improper lighting, uncomfortable seats - the desk
or the chair may be too high-ill-health, fatigue or worry, and the teacher wishing to control
attention should try to remove them as far as possible. But very often the reasons we give
for our inability to attend are only excuses. Students who complain of too much noise or of
crows in the library to read, hear no noise and notice no crowd when they are busy
reading letter or talking to a friend. He who is always complaining against distraction for
his failure to study may be deceiving himself by offering lame excuses for his unwillingness
to study. Distraction many be overcome in several ways. One is to run away from the
distracting stimuli. If noise does not let us attend, let us seek a quieter place or time.
Another is to get accustomed to the distracting factor. One may develop a habit of not
attending to it. The roaring stream among the hills may prevent us from concentrating
attention, may even prevent peaceful sleep, but we soon get used to it and carry on our
tasks without feeling distracted.
Often distraction calls forth an extra mental effort to fix attention and apply oneself to the
task. Experimental studies have revealed that under conditions of distraction are often
achieved best results in attention and learning, because the subject puts in greater energy
to keep the objects before the mind. Under the stress of examination many pupils muster
greater effort to overcome • distractions and achieve higher aims. But this is not very
desirable. They should work under conditions which do not require this necessary drain
on their energies.
Finally, an alert, determined, hopeful attitude is very helpful to attention, and if pupils have
developed a robust attitude ti work and study, distractions instead of annoying and upsetting
them will simple help to arouse them to greater effort or at the worst to adapt their routine
to them. Interest, enthusiasm, confidence, smartness, in brief the mental attitude of the
learner, is of primary importance in securing attention in the face of distractions, and the
teacher’s greatest problem and duty is to cultivate among his pupils a favourable mental
attitude towards the school, the teacher and their work.

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MENTAL ABILITIES

Intelligence as an inborn capacity is to a large extent an abstraction, and is not a subject of

direct measurement. But it is accepted by all that intelligence is demonstrable in the ability
of the individual to make good response from the standpoint of truth or fact. It is an ability
to adjust adequately to new situation and at the same time an ability to learn. We often to
say that an individual is intelligent in proportion to his ability to carry on abstract thinking.
Some psychologists are of opinion that there are two kinds of intelligence-abstract,
mechanical or social. Many psychologists observing relationship between different types
of performance, have concluded that intelligence is a general ability. Spearman investigated
this concept of intelligence and tried to analyze intelligence.
The Nature of Intelligence
Intelligence is a mental power or faculty. It is very difficult to give a logical definition of
intelligence. Psychologists differ among themselves with regards to the nature of intelligence
just as the idealist philosophers differ with regard to the nature of the Absolute. There is a
saying that ‘so many psychologists, so many definitions of intelligence’. It is, therefore,
needless to say that there is no definition of intelligent which is acceptable to all.
Man differs from the lower animals in so many important points that no comparison can be
instituted between them. Hereditary behavior pattern is sufficient for the lower animals to
adapt themselves to the environment. On the other hand, the human baby, after birth,
remains for a few years completely dependent on others. What we understand by human
behavior is mostly learnt or acquired. This learning goes on for long and ultimately the
hereditary behavior patterns helps man to adjust himself to new situations. Evolving new
behavior patterns and adjustment with new and changed circumstances are due to a special
power or capacity. This power has been characterized as intelligence by many psychologists.
In the case of primitive man, intelligence which was not much needed was in most cases led
by instincts. He lived in a simple environment and there was practically no problem, in the
present day sense of the term, for him to face. As time passed, the primitive man’s environment
became more and more complex; and his instincts could no more help him to adjust with this
changed circumstances. He then found it necessary to apply his intelligence for solution of
such problems. So, we find that the primary task of intelligence is to help one in solving
problems and also help one in the matter of adapting oneself to new or changed environment.
Intelligence is so subtle that it is very difficult to understand its nature. Behaviourists have
sought to understand and measure intelligence by one’s performances and conversations.
But they have failed to present clearly the nature of intelligence. We can only say that individual
differences is intelligence. We can only say that individual differences in intelligence are evinced
and, hence, this intelligence is innate power. Everybody has intelligence in a greater or lesser
extent and it can also be measured to some extent.

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Definitions of Intelligence
Psychologists have variously defined intelligence. Thorndike has called it the ‘sum of various
capacities’. According to Cyril Burt intelligence is ‘the power of readjustment to relatively
novel situation, by organizing new psycho-physical combinations’. Pinter, following Burt,
defines intelligence as ‘an evaluation of the efficiency of a reaction or a group of reactions
under specific circumstances’. Dearborn holds that ‘intelligence is the capacity to profit by
experience’. According to Terman, ‘an individual is intelligent in proportion as he is able to
carry on abstract thinking’. Woodrow has defined intelligence as ‘a capacity to acquire
capacity’. There are some psychologists who define intelligence as that faculty which is
measured in intelligence tests.
The above definitions may be grouped under three classes. Some definitions have laid
stress on abstract thinking, some on the capacity to learn and some on the capacity of
adjustment. We think that the definitions which fall under the last group are more important
than the others. We may define intelligence as the inborn capacity or power to associate
ideas with events and to adjust ourselves with environment. But we cannot thereby ignore
the capacity to learn. Without the capacity to learn, it is not possible to adjust ourselves
with environment.
An Example
We have seen how and why a man learns in his day-to-day life. There are also cases
where a man learns after unsuccessful activities. There are seen individual differences in
learning. He is surely more intelligent who learns first. So in the matter of intelligence also,
there is individual difference. To take an example,-Ram, Shyam and Jadu (all of the same
age) are given separately three quinine pills to swallow. All of them threw the pills away
immediately after putting them in the mouth. Next day the same pills are given. Ram and
Shyam refused to accept the pills, whereas Jadu put the pill in his mouth. Next day Orisul
pills given. Ram refused, but Shyam and Jadu put the pill in their mouth. Here we may say
that Ram is more intelligent than the other two. He has been able to understand the similarity
than the other two. He has been able to understand the similarity of the two pills. Shyam is
also more intelligent than Jadu, because on the second day he refused to accept the pill.
Hence, intelligence helps us in ascertaining the relation between things.
Concept of intelligence
From the hoary past philosophers and psychologists have been trying to explain the nature
of intelligence but in vain. We are ashamed to say that the exact nature of intelligence still
remains a mystery. But the baffling nature of intelligence could not pour cold water on the
enthusiasm of the psychologists who tried off and on to unveil the mysterious nature of
intelligence. And in course of time, several theories have been clustered around the nature
of intelligence. Of these theories only three are important, each of which is presented here.

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The Faculty Theory : According to the faculty theory intelligence consists of a number of
relatively independent and largely correlated and specialized abilities of various types such
as memory, imagination, honesty and languages and reasoning ability. This theory is closely
related to the disciplinary conception of education. The essence of the disciplinary
conception of education can be given in a few words; namely that it is the process of
learning rather than the thing learned that is important and the basic thing in education. The
pseudoscience of Phrenology is also one of the planks upon which the faculty theory
stands. The balance of expert opinions is now so solidly against the faculty theory that as
a theory concerning the nature if intelligence, it has no value whatever. Even the physiologists
have found no evidence of nerve-centres corresponding to the alleged faculties of mind.
Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory : The famous British Psychologist, Spearman, presented
his two factor theory in his epoch-making book. ‘The Abilities of Man’. He writes that
there is a common element G. This G is not what is called intelligence itself, it is a general
factor that enters into all intelligent activities. According to him G depends on the general
mental energy with which each individual is endowed. In addition to mis G, Spearman
recognized special abilities or S-factor. It should be remembered that G is, according to
Spearman, present in specific as well as in group factors.
Primary Mental Abilities Theory :
Spearman’s pioneering work gave impetus to large number of psychologists. In a sense his
work may be regarded as a starting point for the present factor analysis approach to the
nature of intelligence.What Spearman did
was to make clear the new meaningOf
intelligence, which existed in a rather
nebulous stateln the mind of the educated
class; to formulate an entirely New theory,
based on new methods, both of which
were toreceive a further development in
subsequent times.
Soon after the publication Spearman’s
magnum opus ‘The Abilities of Man’, a
number of enthusiastic psychologists
began to make frantic search for basic
factors in mental ability. In course of time,
these psychologists claimed to have
discovered some primary abilities or
factors. Cyril Burt by his painstaking
investigation found three factors-verbal,
numerical and practical. In order to determine total activity these specific factors must

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combine with G. Spearman compared these S factors to a large number of energies, which
could be enlivened by this energy (G). The S factors are modifiable factors, whereas G is
inborn and not educable. Spearman also recognized the existence of broad group factors.
These group factors, such as mathematical ability, verbal and spatial ability arise from the
overlapping of numerous S factor. These group factors are not so general as G, but certainly
not so limited as S-factors. To be more precise, take the instance of a person whose
mathematical ability (which according to Spearman is a group factor) is high. We may
expect him to be good not only in mathematics, but in physics, engineering, and higher
technical know-how as well, because in all these activities mathematical ability is a ‘must’.
This according to Spearman’s two-factor theory, a general factor (G), group factors any
many S or specific factors constitute intelligence. But the investigators of Minnesota Study
of Mechanical Ability did not find a general factor (G) in their investigators. So, this
investigation questioned the very basis of Spearman’s two-factor theory. Among the factor
analysts. Turnstone raised the standard of revolt against Spearman’s two-factor theory. In
1938 he began to publish his investigation results serially. In all his investigation he did not
find G at all, but he found seen distinct multiple factors. The seven main or primary factors
are as follows:- Verbal (V), Perceptual speed (P), Number (N), Memory (M), Reasoning
( R), Word-fluency (W), Space or visualization (S).
The findings of Thurstone produced great effects in the field of psychology. Though
Thurstone’s findings have mathematical and psychology basic this cannot be accepted as
final. Thurstone’s primary factors are not unchangeable or fixed in their respective sphere.
Spearman himself criticized the findings- of Thurstone. Spearman pointed out that as
Thurstone’s test were closely related they could equally well be analyzed to yield a general
factor as well as group factors. The subsequent investigations carried on by factorial
psychologists both in America and in Great Britain prove beyond doubt the existence of a
general factor. The U.S.E.S.investigations found factors like verbal (V), perceptual (P),
more Speed (T), Number (N), clerical (Q), finger dexterity (F), space (S), logic (L),
manual dexterity (M), aiming (A) and also a general factor.
Psychologists like Vernon, Burt, Guilford have made important contribution in the field of
Factor analysis. Godfrey Thomson, of the U.K. a psychologist, has put forward a new
theory of intelligence of late. This theory is called the Sampling Theory of Intelligence.
According to this theory human mind contains innumerable units of energy, the identity of
which cannot be described at the present moment. According to Thomson the completion
of a particular mental activity is possible because of the combination of a number of such
units of energy during a mental process but how and which ones of those units of energy
combine for the purpose noted above will depend upon the nature of that peculiar mental
activity and also on the energy content of those units of energy which determine the process
in which some quanta of energy come together and others keep apart.

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The above mentioned theories concerning the nature of intelligence jointly or separately
have failed to explain the true nature of intelligence. Each of these theories is still in
experimental stage and hence cannot be accepted as final. It is not too much to say that the
theories explained are not as yet perfect in all respects. It has not yet been possible to
isolate and identify the ultimate factors of mental ability. And the question, what then is
intelligence, still requires solution.
Intelligence and Knowledge
For practical purpose intelligence has been defined as the ability to earn or to adjust to
new situations. Intelligence is innate and we cannot add a cubit t it by taking care or by
making frantic efforts. Environment can’ do service or disservice but it cannot increase or
decrease innate intellectual capacity of a person. And for this we define it as the capacity
to learn new things. There is a difference between knowledge and intelligence. A person
can acquire knowledge behaviour but he cannot acquire intelligence. Knowledge is acquired
but intelligence is innate. In a sense intelligence is the medium through which knowledge is
acquired and it is intelligence which helps us possess knowledge and apply it to new
situations. Hence Ballard defined intelligence as the “relative general efficiency of minds
measured under similar conditions of knowledge, interest and habituation”. But it should
be noted that the relation between knowledge and intelligence is very intimate and close.
Pure intelligence cannot be tested and a perusal of any intelligence test will show now
largely it depends upon knowledge. In every form of mental behavior intelligence or whatever
name one gives to it, is conspicuous by its presence. And for this when one acquires
knowledge and shows his capacity in applying it in various fields, we do not hesitate to say
that the said person is intelligent or he has the capacity to acquire knowledge. Intelligence
without knowledge is unthinkable.
Nature of Innate Intelligence
Some Psychologists and almost all laymen regard intelligence as a single ability common to
all intellectual processes. We do not accent this all-pervading intelligence but we do accept
that intelligence is an ability or capacity of some kind. It operates in various ways. It is
found in higher rather than lower mental processes and in novel situations.
Innate Intelligence cannot be Measured
Pure intelligence cannot be tested. When we say that we measure intelligence by using
intelligence tests we mean or less ‘innate, general cognitive efficiency’ as Burt puts it. An
intelligence test is a form of examination no doubt, but is main task is to get a sample of the
quality of one’s intelligence and it is also fruitful procedure for finding out what a person is
capable of doing. In short, intelligence test seeks to measure the strength, precision or

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effectiveness of the preset operation of any mental activity. “Intelligence or the mental tests
are instruments for measurement of individual abilities or types of behavior, with maximum
emphasis on difference due to original nature rather than to training or environment”.
Intelligence Test and Achievement Test
Many a psychologist believes that there is partially no difference between Intelligence test
and Achievement test. In favour of their assumption they put forward the thesis that both
the tests depend upon knowledge or skill. There is some truth in their assumption because
pure intelligence cannot be tested and all the intelligence tests depend upon some sort of
knowledge or skill. But a serious student of psychology will not fall to discern the difference
between an Intelligence test and an Achievement test. The former intends to discover the
capacity if the individuals concerned. It means that the intelligence test do not bother about
the use that has actually been made of natural abilities of the individuals concerned. To be
more precise, the intelligence test tried to measure the inherent capacity of an individual or
group of individuals, on the other hand Achievement test try to measure the actual
achievement which the individuals concerned have made. To be more clear, Achievement
test try to measure the products of training or education. They are intended to find out
what use has actually been made of natural abilities of the individuals concerned.
But it is a fact that both are intimately related to each other because the aim of both is to
measure the present efficiency of the individual.
In conclusion, we may say that the Intelligence tests do contain actual materials and it has
not been possible to construct an Intelligence test absolutely free from knowledge and skill
which have largely been learnt. The justification for the inclusion of factual items in an
Intelligence test is that almost all the persons get the same opportunity in learning such facts
and that the individual level of the individual concerned. But still it would be our endeavour
to keep Intelligence tests free from factual material as far as practicable. Kelley and Cattell
are of opinion that the correlation co-efficient between an Intelligence test and an
Achievement test should remain between 40 and 60. It means that the factual knowledge
and learnt skill should be kept at a minimum in a good Intelligence test.
Types of Intelligence Test
Intelligence tests are of various kinds. They are classified according to their respective
aims and objectives.
(a) Individual Intelligence Test (Verbal) or Individual test of general
Intelligence : This type of Intelligence test is most widely used by educators
and psychologists. Verbal Individual Intelligence tests are modelled after the
Binet-Simon test. This type of tests presuppose certain mastery of language.
The new revised Standford-Binet test of Intelligence (Terman & Merrill’s

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Revised M form Scale) is to-day the best known and most widely used
individual test of general intelligence. Wickeel’s Intelligence test falls in this
category though it is meant for the adult.
(b) Group Tests of Intelligence (Verbal) : There is certainly a difficulty in the use
Individual Intelligence tests widely. It requires enough money and time. To meet
this problem, Group tests of intelligence have been evolved to take the place of
individual Intelligence tests. This type of tests originated in America during the
First World War (1914-18). The Army Alpha and the Army Beta Tests were
developed for use in selecting Army recruits for officer’s training. Shortly after
the war, Otis, Terman and others began to bring out Group Tests meant for
schools and colleges. The Lorge Thorndike Intelligence Test is an example of
this type of test. The army General Classification Tests (AGCT) also came under
this category. It is needless to point out that these types of tests largely depends
upon language. The advantage of group test is that it covers large number of
candidates in a short time.
(c) Non-verbal Intelligence Tests (Individual): There was a drawback in
Intelligence Test (both individual and group), that most of the tests presuppose
a certain mastery of language and naturally to those who have language difficulties
tests like Binet-Simon are not fair. Hence, to obviate this difficulty non-verbal
tests have been devised in which the examines have to do something with their
hands. Some psychologists claim that these tests give a fairer test of general
intelligence. Pass-along Test, Form Board and other types of Performance Test
belong to the category of Non-verbal Individual Intelligence Test. The so-called
Paper-pencil Test also come under this type. The Kellogg-Morton Revised Beta
Examination is an example of Non-verbal Individual Intelligence Test (Paper-
pencil variety).
(d) Non-verbal Group Intelligence Tests : These types of tests require motor or
manual rather than verbal response. In these tests language is required neither in
administering them nor in responding to them. The Army Beta and the Detroit
First Grade Intelligence Test belong to this category.
Use of Intelligence Tests
The importance of verbal Individual Intelligence Test (and Group) can never be
over-estimated. These tests constitute the most accurate devices for the measurement
of intelligence. These tests also help us understand the nature of the gradual developed
of Intelligence.

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This type of tests help in the classification of pupils in schools according to ability. They
help in detecting mental deficiency or dullness, and for selection. The selection of applicant
for college or professional school largely depends upon intelligence Tests.
Another use of Intelligence Tests in the field of educational guidance and vocational selection.
The final practical use of Intelligence Tests is the measurement of the efficiency of
educational institutions. Here, efficiency means the relationship between achievement
and capacity.
Limitations
Opinions differ on the usefulness of Intelligence Tests. Some have shown fatalistic attitude
towards mental tests. Intelligence test is a fetish to them. They think that intelligence test is the
measuring rod of everything concerning main. It is the marvellous product of human ingenuity.
A man’s future can only be determined by Intelligence tests and so it is the Intelligence test
which predicts who will be what. But others are of the opinion that man the unknown, still
remains unknown. It is not possible to know his inherent solely depends upon intelligence,
Intelligence as we know, is only one of the traits of personality. Emotions, interests,
temperament, attitude, sentiments are also important factors in one’s personality. The driving
force of our action is not the intellect but the sum-total of personality traits. The sceptics laugh
at the supposed utility of intelligence tests. To them these are childish, tinsel and sham.
We do not advocate outright rejection’of intelligence tests. Intelligence tests do serve us in
various ways. Intelligence test is also one of the methods of knowing a person’s innate
quality. We measure innate, general cognitive efficiency of our school children by intelligence
test. In the present state of our knowledge we do not know any better method of doing
that important thing.
We do not question the usefulness of intelligence tests. On the other hand, we want to take
some caution in the use of intelligence tests and in matters of their interpretations. It should
be noted that there are many factors which influence a subject’s score in a given test and
so one’s score in a particular time should not be regarded as a final one. Repetitions of the
same test are necessary. Again, the result of an intelligence test is an imperfect one in the
sense that it does not indicate how much of the score of an individual is due to his innate
ability and how much us due to other factors. It is necessary to take particular care in
interpreting test score. Lastly, it maybe said that mental test scores never be accepted in
the same way as the physical measures are treated. So, intelligence tests should be used
with caution and that they are not fool-proof should never be forgotten.
The Structure of the Binet Scale of Intelligence
From our every day experience, we find those who are good in one kind of activity are
also good in other kinds of activities. For example, in the class-room a pupil good in
Arithmetic is also good in, say English; he may not be equality good, but not usually bad.

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From that we infer that there is fields. The layman says, his general intelligence plays its
part.Among psychologists we find some people holding similar views. This general intelligence
makes its expression through language, ideas or concepts. Binet of France, a psychologist,
started with the help of a psychiatrist named Simon, the present practice of mental testing
by putting a number of questions involving thought the observation so that the subject
could give answers rather from the result of his own experience and reflection, than from
what he learnt from schools or homes. Binet in 1905 arranged 30 simple items for testing
some abnormal children of different ages. But the difficulty was that no mental grouping
was possible.
In 1908 he devised another test consisting of 60 items retaining the 30 items of 1905 test.
He also prepared Mental Age grouping test of 3 to 13 years old. This test was standardized
on anexamination of 200 poor children of Paris. In 1911 he made another revision. In this
revision he transferred some tests from one group of age to another. Binet Tests and
Terman puts it believed that in intelligence three factors are involved- a tendency to take
and maintain; the capacity to make adoption for the purpose of attaining a desired end; the
power of auto-criticism. Binet devised intelligence scale but he did not understand intelligence
very clearly. He introduced the concept of mental age. He got the age norms for a given
test by giving the test to a representative group of appropriate age range, dividing the total
group into smaller groups of appropriate age range, dividing the total group into smaller
groups on the basis of age, and computing the average score for each succeeding age
group. Usually, such groups are divided by month intervals.
Limitation of Binet-Simon Test
The Binet-Simon Test formed the basis of numerous other rests conducted in America,
England and Germany. The Binet-Simon tests underwent important modification and
revision. Why did the need for this modification arise at all? First, Binet applied his tests
upon poor Parisian children. This may not be familiar to all children, so it may not be
followed by one and all. It means Binet did not care to take sufficient care to standardize
his test. Secondly, Binet Tests depend on scholastic ability. Lastly, it is very difficult to
understand what Binet wanted to measure. His tests lack in clear objective. But it is no
denying the fact that Binet laid the foundation of modern mental testing programme. There
is a good correlation between Binet’s intelligence test and Scholastic attainment Test and
for diagnosis of mental deficiency it is a good test no doubt.
Binet Tests were not only tests but schemes and accordingly some prominent Psychologists
have offered modifications of the original Binet-Simon test. New Revised Standford-
Binet Test of Intelligence (Revised by Terman and Merrill in 1937) is to-day the best
known and most widely used individual test of general intelligence. This test is also called
Terman Merrill Tests. It should be noted that most of the modern verbal individual, intelligence
tests include performance tests as well as tests depending largely on language.

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The essential tasks of the farmers of the Revised Binet-Simon Test were the following :-
(a) They had to modify their tests according to the children of the place.
(b) Immediate change in the age assignment of the test was made.
(c) Too easy at the lower end of the test, difficult at the higher end. Even some items
of Binet-
Simon Test was rejected because they were of lower validity.
(d) Different mental age scale and point scale have been introduced and partial
credit system was introduced.
Some Examples of Individual Intelligence Tests
3 years old child. (Binet-Simon)
(a) Ask to show nose, eyes, mouth etc.
(b) Repeating two digits numbers.
(c) Naming own sex.
(d) Surname.
(e) Naming simple objects as knife, key etc.
(f) Describing pictures.
Items Illustrating the 1960 Revision (L. M. form) of the Standford-Binet
Intelligence Scale Year II :
(a) Three-hole form board (place forms in holes),
(b) Delayed responses (finds toy animal after it has been hidden)
(c) Identifying parts of the body (indicates named parts on doll)
(d) Block-building : Tower (builds tower model after demonstration).
(e) Picture Vocabulary (names common objects while looking at pictures of them).
(f) Word-combination (spontaneous word-combinations made by child during the
session are noted).
The General Procedure in Administering the New Stanford-Binet Test (M.
form Scale)
The object should be made to sit comfortably in a room free from noise and distraction.
The test materials should be properly arranged in order for presentation. A friendly attitude
should be maintained between examiner and the examinee. In course of getting his
acquaintance, the examiner and the examinee. In course of getting his acquaintance, the
examiner may elicit some of the examinees liking so that in order to get better response,
the examiner may fit into the examinee’s liking. By this way subject’s name, age and class
he reads position in the family are ascertained. In short, the examiner is directed to make

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sure that the subject understands what is to be done and in all cases the burden of proof is
with the examiner to show that the examinee has responded in a way that is representative
of his ability. So this apparently useless part of work establishes a thorough rapport with
the subject which is the essential preprequisite of an intelligence test.
After rapport has been established, the examiner will give directions to the subjects in
most intelligible, lucid and unambiguous form. In between tests of different age levels, the
subject should be allowed to take rest for a while.
If the subject is successful on all tests at one level, the examiner passes on to the higher levels
and continues on through the scale until the subject fails to answer all tests at one age level. To
be more clear, if a child of six passes all the 6 items of 5 years age level is to be administered.
If he passes all the items of 6 years age level, further upward tests are to be given.
The child’s mental age is determined by giving him credit for the number of years below the
level on which e passes all tests. As for example, if he answers all the items relating to six
years age level then his basal mental age will be 6 years. He will add to this amount the
years and months of credit assigned to the higher level tests he passes.
Let us take an example for making it more clear.
Ram is a child of 6 years old. His parents want to know his Intelligence Quotient. In order
to get this they seek help from a psychologist. Now the question arises - how the psychologist
will determine the I.Q. of the boy - the psychologist will determine the I.Q. by Terman and
Merril revised M from scale. He will follow the procedure noted above.
The psychologist will try to learn from school record and also from by way of conversation
from the boy the actual age, which is called chronological age of the boy. After satisfying
himself that the boy is of 6 years old, the psychologist will administer the test relating to 5
years age level, that is, tests of an age level prior to the chronological age of the boy. So the
5 is the age level to start with. As the boy passes all the 6 items easily, the test relating to 6
years age level is administered. Here also the boy test items correctly. So the age level
pertaining to this age level is taken to be the basal mental age of the boy. Now considering
that the boy can answer questions pertaining to advanced age level and hence may credit
higher mental age, further upward tests are given: hence may credit higher mental age,
further upward tests are given:
(a) Age level VII 6 items the boy passes in 4
(b) Age level VIII 6 items the boy passes in 4
(c) Age level IX 6 items the boy fails to respond any.
Scoring : The age level to begin with in this experiment is 6. Hence 6 is the basal age of the
boy. And the final age after which the boy fails to answer any question is the final age level
reached. Now considering the scoring standards of age level 6. 7. 8 and 9 the boy’s score
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Basal age 6 years

Test of Age level Total no of item Total scoring standard Actual
In respect of time credit
VII 6 12 months 12 × 4
6
= 8 months.
VIII 6 12 months 6
12 × 3
= 6 months.
Therefore, the total Mental Age of the boy is 7 years 2 months.
Calculation of I. Q : Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.) denotes a quantitive measure of human
intelligence. Prof. Stern of Germany evolved this system and thereby revolutionized the
Mental Testing programme. The I.Q. is easy to calculate and very convenient to refer to
even in popular expositions; and is derived by dividing a person’s mental age by his
(
chronological age C.A. ) (
M.A. and multiplying the result by 100 M.A.× 100
C.A. )
Then the I.Q. of this boy of 6 years with a mental age of 7 years 2 month has
86 months
× 100 = 119, an I.Q. of 119 (approx.).
72 months
Idiots : All persons do not possess equal intelligence. Individual difference in innate ability
is a fact which nobody can deny. But it is also a patent fact that every man possesses
intelligence, high or low. The persons with an I.Q. below 20 are termed as idiots-’the idiot
never learns to communicate with his kind by speech’. Though Merrill has dubbed all the
persons with I.Q. below 50 as feeble minded, it has been found later that idiots possess
lowest I.Q. among the human specie. It means that the mental age of the idiots remains
constant irrespective of the change in their chronological age. Throughout their lives, the
idiots remain absolutely dependent upon others. But some of them can walk and take their
meals with their own hands.
Imbecile : The imbeciles are placed just above the idiots as possessors of intelligence.
They can neither express their thoughts in writing nor understand what they read. They
cannot solve any problem with which they might beset. Of course, they can do easy jobs.
Moron : Individuals with an I.Q. ranging from 50 to 70 are called morons. They can
complete much of the ordinary work done by normal children it they are given particular
attention.in schools. But they cannot keep pace with the normal children in the educational
journey. Hence special classes should be organized for them. They can also learn some
rudimentary skills.

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I.Q. Intelligence Quotient denotes a quantitative measure of human intelligence. Intelligence

has been generally conceived to be a composite organization of abilities to learn, to grasp
broad and subtle facts, specially abstract facts, with alertness and accuracy, to exercise
mental control and to display flexibility and sagacity in seeking the solution of problems.
This highly abstract mental ability is quantitatively expressed in the form of a ratio. This
ratio is arrived at from the mental age obtained from a number of standardized questions
divided by chronological age (MA / CA). In order to avoid any fraction the ratio is multiplied
by 100 which ultimately forms the respective I.Q. or the quantitative measure of intelligence.
If we assume that differences in intellectual maturity constitute a means of measuring
differences in intellectual capacity or brightness then I.Q. may be regarded as a measure of
brightness.
Intelligence and Memory : It is popularly believed that memory and intelligence are
closely related. It means that intelligent persons can as a rule learn and remember better
than dull persons. This belief made the use of immediate memory tests in most of the
intelligence scales. The belief has also been corroborated by psychological findings to a
great extent.
Memory involves mental organization. This organizational aspect is most prominent in
logical memory. And it is the aspect of memory which contributes the basis of its correlation
with intelligence.

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Chapter - 2

MECHANISM OF LEARNING

E ducation is a process of life and life is a process of growth. But education is concerned
more with development than with growth. Growth implies addition, while development
implies some desirable elimination also. So what development refers is based on our
experiences. Experiences are our reactions or responses to our environment. We are born
with some instinctive reaction. These are modified by our experiences. The amount of
modification on our relations in a past experience is evident in our present experience of
same kind. Finally we select the effective reactions for our successful adjustment and
improve upon them. The whole process, of bringing change and modification to our
development is called the learning process, select the effective reactions for our successful
adjustment and improve upon them. The whole process of bringing change and modi-fication
to our development is called the learning process.
We learn not only reading, writing and some skills but various other activities, some patterns
of behavior also. The major part of our behavior is the result of learning. We learn
knowledge, information, language, social rules and regulations through the different sense
organs or through trie process of memorization. Learning includes both acquisition and
retention. Acquisition refers to the cumulative effect of training while the sustained effects
are retained. Progress in successive training depends on the retention of the effect of
previous training.
Subject matter of learning - We learn not only reading, writing and some such other
skills but various other activities and patterns of behavior also. The major portion of our
behavior is the result of learning. When a process of learning is continued for a long time,
some patterns of behavior are fixed as habits. We learn habits including the modified
inherited reactions. Habits are the results of learning. We learn many skill, necessary specially
in the fields of vocations. We learn knowledge, information, language, social rules and
orders through the different sense organs or through the process of memorization. Learning
includes both acquisition and retention. Acquisition refers to the cumulative effects of training
while the sustained. Progress in successive training depends on the retention of the effects
of previous training.
In learning the perceptual and motor skills like walking, talking, manipulating objects,
attaining the sense of differences between objects, instruction of supervision is not an
influencing factor. The child can often learn very well with little or no instruction. In conceptual
learning of rules, definitions, written language, science, mathematics etc., instruction is
greatly necessary.

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Ways of Learning - Our whole field of learning may be brought under three ways of
learning. One of these three is actually not our learning. It refers to our inherited instinctive
behavior, which our ancestors learned, if at all it was necessary. Another way of our
learning is under direct instructions of the teachers or supervision of the adult members of
the society. Various school subjects and other skills in arts and crafts, are learnt in this way.
Lastly we learn the manners and customs of the society and other was of social life without
any direct instruction. We learn these things of our own record mostly by imitation, conscious
or unconscious.
Learning by Imitation
Human beings consciously or unconsciously, imitate the actions, manners, style and ways
of their fellow beings. A child learns to talk, to wear his coat, to lace his shoes, to sit in very
much the same manner as his parents or brothers do. It is very important, therefore, that
the first model should be worthy of limitation.
A child’s personality and, to a large extent, an adult’s is fashioned in part through imitation.
It means that many modes of adjustment are taken over by the imitator from other persons
who serve as models for conduct. Learning by imitation received so much emphasis that
instinct of imitation was recognized as the only medium for the acquisition of all mental and
skill learning. But this view has been changed now. And three different processes, all
imitative in their effect, have been accepted.
Imitation and Child’s Development - The First Stage
The first is a kind of imitation which is found very early in the child’s development. It is
significant chiefly in the first year of life. The child adopts the first forms (bye-bye, Ta-ta
etc.) as well as many gestures. This may be called the organic imitation.
A second early forms of imitation is the imitation of action which interest the child he
watches with great attention (putting of his father’s smoking or hiding his face in a newspaper
and start muttering in imitation of his father or elder brother).
Now follows the imitation of action seen in a picture or heard described in a story. All
these type of imitation occur in later childhood and sometimes in adults. The unconscious
imitation or local accents in speech is a case in point. The deliberate copying of others
becomes a more and more important factor in the growing personality especially, in adoption
or prejudices, belief and attitudes of one’s fellow beings.
Imitation is of great importance in the school and college-room. In learning drawing, music,
mode of delivering lectures, playing games and several other forms of skillful activity pupils
try to follow the manner of their teachers.
Imitation is one of the most fundamental and important means of learning. “Only the imitative
individual is capable of learning and the most imitative is the most educable ‘Our customs,

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ideals, modes of thought and behavior and entire culture are conserved through imitation.
We get a common basis of customs, ideas and language from it. Imitation does never crush
originality, on the other hand, it is the first stage in the development of individuality “and the
richer the scope for imitation the richer the developed individual will be”. Even great people
have to imitate others before they can contribute their own to this store-house of knowledge.
The word ‘originality is a misnomer.
It should be noted that there is an element of choice and pleasantness in every act of
imitation. There are thousand and one imitable acts but each one of us chooses only few of
these for imitation and neglects others. So there is an element of personal preference and
originally in every choice. Again no imitation is a carbon copy of thing imitated.
We learn many things by imitation. Children and higher animals are found to learn mostly
by imitation. The children are subject to imitation is of course a good way of learning.
Though most of our unschooled and uncultured people learn by imitation, with maturity the
tendency decreases. The children learn the skills in natural habits like speaking, walking
etc, by spontaneous unconscious imitation. Imitation is deliberate when one imitates some
skills with predetermined goal. It is necessary in learning reading, writing, drawing, dancing
etc. Spontaneous imitation facilities growth and deliberate imitation, learning imitation and
adult guidance together help the learning process. In the educational environment the children
should find scope for imitation. But by no means imitation should be compelled. Then it tends
to defeatist purpose. Mere imitation is not sufficient, because there are things which are’ not
possible to be learnt by imitation. It cannot be an exclusive process of human learning.
Mechanism of Learning
Mechanism of learning means ways of learning. Psychologists have generally agreed on
the point that there are three ways or methods of learning. These are (a) Conditioning, (b)
Problem solving, (c) Trial and error.
The Conditioned Response Theory of Learning
Salivation is the natural response to food when it comes in contact with the tongue. This
response is immediate and does not require any interference of consciousness or will. It
may thus be called a reflex action. But it is also noted that animals salivate not only to food,
but also in response to the sight or flavor of the food; This phenomenon fascinated Pavlov,
the great Russian Physiologist, and as a consequence he devised a series of experiments to
determine the conditions under which it occurred. As a result of successful experiments a
very important and valuable principle of learning has been established.
To establish a connection between a response, like salivation, and an initially stimulus, like
the sounding of a belt. Pavlon found that it was essential to pair the presentation of the new
stimulus with the original stimulus. The bell, for example, was sounded at the time was
presented to the dog or just before. The dog was found to salivate in response to the

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sound of the bell. The response which was thus learned was called by Pavlov a conditioned
reflex. The term conditioned reflex. The term conditioned reflex was first used by Pavlov.
But as in many cases the response is not a reflex action. The modern physiologists prefer
using the term ‘conditioned response” or CR. In brief. The natural stimulus is called
unconditional stimulus (U.S.) the natural response is called unconditioned response (U.R.)
and the artificial or substitute stimulus is called conditioned stimulus (C.S.).
In Pavlov’s laboratory, food was the original or unconditioned stimulus and salivation was
the unconditioned response. The sound of the bell was the conditioned stimulus. After a
number of trials the sound of the bell alone elicited the response, viz. salivation. Salivation
in response to the sound of the bell, which was not its natural stimulus, was called conditioned
response. The dog was found to salivate to the sound of the bell though no food was given.
This conditioned response would be reinforced by repeating the pairing of the conditioned
and unconditioned stimuli. It was also found that the conditioned response might be
extinguished by presenting only the conditioned stimulus without its being followed-by
the unconditioned stimulus. The dog no longer salivated at the sound of the bell after the
bell had been rung a certain number of times without food following-it. But such extinction
of conditioned responses are not permanent. They can be re-established by sounding
the bell and presenting food immediately after for a number of times. This is called
spontaneous recovery.
This fact of conditioning an animal to respond to an artificial stimulus is known as Positive
conditioning. There is also its opposite phenomenon known as Negative condi-tioning
which means that the animal learns to neglect stimulus if it is not found to be followed by
the desired consequence.
It has also been ascertained experimentally that the natural response to a natural stimulus
may be inhibited or arrested by habit and training. The horses and mules that are used to
carry food to the war front are trained to remain quiet in the midst of the loud sounds of
bombs. The natural reaction of these animals to such sources is to startle and run away.
Whenever they try to escape, from the battle-field. This negative conditioning will be more
firmly established if they are rewarded by good food when they do not show startle-
reaction.
It is evident that this process of conditioning is a potent factor to reckon with the field of
learning.
According to Pavlov, all learning is conditioning-reconditioning. The driver stops his vehicle
at red light and starts at green light. This is not natural response. He had to became
conditioned so that he might put the brakes upon his vehicle as soon as he saw the red
signal without any prior thought. He knows that failure to do this is sure to be followed by
punishment. The child has also to learn things in this way. As soon as the teacher steps into
the class-room, the child has to stand up. Such conditioning is a must in learning. Then

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again the bad habits, wrong responses etc., of the child have to be removed by the teacher
or by the parents by the process of recondition. Pavlov thought that “different kinds of
habits based on training, education and discipline of any sort are nothing but a long chains
of conditioned reflexes”.
The Behaviourists use this concept of conditioning and Pavlov’s physiological expla-nation
to explain all forms of learning. Bachterev and subsequently Watson concluded conditioning
experiments with human subjects and all these experiments have shown results similar to
those of Pavlov with his animals. A number of fears that children have are acquired through
the process of conditioning . This has been experimentally demonstrated by Watson, the
chief exponent of the Behaviouristic school. A nine-month old baby, Albert, had no fear of
rats, rabbits, balls of cotton wool. Now a rat was brought before him and as he approached
to touch it, a sudden loud sound was made by striking a mental .bar before him. Albert
showed signs of fear and startled-reaction. This procedure was repeated a number of
times as a result of which conditioning was established and Albert showed signs of fear at
the presentation of a rat and he also cried. Watson also showed that acquired fears can be
removed b % negative conditioning.
According to Pavlov and Watson all kinds of learning take place through conditioning of
responses. Learning progresses through changes in conditioned stimuli and responses and
conditioning new responses to new stimuli. The child is born with inborn and uncontrolled
reflex action and reactions. Within a shor’ time, these reflexes begin to be controlled in
various ways. Conditioned behaviours and transformed into habits through practice and
exercise. Initially, the child’s education is nothing but conditioned responses. Conditioning
of responses is not found in equal measure in all cases. Those who are mentally strong find
it easier to condition the nervous system and establish new bonds. Conditioned response
has been called the primary learning process. It is considered to play an important part in
the field of education. It has a role in the child’s learning of language. Many of the behaviours
of the child are created through conditioning. The word ‘conditioning’ is used in a very
wide sense. All forms of education have been included in it. Even the process of
brainwashing, adopted in particular cases in socialist states. All forms of education have
been included in it. Even the process of brainwashing adopted in particular cases in
socialist states, fall within just scope, We, however, take the word conditioning to mean
acquisition of artificial behavior, Pavlov thought that ‘different kinds of habits based on
training, education and discipline of any sort are nothing but a long chain of conditioned
reflexes’. Later investigations have shown that this theory of Pavloy. is not correct.
Many psychologists, however, still believe that the process of conditioned responses is
important in the field of education.
It is not possible to say what exactly is the manner in which education works. We can form
our ideas about it from the effect. The reasoi. is that the nervous system and the learning

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process are too complex to be clearly and completely understood. An observation of the
conditioned responses helps us form an idea about the process of education. The conditioned
responses can be found in various experiences during childhood.
It is the process of conditioned response which helps is finding the symptoms of mental
disorders like schizophrenia, paranoia, manic depression etc. It is also useful in checking
undesirable habits in children like bed-wetting till a late age, unreasonable fear, finger
sucking and biting nails etc. It is also helpful in assessing the mental level of children, the
mentally retarded and the abnormal. The process also makes it the teaching of some
school subjects like arithmetic, spelling etc, easier. The method of conditioned response, is
however, not the only method in the field of education.
Classical and Operant Conditioning
Normally, we react differently to different stimuli. Each stimulus has its special response or
relation. Pavlov was the first to inquire into the nature of reflex actions and tried to ascertain
whether the special response to a particular stimulus may be invoked by an alternative
stimulus. Conditioned response or Respondent conditioning is also called classical or
Pavlovian conditioning because it was first fully explored and described by LP. Pavlov
during a series of experiments on the salivation reflex in dogs.
Operant Conditioning
In operant conditioning, also called instrumental learning, learning is basically a process of
selection out of initial, crude, unlearned behavior, responses that are precisely and
economically effective in the specific situation.
The theory of operant conditioning is associated with the name of Prof. Skinner. He put
forward this theory on the basis of his experiments on learning in animals. His experiments
hae broad and important implications for human learning. Certain definite principles have
emerged out of his studies v/hich characterize quite nicely the way in which himan beings
form new associations and learn new things.
Experiment
Inside a specially constructed ‘Puzzle box’ called ‘Skinner box’ a hungry animal is placed.
The box is built in such a way that it will get a piece of fish or meat every time by depressing
a lever which is attached to the cage. Inside the cage a lever, a plate for eating food and
some mechanical arrangements for activising the animal are kept. Some pieces of fish or
meat are kept outside the box so that hungry animal, in the experiment would get a piece
of food every time it depresses the lever.
First, the animal was sufficiently motivated or stimulated to go into action by an external
stimulus say sounding of a bell of lighting up a small electric bulb inside the box. The animal
in its attempt at getting the food made some movements and in this process depressed the

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lever and with it a piece of fish automatically fell into the pot kept inside the cage. The
animal ate it with relish. Elated by the occurrence it depressed the lever again, and the
same thing was repeated. In the same manner, the experiment was continued. Skinner
noted that as the number of trials increased conditioning between depressing of the lever
and getting of food was effected in the animal.
Difference between Pavlov’s Theory of Conditioning and Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning
In Pavlov’s experiment food was the original or unconditioned stimulus and salivation
was the unconditioned response. The sound of the bell was the conditional stimulus.
After a number of trails the sound of the bell alone elicited the response viz, salivation.
Salivation in response to the sound of the bell, which was not its natural stimulus, was
called conditioned response.
In Skinner’s experiment the unconditioned stimulus did not create the conditioned response
viz. the depressing of the lever, which was the central theme in Pavlov’s experiment. In
Skinner’s experiment just the opposite happened. Here the conditioned response (depressing
of the lever) controlled the unconditioned stimulus (food). And for this reason it is called
operant conditioning. As the depressing of the lever caused the presentation of the food so
the lever may be described as an instrument and such type of behavior may be called
Instrumental act.
The conditioned response theory of Pavlov is mechanical. It has no place for the will,
attention and interest of the learner. Skinner’s theory fares better than Pavlov’s. Skinner
accepted both the law of exercise and the law of effect. The animals learned to depress the
lever because it is connected with satisfying states. Learning here is intimately related to
the needs of an animal and the animal easily learns those items that can fulfill those needs.
Human learning is more complex than animal response method (conditioned response).
But human learning is not limited to it. Man makes use of language. His different responses
to different stimuli are also complex. To man, learning does not mean mere establishment
of relationship between a stimulus and a response but the development of a method for
dealing with his many-sided problems. The method of operant conditioning plays important
part in human learning. It agrees on the importance of the freedom of the learner also. The
learner’s reaction is not controlled by the stimulus, but by the environmental condition
prevailing at the time.
The Theory of Learning by Insight or Theory of Problem-Solving
According to the Gestalt psychology, every kind of experience is a unique whole or a
gestalt. Whenever we perceive something, we perceive it is an organized whole or unit,
and not as a mere sum or aggregate of parts. The object of perception is always a whole,
a gestalt. The perception of a gestalt, again, exists as a figure against a more general and
vaguer background and assumes its particular form against that background.

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The Gestalt psychologists subjected. Thorndike’s theory of learning by trial-and error to

severe criticism. Kohler and Koffka, the two founders of the Gestalt school, argued that
learning was not a blind and mechanical process. It involves an insight into the field or total
situation. The way in which an organism adapts itself to changed environment is not
mechanical. The correct adaptation requires understanding of the. total situation. When an
animal is placed in a new environment, it learns the situation by insight, and not by mechanical
trial and error method. Insight means an understanding of the whole situation which is
necessary for the animal to learn a new movement for mastering a new situation. Gestalt
psychology has laid special stress ion the role of insight in learning.
Learning by Insight
In one very interesting and illuminating experiment, Kohler put a chimpanzee, Sultan, whom
he thought to be the most intelligent than others, inside a cage and a bunch of banana was
kept outside. Inside the cage were two sticks-one longer and the other shorter. One stick
was hollow at one end so that the other stick could be thrust into it to form a long stick.
The banana was so placed that neither of the sticks could reach it. But if the two sticks
were joined, the banana could be reached. The chimpanzee tried various means of reaching
the banana and made many unsuccessful movements. At last as the animal was no closer
to solution, the experimenter gave him a hint by thrusting one finger into the opening of the
larger stick directly before the eyes of the animal. But this clue failed to help the chimpanzee.
After an hour or so of futile attempts, the chimpanzee apparently gave up the task. He,
however, continued playing with the two sticks and after some manipulation, holding one
stick in the left hand and the other in the right hand he accidentally got them together and
with this long stick he pulled objects as stones that lay within reaching distance. On the
following day after making only a few desultory attempts, Sultan quickly joined the two
sticks and got the banana.
Criticism
Gestaltists ha’Ve called this insight learning. This can be understood by analyzing the above
experiment. Sultan definitely did not learn to pull the banana by repeating aimless trials and
errors. Learning, as it were, flashed upon his mind to make the total situation clear.’And as
soon as the total picture was clear to him he gained insight, which showed him the way.
According to the Gestaltists, learning is not a mechanical process. Man get insight into the
ways of adapting himself to a new situation by looking at the situation as a whole. Therefore
the whole is not only the sum of the different parts but something more than that. A sentence
is more than the whole and grammatical construction in it. The words in the sentence in
relation to each other produce a complete sense. On the other hand pattern or form is an
attribute of the mind. Due to power of cohesion all our experiences combing together and
form a new whole. So knowledge does not come from the sum of the sensations produced
by the stimuli in the situation but from the insight into the form or the pattern.

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Insight arises from an attempt to solve problem. Solution is the purpose. But there may be
some obstacles. So the nature of the problem depend upon the agent-goal-obstacle
relationship where the agent is the learner himself. The gaps in the new situation makes him
restless, until the dawning of insight which helps complete the ga s.
Learning by insight may also be called ‘learning by observation’. In such learning, the
solution is reached suddenly in a moment, without loss of time or energy. This has definitely
a special utility in human learning. The problem and the solution are understood together.
In this method the whole situation of learning lies open before the student, who has a clear
idea about his aim. He can understand the mutual relations among the different parts of a
problem, leading to the dawn of insight. In problem-solving, the whole solution appears
before one’s eyes.
It must, however, be kept in mind that trial and error have their role in learning ‘ y insight
also. Many authors do not accept learning by insight and have spoken, instead, of foresight
and hind sight. In problems requiring the use of machines, however, learning is possible
only by insight. For, the solution come into sight together and the student can learn easily.
There cannot, therefore, be a wholly mechanical explanation of learning.
Trial and Error Learning
Learning is an almost ubiquitous process. From the general behaviour of organism at one
end to the behavior of the human adult at me other, learning takes place in some form or
the other. A number of theories have been put forward regarding the learning process. It
must, however, be kept in mind that the difference between simple and complex learning is
one of degree only.
Thorndike’s Trial and Error Theory of Learning
The eminent American psychologist E.L. Thorndike, attempted to find out the simple laws
of learning by conducting experiments on animal learning, realizing the difficulties of finding
out these laws from the complex human behavior. Certain definite principles have emerged
out of his studies which characterized quite nicely the way in which children and adults
form new associations and learn new things.
Experiments on Animal learning
Thorndike conducted several experiments on animal learning with cats. Inside a specially
constructed “cage” or “puzzle box” or ‘maze’ a hungry cat is placed. The box is built in
such a way that its door can be opened by lifting a larch or pulling a wire loop or depressing
a lever. A piece of fish is kept outside the box, so that the hungry cat, in the experiment,
would be sufficiently motivated to go into action. The cat in its attempt at coming outside to
get at the food makes random movements. It squeezes through any opening, it claws and
bites at the bars. In the course of some random and impulsive hit-or-miss efforts to escape

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from the box, the cat, by sheer chance, handles the lever or the loop which opens the door.
The cat comes out and is allowed to have nimble at the food. It is again taken and put
inside the box. In this second trial also the cat makes all those random movement. In the
same manner, the experiment is continued. Thorndike noted that as the number of trials
increased, the unnecessary and irrelevant movements of the cat were reduced in number,
until finally, when the cat was put inside the box, it went straight to the lever or the loop,
clawed it and come out. This experiment led Thorndike came to the conclusion that the
cat learns not by intelligence or insight but by repeated attempts and errors.
Thorndike thinks that the above experiment is applicable to human learning also. In his
opinion man also learns through repeated attempts and errors. Learning takes place through
the establishment of the right connection between stimulus and response. When man shows
new behaviours in novel situations. It must be taken that he has established the right and
new connections between stimuli and responses. If a child laughs at the sight of and jumps
into the arms of the man of whom it was afraid previously, the reason is that the relation of
fear with the man has been replaced by a new relation. The hungry child cries and attracts
the mother’s attention, and thus finds a connection between crying and the pleasant situation
of having the mother’s attention. The child, therefore, cries whenever it wants to attract its
mother’s attention. Similarly, if a response creates an unpleasant situation, the link will be
broken. Thorndike says, “learning is the establishment of bonds between stimulus and
response and it follows mechanical process of blind trial and error”.The child, the student,
the adult all learn more or less through trial and error. It is through repeated errors that the
child learns drinking milk with a spoon, or walking or running or putting on its shoes.
Similarly when an adult learns to ride a cycle, to drive a car or to play cricket, he acquires
success through repeated errors. The trial and error method, although commonly followed
in a variety of learning, is very time-consuming and uneconomic. It is aimless, painful and
slow. If learning takes place by this method it entails a great amount of wastage of time and
energy. It is definitely of a lower level than other methods of learning. It must, however, be
admitted that much of the progress of human civilization, particularly our industrial civilization,
depends on this method.

BASIC LAWS OF LEARNING

(1) The Law of Effect

Learning occurs if and only if the response has some effect on the environment. The law of
effect maintains that when modifiable connection between stimulus response (S-R) has
been made, it was strengthened if it resulted in satisfaction and was weakened if it led to
annoyance. But later on in 1932 E.L.Thorndike modified his earlier law of effect as “that
satisfaction strengthens the bond but annoyance does not weaken it. “The law of effect
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flavor of the principle of hedonism using satisfier and annoyer. Thorndike tried to respond
the criticism by defining the terms in an objective way; “By a satisfying state of affairs is
meant one which the animal does nothing to avoid, often doing things which maintain or
renew it. By an annoying state of affairs is meant one which the animal does nothing to
preserve, often doing things which put an end to it.”
Class-room Application of the Law of Effect
The teacher can use this law in the class-room learning - teaching situations in the following
ways :
(a) The class-room experiences should be satisfactory and pleasant. The teacher
must enjoy his teaching work.
(b) Learning experiences and other activities must be meaningful and understandable
in terms of the personal life of the learners.
(c) School experiences and activities must be arranged in such a way that learners
may have some degree of confidence and success in their work.
(d) School activities should be organized in increasing difficulty order so that the
students may progress without any failure.
(e) Material should be provided in varied ways so that novelty may be maintained.
(f) Guidance, praise and encouragement that give pleasure and satisfaction of
knowing that he is on the right path, should be properly used.
(1) The Law of Exercise
The second law is divided into two parts as :
(a) Law of use, (b) Law of disuse.
The law of use states that other things being equal, the more frequently a modifiable
connection between stimulus-response (S-R) is made, the stronger that connection will
be. The law of disuses states that other things being equal, when a modifiable connection
between stimulus-response (S.R) is not made over a period of time, the strength of that
connection is weakened.
Application in Class-room Learning
(1) More and more opportunities should be given to the students to use and repeat
the knowledge they get in the class.
(2) To maintain the connections for longer period, review of the learned material is
necessary.

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(3) Drill strengthens the bondage between S-R. Drill plays an important role in
elementary classes in the learning of multiplication tables, alphabets and meanings
of words. According to Thorndike more and more drill should be given in
elementary classes to strengthen the bondage between stimulus-response.
(2) The Law of Readiness
When a modifiable connection is ready to act to do so is satisfying, where it is not ready to
do so is unsatisfying. Readiness is dependent upon both maturation and experience of the
learner.
Class-room Implication
(1) Teacher must wait till learner is ready to learn and should give those experiences
which help to enhance readiness. Preparatory experiences that will hasten the
growth of readiness can be provided in primary classes.
(2) Aptitude tests in various subjects may be given to determine the thoroughness
of learners.

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 Chapter - 3

STATISTICS IN EDUCATION

A n introduction to statistics which utilizes data, applications, and interpretations in

one’s own field is undoubtedly easier and more efficient that the alternative of learning
methods as applied in another field and then transferring the procedure to one’s own.
Lord Kelvin advocated “when you can measure what you are speaking about, they express
it in numbers you know something about it, but when you cannot measure it in numbers,
your knowledge is of meager and unsatisfactory kind.”

SCIENCE OF STATISTICS

Lovit had rightly mentioned “Statistics is the science which deals with the collection,
classification and tabulation of numerical facts as the basis of explanation, description and
comparison of phenomena.”
Sutcliffe said “Statistics comprises the collection tabulation, presentation and analysis of
an aggregate of fact, collecting in a methodological manner, without bias and related to a
predetermined purpose.”
According to Tata “Statistics as a tool in research, deals with the methods of collecting and
interpreting numerical fact.”
Some clinical psychologists are members of university faculties, where they spend their
time teaching and doing research, but most clinicians are either employed by agencies
concerned with the treatment of mental disorders and behavioural problems or are employed
in private clinical practice. In short, most clinical psychologists are concerned with helping
people. Of what possible value could a number of course in statistics and research methods
to a person who intends only to help people, and who has no intention of doing any
research beyond whatever may be required to earn an advanced degree? And perhaps
more to the point, what about the undergraduate student who has no intention of becoming
a professional psychologist? Why should course such as the one you are presently taking
be required for all psychology majors? The answer to these questions are straightforward
: Every professional psychologist and every psychology student as well is a consumer of
research, though not always a producer, and to be an intelligent, critical consumer of
research findings requires some knowledge and appreciation of how such findings are
generated. We are swimming - if not drowning - in a flood of research findings from every
field of science some of which may have implications stretching beyond our imagination.
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As we will see, the facts do not always speak for themselves, but rather may require a
considerable amount of interpretation. It behaves every thinking person to acquire some
of the tools which are necessary for the critical interpretation of research findings.
A parameter is any measure based upon an entire population. Parameters are perhaps
more widely known as “true: measures. For example, a true mean, which is parameter, is
the mean of all members of the population. A statistics is any measure derived from a
sample, and is frequently referred to as an “obtained” measure, or as an “observed” measure.
A parameter always has an exact constant value, although usually unknown : a statistics
varies in value from sample to sample Parameters are seldom determinable, since usually
the entire population is not accessible; in most instances, the best we can do is to estimate
the parameter by drawing a sample and calculating the corresponding statistic.
Descriptive Statistics
The first function of statistics in the service of research is to afford condensed and
summarized descriptions of units with regard to enumerable or measurable characteristics.
We call the statistical methods by which this function is achieved as simple descriptive
statistics of descriptive statistics. The measures usually used in descriptive statistics are
ratios, rates, percentages, frequency distributions, measures of central tendency and
measures of dispersion. These summarizing measures condense masses of unwidely data
into forms which supply information efficiently. Often detailed data on numerous items may
be distilled by statistical analysis into one or two summarizing measures which retain all the
essential information. This makes it possible to comprehend more easily certain aspects of
the materials and also to convey the information to other easily.
Inductive Statistics
Because of practical considerations a scientific inquiry must often be limited to the study of
only a small fraction of the items in which we are interested when this is the case, limited
number of units a sample is chosen from the entire series of the universe. The method of
choosing a sample for study must be carefully planned in order that the sample is chosen
from the entire series of the universe. The method of choosing a sample is chosen from the
entire series of the universe. The method of choosing a sample for study must be carefully
planned in order that the sample will be representative of the universe, with respect to the
characteristic or characteristics being investigated. For analyzing data gathered from a
representative sample of units, we have, in affition to the descriptive statistics which afford
a summary description of the sample itself, a more elaborate body of methods which
permits us to make certain estimates and to draw certain conclusions about the larger
group from which the sample has been drawn. The statistics method used in this inductive
function may be called inductive statistics.

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THE NATURE OF QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE

DESCRIPTIONS

We still make extensive use of qualitative descriptions, such as our categories of mental
disorders - schizophrenia, manic - depressive psychosis, and so on - but -as the study of
behavior has progressed, descriptions have tended to become more and more quantitative.
For example, counting the number of hallucinations a psychotic behavior. Changes in the
number of reported hallucinations may provide a rather fine grained description of a
psychotic’s behavior during the course of therapy. A declining frequency of such reports
would indicate at the very least a quantitative change in behavior though not necessarily a
decrease in the hallucinations themselves.
We often describe people as bright, dull or average when we observe them in situations
where we suppose intelligent behavior is required. Broad classifications of this sort have
proven useful, since we can predict to some extent people who show intelligent behavior
in one situation, perhaps in school, will tend to do so in other similar situations. For example,
a bright student who handles numbers well in school would be more likely to be a successful
accountant than a student who has chronic troubles with addition and subtraction.
Using only three descriptive categories - bright, dull, and average represents a very coarse
kind of classification. There may be great differences between people near the top of the
average category and people near the bottom of category. We might improve our prediction
by dividing our very broad categories into narrower ones - for example, very bright and fairly
bright, high average and low average, and so on. We could make our categories narrower
still by attaching numbers to the students, based on their grades or on their performance on
various standardized tests, such as scholastic aptitude, achievement, and IQ test, Using
numbers provides us with very fine-grained descriptions of behavior, and the better our
descriptions, the better predictions we can make, and the greater our progress toward
understanding behavior. There is a very strong historical trend toward greater use of quantitative
measurements in all of the sciences, and psychology is no exception in this respect.
Displaying Frequency Distribution
A frequency distribution can be presented in the form of a table or as a graph. Each kind
of presentation has its own advantages, which we will point out shortly.
Histograms. The tally column in Table provides a kind of graphical representation of the
frequency distribution, since each mark stands for one individual score, but the histogram
in Figure 4 provides a better pictorial presentation. The scores are located on the horizontal
axis, and the height of each bar indicates the frequency of each score. In a histogram,
frequency is nearly always plotted on the vertical axis, although in many bar graphs frequency

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is often shown on the horizontal axis. The bars of a histogram are drawn immediately
adjacent to each other because a histogram represents a frequency distribution associated
with an interval with an interval or ratio scale, and there are no gaps between adjacent
intervals on these scales. Each bar in this histogram can be considered as stack of squares,
where each squares are shown for some of the scores in Figure, although this is not usually
done. If each of the squares has a unit area an area equal to 1.00, then the total area of the
histogram if equal to N, the total number of scores. The proportion of scores falling above
or below some particular score in a distribution is often of great interest, as we will see,
and that proportion of scores is exactly equal to the proportion of the area of histogram
falling above or below the point of interest. For example, in Figure 4 we can readily see
that about half of the scores are higher than 16.

X Score
Fig. 1. Histogram showing the frequency distribution from Table shown on page 89.
Each small square associated with a score of 15 has a unit area, and thus the total
area of the histogram is equal to 30, the total N of the distribution.

In many cases, it will not be possible to represent each individual in a histogram by a

square of unit area, since in a large distribution the resulting bars would be far too high to
fit on a page, For example, it there were 300 students - rather than 30 - in the frequency
distribution in Table shown on page, then in order to show that larger distribution in a
histogram, we would need to compress the vertical scale considerably. The unit squares
would then be compressed into flattened rectangles, each representing a single person in
the distribution. If we consider each of those flattened rectangles, as having a unit area,

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then the total area of the histogram is equal to N, no matter how large N may be, and no
matter how much we may have compressed the vertical scale.
While the vertical scales of histograms and of other graphs are largely arbitrary, many
writers have suggested following the three-quarters rule, a convention holding that the
vertical extent of a graph should be about three-fourths as great as the horizontal extent.
This convention represents no law of nature - or even of mathematics - and is often
disregarded for one good reason or another, but the rule does provide a useful guide.
Frequency distributions prepared in accordance with the three-quarters rule convey the
most information with the least distortion, in most situations.
Frequency Polygons. The histogram in Figure 4 is reproduced in Figure 5, where we
have placed a dot at the midpoint of the top of each bar. We have also placed a dot on the
horizontal axis at a score of 1, indicating a frequency of zero for that score. Connecting
adjacent dots with a series of straight lines yields a frequency polygon, a many-sided
closed figure. The straight lines cut off a number of triangular areas from the tops of the
bars, but every such area exactly fits into a vacant area with the frequency polygon is
exactly equal to the area of the histogram.

X Score
Fig. 2. Same histogram as in Fig. J connecting the dots yields a frequency polygon.
Each triangular portion of the histogram lying above and outside the frequency
polygon exactly fits into a vacant area lying inside and below. Thus, the area of the
frequency polygon is the same as that of the histogram.

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X Score
Fig. 3. Frequency polygon in Fig.2. shown by itself.
Figure 6 shows, the frequency polygon by itself. Notice that we have placed a dot on this
horizontal axis just below the lowest score in the distribution and another just above the
highest, thus indicating a frequency of zero for the two scores just outside the distribution.
If these two points were not included, the frequency polygon would not be a closed figure
having the same area as the histogram. We will very shortly develop a number of numerical
methods of dealing with frequency distributions, but you will nevertheless often find it
useful to work up a distribution, but you will nevertheless often find it useful to work up a
distribution in graphic form. A frequency polygon can be drawn more quickly than a
histogram and is therefore a more useful representation for many purposes.

X Score
Fig. 4. Frequency polygon where the highest possible score. 20, has a non zero
frequency. Strictly speaking, frequency polygon is a misnomer here. Since the plot of
this distribution does not form a closed figures.

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A problem arises when the highest (or lowest) score actually occurring in a distribution is
the highest (or lowest) score possible. For example, suppose that several students got
perfect examination scores, say 20 out of 20 possible points on a multiple-choice
examination. The frequency polygon for such a distribution is shown in Figure 7. It is
unrealistic to place a dot on the horizontal axis indicating a zero frequency for a score of 21
points, since this might suggest that a score would be possible. Thus, we are left with a
frequency polygon that is not really a polygon at all, since it is not a closed figure, but this
is usually preferable to incorporating an impossible score into our distribution.

Fig. 5. Histogram showing a distribution having a large number of units on the scoring
scale and a small frequency for each score. The same distribution is replotted using
class intervals in Fig 6. Which figure conveyes more information about the shape of
the distribution?
Class Intervals. In the frequency distributions we have considered so far, we have plotted
the frequency of each score when constructing a histogram or frequency polygon, sometimes,
it is more useful to group the scores into a number of class intervals of equal width, and then
plot the frequency of scores falling within each of the class intervals. Figure 8 shows a distribution
of scores where the histogram conveys little information about the shape of the distribution. A
set of examination scores in a small class will often yield such a histogram.
If the scores in the above distribution are divided into class intervals of 30-39, 40-49, and
so on, as in figure 9, then the shape of the distribution becomes much more apparent.
Scores near the middle of the distribution are much more frequent than scores near the
ends, and this can be seen more readily when the scores are grouped into class intervals.
As a rule, if the scores in a frequency distribution cover a range of a great many scale units,
and if the frequency of each scores is rather small - as in the present case - then is useful to
group the scores into class intervals before plotting the distribution. The scoring should be
divided into about 9 to 11 class intervals of equal width, and thus the width of the class
intervals will be determined by the number of units on the scoring scale. There is no hard and
fast rule about the number of class intervals to use, but it turns out that about 9 to 11 intervals
will often yield frequency polygons and histograms that are fairly easy to interpret.

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Fig. 6. Frequency polygon showing the score in Fig.5. grouped into class intervals.
Compare this figure with that earlier one.

CLASSIFICATION AND TABULATION OF DATA

The collected date are classified into classes and sub-classes according to their
characteristics. This process is called ‘classification’. Then the classified data are presented
in precise and systematic tables. This process is called ‘tabulation’. By these two processes,
the collected data are made simple, easy to understand and systematic.
Classification
According to this definition, the chief features of classification are :
1. The basis of classification is unity in diversity.
2. The classification may be either actual or national.
3. The facts are classified into homogenous groups by the process of classification.
All the units having similar characteristics are placed in one class or group.
4. The classification may be according to either attributes or characteristics or
measurements.
Objects of Classification
The chief objects of classification are :
1. To bring out relationship. Classification helps in finding out cause effect
relationship, if there is any in the data. For example, data of small pox cases
occurred more in vaccinated or unvaccinated population.

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2. To bring out clearly, points of similarity and dissimilarity Classification brings

out clearly the point of similarity and dissimilarity of the data so that they can be
easily grasped. Facts having similar characteristics are placed in a class, such as
educated, uneducated, employed, enemployed, etc.
3. To present the facts in a simple form. Claffication process eliminated
unnecessary details and makes the mass of complex data, simple brief, logical
and understandable. For example, the data collected in a population census is
so huge and fragmented that it is not possible to draw any conclusion from them.
When these massive figures are classified according to sex, education, marital
status, occupation, etc, then the structure and nature of the population can easily
be understood.
4. To facilitate comparison. Classification of data enables one to make
comparison, draw inferences and locate facts. This is not possible in an
unorganized and unclassified data.
5. To present a mental picture. The process of classification enables one to form
a mental picture of objects of perception and conception. Summarised data can
easily be understood and remembered.
6. To prepare the basis for tabulation. Classification prepares the basis for
tabulation and statistical analysis of the data. Unclassified data cannot be
presented in tables.
Though many advantages are derived from classification, some amount of deta’.s is lost in
the process of summarization. The greater is the extent of summarization the more is the
loss of details. The statistician will have to weigh and balance the advantages he would
derive from summarization, the loss of details he will have to suffer, and decide on the
extent of summarization he will have.
Characteristics of Classification
When we make a classification, we break up the subject matter into a number of classes.
It is important that he classification should possess following characteristics:
1. Stability. Classification must proceed at every stage in accordance with one
principle and that principle should be maintained throughout. If a classification is
not stable and is changes for every enquiry, then data would not be fit for
comparison.
2. Flexibility. A good classification should be flexible and .should have the capacity
of adjustment to new situations and circumstances.
3. Homogeneity The items included in one class should be homogeneous.

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4. Mutually Exclusive. The classes must not overlap. That is, each item of data
must find its place in one class and one class only. There must be no item which
can find its way into more than one class.
5. Exhaustive. The classification system must be exhaustive. There must be no item
which cannot find a class. There must be a class for each item of data in one of
the classes. If classification is made exhaustive, there will be no place for ambiguity.
6. Arithmatical Accuracy. The total of the items included in different classes,
should tally with the total of the universe.
7. Suitability. The classification should conform to the object of enquiry. If an
investigation is carried on to enquire into the economic conditions of labourers,
then it will be useless to classify them on the basis of their religion.
Methods of Classification
Every item of the collected data has its own characteristics. These characteristics can be
of two kinds : measurable characteristics, which are called quantitative variables; and non-
measurable characteristics, called qualitative variables or attributes. Measurable
characteristics are: height, weight production, etc. Sex, marital status, education, etc., are
the characteristics which cannot be measured. Hence, statistical data can have two kinds
of classification, (a) classification according to attributes or qualitative classification, and
(b) classification according to variables or quantitative classification.

DEFINITION OF TABLE AND TABULATION

“A statistical table is a systematic arrangement of data in labeled columns and rows”.

According to Prof. Neiswanger, “A statiscal table is a systematic organization of data in
columns and rows”. Turtle has given a comprehensive definition of statistical table in these
words. “A statistical table is the logical listing of related quantitative data in vertical columns
and horizontal rows of numbers, with sufficient explanatory and qualifying words, phrases
and statements in the form of titles, headings and noted to make clear the full meaning of
the data and their origin”. According to these definitions, a statistical table is a arrangement
of systematic presentation of data in columns and rows.
Tabulation is the process of tabulating data in tables. Tabulation is a process of outcome of
which are statiscal tables. Thus, tabulation is defined as a process. In brief, tabulation is a
scientific process involving the presentation of classified data in a orderly manner so as to
bring out their essential features and chief characteristics.

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Objects of Tabulation
Tabulation is a process which helps in understanding complex numerical facts. “The
purpose of a table is to summarize a mass of numerical information and to present it in
the simplest possible form consistent with the purpose for which it is to be used. In a
very real sense, the statistical table serves the statistician in much the same fashion that
poetry serves the writer - it is a medium of communication of great economy and
effectiveness for which ordinary prose is an adequate.....In addition to its function in
simple presentation, the statistical table is also a useful tool of analysis.” Tabulation has
following objectives to fulfill;
1. To clarify the characteristics of data. A table presents facts clearly and
concisely, eliminating the need for wordy explanation. It brings out the chief
characteristics of data.
2. To clarify the object of investigation. “The function of tabulation in the general
scheme of statistical investigation is to arrange in easily accessible form the answer
with which the investigation is concerned”. Te presentation of data in tables
make the problem under study simple and clear and answers many problems
that are found there.
3. To facilitate statistical process. It simplifies reference to data facilitates
comparative analysis and interpretation of the facts.
4. To present facts in the minimum of space. A table presents facts in minimum
space and communicates information in a far better way than textual material.
Advantages of Tabulation
Tabulation is an important process between collection and classification of data and
their interpretation. The tabular presentation of data has several distinct advantages.
They are :
1. Facilitates Computation. It helps in computation of different statistical measures.
For calculating average, dispersion, correlation, etc., data must by presented in
tables.
2. Helps classification. While classification is a theoretical process of data analysis,
tabulation is an applied process. Tabulation is helpful in classification also. After
classifying data the characteristics of different classes are not clear till they are
placed in a suitable table.
3. It simplifies facts. Tabulation is helpful in presenting mass of complex data clearly
so that their features can easily be understood. After tabulation, data get a definite

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form and structure, and can be studied from up to below and left to right easily. It
reveals patterns within the figures which cannot be seen in narrative form.
4. Economy. It occupies less space than textual reports hence saving of paper and
time. Required figures can be located more quickly.
5. Helpful in comparison. Tabulation makes comparison easy. Comparable figures
are placed in juxtaposed columns, hence a comparative study can be made.
6. Helps in reference. Tabulated data are good for reference purposes.
7. Helps in interpretation and presentation. It is convenient to interpret
tabulated data. Tabulated data make it easy to present the facts in a graphical
and diagrammatic form.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLASSIFICATION

AND TABULATION

In statistical investigation, classification and tabulation both are important processes, by

which collected data are summarized and put in systematic order. Still, there are some
differences between these two processes. They are;
1. Both the processes have to be done in a sequence. One is not the substitute for
the other. First, data are classified, then they are presented in tables. Hence,
classification forms the basis for tabulation.
2. In classification process, data are classified into different classes according to
their similarities and dissimilarities. In tabulation the classified data are place in
columns and rows. Thus, tabulation is a mechanical function of: classification.
3. Classification is a process of statistical analysis, tabulation is a process of
presenting data in suitable structure.
In short, classification process data are classified into classes and subclasses, while
tabulation presents those classified data permanently under headings or sub-headings.
Tables may also contain derivatives like percentages, coefficients, proportions, etc, to
facilitate comparison.
Limitation of Tabulation
Tabulation has got certain limitations as well :
1. A table contains only figures and not their description. It is not easy to understand
it by persons who are nor adept in assimilating facts from tables.

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2. It requires a specialized knowledge to understand a table. A layman cannot

derive any conclusion from a table.
3. A table does not lay emphasis on any section of particular importance.
After we have classified the statistics into various groups, we find out Frequency After we
have classified the statistics into various groups, we have to see that which figures of our
disorganized list, are included in each group and how many of the figures are there. We
shall have to see about each figure of the disorganized list and its position in each group. A
perpendicular line shall be drawn against the group in which a particular figure of the
disorganized group finds a place. This perpendicular line is called Tally. If against one
group, we have put 4 Tallies and again we have to put fifth against it, we shall draw it in
such a way that it runs across for straight lines.
It may be drawn like this 1111 (4 Tallies) 1111 (5Tallies). we have to put 8 Tallies against one
group, we shall put them like this - 1111 111. Now we shall try to draw Tallies against the
groups that we have already drawn. A chart of the same is given below :
86-88 1111 I ” 6
83-85 II ” 2
80-82 I ” 1
77-79 II ” 2
74-76 II ” 2
71-73 III ” 3
68-70 II ” 2
65-67 II ” 2
62-64 1111 I ” 6
59-61 II ” 2
56-58 1111 I ” 6
53-55 II ” 2
Total 36

After putting Tallies against each group, they are added un and written out. In the end the
total of the frequencies is found out. This total is called sigma F(Zf).

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Frequency Distribution of Test Scores for a class of 30 Students.

Score Tally Frequency

X f
22
21 1 1
20
19 11 2
18 1111 5
17 1111 1 6
16 1111 1111 10
15 1111 4
11 1
13 1 1
12
n = 30 = f

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Frequency distribution is simply a table in which the data are grouped into classes and the
number of cases which fall in each class are recorded. In other words, it shows the frequency
of occurrence of different values of single phenomenon. A frequency distribution is
constructed for three main reasons : (i) to facilitate the analysis of data, (ii) to estimate
frequencies of the unknown population distribution from the distribution of sample data
and (iii) facilitate the computation of various statistical measures.
Kinds of Frequency Distribution
Basically, frequency distribution can be of two kinds :
1. Univariate Frequency Distribution.
2. Bivariate Frequency Distribution.
Univariate frequency distribution is of three types ;
(i) Series of individual observations or simple frequency table :
(ii) Discrete series; and
(iii) Continuous series.

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(a) Series of Individual Observations. Series of individual observations is a series

where items are listed singly after observation, as distinguished from listing them
groups. If marks of 50 students in a particular subject are given individually, it
will form a series of individual observations.
(b) Discrete Series. In a discrete series the data are presented in a way that exact
measurements of units are clearly indicated. There is definite difference between
the variables of different groups of items. Each class is distinct and separate
from the other classes. Non-continuity from one class to another exists. Data on
such facts like, per family children, or per house rooms, etc. are given in discrete
series. It is like :
Per family
Children (m) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total
No. of families (f) 10 20 50 60 40 12 8 200
(c) Continuous Series. Continuous series is one where measurements are only
approximations and are expredded in class, i.e., within certain limits. In a
continuous frequents distribution the class intervals theoretically continue from
the beginning of the frequency distribution to the end without break. The continuous
frequency distribution can always be distinguished from the discrete frequency
distribution in that it will contain two ‘limits’ - upper limits and lower limits of
each class interval - while the discrete frequency distribution will possess only
one ‘list’ of classification of values.
Below is an example of a continuous series ;
Marks obtained
(class Interval) 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100
No. of Students
(Frequency) 10 15 30 15 10-80
Classification by class-intervals or groups. The classification by groups or class intervals
is possible only in those cases where the direct quantitative measurement of data is possible.
Data pertaining to height, weight, income, export, production, marks, etc. comes under
this category. Suppose, we have to study the expenses of one thousand students of a
college, data will be the amount of expenses incurred by every student to the nearest
rupee. We will have 1000 figures ranging from, say Rs.50 to 200. These figures will have
to be grouped in such a way that the mass of data becomes precise and easy to understand.
In this case we can group students according to their expenses within a certain range, say
of 25. The series will be formed in this way.

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Class Intervals Frequencies

Expenses in Rupees No. of Students
Lowest value 50-57 200
75-100 150
100-125 300
125-150 150
150-175 150
175-200 Largest value 50
1000

Definitions in regard to construction of series

(i) The Range. The range of a frequency distribution may be defined as the difference
between the lower limit of the first class interval and the upper limit of the last
class interval.
(ii) Class Intervals. The class interval may be defined as the size of each grouping
of data.
(iii) Class Limits. The class limits of a frequency distribution are defined as the
upper and lower limits of each interval.
(iv) Magnitude of class intervals. The difference between upper and lower limits
of a class is called the magnitude of the class.
(v) Mid-value or Mid-point. The central point of a class interval is called its mid-
value or mid-point.
(vi) Frequency. Number of observations falling within a particular class interval is
called frequency of that class.
A Few Problems in Classification by Class Intervals.
In preparing a frequency distribution by class intervals, a few problems are discussed
below :
1. The magnitude of class Intervals. The class intervals themselves should be of
equal size. Under most circumstances, it is possible to keep each class interval
the same size as every other class interval. However, for some kinds of data it is
justifiable to have different sizes of class intervals. The situation in which, all the
class intervals were of the same size, the result would be that some class intervals

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would have no data on them or very few data, whereas other class intervals
would have very sizeable numbers of data in them the use of different sizes of
class intervals in necessary.
2. Number of class intervals. The number of class intervals in a frequency
distribution should be such as to allow for advantageous summarization and to
make the characteristics of the data emerge. It is necessary to decide as to want
should be the number of class intervals. Though there us no hard and fast rule
regarding the number of class intervals, yet their number should be neither very
large nor very small. It should preferably lie between 5 and 15. If there are too
many class intervals, the data become two fragmented to give a picture of the
distribution as a whole. Fewer class intervals will make the data too concentrated,
so as not to throw light on their characteristics. In both the conditions there will
be difficulty.

METHODS OF FORMING CLASS INTERVALS

There are two ways of forming class intervals;

1. Exclusive Method
2. Inclusive Method
Exclusive Method
Under the exclusive method the upper limit of one class intervals is the lower limit of the
next class. In the above example the upper limit of the first class interval is 75, which is the
lower limit of the next class. Similarly, the upper limit of the second class interval is 100
which is the lower limit of the third class interval. All variables having the value of 50 and
more but lee than 75 will be grouped in 50-75 class interval. The item having the value of
75 will be put in 75-100 class. In other words, the items valuing the upper limit of a class
are put in the next class. Inclusive Method
There is another method of framing the class intervals. In this method, known as inclusive
method, ambiguity about items identical to a limit of the class interval is sought to be
removed. Under this method the classes in the above example will be : 50-74, 75-99,
100-124, 125-149, 150-174 and 175-199. If there are no whole numbers then the
classes can be made like this: 50-74-9, 75- 99-9. 100-124-9, 125-149-9, 150-174-9
and 175-199-9.

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These Methods may be illustrated as follows :

A B C
(Exclusive Method) (Inclusive Method) (Inclusive Method)
Class Frequency Class Frequency Class Frequency
5-10 7 5-9 7 5-9-9 7
10-15 10 10-14 10 10-14-9 10
15-20 13 15-19 13 15-19-9 13
20-25 18 20-24 18 20-24-9 18
25-30 8 25-29 8 25-29-9 8
30-35 5 30-34 5 30-34-9 5
35-40 3 35-39 3 35-39-9 3
Total 64 64 64
In inclusive method the problems arises in identifying the real class limits and mid points.
The mid-points found by adding either the stated or the real limits and dividing by 2.
There is another way of giving a series. Sometimes full class intervals are not given, only
mid-points are given. For example, series may be written like :
Mid-value Frequency
7-5 7
12-5 10
17-5 13
22-5 18
27-5 8
32-5 5
37-5 3

To convert such a series into that of class intervals, following steps should be taken:
1. Find out the difference between mid-values.
2. Difference should be halved and by deducting half the difference from the mid-
vale, lower limit of the class will be found out and by adding half the difference
to the mid-value upper limit of the class will be found out.
In the above example, difference between two mid-values is of 5, half of this mid-values is
of 5, half of this 5/2-2-5, when deducted from mid-value, 7-5-2-5 = 5 is the lower limit
and when added to mid-vale, 7-5 + 2-5 = 10 is the upper limit of the class. Hence, the
classes will be, 5 - 10, 10- 15, 15 -20, 25 -30, 30-35 and 35 -40.

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In certain frequency distributions, ‘open end’ class intervals are given as we find in the
example given below :
Class Frequency
Below 10 7
10-15 10
15-20 13
20-25 18
25-30 8
30-35 5
Above 35 3
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In such cases, values are put on the basis of construction of the series. In the above series
‘5’ in place of ‘below’ and ‘40’ in place of ‘above’ may be put.
Cumulative Series. Cumulative frequency distribution has a running total of the values. It
is constructed by adding frequencies of the first class interval to the frequencies in the
second class interval, that total is added to the frequencies in the third class interval continuing
until the final appearing opposite the last class interval will be the total of all frequencies.
The cumulation may be downward or upward. A downward cumulation results in a list
presenting the number of frequencies “less than” any given amount as revealed by the
lower limit of succeeding class interval; and an upward cumulation results in a list presenting
the number of frequencies “more than” given amount as revealed by the upper limit of a
preceding class interval. Cumulatives series take the following shapes.
Downward cumulation Upward cumulation
A B
Below or less than Frequency Above or more than Frequency
” ” 10 7 ” ” 35 3
” ” 15 17 ” ” 30 8
” ” 20 30 ” ” 25 16
” ” 25 48 ” ” 20 34
” ” 30 56 ” ” 15 47
” ” 35 61 ” ” 10 57
” ” 40 64 ” ” 5 64
The below series are cumulative frequency series. In the table ‘A’, class frequencies will
be found out by deducting the cumulative frequency of the class from the cumulative of the
next class. For example;

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Class Frequency
5-10 7 7
10-15 17-7 10
15-20 30-17 13
20-25 48-30 18
25-30 56-48 8
30-35 61-56 5
35-40 64-61 3
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In the table ‘B’ class frequency will be found out by deducting the cumulative frequency of
the next class from the cumulative frequency of the class. For example;
Class Frequency
5-10 64-57 7
10-15 57-47 10
15-20 47-34 13
20-25 34-16 18
25-30 16-8 8
30-35 8-3 5
35-40 3-0 3
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Relative frequency distribution. It is sometimes required to show the relative frequency
of occurrences rather than actual number of occurrences in each segment of the scale. If
the actual frequencies are expressed as a percent of the total number of observations,
relative frequencies are detained. An example is given on next page to illustrate frequency
distribution.
Class Frequency Relative Frequency (%)
0-10 52 23.6
10-20 34 15.5
20-30 70 31.8
30-40 26 11.8
40-50 16 7.3
50-60 12 5.5
60-70 8 3.5
70-80 2 0.9
Total 220 100.0

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MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Sometimes we find that in statistical data, there is some number near-about which other
numbers exist. In other words, it means that the remaining numbers are near-about the
central digit. It means that other numbers are either lower than that particular number or
slightly over or more than that. Then this tendency of statistical data is called Central
Tendency. For example, imagine that there are five students who have secured 8, 9, 10, 11
and 12 marks respectively. On scrutiny, we find, almost all the figures are near-about the
figure of 10. The remaining figures are either less than 10 or slightly more than that figure.
This tendency of the figures shall be called Central Tendency.
Educational Value of Central Tendency
This tendency has its use in education as well. Sometimes a student of a class wants to find
out his position in the class. In other words, he wants to known his position in reference to
ordinary and normal students. In such a situation he shall try to know the central figure. He
tries to do it by any of the three methods given below:
1. Finds out the Mean and carries out the comparison with other students.
2. He finds out the Medium of the marks secured by various students of his class.
3. Thirdly, he tries to find out the average marks that the students have secured. In
other words, he finds out the Mode and compares his position.
Let us now try to find out what this Mean, Medium and Mode are :
Method to Find out Mean
The method to find out the Mean of Ungrouped figures or statistics. The first thing
that has to be seen is to find out whether the marks of the student have secured are
Grouped or Ungrouped.
If the marks secured by the students are not given in groups, then the method, to find out
their Mean, is to add those figures. Then divide that total by the number of the students.
Suppose, five students have secured 40, 45, 60, 75 and 80 marks respectively and their
average has to be found out. Then these figures should be added up and divided by the
figure of 5 like this :
40 + 45 + 60 + 75 + 80 = 300 = 6
5 5
The average shall now be 60. In other words, it means that the marks of the five students
are near-about 60.
The method of finding out the mean is the same by which we find out the Arithmetic Mean.

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Method of finding out the Mean of Grouped Statistics. When the number of statistical
data is in huge quantity, such as thousands, then it is difficult to find out the Mean by the
method given above. In such cases statistical figures are not kept separately, but their
Frequency Distribution is made.
Example. Find out the mean of the following;
Marks Frequency Mid-point Frequency distribution
f x fx
28-32 4 30 120
23-27 5 25 125
18-22 8 20 160
13-17 7 15 105
8-12 6 10 60
30 = f fx = 570
(Sigma) = Grand Total
f = Frequency
x = Central point
fx = Multiplication of the frequency by the Central point of the groups.
N = Total number of Cases
In the list given above, the first group is 8-12 and its frequency is 6. It means that 6
students have secured marks between 8 and 12. Now the question is, how many marks,
has each student, out of the 6, secured ? According to statistics, the Central point or
Median states how many marks each student has secured. The Central point (Mean) of
the first Group 8-12 is 10. Thus we can say that out of the 6 students, each has secured 10
marks. In other words, all the students have secured 10x6=60 marks in total. Thus it
means that we can find out the total number of the marks secured by the students of each
group by multiplying the Central Point or Median by frequency. In the end, by adding up
or totaling the frequencies, we can find out how many students are there. Then, by adding
the multiples of the Central point (or Median) and the frequencies, we can know how
many students have secured how many (or total) marks. Thus we can know how many
marks, the total number of students have secured. Now by dividing the total number of
marks (fx) by the total number of students, we can find the Mean or Average.
Procedure to find out Mean or Average. In order to find out the Mean, the following
steps should be taken :
(a) The Median or the Central point and its frequent should be multiplied.
(b) Then the multiples and the frequencies should be added up separately.

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(c) The total of the multiples should be divided by the total number of the frequencies.
According to the steps give above, the Mean may be found out with the help of
the following formula :

Mean = (Total of the multiples of the Central point and frequencies (f)
Total of frequencies
According to this formula the average of the figures or statistics given above, shall
be : 570
30 = 19
In other words, the Mean shall be 19
.
. . Mean = fx or Total of (Median or Central point) x (Frequency)
N number or (Total of frequencies)
Now we shall try to solve another example and find out the Mean, this shall clarify the
whole procedure more.
Example : Students of a class have secured the following marks in Mathematics. Find out
the Mean of their marks by the Long Method :
97, 94, 92, 33, 47, 19, 28, 87, 9, 37, 54, 77, 5,
1, 69, 41, 70, 35, 59, 84, 30, 16, 85, 33, 34, 49,
72, 91, 2, 48, 79, 21, 7, 26, 51, 14, 81, 45, 75,
47, 83, 69, 12, 66, 36, 64, 25, 43, 68, 32, 67, 24,
15, 62, 11,
Difference between Median of Central Frequency Median of
Group or span of Point of Groups (f) Group (x)
Groups X Frequency
Fx
90-99 94-5 4 378-0
80-89 84-5 5 422-5
70-79 74-5 5 372-5
60-69 64-5 7 451-5
50-59 54-5 3 163-5.
40-49 44-5 7 311-5
30-39 34-5 8 276-0
20-29 24-5 5 122-5
10-r9 14-5 6 87-0
0-19 4-5 5 22-5
N = 55 fx = 2607.5

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2607.5
 Mean =  fx = = 47.5
N 55
Hence, M = 47.4.
In the method of finding out the Mean given above, there is a good deal of calculation. In
the column fx, there are huge figures that run into more digits. This makes the work difficult.
Then there is a Short Method, which is more in use. In this method the Mean is assumed.
This is called Assumed Mean. With the help of this Assumed mean the real Mean is found
out. The procedure of this method is like this :
The Central point or Median of some group which is in the middle of the deviation or
which has the highest frequency is taken as Assumed Mean. The Deviation of the other
groups from that particular group is put down in the units of the groups. It means that the
groups which are above the group in which the Assumed Mean exists, their Deviation is
put down with plus sign and the groups that are below that group, their Deviation is put
down with minus sign. The numbers this acquired are multiplied by the frequency of the
group which contains Assumed Mean. All these products are added up according to the
rules of Algebra. This total is divided by N or total number of the multiplicants, the result of
this is known as Corrected Value or C. Now this is multiplied by the multiplicant figure
which is indicated by T. When this is added to the Assumed Mean, then actual mean is
found out. If Deviation figure is indicated by ‘x’, then the formula for finding out the mean
shall be like this :
Mean = Assumed Mean (or A.M.) + fx I; or M = A.M. + Ci
N
(where M is Mean. C = fx and A.M. is Assumed Mean).
N
Now we shall find out the mean of the figures given above through the short Method.
Difference between Median of Central Frequency Deviation Frequency
Group or span of Point of Groups (f) (x´) Deviation
Groups (fx´)
90-99 94-5 4 +5 +20
80-89 84-5 5 +4 +20
70-79 74-5 5 +3 +15
60-69 64-5 7 +2 +14
50-59 54-5 3 +1 + 3
+72
40-49 44-5 7 0
30-39 34-5 8 -1 -8
20-29 24-5 5 -2 - 10
10-19 14-5 6 -3 -18
0-19 4-5 5 -4 -20
-56
Span of Groups (x) (f) (x´) (fx´)
N = 55 fx1= 16

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. . Mean = A.M. + fx × i N
N
= Assumed Mean + fx × 1
N
= 44.5 + 16 × 10
55
= 44.5+ 2-9 = 47.4
Hence, Mean = 47.4
Example.
Number Mid Point (x) f fx
120-122 12 1 121
117-119 118 3 354
114-116 115 4 460
11 l-l 13 112 7 784
108-110 109 9 981
105-107 106 4 424
102-104 103 5 515
99-101 100 4 400
96-98 97 2 194
93-95 94 2 188
90-92 91 1 91
N = 42 fx´ = 4512
Mean = fx = 4512 = 107.43
N 42
Example.
Number Mid Point (x) f X fx
55-59 57 1 5 5
55-54 52 2 4 8
45-49 47 4 3 12
40-4 4 42 5 2 10
35-39 37 8 1 8
30-34 32 10 0 0
25-29 27 6 -1 -6
20-24 22 4 -2 -8
15-19 17 4 -3 -12
10-14 12 2 -4 -8
5-9 7 3 -5 - 15
0-4 2 1 -6 -6
N = 50 fx´ = –12

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AM = 32-00 C = -12/50 = - -240

Ci = 1-2 i=5
M = 30-80 Ci = - 1-20
.
. . Mean = AM + ci = 32 + (- 1-20) = 30-80.
Method to Find out the Median
Median is that figure, above and below which there are equal number of figures. Suppose
5 students have secured 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 marks respectively, then their Median shall be
10, because on both sides of the 10, there are 2 marks or 2 figure each. If in a list there are
51 figures, then 26th shall be the median as 25 figures each on both side. The median is
thus a positional average.
In case of ungrouped data, it the number of figures is odd then the median is the middle
figure after the figures have been arranged is ascending or descending order of magnitude.
In case of even number of figures, there are two middle figures and the median is obtained
by taking the arithmetic mean of the middle figures.
For example, the median of the figures 7, 9, 8, 6, 4, 5, 3 ie., of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 is 6 and
the median of 4, 5, 3, 6, 7, 8, ie., of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 is - [5 + 6] = 5-5.
The Method to find out the Median of the grouped figures : Suppose we have to find out
the Median of the figures given in the following groups :
Groups Frequencies
38-42 6
33-37 4
28-32 3
23-27 6}
18-22 4}
13-17 5} 12
8-12 3}
31
The total of the frequencies in the list given above is 31. In other words, it means that there
are 31 figures of digits whose Median is to be found out. We have to find out that figure on
each side of which there are equal number of digits or figures. Therefore, first of all we
have to find out the figure that exists in the centre. The formula in this regard is like this :
N + 1 or Total +1
2 2

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In this way we have to find out the Median of the figure that exists in the centre of the list
given above, i.e., 31 + 1 = 16.
2
This means that we have to find out the figure which exists at 16th place.
The total of the frequencies of the first three groups from below shall be 3 + 5+ 4= 12. The
total of the frequencies of the first four groups from below shall be 18. Therefore, if we
case an attentive eye on the list given above, we shall come to the conclusion that the figure
of 16 lies in the fourth group (23-27). Now the Mean of the 12th figure in the list is 22,
which is the highest figure of the group 18-22. But we have to find out the figure at 16th
place. Therefore, if we add the Mean of the 4 figures more in the Mean of the 12lh figure
then we shall know the figure at the 16th place. In the 4th group 23-27, there is the span 5
and its frequencies are 6, In this manner the 6 figures divide 5 into equal numbers, but we
have to find out the Mean of 4 figures only and thus :

The Mean of 6 is 5. Therefore, Mean of 4 shall be 5 × 4 = 10

3 or 3.3
6
Now if we add the Mean of 4 figures, i.e., 3.33 to the Mean of the 12th figure or digits,
which is 22 and according to the rule of statistics, 22-5, then the Mean of the 16th figure
shall be found out :
22.50 + 3.33 = 25.83
This shall be the Median of the list of groups given above. Formula for finding out the
Median

( )
n –f
2
Median = L + ×i
fm

It can be clarified like this :

L = Lower limit. This is nothing, but the lowest figure of the group in which the
Median falls.
N = Half of the total frequencies of Total of frequences + a
2 2
F = The total of the frequencies of the groups that are below the group in which the
Median exist.
fm = The figure of the span or range of the group in which Median exist.
i = The figure of the span or range of the group in which Median is there.
Now if the Median of the list of the figures given above is to be found out by the formula
given both then it should be obtained on the basis of the clarification of the formula.

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Let us consider an example where

L = 22-5
N = 31 – 1
2 2
F = 12,
fm = 6
I = 5.
Hence, according to formula:

( )
N –F
2
Median = L + ×i
fm

= 22.5 + 16 – 12 × 5
6
= 22.5 + 2 – 5
3
= 22.5 + 10
3
= 22.5 + 3.33
.
. . Mdn = 25.83
Now we shall solve another example and clarify the procedure of finding out the Median.
Here again we shall take the arithmetical multiplicants or Arithmetical Mean.
Difference between groups Frequency Cumulative Total
90-99 4 55
80-89 5 51
70-79 5 46
60-69 7 41
50-59 3 34
40-49 7 31
30-39 8 24
20-29 5 16
10-19 6 11
0-9 5 5
N = 55

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( )
n –F
2
Median = L + ×1
fm

55 – 24
2
= 39.5 + × l0
7

= 39.5 + 27.5 – 24 × l0
7
= 39.5 + 3.5 × l0
7
= 39.5 + 5 × 10
= 39.5 + 5
= 44.5
.
. . Median = 44.5
Example
Number Frequencies
55-59 1
50-54 2
45-49 4
40-44 5
35-39 8 20
30-34 10
25-29 6 20
20-24 4
15-19 4
10-14 2
5-9 3
0-4 1
N = 50

Mdn = L + ( )
N –F
2
fm
N
Here, L = 29.5, 2 = 25, F = 20, fm = 10, I = 5.

Mdn = 29.5 + ( )
25 – 20
10 × 5 = 29.5 + 2.5 = 32

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Number f
80-84 4
75-79 2
70-74 0
65-69 0
{ 60-64 4}
{ 55-59 0}
{ 50-54 0}
{ 45-49 4}
40-44 2
35-39 2
30-34 2
N = 20
N = 10
2
Median = 54.5 + 0 × 5 = 54.5
4
Method to Find out the Mode
The number that occurs in the list several times is called Mode. Suppose we have to find
mode of the figures.
2,2,3,3,4,4.5,5,5,5,5,6,6.
In this list the number 5 has occurred five times and so it shall be called Mode.
Method to find out the Mode of the ungrouped list of figures can be found out only by
observing it as it has been done in the list given above. In that list it was seen that the
number 5 occurred maximum number of times and so it was the Mode.
The Method to find out the Mode of the grouped statistical data : In a list of the figures or
statistical data that is grouped we take up the central figure or the Mean of that group
which contains highest frequencies. We clarify our statement with the help of the two
examples given below :
Suppose we have to find out the Mode of the two lists of the statistical data.
Example :
Group and Mean or central figure Frequencies
38-40-42 6
33-35-37 3
28-30-32 4
23-25-27 9
18-20-22 7
13-15-17 6
8-10-12 5

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In the list given above, we have the highest number of frequencies (9) in the group 23-27.
Therefore the mean or the central figure of this group, i.e., shall be the Mode.
Suppose in a list there are 2 adjacent or neighbouring groups whose frequencies are equal.
Then in such a condition, we will have to take the Mode of the highest group below there
neighbouring groups and that of the lowest of the groups above these neighbouring groups.
For example, suppose we have to find out the Mode of the list given below :
Example :
Groups Frequencies
33-37 6
28-32 7
23-27 9
18-22 9
13-17 5
8-12 5
In the list given above 18-22 and 23-27 are two neighbouring groups. Their frequencies
are equal. In other words, their frequencies are 9.9. Therefore, the Mean of the highest
figure if the groups below these two neighbouring group i.e., 22 and lowest figure of the
groups above these 2 neighbourubg groups, i.e., 23 shall be the Mode. In other words, it
shall be 22.5.
Example : It is also possible to fine out the Mode through the Mean and the Median. It can
be done in the following manner:
Suppose the median of some figures is 16 and their mean is 18.
Then since Mode = Mean - 3 (Mean - median)
Mode = M - 3M + 3 mdn
Mode = 3 Mdn - 2 Mean
= 3 x 16-2 x 18
= 48 - 36 = 12
We shall again apply the Arithmetic Mean Method here and shall clarify the point.
Let the median of some figures be 44-5 and their mean be 47-4.
Then Mode= 3 mdn - 2M
= 3 × 44.5 - 2 × 47.4
= 133.5 – 94.8 = 38.7
Answer : Mode = 38-7

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The formula to find out the Mode. There is a formula as well to find out the Mode. It is
being given below :
A1
Mode = L + A + A
1 2
( )
Here, L + The lowest figure of the group contains highest frequencies.
Al = The total number of frequencies of the group above that group.
A2 = This is the total of the frequencies of the group below that group.
fh = The total of the figures of the group that contains highest frequencies.
Let us consider an Example where,
L = 22.5
A1 = 4
A2 = 7
Groups Span = 5, because in every group we have the figure of 5.

Therefore, the Mode = L + ( )

A1
A1 + A2

= 22.5 + ( )
4
4+7 5

= 22.5 + 22 10
= 22.5 + 1.8
= 24.3 (which is equal to 25)
Calculate the mean, median, and mode for the following frequency distributions. Use the
short method in computing the mean.
(a) Scores f (b) Scores f
52-53 1 95-99 6
50-51 0 90-94 11
48-49 5 85-89 16
46-47 10 80-84 7
44-45 9 75-79 9
42-43 14 70-74 8
40-41 7 65-69 2
38-39 8 60-69 3
36-37 6 55-59 2
34-35 5 50-54 1
32-33 3
Sum 68 Sum 65

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Ans. (a) Men = - 41-7, Median = 41-9, Mode = 42-5

(b) Mean = 81-7, Median = 84-7, Mode = 87
(c) Scores f (d) Scores f
70-71 2 90-94 2
68-69 2 85-89 2
66-67 3 80-84 4
64-65 4 75-79 8
62-63 6 70-74 6
60-61 7 65-69 11
58-59 5 60-64 9
56-57 4 55-59 7
54-55 2 50-54 5
52-53 3 45-49 0
50-51 1 40-44 2
N= 39 N =56
Ans. (c) Mean = 60-7, Median = 60-79, Mode = 60-85
(d) Mean = 67-3, Median = 66-77, Mode = 65-59
(e) Scores f (f) Scores f
120-122 2 100-109 5
117-119 2 90-99 9
114-116 2 80-89 14
111-113 4 70-79 19
108-110 5 60-69 21
105-107 9 50-59 30
102-104 6 40-49 25
99-101 3 30-39 15
96-98 4 20-29 10
93-95 2 10-19 8
90-92 J 0-9 6
N = 40 N = 162

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(g) Scores f (h) Scores f

120-139 50 15 1
100-119 150 14 2
80-99 500 13 3
Scores f (h) Scores f
60-79 250 12 6
40-59 50 11 12
N = 1000 10 15
9 22
8 31
7 18
6 6
5 2
4 2
N=120
Ans. (e) Mean = 106.7, Median = 106.83, Mode = 105.49
(f) Mean = 55.43, Median = 55.17, Mode = 54.657
(g) Mean = 87.5, Median = 87.5, Mode =105.49
(h) Mean = 8.85, Median = 8.55, Mode = 54.657
Comparison of the Mean, Median and Mode
There is some benefit or the advantage or the other from the result of the Central Tendency
as given above.
Mean. It is a measurement which is maximum known. It is also possible to have more
understanding of it because even the students of a school have knowledge the idea of
average. When there is Eaul Probability of the presence of every multiplicant or Mean or
every Mean or multiplicant has Equal Weight, then Mean is the correct appropriate or
proper measurement or quantity, or result. The use of Mean is made in other methods of
the statistics, such as, finding out the Mean Deviation or standard Deviation. Similarly, in
co-relation as well as the Deviation of the Mean or multiplicant is found out. The only
defect in it is that it is difficult to find it out by Arithmetical Method. The multiplicants of the
limits also influence it. Most of the multiplicants are near about the group 40-60. Even
then, if we take certain multiplicants near about 90-100 or 0-10, then Mean is likely to
change. This is most dependable and reliable measurement of the Central Tendency.

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Median. This is different from the Mean because the multiplicants of the limits do not
cause much difference in it. There is very little influence of the multiplicants of limits on this
particular measurement. Sometimes it is very easy to find it out, For example, it we have to
determine the time of examination by finding out the average of the examination of 21
students, then in order to find out the Mean we shall have to add the time in hand and
divide it by 21. But in order to find out the median we shall have to take the 21st multiplicand
as the time by measuring the entire time. Even if the students are 20 only, there shall not be
any difficulty. Then the central point or average point or Mean of the 10th-11th time can be
easily arrived at by adding up the 10th and 11th time and dividing the result by 2.
Mode. This is not much in use, but on the basis of this, it is possible to have a general:
imagination of the Central Tendency. It is also possible to find out the highest multiplicant
through it.

MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION

We have already seen that almost all the statistical figures of some list are around the
Mean. Supposes in a list there are three figures 19, 20 and 21. Then their Mean shall be
19 + 20 + 21 = 20 Hence figures other than the Mean are either one less or one more
3
than it. In other words, the statistical figures of this table are near about the Mean.
Now take another list which has three figures 1, 20, 39. Its mean shall be 1+20+30 = 2
3
But the figures of this list are nit around the Mean, because in the first list the difference
between the average Mean and the other figures is only 1, while in the other list the figures
are not near about the average Mean because here the difference between the average
Mean and other figures is that of” 19. Therefore, after finding out the average Mean it is
necessary to find out the distance between the average Mean and other figures. It is then
only that it can be said whether these figures are dependable or not. The knowledge of this
distance can be found out by determining Mean Deviation and standard Deviation.
Mean or Average Deviation.
Mean Deviation, or MD is the arithmetic mean of all the deviations when we disregard the
algebraic signs. Every figure or score or measurement in a distribution deviates from the
mean. When and if any score coincides exactly with the mean, its deviation is zero. Deviation
above the mean are regarded as positive distances, those below the mean as negative
distances. In terms of algebraic definition,
x = X - M ( a deviation of a score from the mean) when X = an original score or measurement
and M = the arithmetic mean.
In terms of a formula. AD or MD = (The average deviation)

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Where | x | = an absolute value of x i.e., disregarding algebraic sign.

From the formula it will be seen that when we compute the average deviation we are
interested merely in the size of the deviations from the mean. We ignore their direction.
The AD is an arithmetic mean of all the deviations of whatever size of direction. Like any
arithmetic mean, it stands for all the values averaged.
Example: Calculate M D from the following scores:
Scores : 10, 15, 10, 20, 25, 15, 25, 20, 17, 23.
Solution :
X X-M X
10 10- 18 -8
15 15- 18 -3
10 10- 18 -8
20 20- 18 +2
25 25- 18 +7
15 15- 18 -3
25 25- 18 +7
20 20- 18 +2
17 17- 18 -1
23 23- 18 +5
X= 180 x = 46(+ 23-23)

Mean Deviation = x

N
x = 46
x or M = 18
N = 10
. 46
. . MD = 10 = 4.60
Example : Calculate of AD from grouped data.
  fx
Formula : AD = N

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Example : Calculate AD 1 from the following grouped date :

Scores 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 N

f 2 3 5 7 4 4 3 28
Solution :
Class f x’ fx’ Mid-Point fx X-M fx
X =x
40-45 3 3 9 42 126 14-3 42-9
35-40 4 2 8 37 148 9-4 37-2
30-35 4 1 4 32 128 4-3 17-2
25-30 7 0 + 21 27 189 0-7 4-9
20-25 5 -1 -5 22 110 5-7 28-5
15-20 3 -2 -6 17 51 10-7 32-1
10-15 2 -3 -6 12 24 15-7 31-4
-17
N = 28 fx = 4 fX = 776 fx = 194-2

fx
Mean = N = 776 = 27.7 (Long method)
28
 fx 194.2
AD = N = = 6.9
28
Mean = AM + fx× i (short method)
N
77 + 4/28×5 = 27.7
fx
AD = = 194.2/28 = 69
N
Standard Deviation
The measurement that is mostly used in the measurements and standards of various things
is Standard Deviation. Generally it is called SD. In order to find out the Standard Deviation.
Deviations are square up or the square of the Deviation is taken and then their total is
found out. Therefore, the question of signs does not arise here, because the square of the
minus number is also positive. Here the signs of the Deviation are not required and so it is
more scientific as compared to Mean Deviation in which the Deviations and their relative
marks are added.

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In order to find out the Standard Deviation, Deviations are squared up and their total is
taken up. The then total is divided by the multiplicand figures and its square root is found
out.
The Standard Deviation of ungrouped data shall be :

SD or  = x²
N
Now we shall clarify this concept with the help of an example given below
Multiplicant Mean Deviation from Square of the
the mean Deviation
x x2
60 44 16 245
52 44 8 64
47 44 3 9
33 44 -11 121
28 44 -16 256
N=5 ?x2 = 706

Hence, Standard Deviation= x²

N
= 706
5
= 141.2

SD or  = 11.88.
When the statistical data is divided into groups then the deviation of the multiplicants of the
figures is not taken up. On the other hand, the Deviation of the central points of various
groups or group spams is taken up. Then the deviations are squared up and then the total
is mulktiplied by the frequency of the groups. Then all such products are added up and the
total is divided by the multiplicant figure of the figures. Thereafter its square root is found
out. Thus the Standard Deviation is arrived at.
The formula for this will be :

Standard Deviation =  =  fx²

N
Now we shall clarify this concept with the help of the solution of a question.

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Group Central Mean Deviation Square Frequency Square

ranges figure of from the of the of the of Deviation
the groups Mean Deviation groups X
or group span X² f Frequency = fx²
80-89 84-5 -43-2 41-3 1705-69 3 5117-07
70-79 74-5 -43-2 31-3 979-69 5 4898-45
60-69 64-5 -43-2 21-3 453-69 7 3175-83
50-59 54-5 -43-2 11-3 127-69 5 638-45
40-49 44-5 -43-2 1-3 1-69 11 18-59
30-39 34-5 -43-2 -8-7 75-69 10 756-90
20-29 24-5 -43-2 -18-7 349-69 4 1398-76
10-19 14-5 -43-2 -28-7 823-69 5 4118-45
0-9 4-5 -43-2 -38-7 1497-69 5 7488-45
N = 55 fx2
= 27610.95

 fx²
Hence, SD or  =
N
27610.95
= 502.02
55
  = 122.4.

Simple Method of Determining the Standard Deviation

The method of finding out the Deviation, given above, is lengthy and complicated. There is
a simple method also, which is used to find it out.
In the simple method, the aid of Assumed Mean is taken. Generally it is the central figure
of the group range of the middle or it is that central point or central figure of the group
range of the middle ir it is that central point or central figure of the group span which has the
maximum frequency. Then the Deviation is not found out at the value of the figures or
multiplicants. But they are taken on the basis of the units of the group spans, group ranges
or groups. They are indicated by x\ Then the square of these Deviations (or x’((x2) is taken
and it is multiplied by the frequency of f. Then we shall form the products of fx2.
Calculation of SD from the actual deviation.
Formula:
SD or =  =  x²
N
Calculate SD from the following data :
10, 15, 10, 20, 15, 25, 20, 17, 23

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Solution :
X X–M=x x2
10 10 – 18 = -8 64
15 15 – 18 = -3 9
10 10 – 18 = -8 64
20 20 – 18 = +2 4
25 25 – 18 = +7 49
15 15 – 18 = -3 9
25 25 – 18 = +7 49
20 20 – 18 = +2 4
17 17 – 18 = -1 1
23 23 – 18 = +5 25
X = 180  x2 = 278
N = 10
x 180
M = N = 10 = 18

270
SD () =
10
= 27.8
Hence,  = 5.27
Calculation of standard deviation from raw scores.
Formula :
SD ( ) = N  x² – (x)²
Calculate SD from the following data :
8, 10, 11, 14, 13, 11, 15, 12, 12, 16
Solution :
X x2
8 64
10 100
11 121
14 196
13 169
11 121
15 225
12 144
12 144
12 256
x = 122  x2 = 1540

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1
SD or ( ) = N  x² – (x)²
N
Here, N = 10 :  x2 = 1540 and x = 122
1 10×1540–(122)² = 1 15400 – 14884 = 1
= 10 516
10 10
  = 101 = 22.716 = 2.2716 = 2.27

Calculate SD from the following grouped data by the long method

Score : 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45
f: 2 3 5 7 4 4 3
Solution :
Score f Mid Point fx X- M fxx fx x x
x x fx fx2
40-45 3 42 126 14-3 42-9 613-47
35-40 4 37 148 9-3 37-2 345-96
30-35 4 32 128 4-3 17-2 73-96
25-30 7 27 189 0-7 4-9 3-43
20-25 5 22 110 5-7 28-5 162-45
15-20 3 17 15 10-7 32-1 433-47
10-15 2 12 24 15-7 31-4 492-98
N=2 8  fX-776  fx = 2035.72
2

Hence, a = 8-52.
Then all of them are added up and the total is divided by N or the figure multiplicand.
Then the G2 or the square of the assumed mean is subtracted from it and the square root of
the figure that has been arrived at, is found out. Now the figure that has been thus arrived at
is multiplied by the figure I (the multiplicand contained in the groups or groups ranges). Thus
we arrive at a or Standard Deviation. This formula can be worked out like this :

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This formula can be clarified with the help of the following example
Groups Central point Frequency Deviation Frequency Frequency
(Average) x´ X Deviation X
fx Square of
Deviation
fx2
80-89 84-5 3 +4 12 48
70-79 74-5 5 +3 15 45
60-69 64-5 7 +2 14 28
50-59 54-5 5 +1 5 46 5
40-49 44-5 11 0 0 0
30-39 34-5 10 -1 - 10 10
20-29 24-5 4 -2 -8 16
10-19 14-5 5 -3 - 15 45
0-9 4-5 5 -4 -20 53 80
N = 55 Xfx = – 7 Efx2 = 277
Now :

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Hence, SD () = 22-4

This value we have found out more than once by a long method.
Calculate SD by short method from the following grouped data :
Score: 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45
f: 2 3 5 7 4 4 3
Solution :
Score f X fx fx2
40-45 3 3 9 27
35-40 4 2 8 16
30-35 4 1 4 4
25-30 7 0 0 0
20-25 5 -1 -5 5
15-20 3 -2 -6 12
10-15 2 -3 -6 18
N = 28 Sfx = + 4 Sfx = 82
2

Hence, a = 8.52

NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE

When we examine the results of the multiplicand of a group of examinees, elected at

random, then we come across the following facts:

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(i) There shall be a frequency of a particular result in the students. .

(ii) The number of such students who have secured very meager marks shall be
very small.
(iii) There shall be another frequency in which the number of the students shall be
very small. In other words, the number of students who have secured high marks
shall be very small.
This is not true about all examinations. Generally in subjects other than Mathematics and
such other subjects, the result is like this.
In a model or ideal curve, the Mean and the average shall be, situated on one point. In
other words, the mean, median and mode shall be laid on that very point. It means that the
average result or average mark shall be somewhere near the central figure. The marks
frequency shall be on this very figure. The shape of this particular curve shall be like a bell
as given below :

-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30

Fig.7. Normal probability Curve

This ideal curve is called Normal Probability Cuive.

General Characteristics of Normal Probability Curve. In Normal Probability Curve, we
arrive at the following facts :

(i) Its equation is y =

Here x and y are co-ordinates, a is Standard Deviation and N is the total of the multiplicants
or figures.
 = 3-1416 or  = 2-51 and e = 2.7183.

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(ii) On both sides of the Mean, the Normal Probability Curve is almost bilaterally
symmetrical.
(iii) In a Normal Probability Curve, the Mean, the average, and the median of the
figures are situated on one point.
(iv) Skewness of the curve is found out by the following two formulae :
3(Mean – Median)
SK = SD

(Skewness) = P90 +2 P10 – P50

When the median, mode and the Mean are equal, the value of both of the above formulae
is equal to zero and the skewness of the Normal Probability Curve shall be zero.
(v) There is also a formula for determining the Kurtosis of the Normal Probability
Curve.
q
Ku = P – P , where Q = 12 (Q3 – Q1), Q1 and Q3 being
90 10

First and third quartiles.

(vi) In Normal Probability Curve 68-26% of the figures or multiplicants fall under
the total which is arrived at between the figures of the curves on the side and
points between +  and – a.
Similarly. 95% of the multiplicants of figures fall between + 1-96 and 1-96 and 99% of the
figures fall between the figures of + 2-58o\ Generally this percentage of the figures or
multiplicants fall between ± 2-9 PE and PE.
(vii) Sometimes, the probability curve is not normal such as :
(a) If by chance the conditions of test are teken up by sampling, then the curve may
be raised higher or may be flat.
(b) If the test is either too simple or too difficult, then the skewness that is arrived at
may be raised higher or may be flat.
(c) If the test has not been framed properly then there shall be some mistakes in
conducting the examination.
Educational Value of Normal Probability Curve.
Normal Probability Curve has the educational value also. This value is in the following
respects:

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(a) If the probability Curve is ideal, the test shall be called good. But if the curved
line is not ideal, the test cannot be called free from faults and defects. Therefore,
the Probability curve line is helpful in finding out the correctness, importance,
and utility of the test.
(b) It is also helpful in knowing the relative difference of the questions of tests. This
knowledge is useful and necessary.
(c) Through this normal distribution or division, we can also know other sub-divisions
and sub-groups.

CO-EFFICIENT OF CO-RELATION

The teacher is anxious sometimes to find out the Co-Relation of the marks that a student
has to secure in the one subject with that of the marks of the other subjects. When a
student has secured good marks in one subjects and similarly good marks in other subjects
also. In ‘Statistics’ this Co-Relation is termed as ‘+ l\ On the other hand, if a student has
secured more marks in one subject and less marks in other subject, then this Co-Relation
is termed as - T. When there is no Co-Relation between the marks secured in two subjects,
this CO-Relation is termed as ‘O’. In short, it can be said that under no condition the Co-
Relation can be more than ±1.
Forms of Co-Relation
These Co-Relations are of three types as given below ;
(i) Positive Co-Relation. When an individual or a group of individuals has secured
equal marks in two different examinations, then this Co-Relationship is termed
as ‘Positive Co-Relation’. Co-Relationship can vary from 0 to + 1. + 1 is called
Perfect Positive Co-Relation.
(ii) Negative Co-Relation. If an individual or a group of individuals secures highest
marks in one examination and lowest marks in other examinations, then it is
termed as ‘Negative Co-Relation’. This Co-Relation may run from 0 to -1. -1
is called Perfect Negative Co-Relation.
(iii) Zero Co-Relation. If there is no relationship between the marks secured at one
examination and the marks secured at other examinations, then this relationship
is termed as ‘Zero Co-Relation’. This is written as ‘00’.
Importance of Co-Efficient of Co-Relation
Co-Efficient of Co-Relation is very important for the teachers, discoverers and those
engaged in the task of research. With the help of Co-Efficient of Co-Relation it is possible
to have a correct idea of the working capacity of a person. With the help of this, it is also

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possible to have a knowledge of the various qualities of an individual. After finding out the
Co-Relation between the two qualities or different qualities of an individual, it is also
possible to provide him with Vocational Guidance. In order to provide counseling to a
student, in selection of his subjects of study, Co-Efficient of Co-Relation is also helpful and
necessary. With the help of this, it is possible to suggest to the student the subjects that
would suit his working capacity and aptitude.
Method to find out the Co-Relation
The problem of finding out the Co-Efficient of Co-Relation is also quite difficult. Various
have suggested various methods for finding it out. Two methods, that are prevalent and
important, are given below :
(1) Rank Order Method
(2) Product Moment Method
Rank order method was found out by Spearman. It is said to be the easiest method of
finding out the Co-Efficient of Co-Relationship. In order to give a practical shape to this
method, the following activities have to be performed :
(i) First of all the marks secured by the student in two subjects are kenly observed.
Out of the marks secured, position one is written before the highest marks.
Position two is written before the next and position three is written before the
marks lower to the second. Similarly, other positions are indicated. The example
given below will clarify and elucidate its working.
(ii) After having finished the first stage of the activity, the second stage starts. In the
second stage of the process the difference between the positions of the marks
secured in two subjects is found out. In finding out the difference the signs of +
and - are not used. This activity will also be clear from the example given below.

Example :
Student Marks of Marks of Order of the Order of the Different (Difference)’
Arithmetic Litereture position position or between the D
Arithmetic Literature order of the
position of
subject
A 22 18 1 2 1 1
B 18 15 3 5 2 4
C 19 17 2 3 1 1
D 15 16 5 4 1 1
E 17 19 4 1 .3 9
5  D = 16
2

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(iii) After putting on record the difference, the squares of the difference are also put
down. Then the squares of the difference are added.
(iii) After this, by using the formula os Spearman is given below :
Here, while indicating the difference, the signs of + or - have not been used. Now let us try
to examine and clarify the formula of Spearman :
D² = the sum of the squares of the differences in the position of the marks secured in two
subjects.
N = The number of students.
6D²
Hence, = 1 – N(N²–1)

Here, = N = 5 and D2 = 16

6.16
i.e.  = 1 – 5(25–1)

= 120120
– 96

24
or  = 120

or p = .2

It means that there is a Positive Relationship.

Product Moment Method

In the use of this Method the following activities are performed and then with the use of the
formula the Co-Relation is found out. Let us now examine the various activities that are
performed.

(i) The average of the marks secured in two subjects is found out.

(ii) Afterwards the difference between the marks secured in two subjects and their
average is put down.
(iii) After this, the difference between the two subjects is squared up.
(iv) Then the multiplication of the differences is written down.

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(v) Afterwards addition of the marks, their difference, the squares of the difference
and multiplication of the differences is added up.
(vi) Then the formula, given below is used and the Co-Relationship is found out.
This shall be clear from the example given below :

Student Marks of Marks of Difference Difference Square of Square of Difference

Arithmetic Literature between the of the the the of
marks and average difference difference Arithmetic
the average and the of the of the & the
of the marks marks of marks of marks of difference
of literature Arithmatic literature of
Arithmetic literature
A 22 18 +2 +1 4 1 +2
B 18 15 0 -2 0 4 0
C 19 17 1 0 1 0 0
D 15 16 -3 -1 9 1 3
E 18 19 0 +2 0 4 0
90 85 0 0 14 10 5

The formula is like this ;

Here x stands for the difference in the marks and the average of Arithmetic and y stands
for the difference in the marks and the average of literature. £xy stands for the sum of the
products of these differences.
Now on the basis of the above example we can use the formula as given below :

Or r

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Example :
Find the Co-Relation between the two sets of scores given below, using the ratio methods;
Students Subject Subject x y x² y² xy
(x) (y)
A 85 65 6-5 5-6 42-25 31-36 36-40
B 72 58 -6-5 -1-4 -42-25 1-96 9-10
C 75 55 -3-5 -4-4 12-25 19-36 15-40
D 82 59 3-5 -4 12-25 16 -1-40
E 75 63 -3-5 3-6 12-25 12-96 -12-60
F 80 56 1-5 -3-4 2-25 11-56 -5-10
G 83 62 4-5 2-6 20-25 6-76 11-70
H 76 57 -2-5 -2-4 6-25 5-76 6-00
150.00 89.88 59.50
(x2) (y2) (xy)
Mx = 78.5 My = 59.4
x = 4.3 y = 3.5

Example :

Students Subject Subject x y x² y² xy

(x) (y)
A 85 65 5 5 25 25 26
B 72 58 -8 -2 64 4 16
C 75 55 -5 -5 25 25 25
D 82 59 2 -1 4 1 -2
E 75 63 -5 3 25 9 -15
F 80 56 0 -4 0 16 0
G 83 62 3 2 9 4 6
H 76 57 -4 -3 16 9 12
168 93 67
(x2) (y2) (xy)

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AMx = 80 AMy = 63
Cx = – 1.5 Cy = – .63

Find the Co-Relation between the two sets of Scores given below, using the ration method :
(a) x y (b) x y
22 11 2 10
8 5 20 4
19 6 25 11
32 8 14 6
13 2 11 2
24 5 2 9
22 4 38 17
35 1 16 6
18 7 14 4
13 10 23 25
Ans. (a) r = – .16 (b) r = – .47
3. Calculate the Co-Efficient of Co-Relation between the two sets of scored given
below, using the ratio method :
(a) x y (b) x y
11 24 10 29
5 22 4 50
6 44 11 76
8 72 6 40
2 25 2 32
5 30 9 61
4 38 17 56
1 54 6 61
7 37 4 17
10 61 25 61
Ans. (a) r = – .18 (b) r = – .479

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Chapter - 4

EDUCATIONAL PROVISIONS IN THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

E ducation in India is provided by the public sector as well as the private sector, with
control and funding coming from three levels: central, state, and local. Takshasila was
the earliest recorded centre of higher learning in India from at least 5th century BCE and it
is debatable whether it could be regarded a university or not. The Nalanda University was
the oldest university-system of education in the world in the modern sense of university.
Western education became ingrained into Indian society with the establishment of the
British Raj.
Education in India falls under the control of both the Union Government and the State
Governments, with some responsibilities lying with the Union and the states having autonomy
for others. The various articles of the Indian Constitution provide for education as a
fundamental right. Most universities in India are controlled by the Union or the State
Governments.
India has made progress in terms of increasing the primary education attendance rate and
expanding literacy to approximately three quarters of the population. India’s improved
education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to the economic rise of
India. Much of the progress, especially in higher education and scientific research, has
been credited to various public institutions. The private education market in India was 5%]
and in terms of value was estimated to be worth US$40 billion in 2008 but had increased
to USS68-70 billion by 2012.
As per the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2012, 96.5% of all rural children
between the ages of 6-14 were enrolled in school. This is the fourth annual survey to
report enrollment above 96%. 83% of all rural 15-16 year olds were enrolled in school.
However, going forward, India will need to focus more on quality.
Gross enrollment at the tertiary level has crossed 20% (as per an Ernst & Young Report
cited in Jan 2013 in Education News/minglebox.com)
As per the latest (2013) report issued by the All India Council of Technical Education
(AICTE), there are more than 3524 diploma and post-diploma offering institutions in the
country with an annual intake capacity of over 1.2 million.
The AICTE also reported 3495 degree-granting engineering colleges in India with an
annual student intake capacity of over 1.76 million with actual enrollment crossing 1.2
million.

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Capacity for Management Education crossed 385000, and post graduate degree slots in
Computer Science crossed 100,000. Pharmacy slots reached over 121,000.
Total annual intake capacity for technical diplomas and degrees exceeded 3.4 million in
2012.
According to the University Grants Commission (UGC) total enrollment in Science,
Medicine, Agriculture and Engineering -crossed 6.5 million in 2010.
Charu Sudan Kasturi reported in the Hindustan Times (New Delhi, 10 January 2011) that
the number of women choosing engineering has more than doubled since 2001.
In the Indian education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under affirmative
action policies for the historically disadvantaged, scheduled Castes and scheduled tribes
and other Backward Classes. In universities/colleges/institutions affiliated to the federal
government there is a minimum 50% of reservations applicable to these disadvantaged
groups, at the state level it can vary. Andhra Pradesh had 83.33% reservation in 2012,
which is the highest percentage of reservations in India.
Brahmin gurus historically offered education by means of donations, rather than charging
fees or the procurement of funds from students or their guardians. Later, temples also
became centres of education; religious education was compulsory, but secular subjects
were also taught. Students were required to be brahmacharis or celibates. The knowledge
in these orders was often related to the tasks a section of the society had to perform. The
priest class, the Brahmins, were imparted knowledge of religion, philosophy, and other
ancillary branches while the warrior class, the Kshatriya, were trained in the various aspects
of warfare. The business class, the Vaishya, were taught their trade and the working class
or the Shudras were generally deprived of educational advantages. The book of laws, the
Manusmriti, and the treatise on statecraft the Arthashastra were among the influential works
of this era which reflect the outlook and understanding of the world at the time.
Secular institutions cropped up along with Hindu temples, mutts and Buddhist monasteries.
These institutions imparted practical education, e.g. medicine. A number of urban learning
centres became increasingly visible from the period between 500 BCE to 400 CE.The
important urban centres of learning were Taxila (in modern day Pakistan) and Nalanda in
Bihar, among others. These institutions systematically imparted knowledge and attracted a
number of foreign students to study topics such as Vedic and Buddhist literature, logic,
grammar, etc. Chanakya, a Brahmin teacher, was among the most famous teachers of
Takshasila, associated with founding of Mauryan Empire.
India’s education system is divided into different levels such as pre-primary level, primary
level, elementary education, secondary education, undergraduate level and postgraduate
level.[7] The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is the apex
body for curriculum related matters for school education in India.[8] The NCERT provides

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support and technical assistance to a number of schools in India and oversees many aspects
of enforcement of education policies.[9] In India, the various curriculum bodies governing
school education system are :
 The state government boards, in which the majority of Indian children are enrolled.
The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). CBSE conducts two
examinations, namely, the All India Secondary School Examination, AISSE
(Class/Grade 10) and the All India Senior School Certificate Examination,
AISSCE (Class/Grade 12).
 The Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE). CISCE
conducts three examinations, namely, the Indian Certificate of Secondary
Education (ICSE - Class/ Grade 10); The Indian School Certificate (ISC -
Class/ Grade 12) and the Certificate in Vocational Education (CVE - Class/
Grade 12).
 The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) conducts two examinations,
namely, Secondary Examination and Senior Secondary Examination (All India)
and also some courses in Vocational Education.
 International schools affiliated to the International Baccalaureate Programme
and/ or the Cambridge International Examinations.
 Islamic Madrasah schools, whose boards are controlled by local state
governments, or autonomous, or affiliated with Darul Uloom Deoband.
 Autonomous schools like Woodstock School, The Sri Aurobindo International
Centre of Education Puducherry, Auroville, Patha Bhavan and Ananda Marga
Gurukula.
In addition, NUEPA (National University of Educational Planning and Administration) and
NCTE (National Council for Teacher Education) are responsible for the management of
the education system and teacher accreditation.
The central and most state boards uniformly follows the “10+2+3” pattern of education.
In this pattern, or in colleges),and then 3 years of college education for bachelor’s degree.
The 10 years is further divided into 5 years of primary education and 3 years of upper
primary, followed by 2 years of high school. This pattern originated from the recommendation
the Education Commission of 1964-66.
Primary education system in India
The Indian government lays emphasis on primary education up to the age of fourteen
years, referred to as elementary education in India. [15] The Indian government has also
bamied child labour in order to ensure that the children do not enter unsafe working
conditions.[15] However, both free education and the ban on child labour are difficult to

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enforce due to economic disparity and social conditions.[15] 80% of all recognized schools
at the elementary stage are government run or supported, making it the largest provider of
education in the country. [16]
However, due to a shortage of resources and lack of political will, this system suffers from
massive gaps including high pupil to teacher ratios, shortage of infrastructure and poor
levels of teacher training. Figures released by the Indian government in 2011 show that
there were 5,816,673 elementary school teachers in India. As of March 2012 there were
2,127,000 secondary school teachers in India. Education has also been made free[15] for
children for 6 to 14 years of age or up to class VIII under the Right of Children to Free and
Compulsory Education Act 2009.
There have been several efforts to enhance quality made by the government. The District
Education Revitalization Programme (DERP) was launched in 1994 with an aim to
universalize primary education in India by reforming and vitalizing the existing primary
education system.[20] 85% of the DERP was funded by the central government and the
remaining 15 percent was funded by the states.[20] The DERP, which had opened 160000
new schools including 84000 alternative education schools delivering alternative education
to approximately 3.5 million children, was also supported by UNICEF and other
international programmes. [20]
This primary education scheme has also shown a high Gross Enrollment Ratio of 93-95%
for the last three years in some states. [20] Significant improvement in staffing and enrollment
of girls has also been made as a part of this scheme. [20] The current scheme for
universalization of “Education for All” is the “Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan” which is one of the
largest education initiatives in the world. Enrollment has been enhanced, but the levels of
quality remain low.
Private education:
In India, due to the British influence, a public school implies a non-governmental, historically
elite educational institution, often modeled on British public schools which are in certain
cases governmental. There are privately owned and managed schools, many of whom
have the appellation “Public” attached to them, e.g. the Delhi Public Schools, or Frank
Anthony Public Schools. Most middle-class families send their children to such schools,
which might be in their own city or distant boarding school such as Rajkumar College,
Rajkot, the oldest public school in India. The medium of education is English, but Hindi and/
or the state’s official language is also taught as a compulsory subject. Preschool education is
mostly limited to organised neighbourhood nursery schools with some organised chains.
According to current estimates, 80% of all schools are government schools making the
government the major provider of education. However, because of poor quality of public
education, 27% of Indian children are privately educated. With more than 50% children

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enrolling in private schools in urban areas, the balance has already tilted towards private
schooling in cities; even in rural areas, nearly 20% of the children in 2004-5 were enrolled
in private schools. [22] According to some research, private schools often provide superior
results at a multiple of the unit cost of government schools. However, others have suggested
that private schools fail to provide education to the poorest families, a selective being only
a fifth of the schools and have in the past ignored Court orders for their regulation].
In their favour, it has been pointed out that private schools cover the entire curriculum and
offer extra-curricular activities such as science fairs, general knowledge, sports, music and
drama. The pupil teacher ratios are much better in private schools (1:31 to 1:37 for
government schools)and more teachers in private schools are female]. There is some
disgreement over which system has better educated teachers. According to the latest
DISE survey, the percentage of untrained teachers (parateachers) is 54.91% in private,
compared to 44.88% in government schools and only 2.32% teachers in unaided schools
receive inservice training compared to 43.44% in government schools. The competition in
the school market is intense, yet most schools make profit. However, the number of private
schools in India is still low - the share of private institutions is 7% (with upper primary
being 21% and secondary 32% - source : fortress team research). MG English International
School Bagru is one of the leading schools in India that is imparting world class education
in the countryside area of Rajasthan
Even the poorest often go to private schools despite the fact that government schools
are free. A study found that 65% of schoolchildren in Hyderabad’s slums attend private
schools.
Homeschooling:
Homeschooling is legal in India, though it is the least explored option. The Indian
Government’s stance on the issue is that parents are free to teach their children at home, if
they wish to and have the means. HRD Minister Kapil Sibal has stated that despite the
RTE Act of 2009, if someone decides not to send his/her children to school, the government
would not interfere.
Secondary education:
The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, has provided for environment awareness,
science and technology education, and introduction of traditional elements such as Yoga
into the Indian secondary school system. Secondary education covers children 14-18
which covers 88.5 million children according to the Census, 2001.
A significant feature of India’s secondary school system is the emphasis on inclusion of the
disadvantaged sections of the society. Professionals from established institutes are often
called to support in vocational training. Another feature of India’s secondary school system
is its emphasis on profession based vocational training to help students attain skills for

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finding a vocation of his/her choosing. A significant new feature has been the extension of
SSA to secondary education in the form of the Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan
A special Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) programme was started in
1974 with a focus on primary education, but which was converted into Inclusive Education
at Secondary Stage Another notable special programme, the Kendriya Vidyalaya project,
was started for the employees of the central government of India, who are distributed
throughout the country. The government started the Kendriya Vidyalaya project in 1965
to provide uniform education in institutions following the same syllabus at the same pace
regardless of the location to which the employee’s family has been transferred.
Higher education:
Our university system is, in many parts, in a state of dispair...In almost half the districts in
the country, higher education enrollments are abysmally low, almost two-third of our
universities and 90 per cent of our colleges are rated as below average on quality
parameters... I am concerned that in many states university appointments, including that of
vice-chancellors, have been politicised and have become subject to caste and communal
considerations, there are complaints of favouritism and corruption.
After passing the Higher Secondary Examination (the grade 12 examination), students
may enroll in general degree programmes such as bachelor’s degree in arts, commerce or
science, or professional degree programmes such as engineering, law or medicine. India’s
higher education system is the third largest in the world, after China and the United States.
The main governing body at the tertiary level is the University Grants Commission (India),
which enforces its standards, advises the government, and helps coordinate between the
centre and the state. Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12 autonomous
institutions established by the University Grants Commission. In India, education system is
reformed. In the future, India will be one of the largest education hubs.
As of 2009, India has 20 central universities, 215 state universities, 100 deemed universities,
5 institutions established and functioning under the State Act, and 33 institutes which are of
national importance. Other institutions include 16,000 colleges, including 1,800 exclusive
women’s colleges, functioning under these universities and institutions. The emphasis in the
tertiary level of education lies on science and technology. Indian educational institutions by
2004 consisted of a large number of technology institutes. Distance learning is also a
feature of the Indian higher education system. The Government has launched Rashtriya
Uchattar Shiksha Abhiyan to provide strategic funding to State higher and technical
institutions. A total of 316 state public universities and 13,024 colleges will be covered
under it. [38]
Some institutions of India, such as the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), have been
globally acclaimed for their standard of undergraduate education in engineering. The IITs

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enroll about 10,000 students annually and the alumni have contributed to both the growth
of the private sector and the public sectors of India. However the IIT’s have not had
significant impact on fundamental scientific research and innovation. Several other institutes
of fundamental research such as the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science
(IACS), Indian Institute of Science I1SC), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR),
Harishchandra Research Institute (HRI), are acclaimed for their standard of research in
basic sciences and mathematics. However, India has failed to produce world class
universities both in the private sector or the public sector.
Besides top rated universities which provide highly competitive world class education to
their pupils, India is also home to many universities which have been founded with the sole
objective of making easy money. Regulatory authorities like UGC and AICTE have been
trying very hard to extirpate the menace of private universities which are running courses
without any affiliation or recognition. Indian Government has failed to check on these
education shops, which are run by big businessmen & politicians. Many private colleges
and universities do not fulfill the required criterion by the Government and central bodies
(UGC, AICTE, MCI, BCI etc.) and take students for a ride. For example, many institutions
in India continue to run unaccredited courses as there is no legislation strong enough to
ensure legal action against them. Quality assurance mechanism has failed to stop
misrepresentations and malpractices in higher education. At the same time regulatory bodies
have been accused of corruption, specifically in the case of deemed-universities. In this
context of lack of solid quality assurance mechanism, institutions need to step-up and set
higher standards of self-regulation.
The Government of India is aware of the plight of higher education sector and has been
trying to bring reforms, however, 15 bills are still awaiting discussion and approval in the
Parliament. One of the most talked about bill is Foreign Universities Bill, which is supposed
to facilitate entry of foreign universities to establish campuses in India. The bill is still under
discussion and even if it gets passed, its feasibility and effectiveness is questionable as it
misses the context, diversity and segment of international foreign institutions interested in
India.[44] One of the approaches to make internationalization of Indian higher education
effective is to develop a coherent and comprehensive policy which aims at infusing
excellence, bringing institutional diversity and aids in capacity building.
Three Indian universities were listed in the Times Higher Education list of the world’s top
200 universities — Indian Institutes of Technology, Indian Institutes of Management, and
Jawaharlal Nehru University in 2005 and 2006. Six Indian Institutes of Technology and
the Birla Institute of Technology and Science - Pilani were listed among the top 20 science
and technology schools in Asia by Asiaweek. The Indian School of Business situated in
Hyderabad was ranked number 12 in global MBA rankings by the Financial Times of
London in 2010 while the All India Institute of Medical Sciences has een recognized as a
global leader in medical research and treatment.

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Technical education
The number of graduates coming out of technical colleges increased to over 700,000 in
2011 from 550,000 in FY 2010. However, according to one study, 75% of technical
graduates and more than 85% of general graduates are unemployable by India’s most
demanding and high-growth global industries, including information technology.
Nevertheless, that still means that India offers the largest pool of technically skilled graduates
in the world.
From the first Ist Five year Plan onwards, India’s emphasis was to develop a pool of
scientifically inclined manpower. India’s National Policy on Education (NPE) provisioned
for an apex body for regulation and development of higher technical education, which
came into being as the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) in 1987 .through
an act of the Indian parliament. At the federal level, the Indian Institutes of Technology,the
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology, the National Institutes j?f Technology
and the Indian Institutes of Information Technology, Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum
Technology are deemed of national importance.
The Indian Institutes of Technology are among the nation’s premier education facilities.
[54] Since 2002, Several Regional Engineering Colleges(RECs) have been converted into
National Institutes of Technology giving them Institutes of National Importance status.
The Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology : The Ministry of Petroleum and
Natural Gas (MOP&NG), Government of India set up the institute at Jais, Rae Bareli
district, Uttar Pradesh through an Act of Parliament. RGIPT has been accorded “Institute
of National Importance” along the lines of the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT),Indian
Institute of Management (IIM) and National Institute Of Technology (NIT). With the
status of a Deemed University, the institute awards degrees in its own right.
The UGC has inter-university centres at a number of locations throughout India to promote
common research, e.g. the Nuclear Science Centre at the Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi. Besides there are some British established colleges such as Harcourt Butler
Technological Institute situated in Kanpur and King George Medical University situated in
Lucknow which are important centre of higher education.
Central Universities such as Banaras Hindu University, Jamia Millia Islamia University,
Delhi University, Mumbai University, University of Calcutta, etc. are too pioneers of technical
education in the country.
In addition to the above institutes, efforts towards the enhancement of technical
education are supplemented by a number of recognized Professional Engineering
Societies such as
1. Institution of Mechanical Engineers (India)
2. Institution of Engineers (India)

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3. Institution of Chemical Engineering (India)

4. Institution of Electronics and Tele-Communication Engineers (India)
5. Indian Institute of Metals
6. Institution of Industrial Engineers (India)
7. Institute of Town Planners (India)
8. Indian Institute of Architects
9. Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani
that conduct Engineering/Technical Examinations at different levels(Degree and diploma)
for working professionals desirous of improving their technical qualifications.
In addition to recognized institutes for technical education there are many private technical
institutes such as
1. NIIT
2. The Tourism School
Open and distance learning
At school level, National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) provides opportunities for
continuing education to those who missed completing school education. 14 lakh students
are enrolled at the secondary and higher secondary level through open and distance learning.
In 2012 Various state government also introduce “STATE OPEN SCHOOL” to provide
distance education. [56]
At higher education level, Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) co-ordinates
distance learning. It has a cumulative enrolment of about 15 lakhs, serviced through 53
regional centres and 1,400 study centres with 25,000 counsellors. The Distance Education
Council (DEC), an authority of IGNOU is co-coordinating 13 State Open Universities
and 119 institutions of correspondence courses in conventional universities. While distance
education institutions have expanded at a very rapid rate, most of these institutions need an
up gradation in their standards and performance. There is a large proliferation of courses
covered by distance mode without adequate infrastructure, both human and physical.
There is a strong need to correct these imbalances.
Arjun Singh Centre for Distance and Open Learning, Jamia Millia Islamia University was
established with the assistance of Distance Education Council in September 2002. Major
objectives of the Centre is to provide opportunities for higher education to those who are
not able to draw benefits from formal system of education. The Open Learning System
allows a learner to determine his pace of learning and provide education at the doorstep of
the learner. The mode of transaction is through self-learning print material, supplemented
by audio and video programmes. It has further scope of students accessing material through
internet and various other media.

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Literacy
According to the Census of 2011, “every person above the age of 7 years who can read
and write in any language is said to be literate”. According to this criterion, the 2011 survey
holds the National Literacy Rate to be around 74.07%. Government statistics of 2001
also hold that the rate of increase in literacy is more in rural areas than in urban areas.
Female literacy was at a national average of 65% whereas the male literacy was 82%>.
Within the Indian states, Kerala has shown the highest literacy rates of 93% whereas Bihar
averaged 63.8% literacy. The 2001 statistics also indicated that the total number of ‘absolute
non-literates’ in the country was 304 million.
The Economist reports that half of 10-year-old rural children could not read at a basic
level, over 60% were unable to do division, and half dropped out by the age 14. An
optimistic estimate is that only one in five job-seekers in India has ever had any sort of
vocational training. However, this figure is likely to be much higher in 2013.
Higher education
As per Report of the Higher education in India, Issues Related to Expansion, Inclusiveness,
Quality and Finance, the access to higher education measured in term of gross enrolment
ratio increased from 0.7% in 1950/51 to 1.4% in 1960-61. By 2006/ 7 the GER increased
to about 11 percent. Notably, by 2012, it had crossed 20% (as mentioned in an earlier
section).
Women’s education
Women have a much lower literacy rate than men. Far fewer girls are enrolled in the
schools, and many of them drop out. In the patriarchal setting of the Indian family, girls
have lower status and fewer privileges than boy children. Conservative cultural attitudes
prevents some girls from attending school.
The number of literate women among the female population of India was between 2-6%
from the British Raj onwards to the formation of the Republic of India in 1947. Concerted
efforts led to improvement from 15.3% in 1961 to 28.5% in 1981. By 2001 literacy for
women had exceeded 50% of the overall female population, though these statistics were
still very low compared to world standards and even male literacy within India. Recently
the Indian government has launched Saakshar Bharat Mission for Female Literacy. This
mission aims to bring down female illiteracy by half of its present level.
Sita Anantha Raman outlines the progress of women’s education in India :
Since 1947 the Indian government has tried to provide incentives for girls’ school attendance
through programmes for midday meals, free books, and uniforms. This welfare thrust
raised primary enrollment between 1951 and 1981. In 1986 the National Policy on
Education decided to restructure education in tune with the social framework of each

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state, and with larger national goals. It emphasized that education was necessary for
democracy, and central to the improvement of women’s condition. The new policy aimed
at social change through revised texts, curricula, increased funding for schools, expansion
in the numbers of schools, and policy improvements. Emphasis was placed on expanding
girls’ occupational centres and primary education; secondary and higher education; and
rural and urban institutions. The report tried to connect problems like low school attendance
with poverty, and the dependence on girls for housework and sibling day care. The National
Literacy Mission also worked through female tutors in villages. Although the minimum
marriage age is now eighteen for girls, many continue to be married much earlier. Therefore,
at the secondary level, female dropout rates are high.
Sita Anantha Raman also maintains that while the educated Indian women workforce
maintains professionalism, the men outnumber them in most fields and, in some cases,
receive higher income for the same positions.
The education of women in India plays a significant role in improving livings standards in
the country. A higher women literacy rate improves the quality of life both at home and
outside of home, by encouraging and promoting education of children, especially female
children, and in reducing the infant mortality rate. Several studies have shown that a lower
level of women literacy rates results in higher levels of fertility and infant mortality, poorer
nutrition, lower earning potential and the lack of an ability to make decisions within a
household. Women’s lower educational levels is also shown to adversely affect the health
and living conditions of children. A survey that was conducted in India showed results
which support the fact that infant mortality rate was inversely related to female literacy rate
and educational level. The survey also suggests a correlation between education and
economic growth.
In India, it was found that there is a large disparity between female literacy rates in different
states. For example, while Kerala actually has a female literacy rate of about 86 percent,
Bihar and Uttar Pradesh have female literacy rates around 55-60 percent. These values
are further correlated with health levels of the Indians, where it was found that Kerala was
the state with the lowest infant mortality rate while Bihar and Uttar Pradesh are the states
with the lowest life expectancies in India. Furthermore, the disparity of female literacy
rates across rural and urban areas is also significant in India. Out of the 24 states in India,
6 of them have female literacy rates of below 60 percent. The rural state Rajasthan has a
female literacy rate of less than 12 percent.
In India, higher education is defined as the education of an age group between 18 and 24,
and is largely funded by the government. Despite women making up 24-50% of higher
education enrollment, there is still a gender imbalance within higher education. Only one
third of science students and 7% of engineering students, are women. In comparison
however, over half the students studying education are women.

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Vocational education
The government of India is taking many positive steps to turn the education vocational and
job oriented. Recently the duration of Graduation in Delhi University has been turned to 4
years from 3 years. Moreover government is taking lots of steps to promote small vocational
institutes which provide job oriented courses like aviation related or travel & tourism
related courses to name few examples.
One study found out that 25% of public sector teachers and 40% of public sector medical
workers were absent during the survey. Among teachers who were paid to teach, absence
rates ranged from 15% in Maharashtra to 30% in Bihar. Only 1 in nearly 3000 public
school head teachers had ever dismissed a teacher for repeated absence. A study on
teachers by Kremer etc. found that ‘only about half were teaching, during unannounced
visits to a nationally representative sample of government primary schools in India.’.
A study of 188 government-run primary schools found that 59% of the schools had no
drinking water and 89% had no toilets. 2003-04 data by National Institute of Educational
Planning and Administration revealed that only 3.5% of primary schools in Bihar and
Chhattisgarh had toilets for girls. In Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Gujarat, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh, rates were 12-16%. In fact, the number of
secondary schools is almost half the number of upper primary schools available in the
country.
Curriculum issues
Modern education in India is often criticized for being based on rote learning rather than
problem solving. New Indian Express says that Indian Education system seems to be
producing zombies since in most of the schools students seemed to be spending majority
of their time in preparing for competitive exams rather than learning or playing. Business
Week criticizes the Indian curriculum, saying it revolves around rote learning, Express
India suggests that students are focused on cramming. Preschool for Child Rights states
that almost 99% of preschools do not have any curriculum at all.
Participation
At the lower secondary level (grades 9 and 10), enrolment rate is 52%, while at the senior
secondary level (grades 11 and 12), it is 28%. While the enrollment rate in pre-school is
merely 18%), there is a 48% drop-out rate in elementary education.
Controversy
In January 2010, the Government of India decided to withdraw Deemed university status
from as many as 44 institutions. The Government claimed in its affidavit that academic
considerations were not being kept in mind by the management of these institutions and
that “they were being run as family fiefdoms”.

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The University Grants Commission found 39 fake institutions operating in India.

Only 10% of manufacturers in India offer in-service training to their employees, compared
with over 90% in China.
Scheduled Castes and Schedule Tribes
Following India’s independence a number of rules were formulated for the backward
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes of India, and in 1960 a list identifying 405
Scheduled Castes and 225 Scheduled Tribes was published by the central government.
An amendment was made to the list in 1975, which identified 841 Scheduled Castes and
510 Scheduled Tribes. The total percentage of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
combined was found to be 22.5 percent with the Scheduled Castes accounting for 17
percent and the Scheduled Tribes accounting for the remaining 7.5 percent. Following
the report many Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes increasingly referred to
themselves as Dalit, a Marathi language terminology used by B. R. Ambedkar which
literally means “oppressed”.
The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are provided for in many of India’s educational
programmes. Special reservations are also provided for the Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes in India, e.g. a reservation of 15% in Kendriya Vidyalaya for Scheduled
Castes and another reservation of 7.5% in Kendriya Vidyalaya for Scheduled Tribes.
Similar reservations are held by the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in many
schemes and educational facilities in India. The remote and far-flung regions of North East
India are provided for under the Non Lapsible Central pool of Resources (NLCPR) since
1-998-1999. The NLCPR aims to provide funds for infrastructure development in these
remote areas.
Women from remote, underdeveloped areas or from weaker social groups in Andhra
Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, and
Uttarakhand, fall under the Mahila Samakhya Scheme, initiated in 1989. Apart from
provisions for education this programme also aims to raise awareness by holding meetings
and seminars at rural levels. The government allowed 340 million (US$5.2 million) during
2007-08 to carry out this scheme over 83 districts including more than 21,000 villages.
Currently there are 68 Bal Bhavans and 10 Bal Kendra affiliated to the National Bal
Bhavan. The scheme involves educational and social activities and recognising children
with a marked talent for a particular educational stream. A number of programmes and
activities are held under this scheme, which also involves cultural exchanges and participation
in several international forums.

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India’s minorities, especially the ones considered ‘educationally backward’ by the

government, are provided for in the 1992 amendment of the Indian National Policy on
Education (NPE). The government initiated the Scheme of Area Intensive Programme for
Educationally Backward Minorities and Scheme of Financial Assistance or Modernisation
of Madarsa Education as part of its revised Programme of Action (1992). Both these
schemes were started nationwide by 1994. [94] In 2004 the Indian parliament passed an
act which enabled minority education establishments to seek university affiliations if they
passed the’ required norms. Surprisingly, in the field of Sindhi language, (an 8th schedule
language, which is prevalently spoken by the Sindhis of India who have no state of their
own) government has not made any significant contribution. Sindhis are linguistic minority
and most of the states have no Sindhi schools or schools with Sindhi language as an
optional paper. Sindhis with around ten million population have less than 100 teachers in
this language. Sindhi, basically draws its origin from Indus Valley civilsation. While the
language has Indo-aryan origin, it is prevalently spoken in Pakistan and patronized by the
Pakistan Government. Most of the Sindhi associations fear that due to apathy of Indian
Government, Sindhi language and culture will only be a story for the future generations.
Rajesh Thadani, President of Bihar Sindhi Association, which was constituted by the first
Governor of Bihar, Jairamdas Doulatram, has started awareness compaign in this direction.
This compaign has gathered momentum and it has started recognition worldwide.

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Chapter - 5

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION COMMISSION (1948-49)

U niversities are the seats of higher learning from where the society gets its leaders in
Science, Arts and various other fields of national life. University education in India
aims at providing knowledge and wisdom which are necessary attributes of a well developed
personality. University education is a centre for higher branches of learning. The functions
of the university are varied. It provides instruction, conduct research and post-graduate
studies, and gives affiliation and extension to the colleges under it. In case of a non-affiliating
unitary university, there is no college under it and its function is limited to offering masters
programme and conducting research. A university’s scope is national in character. The
main purpose of establishing a university in a particular region is to make higher education
accessible to all sections of the population within its territorial jurisdiction. The first
Education Commission of 1948, known as Radhakrishnan Commission, forms the main
thrust of this unit.
After independence, the first significant step taken by the Government of India in the
field of education was the appointment of the University Education Commission in 1948
under the Chairmanship of Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan, a distinguished scholar and
former vice-chancellor of Banaras Hindu University and who became the second
President of India. The Commission was appointed by the Government of India to go
into the problems and prospects of Indian University Education and to suggest
improvements and extensions that might be considered desirable to suit the present and
future requirements of the country. The Commission was appointed in November, 1948
and it submitted its report in August, 1949.
The Report of the Commission is a document of great importance as it has guided the
development of university education in India since independence. The Inter-University
Board of Education and Central Advisory Board of Education recommended to the
Government of India that an All India Commission on Education should be appointed to
inquire into the requirements of the higher education in India and to put forward the
recommendations for the re-organization of the University Education system in the light of
the requirements of the country and its traditions. Because of the fact that Dr. Radhakrishnan
was the Chairman of the Commission it is known as ‘Radhakrishnan Commission’. There
were 10 members in the commission.
Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan, was —
 A distinguished scholar.
 Former Vice - Chancellor of Banaras Hindu University.

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 Second President of India.

 Spalding Professor of Eastern Religious and Ethics at the University of Oxford.
 Chairman, University Education Commission (1948-49).
The Appointment of the Commission-its aim and objective :
The Radhakrishnan Commission was appointed with the specific aim ‘to report on Indian
University Education and suggest improvements and extensions that may be desirable to
suit present and future requirements of the country’. The decision was due to the realization
that a reconstruction of university education was essential for a national - cultural resurgence
as well as for meeting the requirements of scientific, technical and other man - power
which India needed for its socio-economic development in the wake of the independence
in 1947.
1. Terms of Reference :
The terms of reference of the Commission were to consider and make recommendations
in regard to:
 The aims and objectives of university education and research in India.
 The changes considered necessary and desirable in the constitution, control,
functions and jurisdiction of the universities in India.
 The finances of the universities.
 The maintenance of the highest standards of teaching and examinations in the
universities and colleges under their control.
 The courses of study in the universities.
 The standards of admission to the university courses of study.
 The medium of instruction in the universities.
 The provision for advanced study in Indian culture, history, literatures, languages,
philosophy and fine arts.
 The need for more universities on a regional or other basis.
 The organisations of advanced research in all branches of knowledge in the
universities and institutes of higher research.
 Religious instruction in the universities.
 The special problems of all the universities in India.
 The qualification, conditions of service, salaries, privileges and functions of
teachers and the encouragement for original research by teachers.
 The discipline of students, hostels and the organisation of tutorial work and any
other student related matters.

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Method of study :
The commission made a thorough study of the problems of Higher Education in India. It
toured the country extensively in order to acquaint itself with the problems.
It prepared a questionnaire which was sent over to about 600 persons who mattered in
the field of education. It interviewed administrators, organisations of the students and
educationists. Thus, it tried to gather information in regard to almost all the aspects of
university education. Its report runs into two volumes. The first part of the report contains
18 chapters and about 747 pages. The second volume contains the statistics in regard to
institutions and other educational problems and the evidence tendered by the witnesses
examined by the commission.
The Commission has laid down certain aims of university education in the country keeping
in view the past tradition, the present conditions and future prospects of the country. In this
context the Commission took into consideration the personal interests of the students and
also of the nation. While defining the aims the Commission had been also conscious of the
international obligations. We are giving below the aims of university education as laid
down by the Commission:
 The aim of university education should be to produce able citizens who can take
up national responsibilities successfully in various fields. The university has to
produce able administrators and suitable workers in various occupations and
industries. The university has to provide leadership in the various walks of life in
the best interest of the nation.
 The aim of a university should be to maintain a high standard in general,
professional and vocational education by inspiring the students to search for a
new knowledge and good effort that must be authentic in nature.
 It is the duty of a university to preserve and develop the culture and civilization
of the land. It is on the basis of one’s culture that one may acquire self-confidence,
self-respect and self-dependence. These virtues on the part of citizens will make
the nation really very strong.
 The university should generate new ideas and discard those which are likely to
prevent the growth of the nation. For progress, it is necessary to rise above
superstitions. The university has to help the students to imbibe the good aspects
of their culture and to accept new values for an all - round development.
 The university should provide opportunities to acquire all kinds of knowledge.
 The university has to educate the mind and soul of the student in order that he
may grow in wisdom.

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 It is the responsibility of the university to create a consciousness in students for

protecting the Directive Principles as to be laid down in the Constitution. The
university has to make the foundation of democracy strong and it has to develop
the spirit in students for ensuring equality, fraternity and social justice to all while
maintaining the integrity of the nation.
 The University has to make new discoveries and inventions and it has to develop
new original ideas in order to make the society strong.
 The university has to instil moral values in the students while making them well
disciplined.
 The university has to develop the spirit of universal brotherhood and
internationalism in the students.
 The universities have to provide leadership in politics, administration, education,
industry and commerce.
 The universities should be organized as centres of civilization to train intellectual
pioneers of civilization. The aim of university education should be to produce
intellectual adventures.
 Universities should produce such wise persons who may disseminate learning to
make democracy successful and who may make an incessant search for new
knowledge and unceasing effort to fulfil the mission of life.
 One of the main functions of universities is to bring about the spiritual development
of students.
 We are engaged in a quest for democracy through the realization of justice,
freedom, equality and fraternity. Hence, it is necessary that our universities should
be the emblems and protectors of these ideals.
 Contents of education must accept the best of what the modern advancement
has to offer without neglecting our cultural heritage from the past.
 Education should discover the innate qualities of a person and develop them
through training.
 Universities should preserve the culture and civilization of the country. To be
civilized, we should sympathise with the poor, respect women, love peace and
independence, and hate tyranny and injustice. The university education should
infuse these ideals into the youths.
After having a discussion on the background and appointment of the commission as well
as its basic recommendations on the aims and objectives of higher education, now we are
going to discuss in detail the specific recommendations on the various aspects of the university
education system in India.

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 Faculty in Universities : The University Education Commission has emphasized

that the teacher plays a vital role in the education system; therefore, an adequate
faculty with required qualifications are necessary to discharge many types of
duties in a university or in a college. The university Education Commission
recommended that proper care should be taken in the selection procedure of a
teacher for tne appointment as a professor, reader, lecturer and an instructor as
well as for his or her salaries. Each university should have some research fellows.
Besides theses, definite rules regarding the Provident Fund, leave and hours of
work should be followed by a university.
 Teaching Standards : The most important duty of a university is to maintain
the highest standard of its teaching and examinations. In order to improve the
teaching standard, the following are some of the recommendations that were
made by the University Education Commission in 1948-1949:
 “The standard of admission to the university courses should correspond to that
of the present intermediate examination, i.e. after the completion of 12 years of
study at a school and an intermediate college;
 That in each province a large number of well-equipped and well staffed
intermediate colleges (with classes IX to XII or XI to XII) be established;
 That in order to divert students to different vocations after 10 to 12 years of
schooling, a large number of occupational institutes be opened;
 That refresher courses be organized by the universities for high school and
intermediate college teachers;
 That to avoid overcrowding at universities and colleges the maximum number in
the Arts and Science faculties of a teaching university be fixed at 3,000 and in an
affiliated college at 1500;
 That the number of working days be substantially increased to ensure a minimum
of 180 days’ in the year, exclusive of examination days, with three terms, each
of about 11 weeks’ duration;
 That lectures be carefully planned and supplemented by tutorials, library works
and written exercises;
 That there be no prescribed text-books for any courses of study;
 That attendance at lectures be compulsory for under graduate students as at
present, and that private candidates of only certain categories be allowed to
appear for public examination. An experiment should, however, be made with
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 That tutorial instruction be developed in all institutions imparting university

education in the following manner :
(a) students should report to tutors in groups not exceeding 6 in numbers;
(b) tutorials should be made available to all undergraduates both pass and honours;
(c) tutorials should stimulate the mental development of the students and they should
not become mere coaching for examination;
(d) if tutorials are to succeed, the teaching staff should be improved in quality and
quantity.
 That university libraries should be greatly improved by;
(a) large annual grants;
(b) the introduction of open access system;
(c) longer hours of work;
(d) better organization; and
(e) well-trained staff which include reference assistants.
That the laboratories be improved in building, fittings, equipment, workshops and
technicians.” (Report of Radha-Krishnan Commission of 1948-49)
 Course of study: According to the recommendations of Radhakrishnan
Commission, the general as well as specific interest of the students should be
taken care of when the courses will be designed for the courses of the university
level. Master Degree should be given to honours students after one year’s study
beyond the bachelor’s degree. Literature for general education courses should
be developed which will give the students an acquaintance with and mastery of
the contents and methods of thinking and working in each field.
 Research and Training: The regulations for Master of Arts and Master of Science
should be uniform in all universities of India. The admission procedure as well as
the process for enrolling in Ph.D. degree should be arranged on an all India
basis. D.Litt. and D.Sc. Degrees should be awarded on published work of
outstanding quality. A large number of Scholarship should be provided for the
research work to the university by the Ministry of Education. Fundamental
research should be the primary step for a university.
 Professional Education: The University Education Commission has made some
recommendations regarding professional education and has divided it into the
five aspects of education as Agriculture Education, Commercial Education,
Engineering and Technology, Legal Education and Medical Education.

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Regarding Agriculture education, the Commission emphasized that agriculture education

should be recognized as an important national issue and the study of the subject of agriculture
should be introduced in all stages of education i.e. primary, secondary and higher level.
The existing agriculture colleges and institutions should be improved and research centres
should be established.
On the aspect of the Commercial Education, the Commission recommended that
commercial education should be made more practical and the graduates should be
encouraged to specialize in a particular branch. On the subject of Education, the faculty of
training colleges should be recruited for giving training to the people who have first-hand
experiences of school teaching. In assessing students’ performance, more stress should be
given to practice only.
Regarding Engineering and Technology, the Radhakrishan Commission recommended the
inclusion of the general education and basic physical engineering science in the engineering
courses. Besides these, the Commission also suggested that the number of engineering
schools and colleges should be increased, the existing engineering colleges’ should be
upgraded for post graduate training and research in selected subjects and they should be
closely associated with the universities.
In the context of Legal Education, the commission suggested that the law colleges should
be thoroughly re-organized. Students pursuing degree courses in law should not be permitted
to carry on other degree courses simultaneously.
Regarding Medical Education, the commission recommended that the maximum number
of admission should be 100 and that all the departments of the study which require hospital
facilities should be located in a single campus. There should be 10 beds for each student.
Post-graduate training should be offered in certain well staffed colleges.
Religious Education: The University Education Commission 1948 recommended religious
education in the colleges that—
 “all educational institution start work with a few minutes for silent meditation.
 That in the first year of the degree course the lives of great religious leaders like
Gautama the Buddha, Confucius Zaroaster, Socrates, Jesus, Sankara, Ramanuja,
Madhava, Mohammad, Kabir, Naik, Gandhi be taught.
 That in the second year some selections of a universalistic character from the
scriptures of the world be studied.
 That in the third year, the central problems of the philosophy of religion be
considered.”
Examination or Evaluation System : The University Education Commission criticized
the present system of examination and stress was given to introducing the objective type

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questions in the examination. Following are the basic ideas and suggestions of the University
Education Commission in 1948-49 in this regard.
 The commission suggested the techniques in devising and constructing objective
test for the class examination in colleges and universities.
 The Government should not insist on university degrees for the administrative
services.
 According to the University Education Commission, Credit should be given for
the class work and one third of the mark allotted to each subject should be
reserved for work done during the course of instruction.
 The standard of success at the various examinations should be uniform in all
universities.
 The Commission divided the rank after passing the examination as getting 70%
or more marks should be given the rank of first class, 55% to 69% for the rank
of second class and at least 40% for a the rank of third class.
 The system of grace marks should be abolished.
 Viva-voce examination should be employed only for professional and post
graduate degrees.
 The essay type of questions should continue with the objective type questions
but the type of question, method of examination should be thoroughly changed
with a view to making it more valid and reliable.
Students’Activities and Welfare: Regarding the students’ activities and their part in the
wellbeing of the nation, the Commission suggested the following recommendations:
 The students should undergo thorough physical examination at the time of
admission and at least once a year thereafter.
 All universities must have hospital and health service.
 Sanitary inspection of the campus buildings, hostels, dining rooms, kitchens and
off-campus residences must be undertaken in a university.
 Competent staff should be provided for compulsory physical training and a regular
time should be assigned for the purpose.
 Social service should be encouraged and it should remain on a completely
voluntary basis.
 All students should receive N.C.C. training.
 Students union should be free-from political motives and activities.

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 An office of the Dean of Students should be set up in colleges and universities.

 Women Education: Regarding the women education, the Commission suggested
for providing the same facilities to the women colleges and universities as provided
to men’s colleges and universities. The curriculum should also be prepared for
them, considering them as both women and citizens.
Administration and Finance of a University : The university Education Commission
considered the regulations and control capacity of a university in the followings ways:
 The university education should be placed on the concurrent list.
 Regarding the finance, co-ordination of facilities in special subjects, adoption of
national policies, ensuring minimum standards of efficient administration and
providing liaison between universities and national research laboratories and
scientific surveys etc., the Central Government must have the responsibility
towards the universities.
 For the allocation of grants to the universities a central Grants Commission should
be established.
 There should be no university of the purely affiliating type.
 The governing bodies of the colleges should be properly constituted.
 The aim of an affiliated college should be to develop into a unitary university and
later into a federative one.
The organizational set-up of a university should be as follows :
(a) The Visitor,

(b) The Chancellor,

(c) The Vice-Chancellor,

(d) The Senate (Court),

(e) The Executive Council, (Syandicate)

(f) The Academic Council,


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(g) The Faculties,


(h) The Boards of Studies,

(i) The Finance Committee,

(j) The Selection Committee
 Regarding finance, a University Grant Commission should be set up for allocating
grants to the universities. The State should also take the responsibility for the
financing of higher education.
Rural Universities and Colleges : Regarding Rural Universities and Colleges, the
Commission said: “the general advancement of rural India will call for an ever increasing
range and quality of skill and training. To supply these and to meet the requirement of an
educated citizenship, a system of rural colleges and universities necessary”. (Report of
Radha Krishnan Commission)
 A rural university should include a ring of small, resident under graduate colleges
with specialized and university facilities in the centre.
 The number of students for the undergraduate resident colleges should be not
more than three hundred, and the overall maximum enrolment for colleges and
university combined should be about twenty-five hundred.
 Each college of about three hundred students should have separate teaching
staff and facilities.
 In the rural colleges, the general studies should be combined with the practical
course, so that the students become cultured and educated men and women
equipped with skill-oriented.
 Regarding the .curriculum of the rural university, the Commission said: “a common
core of liberal education may be assumed for the rural university as for any
other, though the methods used in teaching and learning may different. The
Common core would include substantial introduction to the fields of Mathematics,
Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Astronomy, Biology, Physical Education,
Psychology, the Social Sciences, Philosophy and Languages and Literature.”
So the Commission recommended the Common Core consisting of Mathematics,
basic sciences, social sciences and language and literature.

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Chapter - 6

SECONDARY EDUCATION COMMISSION (1952-53)

A fter achieving independence in 1947, both the public and the Government began to
take keen interest in the development of secondary education. Although the number
of secondary schools and its enrolment began to significantly increase even before India’s
attaining independence, the quality of education imparted was unable to meet the changing
socio-economic needs of the country. As such, the need for reform was strongly felt. The
university Education Commission also remarked that our secondary education remained
the weakest link in our educational machinery and it needed urgent reforms. Meanwhile
with the attainment of independence, the political situation of the country also underwent a
complete transformation. Education also needed a fresh look, calling for a new outlook
which was appropriately voiced by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the then Education Minister
in his presidential address to the Central Advisory Board of Education in 1948. The Central
Advisory Board of Education at its 14th meeting held in January 1948 recommended the
appointment of a commission to examine the prevailing system of Secondary Education in
the country and to suggest measures for its reorganization and improvement. There were
other considerations also before the Government of India for setting up a commission for
Secondary Education. In view of these considerations, the Government of India set up.
the Secondary Education Commission by Resolution dated 23rd September, 1952, under
the Chairmanship of Dr. A. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar, the Vice-Chancellor of the Madras
University. Therefore this commission is also known as Mudaliar Commission. The
Commission was inaugurated on 6th October, 1952. It submitted its Report on June 1953.
The terms of reference of this Commission are as follows:
a) To enquire into and report on the present position of Secondary Education in
India in all its aspects.
b) To suggest measures for its re-organisation and improvement with particular
reference to—
i) The aims, organisation and content of secondary education.
ii) Its relationship to primary, basic and higher education.
iii) The inter-relation of secondary schools of different types.
iv) Other allied problems. So that a sound and reasonable uniform system of
secondary education suited to our needs and resources may be provided
for the whole country.
The Commission prepared a questionnaire dealing with the various aspects of secondary
education. This was sent out to various educational experts, teachers and educational

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institutions of India. On the basis of the replies received a good deal of information was
collected. The members of the Commission took an extensive tour of the various parts of
India and acquired first-hand knowledge of the various educational problems and presented
its report running on August 29, 1953.
The Commission pointed out the following defects of the existing system—
First, the education given in our schools is isolated from life. The curriculum as formulated
and as presented through the traditional methods of teachings does not give the students
insight into the everyday world in which they are living.
Secondly, it is narrow and one sided and it fails to train the whole personality of the
student.
Thirdly, too much importance has been given to English. Students who did not posses
special linguistic ability are, therefore, greatly handicapped in their studies.
Fourthly, the method of teaching generally practised failed to develop in the students their
independence of thought and initiative in action.
Fifthly, the increase in size of the classes has considerably reduced personal contact between
the teachers and the pupils. Thus the training of character and inculcation of proper discipline
have been seriously undermined.
Finally, the dead weight of the examination has tended to curb the teachers initiative, to
stereotype the curriculum, to promote mechanical and lifeless methods of teaching, to
discourage all spirit of experimentation and to place the stress on the wrong, or unimportant
things on education.
The Commission has made the following recommendations in regard to its aims of Secondary
Education—
Development of democratic citizenship :
Since India has decided to make itself a democratic republic, the citizens have to be
trained to uphold and practice the values of the democratic social order. This can be
possible only when the qualities of discipline, tolerance, patriotism, co-operation, equal
opportunities for thought, speech and writing, the essence of the world citizenship are
inculcated and developed in the students. Secondary education, according to the Mudaliar
Commission, should develop all these qualities in the students. Citizens with these qualities
can grow into ideal - citizens capable of making Indian democracy a success. In short, the
aim of secondary education should be to develop ideal democratic citizens in the country.
Improvement of Vocational efficiency :
One of the urgent needs of the country is to increase the productive efficiency of its people
and to increase the national income. For this, education must aim at increasing the productivity

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or vocational efficiency of the young students. To achieve this goal, the Secondary Education
Commission recommended for fostering the dignity of manual labour and for the promotion
of technical skills for the advancement of industry and technology through secondary
education. Therefore, secondary education is to be freed from purely theoretical education
system and emphasis is to be placed on agricultural, technical, commercial and other
practical courses.
Education for leadership:
Secondary education is a terminal point for majority of the students. Therefore, at the end
of the school education, each pupil must be able to enter into various professions
independently. “A special function of the secondary school, in the context, is to train persons
who will be able to assume the responsibility of leadership - in social, political, industrial or
cultural fields - in their own small groups of community or locality.”
Development of personality:
The secondary education must aim at the development of the personality of the students. It
should be so organised that the creative energy in the students should find proper expression.
They should also be trained to appreciate their cultural heritage and acquire constructive
and valuable interest. They should also be trained to preserve and conserve their cultural
heritage. An all-round development of the personality of the student is an essential aim of
secondary education.
Regarding the organizational pattern of secondary education, the Secondary Education
Commission recommended that secondary education should be a complete stage by
itself. This stage of education is most important for the students in their preparation for
life. To raise the standard of school education the Commission proposed the following
organizational pattern :
The duration of secondary education should be 7 years. It should cover the age of group
of 11-17.
Under the new organizational structure secondary education should commence after 4 or
5 years of primary or junior basic education.
The middle or senior basic or lower secondary stage should cover a period of 3 years.
The higher secondary stage should cover 3 years.
The commission also suggested abolition of the present intermediate classes. The 12th
class should be attached to the university and the 11th class should be added to the high
school. Thus it pleaded for one year pre-university and 3 year degree courses.
The commission recommended that technical schools should be started in large number
and central technical institutes should be established in large cities.

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Multi-purpose schools should be established, which would provide terminal courses in

technology, commerce, agriculture, fine arts and home sciences. The object of theses
institutions was to direct students into different walks of life at the end of the secondary
course and this will reduce the pressure upon university entrance.
The Secondary Education Commission has discussed at length the secondary education
curriculum. First it pointed out the defects of the existing curriculum, discussed in detail the
principle of curriculum construction and finally the curriculum of different stages of secondary
schools.
The Commission has pointed out the following defects in the existing curriculum:
 The present curriculum is narrow.
 It is bookish and theoretical.
 It is overcrowded and does not provide rich and significant contents.
 There is no adequate provision for practical and other kinds of activities that
should find place in any curriculum at this stage of education. Hence, the curriculum
is not able to bring about the education of the whole personality of the child.
 It does not cater to the various needs and capacities of the adolescents.
 Technical and vocational subjects are very much needed for India today, but the
curriculum does not find room for these subjects.
 Curriculum is too much dominated by the examination.
The Secondary Education Commission has recommended some principles to be followed
in the construction of curriculum.
Principles of totality of experience : According to the Secondary Education Commission,
“The curriculum does not include only the academic subjects traditionally taught in the
school but it includes the totality of experiences that a pupil receives through manifold
activities that go in the school, in the classroom, library, laboratory, workshop, playground
and in numerous informal contacts between teachers and pupils.” All types of experiences
in the school or planned by the school should be included in the curriculum.
Principles of variety and elasticity : The Curriculum should be elastic and include
varieties of subjects and activities to meet the needs of the various types of pupils. The
curriculum should be adaptable to meet the needs and interests of the students.
Principles relating to community : The curriculum should be related to the community.
There should be community - oriented programmes in the curriculum so that a child can
feel that he is an integral part of the local community. The curriculum should bring the child
and the community closer.

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Principle of training for leisure : The Curriculum should be designed to train the students
not only for work but also for leisure. For this purpose there should be a number of
activities - social, aesthetic, sporting etc. which should be included in the curriculum. These
activities will train the students to use their leisure time properly.
Principles of integration and correlation : The curriculum should not be merely a
bundle of subjects and activities. The activities and subjects should be integrated and well
correlated.
The curriculum should provide a ‘broad field’ units having direct bearing on life.
1) Curriculum for Middle Schools
2) Curriculum for High and Higher Secondary Schools.
The Commission has laid down the following different curriculum for these two stages in
the secondary education.
1) Curriculum for the Middle Schools : The Commission has recommended the
inclusion of the following subjects.
a) English.
b) Social Studies.
c) General Science.
d) Mathematics.
e) Art and Music.
f) Craft.
g) Physical Education.
2) The Curriculum for High and Higher Secondary Schools : For this stage of
education, the commission has suggested that there should be a diversified course.
(a) Compulsory subjects or main subjects; and (b) Optional subjects.
A) Compulsory Subjects :
The Compulsory subjects shall include the following :
1. Mother tongue or regional language or composite course of the mother tongue
and a classical language.
2. One other language to be chosen from among the following:
i) Hindi for those whose mother tongue is not Hindi.
ii) Elementary English (for those who have not studied English in the
middle stage).
iii) Advanced English (for those who have studied English at the earlier stage).

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iv) A Modern Indian Language (other than Hindi).

v) A modern foreign language (other than English).
vi) A classical language.
3. Social Studies - General course (for the first two years only).
4. General Science, Including Mathematics - General course (for the first two
years only).
5. One Craft to be chosen out of the list given below :
i) Spinning and weaving
ii) Wood Work
iii) Metal Work
iv) Gardening
v) Tailoring
vi) Typography
vii) Workshop Practice
viii) Sewing, Needle Work and Embroidery
ix) Modelling
B) Optional Subjects :
Three subjects from one of the following groups -
Group - 1 (Humanities) :
(a) A classical language or a third language from A (2) not already taken; (b) History;
(c) Geography; (d) Elements of Economics and Civics; (e) Elements of Psychology
and Logic; (f) Mathematics; (g) Music; (h) Domestic Science.
Group - 2 (Sciences) :
(a) Physics; (b) Chemistry; .(c) Biology; (d) Geography; (e) Mathematics; (f)
Elementsof Physiology and Hygiene; (not to be taken with Biology).
Group - 3 (Technical) :
(a) Applied Mathematics and Geometrical Engineering; (b) Applied Science; (c)
Elements of Mechanical Engineering; (d) Elements of Electrical Engineering.
Group - 4 (Commercial) :
(a) Commercial Practice; (b) Book-Keeping; (c) Commercial Geography or Elements
of Economics and Civics; (d) Shorthand and Typewriting.

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Group - 5 (Agriculture) :
(a) General Agriculture; (b) Animal Husbandry; (c) Horticulture and Gardening;
(d) Agricultural Chemistry and Botany.
Group - 6 (Fine Arts) :
(a) History of Art; (b) Drawing and Designing; (c) Painting; (d) Modelling; (e) Music;
(f) Dancing.
Group - 7 (Home Science) :
(a) Home Economics; (b) Nutrition and Cookery; (c) Mother Craft and Child Care;
(d) Household Management and Home Nursing.
Besides the above, a student may take as his option one additional subject from any of the
above groups irrespective of whether or not he has chosen his other options from that
particular group.

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Chapter - 7

THE INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION OR

KOTHARI COMMISSION (1964-66)

K othari Education Commission, 1964-66, was the sixth commission in the history of
commission in India. The Five Years Plan, started after independence helped the
growth of the country in many areas. However, the execution of these plans expresses the
inherent weakness due to which the expected success was not being achieved. Education
appeared to be one of areas which indicated many problems that needed our efforts for
immediate solutions. The government was fully aware of the situation. To improve the
educational set up the government constituted two commissions after independence. We
have already discussed about the two commissions, i.e. Radhakrishnan Commission which
deals with university education and Secondary Education Commission, confined to
secondary education only. The recommendations of these two commissions could not be
succeeded in its full implementations. Consequently, the defects in the area of education
persisted. In order to remove theses defects, the government had to appoint a new education
commission to advise the government on national pattern of education along with general
principles and policies for the development of education at all stages.
The Commission was appointed under provision of a resolution of the Government of
India, dated 14th July 1964. The Commission included eminent educationists in diverse
fields from India and abroad. It consisted of total 17 members, where 14 members, 1
member - secretary, 1 Associate - Secretary and Dr. D.S. Kothari, chairman of the U.G.C.
was appointed as the chairman of the commission. Therefore, it is also known as the
Kothari Commission. Among the members of the commission 5 educationists were from
England, America, France, Japan and Russia. J.P. Naik was appointed as number secretary
of the commission and J.F McDougall as associated secretary.
Prof. D.S. Kothari, Chairman, University Grants Commission, New Delhi was appointed
as the Chairman of the Commission. The commission consisted of 17 members.
The unique features of the Education Commission (1964-66) were:
i) All the five earlier commissions did not deal with education as a whole but
focussed attention on different levels of education. But this commission was not
to limit its enquiry to specific sectors or aspects of education, but to have a
comprehensive review of the Entire Educational System.
ii) Another unique feature of the Commission was its conviction that education is
the most powerful instrument of the national development. The crucial role of
education in national development appears in all its vividness on every page of
the report.

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Never before education was given such a niche of national honour, and never
before was it conceived as a pivot of national honour, and never before was it
conceived as a pivot of nation’s progress and the prosperity as revealed in the
pages of the Commission’s Report.
iii) The international composition of the commission is also significant. Education in
India must necessa’rily emerge from Indian experience, through, culture and
local conditions. But as education remains the common quest of mankind, it was
found profitable to draw upon the experience and thinking of educationists and
scientists from other countries and to take advantage of the latest developments
in the educationally advanced countries. As such the commission included 7
Indian members and 5 others; 1 each from Japan, France, U.K., U.S.A. and
USSR, besides, 20 consultants from different countries of the world were
available.
The commission started its work on the birthday of Mahatma Gandhi, the father of the
nation. It constituted 12 task forces and 7 working groups for studying the various problems
of education in the country. It interviewed about 9000 men and women distinguished in
public life, educators, scientists, industrialists and scholars in different fields and others
interested in education. The Commission spent about hundred days in visiting universities,
colleges and schools and held discussions with teachers, educationists, administrators and
students. It received and scrutinized 2,400 Memorandum and notes. The commission
worked for 21 months and submitted its report on June, 1966.
The report of the commission is an excellent document on education. In its report the
commission expressed its from belief that education is the most powerful instrument of
national development. The report of the commission has been appropriately entitled as
‘education and national development.’
The report is divided into four sections:
Section I : deal with general Problems
Section II : deal with Education at different stages and in different sectors.
Section III : deals with implementation of the various recommendations and programmes
suggested by the commission
Section IV : consists of supplementary papers
The programmes of educational reconstructions proposed in this Report fall into three
broad categories —
1) Internal transformation of the educational system so as to relate it to the life,
needs and aspirations of the nation

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2) Qualitative improvement of education so that the standards achieved are

adequate, keeping continually rising and, at least in a few sectors become
internationally comparable; and,
3) Expansion of educational facilities broadly on the basis of man - power needs
and with an accent on equalization of educational opportunities.
Education has a very extensive role to play in changing the men and society. It has to be
entirely reformed and related to the life, needs and aspirations of the people so that it may
serve as a powerful tool of social, economic and cultural transformation. In order to relate
education, the commission recommended the following objectives—
1. Increase in Productivity.
2. Promoting social and National Integration
3. Education and Modernization
4. Developing social, moral and spiritual values.
1. Increase in Productivity—
The Commission suggested that education must be related to productivity to increase
national income. In order to link education and productivity the Indian Education Commission
made the following recommendations.
i) Science is the basic component of education and culture ; so it should be made
an integral part of school education.
ii) To inculcate the value of manual work the commission recommended the
introduction of work experience in school education.
iii) To meet the increasing needs of technical personnel in Industry, agriculture and
trade the IEC recommended to introduce vocational subjects in school curriculum.
It also opined that the vocationalisation will bring education into closer relationship
with productivity.
2. Promoting social and National Integration—
National and social integration is the precondition for the progress and development of a
country. According to the commission, Social and National Integration is an important
objective of a national system of education. The commission made the following
recommendations for strengthening social and national integration through education.
i) To make education a powerful instrument of national development, common
school system of public education should be adopted.
ii) Bridge the gulf between the educated and the uneducated, intellectuals and
masses, social and national service should be made an integral part of school
education,

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iii) A language is a firm adhesive for social and national integration, suitable provisions
should be made for teaching the mother tongue, Hindi and other Modern Indian
languages in schools.
3. Education and Modernisation—
The present society is a science - based society. The present century has made tremendous
advancement in scientific and technical knowledge as a result of explosion of knowledge.
In such a situation one of the main functions of education is to keep pace with this
advancement of knowledge. Another feature of modern society is the rapid social change.
In the situation of change, the school must always be alert if it is to keep abreast of significant
changes. An education system which does not renovate itself continuously, becomes out-
dated and puts hindrance to progress. To keep pace with modernisation the IEC is of the
opinion that “greater emphasis must be placed on vocational subjects, science education
and research.”
4. Social, moral and spiritual values—
The national system of education should emphasis on the cultivation of social, moral and
spiritual values among students. For this purpose the commission made the following
recommendations-
i) The Central and State governments should adopt measures to introduce education
in moral, social and spiritual values in all institutions under their direct control on
the lines recommended by the University Education Commission on religious
and moral instruction.
ii) In order to develop social, moral and religious values, some periods should be
provided in the time table. Instruction of this type should be given by general
teachers,
iii) The University departments should be specially concerned with the ways in
which these values can be taught wisely and effectively and should undertake
preparation of the special literature for use by students and teacher.
The Commission recommended a new structural pattern of education. The new educational
structure should be as follows :
 One to three years of pre-school education.
 A primary stage of 7 to 8 years divided into a lower primary stage of 4 or 5
years and a higher primary stage of 3 or 2 years.
 A lower secondary stage of 3 or 2 years of general education or 1 to 3 years of
vocational education.

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 A higher secondary stage of 2 years of general education or 1 to 3 years of

vocational education, 50% of the total would be under vocational education,
 A higher education stage of 3 years or more for the first degree course followed
by courses of varying durations for the second or research degrees.
 The structural pattern thus recommended by the commission is commonly known
as 10+2+3.
 Pre-school education from 1 to 3 years should also be given.
 General education should last for a period of 10 years -
4 years of lower primary,
3 years of higher primary
3 years of lower secondary education.
 Higher secondary education should be fixed for 2 years.
 Degree course should be of 3 years.
 The age of admission to class I should not be less than 6+. The first public
external examination should come at the end of the first 10 years of schooling.
Secondary schools should be of two types : higher schools providing a 10 years’
course and higher secondary schools providing a course of 11 or 12 years. A
new higher secondary course consisting of classes XI and XII should be
introduced. The pre-university courses should be transferred from Universities
and added to the secondary schools. The Commission has suggested the
reorganisation of the university stage. At this stage, the three year degree has
been favoured by the Commission.

KOTHARI COMMISSION ON PRIMARY EDUCATION

The Commission admitted the need for quantitative expansion and qualitative improvement.
It suggested that (i) primary education should start at 6+ and continue thereafter for II 8
years, (ii) This total period may be subdivided into 4/5 years of Lower Primary education
must immediately be made ‘free’, while a time bound programme may be adopted for
Upper Primary education, (iii) Primary education should be followed by 1-3 years of
vocational education or 3 year Lower Secondary education.
The aim of primary education would be to lay a good foundation of life as a responsible
citizen. Pre-registration system should be introduced and all children of the relevant age-

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group must be forced to attend school. Simultaneously, effort must be made to plug wastage
and stagnation. It must be guaranteed that no child leaves school without completing lower
primary education and at least 80% complete the 7 years school course.
The curriculum must be freed from pedantic matters. Emphasis at the lower-primary
stage should be placed upon Language, Elementary Mathematics, and Nature Study. The
syllabuses for classes I to IV would consist of 3 Rs. Lessons on phenomenal and social
environment and health etc. The mother tongue should be the medium of instruction, and
not more than one language should be insisted upon. In case the mother tongue should be
accepted as medium, it there are 10 children per class or 40 children in a school speaking
a language other than the accepted language, these children should be provided with their
own language as medium. They may, however, learn the regional language optionally.
The pace of mental growth of all children at the primary school age being unequal, the
Commission disfavoured the pre fixation of a common standard for all. Moreover,
classes I & II should together form a cycle at the end of which an evaluation of attainment
may he made. Classes III & IV may form another such cycle. All examinations should be
internal and evaluation done in grading system.
The Commission proposed social service with the object of imparting social consciousness.
Living a co-operative community life in school, looking after cleanliness and decoration of
the class room, white-washing and painting of school building, acquaintance with rural
society, participation in community development work, helping the old, inform and crippled
may be listed as social service items.
Emphasis was similarly placed upon ‘Work Experience’ through paper and clay work,
spinning, gardening etc. In this context the Commission expressed a sound opinion about
Basic Education. Basic Education has 3 characteristics- (a) productive work,
(b) integration of creativity and environment life with curricular studies, (c) close relation
between school and society. These characteristics should permeate the whole field of
education through ‘work experience’. No particular type of education or school, therefore,
need be characterized as Basic school.
Upper Primary Stage : Teaching and learning process at this stage will be more intensive
and extensive. The methods and standards will be more clearly defined. The curriculum
would include (1) Mother Tongue (or Regional language), (2) One more language - Hindi
or English (a third language may be offered electively), (3) a combined study of Arithmetic
and Algebra (4) History, (5) Geography (6) Civics (7) (a) Physics, Zoology and Earth
Science in class VI, (b) Physics, Chemistry, Zoology and Astronomy in class VII. These
sciences would be presented a distinctive disciplines Moral education and some productive
art or craft should be added to the list.

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For social services at this stage, the list of activities would include school development
work, public health and community development work, public health and community
development work. Work-experience would include cane and bamboo craft, leather
work, pottery, weaving, gardening or farm work. Examinations should be internal on
cumulative basis. Oral testing should be added to written examination. District-wise
competitive examinations may be held with the object of evaluating the standard of
education. Even on that case, certificates and cumulative cards would be issued by the
school authorities. Such examinations may also be held on a voluntary basis to select
candidates for scholarships.
The commission opined that like the ‘A’ course in England, a superior syllabus may be
provided for the meritorious children. For those who would not proceed to formal secondary
education, provisions should be made for alternative part-time vocational courses.
Admission to such courses should, at the initial stage, be voluntary. But the target should
be fixed at vocational courses for 20% by 1985-86.
The problem of providing the necessary numbers of Upper Primary Schools would be
much more acute than the same at lower primary stage. Many new schools would be
required. The commission, therefore, phased the admission programme.

KOTHARI COMMISSION ON SECONDARY EDUCATION

The commission enunciated objectives of Secondary Education, suggested a reformed

structural pattern and curricular reorganization.
The aims of secondary education would be to provide a solid basis of general education
for democratic citizenship, on the basis of which education the individual would be able to
proceed to (i) higher education, (i) education for specialization, (iii) various forms of technical
and vocational education and, (iv) employment for living.
The integrated total period of secondary education might be advantageously divided into
two inter-related sub-stages- (a) Lower Secondary stage (class VIII/IX to X), and (b)
Higher secondary stage (classes XI and XII).
Lower Secondary Education: Subjects studied at the Upper Primary stage would be
more intensively studied at the stage. The Curriculum, would consist of (1) Three languages.
(Mother tongue/ Regional language, State/associated State language, any modern Indian
language), (2) Physics, (3) Chemistry, (4) Zoology, (5) Botany, (6) History, (7) Geography,
(8) Civics (9) Physical and moral education and (10) any Fine Art.
In the matter of social service, special emphasis would be placed upon Community
Development work. Compulsory social work for ten days per year or consolidated 30
days for the 3 years of lower secondary stage would be insisted upon. Wood work, Metal

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work, Leather work, Carpet making, Book Binding, Tailoring, Printing work etc, should
feature in Work Experience programme. To make work-experience production oriented,
efforts should be made to forge a direct link with farm to factory work.
There would be no specialization or diversification of studies at this stage. Upto class
X, the courses will be common and general. At the end of this stage, an external examination
will be the terminal point.
Admission targets were fixed at—
1970-71 1975-76 1985-86
23.4% 29.1% 46% of the concerned
Age group. The objective would be a gradual diversion of 20% of children to vocational
courses of 1 to 3 year duration. This would necessitate the establishment of part/full time
institutions to receive children at the end of 7th/ 8th grade. These Industrial Training Institutes
and Technical Schools would prepare the students for practical jobs. Diversion would be
phased as -
1970-71 1975-76 1985-86
3.8% 6.4% 20%
Higher Secondary Education : The objective at this stage would be to enlarge and
strengthen the foundation of general education together with an orientation to specialization.
But complete specialization being considered inadvisable, the stream system of Mudaliar
Scheme would be abolished. Subjects offered under the Technical, Agricultural, Fine Arts,
Domestic Sciences and Commerce streams should properly be placed in polytechniques
or industrial and agricultural institutions. Hence, Higher Secondary Education would also
be General Education in the Sciences and Humanities.
The Curriculum would consist of (a) 2 languages (as discussed earlier), and (b) 3 elective
subjects. The election would not be limited to either arts or science, Free selection would
be permitted. Principle of election being recognized, the study of sciences would not be
compulsory, but liberal arrangements should be made for the study of science subjects in
conformity with rural or urban environments. Agricultural Science would be accorded
proper recognition as a Science. Although no special syllabus would be provided for girls,
Domestic Science, Music, Fine Arts may be enlisted as elective subjects. Half of the
reading time would be devoted to the elective subjects, to the languages and to physical
education and other co-curricular work. Work Experience would be provided in fields
and factories. Life in labour-camp would meet the demand for social service. Ten days a
year or consolidated 20 days in two years in a labour-camp and six hours work a day
would meet the requirement. Organisation of the curriculum at Ordinary and Advanced

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levels might be a special feature. Proficiency certificates on the basis of the terminal external
examination would be issued by the Board. The certificate would record only the marks
obtained in each subject without mentioning any aggregate pass or fail. Students might
take Compartmental Examinations. School-evaluation and certificate would accompany
the external certificated.
The targets for schooling provision in terms of percentage of the concerned age
group were –
1965-66 1970-71 1975-76 1980-81 1985-86
7% 9.2% 11% 14.8% 20.4%
All students would not pursue the general course. Alternative vocational courses would
draft students in the following phases :
1965-66 1970-71 1975-76 1980-81 1985-86
40.6% 42.1% 45.9% 47.9% 50%
This vocational education, either part time of full time, would be provided in factories,
Polytechniques, I.TIs, Sandwich Course and Agricultural Polytechs. 3 year Certificate or
Diploma courses would be initiated in Commerce, Cottage Industries, Public Health, Public
Administration etc.
The commission recommended a rapid expansion of secondary education so that all children
of lower secondary age group might be provided with attendance facilities by 1985. Such
expansion would require 75000 additional teaching posts per year. Hence, Teacher Training
should have a considerable priority in educational budgets.

KOTHARI COMMISSION ON HIGHER EDUCATION

In the context of such a deep crisis came the recommendations of Kothari Commission.
The aim of higher education would be search for knowledge and truth, as well as
dissemination of that knowledge. The university must supply the necessary leadership and
help equitability in social life, reduce gaps in culture by producing a well organized generation
of young talent. The university has responsibility to improve the entire pattern of education,
even by devising scientific methods of instruction. Education of the adult population must
be one of its charges.
Higher education requires quantitative expansion and qualitative improvement simultaneously.
Hence the commission placed special emphasis upon equipment, management, teachers’
qualifications, reform of examinations at the undergraduate stage. At the same time it
recommended reform of university administration and improvement of teaching and research
at the post graduate stage. New universities may be founded only in the interest of qualitative

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improvement, specialization of studies and to help the productive possibilities of specific

regions. In any case, new universities should be established with prior consent of the
U.G..C
In regard to qualitative improvement, the Commission suggested the establishment of some
“advanced centres of study” and the upgrading of 4 universities to the status of Major
Universities to provide for education at international standards. The commission’s
recommendation in respect of language formula, students’ welfare etc have already been
discussed. In regards to the tricky question of admission to higher studies, the commission
recommended a principle of admission determined by financial provisions, man power
needs, intake capacity of institutions and standard of higher education. On the whole the
commission proposed a Selective Approach. Many of the recommendations, however,
still remain paper documents.

GENERAL, VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION

The most general and common meaning of education is schooling. People regard this
concept of education to be synonymous with intellectual knowledge or formal instruction.
But education does not mean merely the acquisition of intellectual knowledge but also
bring the pupil up or develop in him those habits and attitudes with which he may successfully
face the future.
General Education
General education is the process by which all the individuals in a society acquire a common
medium of mutual communication resulting in the development of common attitude and
acquisition of traits of democratic citizenship.
According to Dr. Dewey general education seeks to discover an intermediary between
aimless education and the education of inculcation and indoctrination. In the words of W.
H,. Stickler- General education seeks to extend all men the benefits of an education that
liberates.
The concept of general education means that type of education which is concerned with
the training of intelligence, contemplative knowledge and refinement of tastes. It caters to
the cultural, aesthetic and academic aspect of our life. It stands for training for beautiful
and refined life or culture. The Greeks first formulated that conception of education which
we yet call general or liberal education. The Greek conception of manhood, of fully
developed personality was broad indeed. To the Greeks we owe the first attempt to
secure the development of personality on the thought side. The love of knowledge for
knowledge’s sake found with them its first disciples, inquiry into nature, into man into the
supernatural, was fearlessly attempted by the Greeks. They first formulated the conception

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of man as primarily a rational being, Through the realization of his own nature each must
work pout the things that life is to be lived for. Science, art, philosophy, religion etc., are
means to this end. The work of the Greeks was also to determine the things in this life
worth living for. Aristotle says that the aim of life is living happily and beautifully. They
(Greeks) believe that general or liberal education is a means to achieve this end.
In course of time people began to think of general education as nothing but acquirement
of knowledge for the development of intellectual life. All manual work was regarded as
vulgar. Only a life of contemplation and culture is to be aimed at through the process of
general education. Hence general education should get precedence over special or
vocational education. Consequently in our days also we find division between a general
education having to do with the self-sufficing life of leisure devoted to knowing for its
own sake and a useful practical training or vocational education devoid of intellectual
and aesthetic content.
Concept of vocational education
Vocational education means that type of education which prepares students for employment
in a particular vocation. It stands for job-training or training for specific profession. Vocational
education is that process of education by which individual’s competence in a professional
area is increased through specialized training. It also fulfils particular need of each individual.
Specialisation involves the progressive narrowing down of the area of study. There is
nothing to be worried about in this natural feature of specialization. It is by narrowing
down the limits of inquiry that new knowledge is obtained.
Its Importance
Every man needs some food to nourish and sustain his body, a shelter to protect himself
from the sun and the rains, clothes and some luxuries to maintain the customary standard
of living. No man can meet all these needs without depending on any employment. To
solve these problems man requires some occupation to choose and engage himself. The
life of the earliest man was simple. His mode of work was also simple. But with the
advancement of man’s civilization came the question of skill and learning in the method of
earning his bread. This is an age of hard competition. Specialization becomes the criterion
of the man’s professional success in such a condition. A choice is to be made and necessary
steps undertaken with a view to obtaining proper and dignified employment. Naturally the
vocational aims of education aim at preparing the pupil for a living. Vocational education is
a comprehensive term embracing those aspects if the educational process involving in
addition to general education the study if technologies and related science and the acquisition
of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge related to occupations in various
sectors of economic and social life.

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Criticism
Occupation according to ability must be the basis of vocational education. The aim of
vocational education is to prepare the pupil for the present complex society. As a result of
this, vocational education has become partial. The liberal education is being neglected.
The aim of education is more or less industrial in outlook and consequently, technical
education is more in demand than liberal education. Even general education is taken as
vocational education. This has created a general that literature, philosophy and history
have no cultural value and that these subjects are studied according to the demands of the
society. Undue emphasis given to the vocational aims of education created a false belief
that special training cannot be meant for all. It is the proud possession and privilege of the
few to acquire such training.
Competition and self-interest form the basis of our present day society. This has led to the
stifling if individuality. The demands of the society determine the social standard, and values
of profession. Consequently, education takes no notice of aptitude, needs problems and
interests of the pupils. They are rather compelled to take up profession according to the
demands of the society.
It may be noted that the aim of education is not merely to lead the pupil in the acquirement
of special training but also to bring him up or develop in him those habits and attitudes with
which he may successfully face the future. In conclusion, it may be said that vocational
education aims should also give stress on liberal education.
General and Vocational Education are not opposed to each other.
At present it is useless to debate on the question ‘General vs. Vocational education’ in the
form in which it first arose. The two contending concepts have undergone considerable
modification with the passing of year. Generally speaking. It is now conceded on all hand
that education for life requires both technical or specific education and training which has
no direct vocational bearing. Yet there remains the rivalry between the two-General vs.
Vocational education and this is found in the conflict between the uniform versus the
differentiated curriculum, duty versus interests, discipline versus information, culture versus
utility, and all the rest. Concepts of general and special education are not contradictory,
but are complementary to each other. It is wrong to isolate General or liberal and special
or vocational. “The anti-thesis between a technical education and liberal education is
fallacious. There can be adequate technical education which is not liberal, and no liberal
education which is not technical, that is, no education which impart both technique and
intellectual vision.”
Vocational education is necessary for supplying the primary physical needs of life. Therefore
we should not look down upon this type of education which gives training for some
occupation, Similarly, the thought of earning a livelihood is an important matter for us all,

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yet it is only a part. Man does not live by bread alone. He wants to live as a true human
being. The question how a man spends his leisure is as important as the question how he
does his work. His ways of utilizing his leisure time go for to determine his efficiency as a
worker. A general education that is useless and a vocational education that is uncultured
cannot be accepted. In modern days education that is uncultured cannot be accepted in a
modern democratic society. True education should always enable the individual to live his
life properly and perfectly. Education has mainly two aspects, the cultural aspect which
makes a person grow and the productive aspects which makes a person do things. Both
are essential. In the words of the Kothari Commission - “We visualize the future trend if
school education to be towards a fruitful meaning of general and vocational education-
general education containing of general and vocational - general education containing some
elements of pre-vocational and technical education and vocational education in turn having
an element of general education.”
Vocational education
Vocational implies occupation of man. Vocational educational refers to occupational
education as such. The vocational aim of educational remains in the field of education but
it has been ignored so long. In ancient Athens, Occupation, had no place in the curriculum
for the elite. The reason for its exclusion was that it would narrow the outlook of man. As
the Athenians were averse to manual labour, education held no vocational aim to them.
Conception of Vocational education according to different schools of philosophy
Aims of education influenced by idealism overlooked the vocational side of education.
Idealism is interested in man and not in things. Education is nothing but self-realisation to
the idealist. The idealist holds that the aim of education is to arouse the self in man and to
help to know the supreme good. The idealist cannot bear that the aim of education is to
acquire ability for occupation. Realism and Pragmatism, however, accept the acquisition
of ability for earning livelihood as one of the aims of education. According to the Realist,
education meets the future needs of man. Consequently, provision for occupation through
acquisition of ability is the aim of education.
Utility of vocational education
The vocational aims of education are unavoidable for man and society. It is recognized by
all that education must cater to the needs of students. So that they can arm themselves in
the struggle for existence. Vocational education was not neglected in ancient India.
Meaning of vocation
Vocational aim of education is important. Occupation is used in a wide sense. It covers
every activity of man including his occupation, profession and calling. The modern view if
giving education to the pupil according to his according to his ability gives prominence to

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the vocational side of education. Equality is one of the cardinal principles of democracy. It
implies that every individual has equal opportunity in earning his livelihood and in enjoying
a fuller life according ti his ability. This conception of equality lays stress on vocational aim
of education.
Its value in modern times
Vocational education is necessary for the pupil in the present civilization of a complex
nature. It is impossible to take education as a means for leisure. The aim of education is not
only to improve the mind but to acquire ability for earning livelihood. This is due to the fact
that it is the main duty of man to acquire ability for earning livelihood. The unemployed and
the idle are the burden of society. The problem of unemployment is acute in the present
society. This has drawn the attention of man to the vocational aim of education.
Much emphasis is laid on the vocational aim of education in the socialistic pattern of
society because unemployment brings despair to man and produces lawlessness in society.
Its defects
Occupation according to ability must be the basis of vocational education. The aim of
vocational education is to make the pupil suitable for the present industrial society.
Consequently, vocational education is being neglected. The aim of education is more or
less industrial in outlook and the study if science is more in demand than liberal education.
Even, general education is taken as ability for earning livelihood. This has led to the general
belief that literature, philosophy and history have no cultural value and that these subjects
are studied according to social demand. Special attention given to the vocational aim of
education has led to the belief that special knowledge or special training is real education.
Special knowledge cannot, however, be acquired by all. It is the privilege of the few to
acquire such knowledge.
The present society is based on competition and preservation of personal interests. Man
must become an expert or a specialist to establish himself in society. This is hampering the
growth of individuality in man. The number of men engaged in each profession is being
determined by social demands. Education now does not look to the eagerness, taste and
innate nature if the pupil. It compels him to make choice of his profession according to
social demands. This system is injurious to man and society.
Acceptable aim of vocational education
In conclusion, it may be said that the aim of education becomes abortive if it is one sided.
The development of individuality in man must be the aim of education. Its aim does not
consist merely in the acquisition of ability to earn a livelihood. Education must not be
entirely vocational. It must be cultural as well. There is no limitation to the value of education
in life of man. Its sole aim is to preserve what exists in society.

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The value of human life is not to be judged by the standard of material success. Education
is not to put emphasis on a particular inclination of the pupil only, it must aim at the
development of his intellect, perception, free will and sense of social duty. This is because
education is not an isolated part of life, it is the reflection of the entire life of man.
Types of professional and vocational education
Professional and vocational education generally includes the following types–
(1) Medical education, (2) Engineering and Technological education, (3) Industrial
education, (4) Legal education, (5) • Commercial education, (6) Agricultural education,
(7) Forestry education, (8) Art and craft education, (9) Training of teachers.
Functions
The function of professional and vocational education may be described as two-fold, (a)
to meet the needs of industry and commerce for properly trained workers of all grades
and (b) to provide a suitable form of education for those boys and girls whose natural
abilities can best be developed by instruction on practical lines.
Professional and vocational education should be regarded as an integral part of any
educational system and is in no way inferior to education of the General type.
Professional and vocational education must include commercial education and act in relation
to industry. Agricultural, legal and other types if professional education should also be
regarded as an essential branch of professional education.
In order to provide suitable instruction and training for the different type of workers required,
there are the following main types of vocational, instructions:
(a) Industrial or Trade Schools.
(b) Labour Training Institutes.
(c) Technical Schools.
(d) Senior Technical Institutes.
(e) Polytechniques.
(f) College of Engineering and Technology.
(g) Institute of Technology or Engineering University.
The first and second normally provide full time instruction preparatory to employment
while the third provide part-time instruction for those already in employment. Part-time
instruction is held during the evening.

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Medical
There are Medical schools and colleges. There are also centres for para-medical course.
In India Medical Schools have been close down after independence. Provision of Post-
Graduate teaching in different branches of medical science has been opened of late. There
are also School of Nursing and Nurse-Training Centres.
Law
Law Colleges and Law Departments of some Universities cater to the needs of the students
who intend to take up legal profession. The duration of law course is three years after
graduation. But of late The Bar Council of India has recommended a five-year course
after +2 stage. Some Universities have accepted that recommendation.
Agriculture, Veterinary, Dairy and Forestry
The subjects of Agriculture, Veterinary Science and Forestry have been expanding now-
a-days. Several colleges and universities have been established which attracted an increasing
number of students. Facilities for research work has also been progressed. Attempts to
train for vocational competence in farming in +2 stages are being made.
Commerce
Commercial education made a rapid progress in every country. A network of commercial
schools and colleges can be found in every country.
Teacher’s Training
The necessity of establishing training institutions for different categories of teachers has
been felt. Consequently the number of such institutions has steadily increased.
What should be the purpose of General and Vocational or Technical education
It is still felt in our country that professional and vocational education at the school level is
an inferior form of education, fit only for those who fail in general education and the last
choice of parents and students. Too sharp a distinction however should not be drawn
between general and special education. General education should introduce children to
the world of work and to an understanding of science and technology. Technology itself is
evolving so rapidly that a student who receives only a narrow and specialized training to
the exclusion of general education in the sciences and humanities will quickly find his
skills outdated and lacking an adequate base for rapid retraining and ill-fitted for the
complexity of the demands of the modern world. Therefore, while all general education
should contain some technical education of a pre-vocational nature, all special education
(vocational) should also contain an appropriate element of general education. General
education without special education is unpractical and special educational without general
education is inhuman.

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Comment
In conclusion, it may be said that while it is the duty of educational institutions to give
special education to young men, they may be trained for special work in the country either
because of the need of the country is because of the aptitude of the young. It is also their
duty to see that the occupational mannerisms outlook and prejudices do not obscure this
common humanity of all. These educational institutions must provide all its pupils with a
common background of some sort which will be a link between the plumber and the
solicitor, the farmer and the factory mechanic. ‘It is common observation’ says Prof. Earnest
Barker, ‘that men’s minds are subdued to what they work in and that their ideas, assumptions
and outlook on life may all be coloured b y the material they handle and the temper they
insensibly form in the course of their heavy work.’ It is the part of the duty of school to
keep the wider outlook, to see the whole as well as the parts, and while making good
thinkers, good workmen, and good tradesmen, to make them all equally men and women.
And this can only be done by effective general education.

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Chapter - 8

N.E.P. (1986 AS REVIEWED IN 1992) BASIC FEATURES

NATIONAL POLICY OF EDUCATION, 1968, 1979 & 1986

I n pursuance of the desire made by the Kothari Commission (1964-66) the Government
of India in 1968 announced some important principles for the onward march of education
in the country.
Objective of the Policy
The Central Government has categorically stated in the National Policy on Education in
1968 that great efforts should be made for the earjy fulfilment of the Directive principle
Under Article 45 of the Constitution, seeking to provide free and compulsory education
for all children upto the age of 14. Suitable programmes should be developed to reduce
the wastage and stagnation in schools and to ensure that every child who is enrolled in
school completes the prescribed course.
Language Policy
The development of Indian languages and literature is a mist for educational and cultural
development. Unless this is done, the creative energies of the students will remain suppressed
and naturally standards of education will not improve. Knowledge will not spread to the
people and the gulf between the intelligentsia and the masses will not be removed. Regional
languages are already in use as media of education at the primary and secondary stages.
Arrangement should be made for their use in the University stage also.
At the secondary stage, the state governments should adopt, and vigorously implement,
the three language formula. Special emphasis should also be given to the study of English.
Strenuous efforts should be made to equalize educational opportunity. Regional imbalances
in educational facilities should be removed and tolerable educational facilities should
provided in rural and other backward areas. For the promotion of social cohesion and
national integration the common school system as suggested by the Kothari Commission
should be adopted. Efforts should also be made to improve the standard of education in
the prevailing schools. The education of girls should receive special attention, not only on
grounds of social justice, but also because it accelerates social transformation. Education
for the backward classes and the tribal people should receive more emphasis. Educational
facilities for the physically and mentally handicapped children should be enlarged.
School and the Community
The school and the community should be brought closer through suitable programmes of
mutual service and support. Work-experience and national service including participation

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in meaningful and challenging programmes of community service and national reconstruction

should become an important part of education. The main objective of these programmes is
to arouse a sense of involvement in the common interest of the society and the community.
Educational opportunities
Educational opportunity at the secondary level is one of the instruments of social change.
And as such facilities for secondary education should be enlarged. Stress should also be
given to vocational education. Higher education should be so organized as to meet the
needs of the students. Laboratory, library and other facilities in the Colleges and Universities
should be enlarged. New Universities should be established with caution. An adequate
provision of funds should be made before opening a new University. Special attention
should be given to the organization of postgraduate courses and to the improvement of
standards of training and research at this level.
Part-time education and correspondence Courses
Part-time education and correspondence courses should be elaborately arranged by the
Universities. Such facilities should also be extended to students aspiring for higher education.
Teachers, agricultural, industrial and other workers should also be encourage to take this
opportunity of getting advanced education. Furthermore education through part-time and
correspondence courses should be given the same status as full-time education. Such
facilities will promote the cause of education and provide opportunities of the large number
of people desirous of getting advanced education without enrolling themselves as full-time
students.
Literacy Programme
Alongside primary education, universal literacy or the liquidation of mass illiteracy is pivotal
for a nation’s social and economic progress. The rise in the level of an individual’s awareness
such as literacy ushers in, is instrumental for the release of productive forces in society,
providing the pre-condition for hastening the pace of growth in industry and agriculture
and for the removal of diverse social evils. Hence universal literacy has to occupy the top
place in the National education policy of all emerging nations. Teacher and students should
be actively involved in organizing literacy campaigns, especially as part of the social and
National service programme. It will be advantageous to have a broad uniform educational
structure in all parts of the country. The ultimate objective should be to adopt the 10 + 2 +
3 pattern.
Complexity of the problem
To Government of India recognizes that reconstruction of education is no easy task. Not
only are the resources scarce the problems are complex. But considering the important
role of education in the development of the country the Government of India, will in addition

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to undertaking programmes on the central sector, assist the state governments for the
development of educational programmes of national importance where co-ordinated action
on the part of the states and centre is called for. The Government of India will also review,
every five years the progress made and recommend guidelines for future development.
Poor achievement
The analysis of developments over the last two decades makes it clear that desired
improvements have not materialized because neither the resources nor the measures for
reconstructing were commensurate with the imaginative and purposeful thrust of the
education policy adopted in 1968.
Changes made
Education is concerned essentially with the future. It has a holistic character. Therefore,
everyone capable of contribution to it has a duty and responsibility to do so. If the new
generation entering the 21st century finds itself ill-equipped educationally. It will hold the
present generation responsible for it. So education is a national responsibility. The new
education policy, it is expected, will succeed to the extent it reflects the total commitment
of the nation to accord priority to the development of our human resources.
In 1979 the educational policy was reoriented though the basic aims were the same as
those of 968 policy. Greater flexibility in content and duration of various courses was
provided for. The 1979 draft policy also envisaged de-linking of jobs from degrees. Before
parliament could approve the policy the Janata Government collapsed. The Congress (1)
Government headed by Mrs,. Indira Gandhi pursued the 1968 national policy and
programmes virtually ignoring the changes made in the 1979 draft.
Before 1976 education was a State-Subject. The Central Government was concerned
directly only with certain areas such as co-ordination and determination of standards in
technical and higher education. According to a constitutional amendment of the Union and
State Governments the primary responsibility continues to be that of the states.
Meanwhile the 1968 policy continues to serve as the basis for educational development; it
is supplemented by the guidelines adopted in the sixth plan document. The most important
of these programmes relates to universalisation of elementary education and eradication of
adult illiteracy.
Education is free upto lower secondary (class X) stage in 11 states and seven Union
Territories. It is free for girls in six states. Education at the higher secondary stage (+2) is
free in six states including West Bengal.
Dismal Features
Educational surveys have revealed some disconcerting facts about school education. The
N.C.E.R.T. for instance found in 1982 that of the 4,86000 primary schools catering to

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about 700 lakh children 53 percent have no pucca buildings, 40 percent no black-boards,
33 percent no drinking water facilities, 71 percent no libraries, 66 percent no urinal or
lavatory facilities, 35 percent are managed by single teacher while several have no teachers.
The UGC disclosed in may 1984 that number of Universities increased from 28 in 1950-
51 to 120 in 1982-83 (now 140), the number of colleges rose from 695 to 5039 (seven-
fold increase) number of t264 to 2, 11, 761 (a ten-fold increase) and the enrollment in
Universities went up from 1-7 lakh to 32 lakh (an 18-fold increase). But there was no
great impact on the overall national achievement.
The low standard of academic attainments is evident from the fact that only 15 present of
the students get 50 percent marks after three years of college education, the other either
drop out or get less than 50 percent marks. As many as 85 percent of the students fell
under the category of ‘rejects’. Such a system is wasteful no doubt. The wastage is over
50 percent upto the primary level, over 70 percent upto the middle stage and over 80
percent upto the secondary level. The number of illiterates aged 15 and above rose sharply
in the country between 1970 and 1980 - from 208.1 million to 243, 1 million. Although
literacy has improved from 16.67 percent of the population in 1951 to 36.23 in 1981,
female literacy figures are demoralizing. More than 75 percent of Indian women could not
read or write in 1981. The gap between the male the female literacy percentages has
widened in the three decades of planned development - from 17.02 percent in 1951 to
22.07 percent in 1981.
The 10+2 system was introduced in the mid seventies but several states have not adopted
it. In the states which adopted the scheme, its working has been far from satisfactory,
specially because of the failure of its vocational side.
Challenges of Education
Indications of radical changes in the present faulty education system and a new policy
were given in an official paper entitled challenges of Education-policy perspective presented
to the Parliament in August 1985. The new policy should seek to integrate the requirements
of universalisation of elementary education, production of trained manpower to deal
effectively with new technologies, diversified vocationlisation and the creation of an overall
environment for development through adult and continuing education. The paper lays
particular emphasis on vocational programme as part of 10+2 stage of secondary education
and also before the stage and outside the system. The paper explains that education is a
complex subject with wide-ranging ramification and definitive views and a new policy
cannot be finalized without consulting the decision-makers in the state and central
governments, parliamentarians, educationists, intellectuals, teachers, parents, students and
captains of industries.

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The document aims at provoking discussion by stating various viewpoints in a forthright

manner. There is a widespread feeling the paper says, that the system cannot be improved
by marginal changes and that this is the time for attempting a radical transformation. Education
will have to be streamlined to facilitate modernization of production, services and
infrastructure. Besides to enable young people to develop entrepreneurial ability, they will
have to be exposed to challenges of new ideas and unfamiliar situations.
Comment
In short, the policy document adopted the familiar diagnosis. The main difference is in
respect of emphasis and effective implementations, so as to achieve the prescribed
targets. Old concepts have been replaced by new ones in an efforts to overcome the
resources constraints and impart dynamism. Mr. Rajiv Gandhi’s concept of developing
human resources scientifically so as to ensure adequate participation in the modern
world’s technological revolution and meet the probable challenges of the 21st century
was admittedly praiseworthy.

NATIONAL POLICY OF EDUCATION, 1986

The Essence and Role of Education

In our national perception education is essentially for all. This is fundamental to our al-
round development, material and spiritual.
Education refines sensitivities and perceptions in the present and the future. This cardinal
principle is the key to the National Policy on Education.
Characteristics of Natural system of Education
The Constitution embodies the principles on which the National System of Education is
conceived of.
The concept of a National System of Education implies that, up to a given level, all students,
irrespective of caste, creed, location or sex, have access to education of a comparable
quality. To achieve this, the Government will initiate appropriately funded programmes.
Effective measures will be taken in the direction of the common School System
recommended in the 1968 Policy.
The National System of Education envisages a common educational structure. The 10+2+3
structure has now been accepted in all parts of the country. Regarding the further break-
up of the first 10 years efforts will be made to move towards as elementary system
comprising 5 years of primary education, 3 years of upper primary, followed by 2 years of
High School.

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Bases of National system of Education in India

The National system of Education will be based on a National curricular framework which
contains a common core along with other components that are flexible. The common core
will include the history of India’s freedom movement, the constitutional obligations and
other content essential to nurture national identity. These elements will cut across subject
areas and will be designed to promote values such as India’s common cultural heritage,
egalitarianism, democracy and secularism, equality of the sexes, protection of the
environment, removal of social barriers, observance of the small family norm and inculcation
of the scientific temper. All educational programmes will be carried on in strict comformity
with secular values.
India has always worked for peace and understanding between nations, treating the whole
world as one family. True to this hoary tradition. Education has to strengthen this world
view and motivate the younger generations for international co-operation and peaceful co-
existence. This aspect cannot be neglected.
To promote equality, it will be necessary to provide for equal opportunity to all not only in
access, but also in the conditions for success. Besides, awareness of the inherent equality
of all will be created through the core curriculum. The purpose is to remove prejudices
and complexes transmitted through the social environment and the accident of birth.
Minimum levels of learning will be laid down for each stage of education. Steps will also be
taken to foster among students an understanding of the diverse cultural and social systems
of the people living in different parts of the country. Besides the promotion of the link
language, programmes will be launched to increase substantially the translation of book
from one language to another and to publish multi-lingual dictionaries and glossaries. The
young will be encouraged to undertake the rediscovery of India, each in his own image
and perception.
In higher education in general, and technical education in particular, steps will be taken to
facilitate inter-regional mobility by providing equal access to every Indian of requisite
merit, regardless of his origins. The universal character of universities and other institutions
of higher education is to be underscored.
In the areas of research and development, and education in science and technology,
special measures will be taken to establish network arrangements between different
institution in the country to pool their resources and participate in projects of national
importance.
The Nation as a whole will assume the responsibility of providing resource support for
implementing programmes of educational transformation, reducing disparities, universalisation
of elementary education, adult literacy, scientific and technological research etc.

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Life-long education is a cherished goal of the educational process. This presupposes

universal literacy. Opportunities will be provided to the youth, housewives, agricultural
and industrial workers and professionals to continue the education of their choice, at
the space suited to them. The future must and will be in the direction of open and
distance learning.
Other institutions which will be strengthened to play an important role in giving shape to the
National System of Education are the University Grants Commission, the All India Council
of Technical Education. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research and the Indian Medical
Council. Integrated planning will be instituted among all these bodies so as to establish
functional linkages and reinforce programmes of research and post-graduate education.
These, together with the National Council of Educational Research and Training and the
National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, will be involved in
implementing the Education Policy.
Centre-States relations in the field of Education
The Constitutional Amendment of 1976, which includes Education in the Concurrent List,
was a far-reaching step whose implications- substantive, financial and administrative-require
a new sharing of responsibility between the Union Government and the States in respect of
this vital area of national life. While the role and responsibility of the States in regard to
education will remain essentially unchanged, the Union Government would accept a larger
responsibility to reinforce the national and integrative character of education, to maintain
quality and standards (including those of the teaching profession at all levels), to study and
monitor the educational requirements of the country as a whole in regard to manpower for
development, to cater to the needs of research and advanced study, to look after the
international aspects of education, culture and Human Resource Development and, in
general, to promote excellence at all levels of the educational partnership which is at once
meaningful and challenging, and the National Policy will be oriented towards giving effect
to it in letter and spirit.
Education for women’s equality
The new Policy laid special emphasis on the removal of disparities and to equalize educational
opportunity by attending to the specific needs of those who have been denied quality so far.
Education would be used as an agent of basic change in the status of woman. In order to
neutralize the accumulated distortions of the past, there will be a well-conceived edge in
favour of women. The National Education system would play a positive, interventionist
role in the empowerment of women. It would foster the development of new values through
redesigned curricula, text-books, the training and orientation of teachers, decision-makers
and administrators, and the active involvement of educational institutions. This will be an
act of faith and social engineering. Women’s studies will be promoted as a part of various
programmes to further women’s development.

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The removal of women’s illiteracy and obstacles inhibiting their access to, and retention in,
elementary education will receive overriding priority, through provision of special support
services, setting if time targets, and effective monitoring. Major emphasis will be laid on
women’s participation in vocational, technical and professional education at different levels.
The policy of non-discrimination will be pursued vigorously to eliminate sex stereo-typing
in vocational and professional courses and to promote women’s participation in non-
traditional occupations, as well as in existing and emergent technologies.
The Education of Scheduled Castes
The central focus in the SC’s educational development is their equalization with non-SC
population at all stages and levels of education, in all areas and in all the four dimensions
rural male, rural. female, urban male and urban female.
The measures contemplated for this purpose under the new policy include: Incentive to
indigent families to send their children to school regularly till they reach the age of 14;
Pre-matric Scholarship scheme for children of families engaged in occupations such as
scavenging, flaying and tanning to be made applicable from Class 1 onwards. All children
of such families, regardless of incomes, will be covered by this scheme and time-bound
programmes targeted on them will be undertaken:
Special steps to provide non-formal education to SC children who dropout of school in
large numbers, and well-designed programmes of adult education:
Constant micro-planning and verification to ensure that the enrollment retention and
successful completion of courses by SC students do not fall at any stage, and provision of
remedial courses to improve their prospects for further education and in employment;
The recruitment of teachers from scheduled castes which will receive particular attention;
Provision of facilities for SC students in hostels at district headquarters, according to a
phased programme;
The location of school building Balwadis and Adult Education Centres in such a way as to
facilitate full participation of the Scheduled Castes;
The utilization of N.R.E.P. and R.L.E.G.P. resources as to make substantial educational
facilities available to the Scheduled Castes;
Constant innovation in finding new methods to increase the participation of the Scheduled
Castes in the educational process.
Reorganisation of Education at Different Stages of Early Childhood Care &
Education
The National policy on Children specially emphasizes investment in the development of
the young child, particularly children from sections of the population in which first generation
learners predominate.

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Recognising the holistic nature of proper child development viz, nutrition, health and social,
mental, physical, moral and emotional development. Early childhood care and Education
(ECCE) will receive high priority and be suitably integrated with the Integrated Child
Development Services programme, wherever possible. Day-care centres will be provided
as a support services for universalisation of primary education, to enable girls engaged in
taking care of siblings to attend school and as a support service for working women
belonging to poorer sections.
Programmes of ECCE will be child-centred, focused around play, and the individuality of
each child and will discourage formal methods or the early introduction of the 3 R’s. The
local community will be fully involved in these programmes.
A full integration of child care and pre-primary education will be brought about, both as
a feeder and a strengthening factor for primary education and to human resource
development in general. In continuation of this stage, the School Health Programme will
be strengthened.
Elementary Education
The new thrust in elementary education will emphasise two aspects: (i) universal enrollment
and universal retention of children upto 14 years of age, and (ii) a substantial improvement
in the quality of education.
Child-centred
A warm, welcoming and encouraging approach, in which all concerned share a solicitude
for the needs of the child, is the best motivation for the child to attend school and learn. A
child-centred and activity-process of learning should be adopted at the primary stage.
First generation learners should be allowed to set their own pace and be given supplementary
remedial instruction. As the child grows, the component of cognitive earning will be increased
and skills organized through practice. The policy of non-detention at the primary stage will
be retained, making evaluation as disaggregated as feasible. Corporal punishment will be
firmly excluded from the educational system and school timings as well as vacations adjusted
to the convenience of children.
School Facilities
Provision will be made of essential facilities in primary schools, including at least two
reasonably large rooms that are usable in all weather, and the necessary toys, black-
boards, maps, charts, and other learning material. At least two teachers, one of whom a
women, should woek in every school, the number increasing as early as possible to one
teacher per class. A phased drive, symbolically called Operation Blackboard will be
undertaken with immediate effect to improve Primary Schools all over the country.
Government, local bodies, voluntary agencies and individuals will be fully involved.

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Non-formal Education
A large and systematic programme of non-formal education will be launched for school
drop-outs, for children from habitations without schools, working children and girls who
cannot attend whole-day schools.
Modern technological aids will be used to improve the learning environment of NFE
centres. Talented and dedicated young men and women from the local community will
be chosen to serve as instructors, and particular attention paid to their training. Steps
will be taken to facilitate their entry into the formal system in deserving cases. All necessary
measures will be taken to ensure that the quality of non-formal education is comparable
with formal education.
Effective steps will be taken to provide a framework for the curriculum on the lines of the
national core curriculum, but based on the needs of the learners and related to the local
environment. Learning material of high quality will be developed and provided free of
charge to all pupils. NFE programmes will provide participatory learning environment,
and activities such as games and sports, cultural programmes, excursions, etc.
Much of the work of running. NFE centres will be done through voluntary agencies and
Panchayati Raj institutions. The provision of funds to these agencies will be adequate and
timely. The Government will take over-all responsibility for this vital sector which is not yet
fully established.
Conclusion
The New Education Policy will give the highest priority to solving the problem of children
dropping out of school and will adopt an array of meticulously formulated strategies based
on micro-planning, and applied at the grass-roots level all over the country, to ensure
children’s retention at school. This effort will be fully co-ordinated with the network of
non-formal education. It shall be ensured that all children who attain the age of about 11
years by 1990 will have had five years of schooling, or its equivalent through the non-
formal stream. Likewise, by 1995 all children will be provided free and compulsory
education upto 14 years of age.
Secondary Education
Secondary education begins to expose students to the differentiated roles of science, the
humanities and social sciences. This is also an appropriate stage to provide children with a
sense of history and national perspective and give them opportunities to understand their
constitutional duties and rights as citizens. Conscious internalisation of a healthy work
ethos and of the values of a humane and composite culture will be brought about through

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appropriately formulated curricula. Vocationalisation through specialized institutions or

through the re-fashioning of secondary education can, at this stage provide valuable
manpower for economic growth. Access to secondary education will be widened to cover
areas unserved by it at present. In other areas, the main emphasis will be on consolidation.
Pace-setting Schools or Navodaya Vidyalayas
It is universally accepted that children with special talent or aptitude should be provided
opportunities to proceed at a faster pace, by making good quality education available to
the, irrespective of their capacity to pay for it.
Pace-setting schools intended to serve this purpose will be established in various parts of
the country on a given pattern, but with full scope for innovation and experimentation.
Their broad aims will be to serve the objective of excellence, coupled with equal and
social justice (with reservation, for SCs and Sts), to promote national integration by providing
opportunities to talented children largely rural, from different parts of the country to live
and learn together to develop their full potential and, most importantly, to become catalysts
of a nation-wide programme of school improvement. The schools will be residential and
free-of-charge. These Navodaya Vidyalayas will be distinct from the Kendriya Vidyalayas.
Vocationalisation
The introduction of systematic, well-planned and rigorously implemented programmes of
vocational is crucial in them proposed education’s reorganization. These element s are
meant to enhance individual employability, to skilled manpower, and to provide an alternative
for those pursuing higher education without particular interest or purpose.
Vocational education will be a distinct stream; intended to prepare students for identified
occupations spanning several areas of activity. These course will ordinarily be provided
after the secondary stage, but keeping the scheme flexible, they may also be made
available after Class VIII. In the interests of integrating vocational education better
with their facilities the Industrial Training Institutes will also conform to the large
vocational pattern.
Health planning and health service management should optimally interlock with the education
and training of appropriate categories of health manpower through health-related vocational
course. Health education at the primary and middle levels will ensure the commitment of
the individual to family and community health, and lead to health-related vocational courses
at the +2 stage of higher secondary education. Efforts will be made to devise similar
vocational courses based on Agriculture. Marketing Social Services, etc. An emphasis in
vocational education will also be on development of attitudes, knowledge, and skills for
entrepreneurship and self-employment.
The establishment of vocational course or institutions will be the responsibility of the
government as well as employers in the public and private sectors; the government will,

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however, take special steps to cater to the deprived sections of society. Appropriate
programmes will also be started for the handicapped.
Graduates of vocational courses will be given opportunities, under pre-determined
conditions, for professional growth, career improvement and lateral entry into courses of
general, technical and professional education through appropriate bridge courses.
Non-formal, flexible and need-based vocational programmes will also be made available
to neoliterates, youth who have completed primary education, school dropouts, persons
engaged in work and un-employed or partially employed persons. Special attention in this
regard will be given to women.
Tertiary level courses will be organised for the young who graduate from the higher secondary
courses of the academic stream and may also require vocational courses.
It is proposed that vocational courses cover 10 percent of higher secondary students by
1990 and 25 percent by 1995. Steps will be taken to see that a substantial majority of the
products of vocational courses are employed or become self-employed. A review of its
recruitment policy to encourage diversification at the secondary level is recommended
Higher Education
Higher education provides people with an opportunity to reflect on the critical, social,
economic, cultural, moral and spiritual issues facing humanity. It contributes to national
development through dissemination of specialized knowledge and skills. It is therefore a
crucial factor for survival. Being at the apex of the educational pyramid, it has also a key
role in producing teachers for the education system.
In the context of the un-precedented explosion of knowledge, higher education has to
become dynamic as never before, constantly entering uncharted areas.
There are around 150 universities and about 5,000 colleges in India today. In view of the
need to effect an all-round improvement in these institutions. It is proposed that, in the near
future, the main emphasis will be on the consolidation of, and expansion of facilities in the
existing institutions.
Urgent steps will be taken to protect the system from degradation.
In view of mixed experiences with the system of affiliation, autonomous colleges will be
helped to develop in large numbers until the affiliating system is replaced by a freer and
more creative association of universities with colleges. Similarly, the creation of autonomous
departments within universities on a selective basis will be encouraged. Autonomy and
freedom will be accompanied by accountability.
Courses and programmes will be redesigned to meet the demands of specialization better.
Special emphasis will be laid on linguistic competence. There will increasing flexibility in
the combination of courses.

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State level planning and co-ordination of higher education will be done through Councils
of Higher Education. The UGC and these Councils will develop co-ordinative methods to
keep a watch on standards.
Provision will be made for minimum facilities and admission will be regulated according to
capacity. A major effort will be directed towards the transformation for teaching methods.
Audiovisual aids and electronic equipment will be introduced to streamline development
of science and technology, curricula and material, - research, and teacher orientation. This
will require preparation of teachers at the beginning of the service as well as continuing
education thereafter. Teacher’s performance will be assessed systematically. All post will
be filled entirely on the basis of merit.
Research in the universities will be provide with enhanced support and steps will be taken
to ensure its high quality. Suitable mechanism will be set up by the UGC for co-ordination
research in the universities, particularly in thrust areas of science and technology, with
research undertaken by other agencies. An effort will be made to encourage the setting up
of national research facilities within the university system, with proper forms of autonomous
management.
Research in Indology, the humanities and social sciences will receive adequate support. To
fulfill the needs for the synthesis of knowledge, inter-disciplinary research will be encouraged.
Efforts will be made to delve into India’s ancient fund of knowledge and to relate it to
contemporary reality. This effort will imply the development of facilities for the intensive
study of Sanskrit and other classical language.
In the interests of greater co-ordination and consistency in policy, sharing of facilities and
developing inter-disciplinary research, a national body covering higher education in general,
agricultural, medical, technical, legal and other professional fields will be set up.
De-linking Degress from Jobs
A beginning will be made in de-linking degress from jobs in selected areas.
The proposal cannot be applied to occupation-specific courses like Engineering, Medicine,
Law, Teaching, etc. Similarly, the services of specialists with academic qualifications in the
humanities, social sciences, sciences, etc, will continue to be required in various job positions.
The de-linking- will be applied in services for which a university degree need not be a
mandatory option of job-specific courses and afford greater justice to those candidates
who, despite being equipped for a given job, are unable to get it because of an unnecessary
preference for graduate candidates.
Concomitant with de-linking, an appropriate machinery, such as a National Testing Service,
will be established, in appropriate phase, to conduct tests on a voluntary basis to determine
the suitability of candidates for specified jobs and to pave the way for the emergence of
norms of comparable competence across the nation.

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Rural University
The new pattern of the Rural University will be consolidated and developed on the lines of
Mahatma Gandhi’s revolutionary ideas on education so as to take up the challenges of
micro-planning at grass-root levels and the transformation of rural areas. Institutions and
programmes of Gandhian basic education will be supported.
Technical and Management Education
It is essential to look at technical and management education together, in view of their
close relationship and complementary concerns. The re-organisation of Technical and
Management Education should take into account the anticipated scenario by the turn of
the century, with specific reference to the likely changes in the economy, social environment,
production and management processes, the rapid expansion of knowledge and the great
advances in sciences and technology.
The infrastructure and services sectors as well as the un-organised rural sector also need
a greater induction of improved technologies and a supply set up Technical Manpower
Information System will be further developed and strengthened.
Continuing education, covering established as well as emerging technologies, will be
promoted.
As computers have become important and ubiquitous tools, a minimal exposure to
computers and a training in their use will form part of professional education. Programmes
of computer literacy will be organized on wide scale from the school stage.
In view of the present rigid entry requirements to formal courses restricting the access of a
large segment of people to technical and managerial education, programmes through a
distance-learning process, including use of the mass media, will be offered. Technical and
management education programmes, including polytechnics, will also be on a flexible
modular pattern based on credits, with provision for multi-point entry. A strong guidance
and counseling service will be provided.
In order to increase the relevance of management education, particularly in the
non-corporate and under-managed sectors, the management education system will study
and document the Indian experience and create’s body of knowledge and specific
educational programmers suited to these sectors.
Appropriate formal and non-formal programs of technical education relevant to their skills
will be devised for the benefit of women, the economically and socially weaker sections,
and the physically handicapped.
The emphasis on vocational education and its expansion will need a large number of teachers
and professionals in vocational education, educational technology, curriculum development,
etc. Programmers will be started to meet this demand.

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To encourage students to consider “self-employment” as a career option, training in

entrepreneurship be provided through modular or optional courses, in degree or diploma
programmes.
In order to meet the continuing needs of updating curriculum, renewal, should systematically
phase out obsolescence and introduce new technologies or disciplines.
Institutional Thrusts
Some polytechnics in the rural areas have started training weaker groups in rural areas for
productive occupations through a system of community polytechnics. The community
polytechnic system will be appraised and appropriately strengthened to increase its quality
and coverage.
Innovation, Research and Development
Research as a means of renovation and renewal of educational processes will be undertaken
by all higher technical institutions. It will primarily aim at producing quality manpower
capable of taking up R & D functions. Research for developing will focus on improving
present technologies, developing new indigenous ones and enhancing production and
productivity. A suitable system for watching and forecasting technology will be set up.
The scope for co-operation, collaboration, and networking relationships between institutions
at various levels and with the user systems will be utilized, proper maintenance, and an
attitude of innovation and improvement in daily life, will be promoted systematically.
Promoting Efficiency and Effectiveness at all Levels
As technical and management education is expensive, the following major steps will be
taken for cost-effectiveness and to promote excellence :
(i) High priority will be given to modernization and removal of obsolescence.
However, modernization will be undertaken to enhance functional efficiency and
not for its own sake or as a status symbol:
(ii) Institutions will be encouraged to generate resources using their capacities to
provide services to the community and industry. They will be equipped with up-
to-date learning resources, library and computer facilities.
(iii) Adequate hostel accommodation will be provided, specially for girls. Facilities
for sports, creative work and cultural activities will be expanded:
(iv) More effective procedures will be adopted in the recruitment of staff. Career
opportunities will be enhanced and improvements effected in service consultancy
norms and other perquisites.

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(v) Teachers will have multiple roles to perform: teaching, research and development
of learning resource material, extension and administration or managing the
institution. Initial and in-service training will be made mandatory for faculty
members and adequate training reserves will be provided. Staff Development
Programmes will be integrated at the state and co-ordinated at Regional and
National levels.
(vi) The curricula of technical and management programmes will be targeted on
current as well as the projected needs of industry or user systems. Active
interaction between technical or management institutions and industry will be
promoted in programme planning and implementation, exchange or personnel,
training facilities and resources, research and consultancy and others areas of
mutual interest.
(vii) Excellence in performance of institutions and individuals will be recognized and
rewarded. The emergence of sub-standard and mediocre institutions will be
checked. An institutional climate conducive to excellence will be promoted with
full faculty involvement.
(viii) Select institutions will be awarded academic, administrative and financial
autonomy of varying degrees, building in safeguards with respect to accountability.
(ix) Networking systems will have to be established between technical education
and industry. R&D organization, programmes of rural and community
development and with other sectors of education with complementary
characteristics.
Making the System work
It is obvious that these and many other new tasks of education cannot be performed in a
stage of disorder. Education needs to be managed in an atmosphere of utmost intellectual
rigour, seriousness of purpose and, at the same time, of freedom essential for innovation
and creativity. While far-reaching changes will have to be incorporated in the quality and
range of education, the process of introducing discipline into the system will have to be
started, here and now, in what exists.
The country has placed a boundless trust in the educational system. The people have a
right to expect concrete results. The first task is to make it work. All teachers should teach
and all students study.
The strategy in this behalf will consist of -
(a) A better deal to, and the greater accountability of teachers;
(b) Provision of improved student’s services and insistence on observance of
acceptable norms of behaviours;

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(c) Provision of a threshold of facilities to institutions; and

(d) Creation of a system of performance appraisals of institutions according to
standards and norms set at the National or State levels.
Re-orienting the content and process of education
The cultural perspective: The existing schism between the formal system of education and
the country’s rich and varied cultural traditions needs to be bridged. The pre-occupation
with modern technologies should not be allowed to sever new generations’s roots in India’s
history and culture. De-culturisation, de-humanisation and alienation must be avoided at
all costs. Education can and must be about the fine synthesis between change-oriented
technologies and the country’s continuity of cultural traditions.
The curricula and processes of education will be enriched by cultural content in as many
manifestations as possible. Children will be enable to develop sensitivity to beauty, harmony
and refinement. Resource persons in the community, irrespective of their normal educational
qualifications, will be invited to contribute to the cultural enrichment of education, employing
both the literate and oral traditions of communication. To sustain and carry forward the
cultural tradition, the role of old masters, who train pupils through traditional modes will be
supported and recognized.
Linkages will be established between the university system and institutions of higher learning
in art, archaeology, oriental studies etc. Due attention will also be paid to the specialized
disciplines of Fine Arts. Museology, Folklore etc. Teaching, training and research in these
disciplines will be strengthened so as to replenish specialized manpower in them.
Value Education: The growing concern over the erosion of essential values and an increasing
synicism in society has brought to focus the need for re-adjustments in the curriculum in
order to make education a forceful tool for the cultivation of social, ethical and moral
values.
In our culturally plural society the values that are to be fostered through education should
have a universal appeal, and should be oriented towards the unity and integration of our
people. Such value education should help eliminate obscurantism, religious fanaticism,
violence, superstition and fatalism.
Apart from this combative role, value education has a profound positive content, based on
our heritage, national and universal goals and perceptions. It should lay primary emphasis
on this aspect.
The Education Policy of 1968 examined the question of the development of languages in
great detail; its essential provisions can hardly be improved upon and are as relevant today
as before. The implementation of this part of the 1968 Policy has, however, been uneven.
The policy will be implemented more energetically and purposefully.

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Books and Libraries : The availability of books at low prices is indispensable for a
people’s education. Effort will be made to secure easy accessibility to books for all segments
of the population. Measures will be taken to improve the quality of books, promote the
reading habit and encourage creative writing. Author’s interests will be protected. Good
translations of foreign books into Indian language will be supported. Special attention will
be paid to the production of quality books for children, including text-book and
work-books.
Together with the development of books, a nation-wide movement for the improvement of
existing libraries and the establishment of new ones will be taken up. Provision will be
made in all educational institutions for library facilities and the status of librarians improved.
Media and Educational Technology : Modern communication technologies have the
potential to bypass several stages and sequences in the process of development encountered
in early decades. Both the constraints of time and distance at once become manageable.
In order to avoid structural dualism, modern educational technology must reach out to the
most distant areas and the most deprived sections of beneficiaries simultaneously with the
areas of comparative affluence and ready availability.
Educational technology will be employed in the spread of useful information, the training
and re-training of teachers, to improve quality, sharpen awareness of art and culture,
inculcate abiding values, etc., both in the formal and non-formal sectors. Maximum use
will be made of the available infrastructure. In villages without electricity, batteries or solar
packs will be used to run the programme.
The generation of relevant and culturally compatible educational programmes will form an
important component of educational technology, and all available resources in the country
will be utilised for this purpose.
The media has a profound influence on the minds of children as well as adults; some of it
has encouraged consumerism, violence etc. and thus had a deleterious effect. Radio and
TV. programmes which clearly militate against proper educational objectives will be
prevented. Steps will be taken to discourage such trends in films and other media also. An
active movement will be started to promote the production of children’s films of high
quality and usefulness.
Work Experience : Work experience, viewed as purposive and meaningful manual work,
organised as an integral part of the learning process and resulting in either goods or services
which are useful to the community, is considered as an essential component at all stages of
education, to be provided through well-structured and graded programmes. It would
comprise activities in accordance with the interests, abilities and needs of students, the
level of skills and knowledge to be upgraded with the stages of education. This experience
would be helpful on his entry into the workforce. Pre-vocational programmes provided at

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the lower secondary stage will also facilitate the choice of the vocational courses at the
secondary stage.
Education and Environment : There is a paramount need to create a consciousness of
the environment. It must permeate all ages and all sections of society, beginning with the
child. Environmental consciousness should inform teaching in schools and colleges. This
aspect will be integrated in the entire educational process.
Sports and Physical Education : Sports and physical education are an integral part of
the learning process, and will be included in the evaluation of performance. A nation-wide
infrastructure for physical education, sports and games will be built into the educational
edifice.
The infrastructure will consist of play-fields, equipment, coaches and teachers of physical
education as part of the School Improvement Programme. Available open space in urban
areas will be reserved for playgrounds, if necessary by legislation. Efforts will be made to
establish sports institutions and hostels where specialised attention will be normal education.
Appropriate encouragement will be given to those talented in sports and games. Due
stress will be laid on indigenous traditional games. As a system which promotes an integrated
development of body and mind, Yoga will receive special attention. Effort will be made to
introduce yoga in all schools; to this end, it will be introduced in teacher training courses.
The Role of Youth : Opportunities will be provided for the youth to involve themselves in
national and social development through educational institutions and outside them. Students
will be required to participate in one or the other of existing schemes, namely, the National
Service Scheme, National Cadet Corps, etc. Outside the institutions, the youth will be
encouraged to take up programmes of development, reform and extension. The National
Service Volunteer Scheme will be strengthened.
The Evaluation Process and Examination Reform : Assessment of performance is an
integral part of any process of learning and teaching. As part of sound educational strategy,
examinations should be employed to bring about qualitative improvements in education.
The objective will be to re-cast the examination system so as to ensure a method of
assessment that is a valid and reliable measure of student development and a powerful
instrument for improving teaching. In functional terms, this would mean:
(i) The elimination of excessive element of chance and subjectivity;
(ii) The de-emphasis of memorisation;
(iii) Continuous and comprehensive evaluation that incorporates both scholastic
and non-scholastic aspects of education, spread over the total span of
instructional time;
(iv) Effective use of the evaluation process by teachers, students and parents;

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(v) Improvement in the conduct of examinations;

(vi) The introduction of concomitant changes in instructional materials and
methodology;
(vii) The introduction of the semester system from the secondary stage in a phased
manner; and
(viii) The use of grades in place of marks.
The above goals are relevant both for external examinations and evaluation within educational
institutions. Evaluation at the institutional level will be streamlined and the predominance of
external examinations reduced.
Resources and Review
The Education Commission of 1964-66, the National Education Policy of 1968 and
practically all others concerned with education have stress that the egalitarian of Indian
society can only be realised by making investments in education of an order commensurate
with the nature and dimensions of the task.
Resources, to the extent possible, will be raised by mobilising donations, asking the
beneficiary communities to maintain school buildings and supplies of some consumables,
raising fees at the higher levels of education and effecting some saving by the efficient use
of facilities. Institutions involved with research and the development of technical and scientific
manpower should also mobilize some funds by levying a cess or charge on the user agencies,
including Government departments, and entrepreneurs. All these measures will be taken
not only to reduce the burden on State resources but also for creating a greater sense of
responsibility within the educational system. However, such measures will contribute only
marginally to the total funding. The Government and the community in general will find
funds for such programmes as : the universalisation of elementary education; liquidating
illiteracy; equality of access to educational opportunities to all sections throughout the
country; enhancing the social relevance, quality and functional effectiveness of educational
programmes; generating knowledge and developing technologies in scientific fields crucial
to self-sustaining economic development; and creating a critical consciousness of the values
and imperatives of national survival.
The deleterious consequence of non-investment or inadequate investment in education
are indeed very serious. Similarly, the cost of neglecting vocational and technical education
and of research is also un-acceptable. Sub-optimal performance in these fields could
cause irreparable damage to the Indian economy. The network of institutions set up
from time to time since Independence to facilitate the application of science and
technology would need to be substantially and expeditiously updated, since they are fast
becoming obsolete.

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In view of these imperatives education will be treated as a crucial area of investment for
national development and survival. The National Policy on education, 1968, had laid down
that the investment on education be gradually increased to reach a level of expenditure of
6% of the national income as early as possible. Since the actual level of investment has
remained far short of that target, it is important that greater determination be shown now to
find the funds for the programmes laid down in this Policy. While the actual requirements will
be computed from time to time by close monitoring and review, it is proposed that the outlay
on education here after would uniformly exceed the level recommended in the 1968 Policy.
The implementation and parameters of the New Policy must be reviewed every five years.
Appraisals at short intervals will also be made to ascertain the progress of implementation
and the trends emerging from time to time.
Implementation made so far
A major break-through has been made in regard to the implementation of the new education
policy during 1988-89.
Although a start was made during the year 1968-87 wherein some of the programmes of
the new Education Policy were initiated like the National open University, Navodaya
Vidyalaya, finalisation of the National core curriculum, Mass Programme of Functional
Literacy, Mass orientation of school teachers, Establishment of Autonomous Colleges,
consolidation and quality improvement in higher Education removal of obsolescence and
modernisation of Technical education etc.
The major initiative taken during 1988-89 for the implementation of the new Education
Policy include the following: 112100 Primary Schools in 1720 blocks have been covered
under the scheme Operation Blackboard, exceeding the target fixed for 1988-89, the
State Governments/Union Territories/voluntary agencies have been assisted to set up 2
lakh non-formal education centre. 120 District institutions for Educational Training in 14
states have been established. The national curriculum framework has been formulated by
the NCERT. The model curricula with minimum learning out-comes and common core
components for all stages of school education has been published. The National Literacy
Mission has been launched under which 30 million adults are expected to be made literate
by 1990-91 and another 50 million by 1995. New guidelines have been framed and
circulated for the Improvement of standards and qualities of education, reconstructing and
diversification of courses in colleges and 50 colleges have been given autonomous status.
Comments : The new policy on Education aims at preparing the country for the 21st
century. So it has set as its goal the production of trained manpower in adequate numbers
to deal creatively with new techniques. This task is very important because of the expected
competition Indian industry would be facing from abroad. The new policy also wants to
bring technical education closer to manpower requirements. While the government stands

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committed to the constitutional obligation to provide universal primary education, it does

not think that this implies provision of formal education. Sixty-four million additional children
will have to be given some form of schooling during the Seventh Plan period. But of these
not more than 25 million can be given formal education. So the government has decided to
opt for the non-formal system of education. The non-formal education is needed not only
to supplement the formal one but also to change the orientation of primary education and
teach children things which are of direct use to them. The establishment of the Indira
Gandhi National Open University in Delhi marks a start in this direction. It has established
regional centres in different parts of the country.
First, the National policy on education has rightly given emphasis to the education of the
scheduled caste and scheduled tribes, the minorities and the handicapped. Secondly, it
laid special emphasis on the removal of disparities by attending to the specific emphasis on
the removal of disparities by attending to the specific needs of those who have been
denied equality so far. This is praise worthy no doubt. Thirdly, it also sought help of the
teachers, students, voluntary organisations and the educated people of the country in the
fight against illiteracy. Fourthly, the new policy has taken into consideration the education
of the pre-primary stage. The new policy laid particular emphasis on free and compulsory
education for all school-going children. It also made special reference to the upgrading of
the standard of primary education at the same time, fifthly, the new policy on Education
(NEP) laid emphasis on vocational programmes as part of the 10+2 stage of secondary
education and also before this stage and outside the system. This is commendable. Sixthly,
the new policy has taken a bold step by d-linking degrees from jobs. Its implementation
will change the educational scenario in never future. Seventhly, the new policy has given
due wattage to Basic education. It is expected that the new pattern of the Rural University
will effect a great change that the new pattern of the Rural University will effect a great
change in the system of basic education. Work experience is to be organised as an integral
part of the learning process and in turn will serve the purpose of basic education. Eighthly,
one of the most important characteristics of the new policy is the faith on the work of
education. It believes that education can bring about the fine synthesis between technological
transformation of the country and its cultural traditions.
The new education policy is not faultless. Critics are of the opinion that implementation of
the new policy will not be easy. There will be constraints of various types - economic,
technological, financial and probably legal. First, the proposed change in the role,
arrangement and importance of the examination system may be opposed by vested interests.
Secondly, the new policy fails to take account of the baffling magnitude of the problem of
education in achieving the cherished goals. The problem of over population and its
consequent effect on the primary education has not been dealt properly. Thirdly, the question
of arranging adequate finances remains unanswered. Fourthly, the policy of establishing
pace-setting school (Navodaya Vidyalaya) in every district has been criticised. The critics

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are of the opinion that the scheme will not accelerate the pace of social and economic
development in hitherto under-developed communities. On the other hand it will develop
a meritocracy of students in each district and impart to them an education which will in
practice make them aliens in their own milieu. They are of opinion that the model of the
new policy makers has in mind is that of the so-called public schools of England.
We should not criticise the New Education Policy for criticism’s sake. The New Education
Policy is itself an admission that there were serious gaps and shortcomings in the old
policy design and operational framework. The New Policy must then be conceived as a
response to changing social needs and anxieties relating to educating including higher
education.
The unfounded fear of the critics has been partially removed by the steady progress of
education in every level. An increasing number of children in the age-group of 6 to 11
year are joining schools. Enrolment at the primary stage (class I-V) has increased five fold
from 19.2 million at the time of independence to 101-2 million in 1990-91. The number of
children enrolled in 1992-93 was 105.37 million.
An analysis of the enrolment data has shown the population of children moving up from the
primary to secondary stage has also been increasing steadily. It is a fact that there are
certain negative tendencies which afflict all the stages of education have roots in a wider
socio-economic milieu. Only broader social and political movements can address to these
distortions and correct them. Let us hope that the New Education Policy and its implementers
begin to size up the complexities arising out of social realities around and begin to tackle
the problems in collaborative and if needed, also combative spirit.

N.E.P. (AS REVIEWED IN 1992)

1986
Having announced that a new policy was in development in January, 1985, the government
of Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi introduced a new National Policy on Education in May,
1986. The new policy called for “special emphasis on the removal of disparities and to
equalise educational opportunity,” especially for Indian women, Scheduled Tribes (ST)
and the Scheduled Caste (SC) communities. To achieve these, the policy called for
expanding scholarships, adult education, recruiting more teachers from the SCs, incentives
for poor families to send their children to school regularly, development of new institutions
and providing housing and services. The NPE called for a “child-centred approach” in
primary education, and launched “Operation Blackboard” to improve primary schools

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nationwide. The policy expanded the open university system with the Indira Gandhi National
Open University, which had been created in 1985. The policy also called for the creation
of the “rural university” model, based on the philosophy of Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi,
to promote economic and social development at the grassroot level in rural India.
1992
The 1986 National Policy on Education was modified in 1992 by the P.V Narasimha Rao
government. In 2005, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh adopted a new policy based on
the “Common Minimum Programme” of his United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government.
Programme of Action (PoA), 1992 under the National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986
envisaged conduct of a common entrance examination on all India basis for admission to
professional and technical programmes in the country. For admission to Engineering and
Architecmre/Planning programmes, Government of India vide Resolution dated 18 October
2001 has laid down a Three - Exam Scheme (JEE and AIEEE at the National Level and
the State Level Engineering Entrance Examinations (SLEEE) for State Level Institutions -
with an option to join AIEEE). This takes care of varying admission standards in these
programmes and helps in maintenance of professional standards. This also solves problems
of overlaps and reduces physical, mental and financial burden on students and their parents
due to multiplicity of entrance examinations.

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E D
DUCATION FOR IFFERENTLY BLED HILDREN A C
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Chapter - 9

EDUCATION FOR DIFFERENTLY ABLED CHILDREN

I n a “national system of education which provides for all children according to their
capacities, it seems only logical that consideration should also be given to those
children who are generally classed as ‘handicapped’. Little has been done in this
country before independence to meet the specific requirements of children in this
category. After independence it is now agreed that specific provision is necessary for
physically challenged children who fail to keep pace with the majority of their fellow
children of the same age group.
The handicapped may be divided into two major groups :
(a) The mentally handicapped,
(ii) The physically handicapped.
Mentally handicapped : types
In schools and in the world outside mental backwardness does not always mean the same
thing. Among the mentally handicapped two broad types may be distinguished : (i) those
who are born with intelligence below the average and (ii) those who are backward owing
to some form of mal-adjustment which has cause temporary mental retardation.
Children who are mentally handicapped are not a class radically different from the normal,
though the dividing line between normality seems to have been rising as civilization has
advanced in complexity. Throughout the entire range of abilities that children exhibit the
various grades merge almost imperceptibly into one another.
Classification
A child who appears to be dull at school may not necessarily prove a failure in life. A rigid
classification is not always either possible or desirable. A detailed study of individual cases
is required and efforts should be made to trace the particular causes which may be at the
root of a child’s failure to make due progress at school. Among the ‘backward’ children,
however, two types are generally found.
(a) Those who try, and
(b) Those who do not try.
Causes of backwardness
In the former category backwardness may due to -
(a) Lack of proper guidance in the initial stage of education.
(b) Wrong methods of instruction.

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(c) Interruption of study due to frequent migration or illness.

(d) Specific disabilities which only an expert can diagnose.
(e) Nervous and temperamental factors.
Among the later the causes of backwardness may be - (a) Lack of vitality,
(b) Environmental influences i.e., unsatisfactory home condition, (c ) Over-indulgence or
over-discipline at home, and (d) Undetected physical deficiency.
Efforts are being made today to measure the degree of backwardness by reference to a
definite objective standard. ‘Intelligence Tests’ have however come to be generally regarded
as reliable methods and the IQ is considered to be a fairly accurate index of the educable
capacity of a child.
There are at present only a dozen institutions in India for the education of the mentally
handicapped. Bodhaniketan and Children’s House are the names given to these institutions.
The central and the states governments occasionally give grants to these types of institutions.
They are privately managed.
The physically challenged - classification
The physically challenged may be divided into the following categories-
(i) Those who are deficient in one or more special senses: the blind, the deaf, and
the deaf and blind, the deaf-mutes, etc.
(ii) Those who are retarded by motor deficiency including respiratory, heart and
orthopedic cases.
(iii) Those who are defective in speech.
Blindness
Any person who is unable to do work for which eye sight is essential is classified as blind.
There are several causes of blindness. In children the eyes may have been affected birth by
an illness in the mother. After birth the eye may be damaged by an infecting microbe or
accident. Later in life blindness may be due to certain infections, to accidents and in old
people to cataract, which means that the lens, the part that lets in light has become dim
with age.
For certain types of blindness there are very delicate and complicated operations which
can bring back the sight, one of these is performed by removing the cornea from the eye of
a dead person and grafting it on to a living eye. However, many blind people cannot be
cured and it is therefore necessary to teach them to live as independently and happily as
they can.
Until nearly 200 years ago it was believed that blind people could not be taught to work or
to look after themselves in anyway, and many were forced to be beggars. It was not until

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19th century that efforts were made to educate them. A French man named Valentin Hany
devoted his life to educating the blind. First, he tried to educate a blind boy named Lesueur.
He found a way to teach him to read. Before Hany’s time there had been only a few
attempts to teach the blind reading, by touch. These included carving letters on blocks of
wood and making letters in wood and lead so that blind people could recognize their
shapes when they touched them and spell out words. However, Hany found a better way
almost by accident.
One day when he was writing, the boy Lesueur came to his table and started to arrange
some papers. Among them was a sheet of cardboard with heavy printing on it. As the
boy’s finger passed over the dents made by the type, he showed interest in them. This
gave Hany the idea of print, with raised letters that could be recognized by touch. With the
help of his blind pupils he developed a method of printing in this way and published some
books in the new print. He also founded the first school for the blind. Within a few years he
proved that blind children could be taught to read, write, play musical instruments and do
many useful things. Handy is known as the ‘father and Apostle of the Blind.’
Another kind of raised type was invented in 1847 by William Moon. He simplified the
letters of the written alphabet. But it was found unsuitable for blind children.
All kinds of raised printing, however, could be read only slowly and could not be easily
written, so a need was felt for a new method one of Hany’s blind pupils Louis Braille,
invented alphabet what is now known as the Braille alphabet. He worked on a system that
used raised dots instead of letters. Today the Braille alphabet is taught to blind children in
most of the countries.
In the Braille alphabet each letter is represented by a group of six or less raised dots
arranged in an upright oblong fashion known as the Braille cell. One dot stands for A, two
dots one under the other B, two dots side by side C, and so on. Six dots can be arranged
to form 63 different patterns, the signs left after making the 26 letters of the alphabet are
used for punctuation, numbers, musical notes and signs for short words that are frequently
used. As for example, instead of writing ‘for’ as three separate patterns of dots. It is simply
six dots arranged in an oblong manner.
Example
A B C D E F G H I
• • •• •• • •• • • •
• •• • • • •
J K L M N O P Q R
•• • • •• •• • •• •• •
•• • • • • •• ••

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• • • • • • • •
S T U V W X Y Z
• • • • • •• •• •
• •• • •• • •
• • •• •• • •• •• ••
Braille is written by making dents on paper so that raised dots appear on the other side.
Braille are very large and expensive to buy.
Even Braille has not completely solved the problem of teaching the blind to read, for many
blind people find it impossible to read by touch. In order that these people need not go
through life ignorant of the books that have been written, many books have been read
aloud from beginning to end and recorded on tape. The tapes are played on a machine
known as talking book. One tape can play for about 1 hour.
In the beginning of the 20th century it has been the law in many countries that blind children
must be educated. Consequently the children of these countries generally go to special
schools in which they are taught the ordinary school subjects in such a way that they can
understand them. For example, geography is taught by means of maps with raised outlines
and natural history by means of models and stuffed animals and birds. Most blind children
are taught to type using what is known as the touch typing system in which even a person
with sight does not look at the keyboard. What is the total number of physically challenged
children in India who require educational adjustment to make the most of their potentials?
No precise answer can be given to this question, because there has never been a nation-
wide survey or even a satisfactory state-wide survey of children who can be regarded as
physically challenged. The number of the physically challenged according to the recent
survey is 8 millions in our country.
In the absence of effective remedial measures climate customs and quacks must have
added considerably to the above figure each year.
The blind
The census of 1941 put the number if blind in British Indian at 4,35,078 but census figures
can hardly be relied on for educational purposes as there is no standard definition of
blindness in this country. If the definition adopted by the English Board of Education be
accepted, namely, ‘so blind as to be unable to perform any work for which eye-sight is
essential’-expert calculation would then raise the number of the blind population in India in
1992 to about 90,00,000 with about 10,00,000 is the six to fourteen age-group.
The blind and the problems of teaching them
As in the case of deafness, blindness is not always total. It is estimated that about
60 percent of the blind population in India have enough vision to distinguish between light

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and dark and to see the moving hand at a distance of one foot. Furthermore, about two-
thirds of blindness in children is of pre-natal origin. This group of the blind possesses little
usable visual imagery. The number of blind adults seems to be increasing because of the
increase of the population and in longevity.
It is a fact that a large number of school children in India are in need of eye-care. These
children create no particular educational problems if the defects are corrected. But two
groups do create very definite educational problems, the partially sighted and the
educationally blind.
Medical care and method of teaching
The preservation of vision is important from the standpoint of educational, social,
psychological and vocational adjustments that eyes should be examined before school
entrance and periodically thereafter for the discovery not only of errors of refraction and
muscular defects but also of disorders developing from injuries.
The partially sighted should be taught in well-illuminated rooms free from outside or inside
glare. Their books should be printed in large letters or types. Pupils with normal vision
should be placed with them in the same class.
Method of teaching the blind
Really blind children should be taught the reading and writing of Braille on the Braille slate,
or type writer, in Braille classes in Public Schools or in residential institutions. The Braille
alphabet consists of combinations of six raised points made be a stylus, arranged in letter
and number patterns in cells that can be read by the finger tips. The invention of Braille by
Louise Braille in 1825 which has made the literature of the world available to the blind,
represents the greatest
Single contribution to the education of the blind. Today Braille is not enough. It should be
supplemented by long-playing records or tapes. Video system has revolutionized the teaching
of the blind. The educational programme should include according to the individual needs,
perceptual and motor training, literary instruction, music, fine arts and vocational preparation
including professional training. It becomes a regular feature to reach the blind in prevailing
schools and with normal children. The tendency is also growing of transferring pupils from
the schools exclusively meant for the blind to the common schools and also of admitting
the blind new comers in the regular Pre-Primary Schools. These are done with a view to
affording contact with the seeing world. Important aspects of the programme are
psychological adjustments of the child to the blindness and the real world and the prevention
if emotional and personality mail-adjustments.
In travel and in forming conceptions, blindness is the abominable curse. It is very difficult
to explain a mountain or an ocean to a blind person. These must be seen at first hand or in

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pictures. Colour is also unknown to the blind. Three-dimensional models are being used
now-a-days with meaningful results. For a blind person long distance travel is quite a
challenge. Even for the short distance travels a blind person should be taught to keep his
sense of direction all the time or quickly reorient himself if he becomes lost. However, the
task of teaching a blind person to be independent of his ability to move about remains a
knotty one. It can be learnt only through painful experience. A blind person must learn all
these things through trial and error. He may often receive injury in making a run or crossing
a busy street. But if he can do this, he will learn that he can do this he will learn important
lessons.
The deaf and hard of hearing
People who are born deaf to the sound of the human voice do not learn to speak naturally
as hearing people do. As a result their speech may be distorted and hard to understand.
This is why they are some sometimes called deaf and dumb.
Deafness may be brought about in many ways. It can be caused before birth by hereditary
factors. Later, injuries, infections and continuous loud noise may also result in loss of
hearing. Deafness affects different people in different ways. It may not affect the whole
range of hearing equally. For example, some sounds may be heard almost normally, while
others will be completely unheard.
The special education which extremely deaf children receive is designed to overcome their
problems in communicating with others. Deaf children are taught to lip-read and to speak
by carefully watching and imitating the teachers’ speech. Powerful electrical hearing aids
are used to make the best of what hearing remains. Children with a less serious hearing-
loss can often be taught in normal schools, where they receive extra help.
Generally deaf children are born with normal intelligence but they have great difficulties in
communicating their desires and thinking. Naturally they become backward in their
educational journey. Despite great advances in the teaching methods and equipment used
with deaf children, not all learn to speak and lip read well and many come to rely on finger
spelling and signs to communicate with others. These signs are usually learnt from other
deaf people. Finger spelling is a matter of placing the hands and fingers in different positions
for each of the letters of the alphabet, and signs are complete movements standing for
different words or phrases. Much practice is needed to talk with deaf people who use
signs, but most of them can communicate by means of simple written messages.
When talking to a deaf person who relies on lip-readings it is important to keep facing him
when you are speaking. We have to speak clearly and steadily, otherwise much of what
we say will be of no use.

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What is to be done for the deaf and hard of hearing educationally

To live in society with other people requires communication. The two-way interchange
can be effective only if both parties understand each other. Since language is learned by
the process of imitating sounds heard, it follows that the most crucial problem of the deaf
is their language limitation. To teach language skills to child, on with deafness requires
well-trained teachers. Unless special classes with good equipment and well-trained teachers
are available in the public school those children should be enrolled at the age of three or
four in special schools for the deaf, age of three or four in special schools for the deaf.
Programmes and curricula needed to teach language to deaf children are so highly specialized
that a regular classroom teacher cannot make these adjustments. Special techniques in a
special environment are needed. However, when a deaf child has learnt language skills to
a point where he can communicate with people with normal hearing, he may then be
placed in a class appropriate to his achievement in the general school with normal children.
For hard of hearing children some adjustments can be made. First they should be provided
with hearing-aids and must be taught to learn 10 use the hearing aid. When this has been
done, they should be placed in the regular class-room. The teacher then has the job of
letting the child sit where he can both see that his hearing aid is kept in good order, and he
wears it and that he understands his lessons. These are general procedures.
Education of the blind in India
During the British period no conscious effort on the part of the government was made to
tackle this problem. The government was blind, so to say, towards the blind. Only some
voluntary philanthropic organizations were in the field. There were about 33 associations
which were gallantly facing this enormous challenge; of these 25 were for the blind only, 6
were for both blind and deaf. One was in combination with a poor asylum, and one with a
cripple home. Altogether they had a total enrolment of 1,156 blind pupils of whom 998
were males and 158 females. Of these 987 were children. It will be clear from this how
much remained to be done.
Present position of the education of the physically challenged - New outlook
If this problem is to be effectively tackled, the services provided must be comprehensive.
It is true that in other countries blind welfare work has been pioneered by voluntary
organizations and the state has come in when private enterprise had already made
appreciable progress. India had waited long enough and the time arrived when she achieved
independence. Naturally our national government has taken up the education of the
handicapped children as a necessary part of the general scheme, though it welcomes and
encourages voluntary assistance.

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State initiative
Our national government has realized that the education of the physically challenged has to
be organized not merely on humanitarian grounds but also on grounds of utility. Proper
education generally enables a handicapped child to overcome largely his or her handicap
and makes him or her into useful citizen. Social justice also demands it; it has to be
remembered that the Constitutional Directive on compulsory education includes
handicapped children as well. Even after independence very little has been done in this
field so far; and on account of several difficulties any great achievement in the field of
education of the physically handicapped does not seem to be possible in the near future.
All the same, it is important that a serious beginning is made immediately.
Aims and objectives
The primary task of education for a physically challenged child is to prepare him for
adjustment to a socio-cultural enviromnent designed to meet the needs of the normal. It is
essential, therefore, that the education of handicapped children should be an inseparable
part of the general education system. The differences lie in the methods employed to teach
the child uses to acquire information. These differences in methodology do not influence
the content of the goals of education. This type of education may be called ‘special education.’
Existing educational facilities
In India the present position of educational facilities for these children is as follows-
The blind
At present there are about 120 schools and other establishments for the blind, with an
enrolment of 5,000 only. It is just 5 percent of the total number of blind children in the
country. Most of these institutions impart primary education coupled with training in a few
simple handicrafts. Music forms an integral part of the curriculum. The most of the institutions
are run by voluntary agencies but are assisted by the central and state governments.
Moreover, the central government has set up a comprehensive national centre for the blind
at Dehradun. This centre includes a central Braille Press which publishes text books and
other reading materials in Braillie. The centre also has a workshop for the manufacture of
Braille appliances which produces the basic equipment needed for the education of the
blind. There are three centres for the training of teachers of the blind sponsored by the
government of India and they can train between 30 and 40 teachers annually.
The deaf and dumb
The number of schools for deaf and dumb children is about 70. Most of these schools
provide primary education coupled with some pre-vocational training in technical and
non-technical occupations. The majority are privately managed but are aided by the state
governments. The total enrolment is 4,000 of such children. About half a dozen centres for
the training of teachers of the deaf and dumb are functioning at present.

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The Orthopaedically handicapped

The major problem of this category of children is locomotor in character and they often
attend ordinary schools. At present there are about one thousand. Since this type of children
do not present special educational problems, it is not considered necessary to have specially
trained teacher for this category of children.
It is evident from the above description that the existing facilities are extremely inadequate.
The importance of carefully thought out plans for the development of educational services
for the handicapped cannot, therefore, be over-emphasised.
What should be done
The progress in providing educational facilities to physically and mentally handicapped
children is limited by two main considerations; teachers and financial resources. A reasonable
target will, therefore, be to provide in the near future education for about 20 percent of the
blind, deaf and orthopaedically handicapped children. As a part of the programme, it
should be possible to have at least one good institution for the education of handicapped
children in each district.
Obligation of the government
The state should take up the education of the handicapped children as a necessary part of
the general scheme of education. The state should enact a comprehensive legislation in the
general interest of the handicapped children. Such legislation should ensure among other
measures-the compulsory free education of handicapped children as well as facilities for
vocational training to provide employment for the employable blind, and financial help of
those who cannot be made self-supporting. As a preliminary to launching an effective
schemes for the welfare of the blind, it is essential that a special census of the blind persons
in India should be taken soon as possible, It is also necessary to adopt a uniform Braille
code for Indian language as a whole.
Apart from training facilities for the blind, there also should be in every area an after-care
department to place those trained in jobs, as well as a research bureau to investigate
improved methods of training and new avenues of employment. Special training institutions
will also be necessary for training teachers for the blind schools. While the schools with
their medical services will do all they can to train and place the blind in life, there are
numerous other aspects of this problem, e.g. the prevention of blindness, the education of
public opinion, begging etc., which can only be tackled effectively by an all-India society
with the sanction of the government behind it.
It is common practice in existing institutions to combine the education of the deaf, deaf-
mutes and other physically deformatives with that of the blind. As their requirements are

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separate and distinct, there should be special institutions for education of each main category.
Deaf-mutes and the stone-deaf require education in a special school for the deaf; the
partially deaf may be taught in an ordinary school.
The training of teachers will need emphasis and attention. Assuming a pupil-teacher ratio
of 10:1 about 25000 teachers will be needed for the blind, deaf and cripple children. This
will necessitate a considerable increase in the capacity of the existing training institutions
and establishment of new ones. It is also necessary to co-ordinate the efforts of different
agencies working in the field such as the Ministry of Education, the Central Social Welfare
Board, voluntary organizations interested in the problem and the Ministry of Health. Similar
co-ordination will also be needed at the state levels.
It is also necessary to develop adequate research in the problem. The Ministry of Education
should develop a programme for this and allocate the necessary funds. The NCERT should
have a cell for the study of handicapped children. The duty of this cell would be to keep in
touch with the research that is being done in our country and outside and to prepare
materials for the use of the teachers.
In considering the question of accommodation, we may say that although the average
number in a class in the special school for handicapped children be considerably smaller as
a rule than in an ordinary school. It should not be regarded as an adequate reason for
reducing the size (400 sq. ft.) Special schools will, on the whole, be more costly than these
ordinary schools and the cost of each type of school will vary with the nature of the special
services and requirements involved. It may be said that being a poor country, India is not
in a position to afford the money for such special schools the return for which may not be
worth mentioning. The answer is that in a national system intended to satisfy the needs of
all; it is difficult to ignore the claims of those who are unfortunate through no fault of their
own. Moreover, the money spent in educating them may prove a profitable investment in
view of the fact that many of the handicapped at the end of their training may be saved
from becoming a burden either on private charity or on the state.
The education of the handicapped should not be neglected any more. The state government
is not so much keen on this matter. School education being a state subject, it is important
to assess the attitude. Most of them think that whatever funds are available should be
spent in extending education among normal children. In spite of this, it is to be borne in
mind that the provision of special schools for physically handicapped children should be
one of the functions of the state and that the question should receive the earnest and
immediate attention of the educational authorities concerned. The time has come when
state action can no longer be delayed. While in a period of financial stringency there may

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have been some justification for preferring the claims of the normal, there can be no excuse
for neglecting the needs of the handicapped in a national system of education. The National
Policy on Education, 1986, states that the objective regard to handicapped should be to
integrate the physically and mentally handicapped with the general community as equal
partners, to prepare them for normal growth and to enable them to face life with courage
and confidence.
The following measures will be taken in this regard :
Wherever it is feasible, the education of children with motor handicaps and other mild
handicaps will be common with that of others.
Special schools with hostels will be provided, as far as possible at district headquarters,
for the severely handicapped children.
Adequate arrangements will be made for the vocational training of the disabled.
Teacher’s training programmes will be reoriented, in particular for teachers of primary
classes, to deal with the special difficulties of the handicapped children.
Voluntary effort for the education of the disabled, will be encouraged in every
possible manner.

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Chapter : 10

UNIVERSALISATION OF PRIMARY EDUCATION (U.P.E.)

U niversalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) has been accepted as a national goal

in India since Independence. The founding fathers of our Constitution recognised
UEE as a crucial input for nation building. The Directive Principles of State Policy envisage
that the state shall endeavour to provide free and compulsory education for children up to
14 years of age within a period of 10 years. The National Education Policies so far have
reiterated the constitutional directive. The National Policy on Education 1986 (as envisaged
in 1992) resolves to provide free and compulsory education of satisfactory quality to all
children up to 14 years of age before the commencement of the twenty first century.
The colonial regime prior to our Independence in 1947 established a system of
education that had limited access and denied mass education. It laid greater emphasis
on conformism to socio-political and economic systems prevailing in the country in
those times. Macaulay explicitly stated that the objective of the education system was
to create a new breed of Indians as similar to Europeans as possible. It was on account
of this that the Indian National Movement developed a strong critique of the British
System that only imparted learning skills and not life skills and that did not respect
Indian traditions. The national movement also expressed the global sentiment of
education for all and Gopal Krishna Gokhale’s Compulsory Education Bill reflected
the spirit of Indias freedom movement.
Fresh Approach
The fervour for freedom and patriotism to achieve “swawalamban,” made our leaders
search for an alternative approach to elementary education. Article 41 and 45 of the
Constitution enunciating the Directive Principles of State Policy on education, provided
the basis for the new approach. 14 States and four Union Territories enacted Legislation
for free and compulsory primary education. All States have exempted children from tuition
fee up to upper primary classes. However, compulsion has not been enforced due to
socio-economic and political considerations.
The thrust of the Central and State Governments in universalising elementary education so
far has been on three aspects, namely- universal access, universal retention and universal
achievement. Concerted efforts made in these areas have resulted in significant expansion
of elementary education in the country. The number of primary schools has increased from
2.10 lakh in 1950-51 to 5.90 lakh and number of upper primary schools from 13,000 to
1.71 lakh in 1995-96.

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During this period, Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) at primary levels has increased from 43
per cent in 1950-51 to 104 per cent in 1995-96. 95 per cent of the rural population in the
country has a primary school within one kilometre and 85 per cent an upper primary
school within a distance of three kilometres. With 15 crore children and 30 lakh teachers,
we have one of the largest elementary education systems in the world. The proportion of
girls in classes I-VIII as also women teachers has increased steadily.
Policy and Planning
The period after Independence saw a linear expansion of the elementary education system
through allocation of additional resources. The first National Policy on Education, 1968
recommended free and compulsory elementary education and equalisation of educational
opportunities especially for girls and children belonging to SCs and STs. The National
Policy on Education 1986 and its Programme of Action, (1992) was enunciated on the
basis of a detailed review of the countryOs educational performance. The policy resolves
to achieve UEE by 2000 A.D.
The plan allocations for elementary education have increased steadily, though still not
adequate to fulfil the constitutional commitments. Fifty years of freedom have seen higher
levels of spending by the Central and State Governments to provide quality education for
all. Better school infrastructure, more and better-paid school teachers, timely availability
of subsidised or free text books in regional languages, provision of scholarships, uniforms
and mid day meals have all received attention of State governments who are the main
providers of elementary education
External Assistance
Following the World Conference for Education for all (EFA) in Jomitien (Thailand) in
March 1990 there is a greater commitment and willingness on the part of multilateral and
bilateral aid agencies to invest in primary education in developing countries. A major
internationally assisted programme namely District Primary Education Programme (DPEP)
was launched in 1992 with assistance from World Bank and European Union. The
programme adopts a holistic approach to promote primary education through decentralized
planning and integrated programming at district level. The programme has been extended
to 149 districts in 14 States in 1997. The Lok Jumbish (LJP) and Shiksha Karmi Projects
(SKP) are two other successful internationally assisted projects. Lok Jumbish. meaning a
peoples movement for UEE, has a holistic understanding about the problem of UEE and is
implemented by establishing an interface between the local community, the teaching
profession, the educational administration and the learners. The Shiksha Karmi Project
envisages a paradigm shift in delivery of primary education. Inspired by the concept of
barefoot teachers, the project has effectively responded to the problem of teacher
absenteeism in the remote and inaccessible areas of Rajasthan.

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Community Mobilisation
The process of decentralisation has been an encouraging feature of our efforts to universalise
elementary education. NPE, 1986 visualises direct community involvement in the form of
Village Education Committees for management of elementary education. The POA, 1992
emphasised micro- planning as a process of designing a family-wise and child-wise plan of
education by which every child regularly attends a school or a Non Formal Education
(NFE) centre, continues his or her education at a place suitable to him/ her and completes
at least eight years of schooling or its equivalent at the NFE centre.
The Seventy-third and Seventy-fourth Constitutional Amendments have created greater
aventes for the Panchayati Raj Institutions to play a more dynamic role in mobilising the
communities to take responsibility to ensure quality education for every child. Genuine
community involvement is the key factor for the successes of LJP and SKP in Rajasthan.
LJP has had a positive effect on the empowerment of locally elected people, especially
women at village level who are often active members of the LJ core teams and Mahila
Samoohs. The VECs, carefully formed and trained through environmental building activities
in the LJ, are actively involved in school matters. SKP has constituted VECs in 2000
villages. An important role of the VEC is to mobilise resources for maintenance, repair and
construction of school buildings. The VECs also help in determining the school calendar
and school timings in consultation with the local community.
NGOs As Partners
NGOs are emerging as important partners in efforts of the Governments towards UEE.
The participation of NGOs together with community support has helped to improve the
physical conditions and environment of elementary schools as well as promotion of education
for girls and children belonging to SCs and STs and working children. As of now, nearly
750 NGOs are supplementing the Governmental efforts towards UEE by rendering
cooperation and resource support to non-formal education with assistance from the
Government.
Future Challenges
The country has undoubtedly been successful in evolving a national structure for elementary
education in the last fifty years. Primary education is now provided in the mother tongue or
regional language in all the States and UTs. There has been substantial increase in access
to elementary education. First generation learners, girls and the underprivileged sections of
society have been provided with unique opportunities for vertical mobility. Literacy
standards have been substantially improved across the country.
Despite substantial achievements, the task of UEE is far from complete. Schools and
enrolments have certainly increased but so has the number of out of school children. The
country today has one of the largest illiterate population in the world. Caste, gender, class

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and regional disparities in UEE though reduced, are still glaring and persistent. While the
demand for quality education is showing perceptible increase because of improved
awareness and social mobilisation through organised efforts, supply is generally
inadequate. The educational administration in most States and UTs is yet to effectively
tackle endemic problems concerning shortage of teachers, inadequate and improperly
designed school buildings, lack of teaching/ learning equipment, need based teacher
training and a curriculum related to real life requirements.
The recent measures initiated by the Government, namely DPEP, Mid-day Meal Programme
and the proposal for National Elementary Education Mission (NEEM), the National
Programme Media advocacy and publicity for UEE and the Joint GOI-UN System
Education Programme are expected to address some of these challenges more effectively.
The proposed National Elementary Education Mission should evolve strategies for reaching
the un-reached and achieving the goal of UEE within a given time frame in a systematic,
sustained and integrated manner. The resolve of the Government to make elementary
education, a fundamental right of all children of 6-14 years, is expected to spur the
government and non-government sectors to take necessary measures to achieve UEE.
Efforts of the Government to mobilise resources for education to the extent of 6 per cent
of GDP will also help in hastening the process of universalising elementary education.
It is hoped that with a clear vision, firm will, higher investments, greater dedication, and
increased people’s participation, we would be able to fulfil our goal of providing satisfactory
quality of education to all children in the country within the next decade.

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Chapter - 11

GLOBAL VISION FOR EDUCATION

T he significance of the Delors report in the context of UNESCO’s activities

over the past 30 years
The Delors report has designed a comprehensive framework in which essential and
productive debate and reflection on the long term purposes, organisation and outcomes of
learning can take place.
It is a seminal and very ambitious document, wider in scope than anything UNESCO has
attempted since the late 1960s. It attempts to identify both the ‘state of play’ and desirable
future directions for education across all sectors around the world. While its messages are
particularly urgent for developing countries, the report draws developed countries into
UNESCO’s common purpose of establishing a united, equitable and sustainable world.
The report is much wider in scope than its other major initiative in the decade, the Education
for all program launched in 1990.
For those of you who may be unfamiliar with the origins of the report, the UNESCO
General Conference officially established the International Commission on Education for
the 21st Century in 1993.
The Commission was funded by UNESCO, but functioned independently. It consisted of
fifteen eminent people from around the world from a variety of cultural and professional
backgrounds. It was chaired by Jacques Delors, President of the European Commission
from 1985-95, and a former French Minister of Economy and Finance.
The Commission spent three years in consulting extensively on a world-wide basis.
The main challenge facing the Commission was the enormous diversity of educational
situations, conceptions and structures around the world, plus the huge volume of research
material available.
In the words of the Commission’s report, ‘it was thus obliged to be selective and to single
out what was essential for the future, bearing in mind both geopolitical, economic, social
and cultural trends on the one hand and, on the other, the part educational policies could
play’ (Learning : the Treasure Within, UNESCO, 1996, p. 249).
The result of the Commission’s three years of work was its report titled. Learning: the
Treasure Within, presented to UNESCO in 1996, known as the Delors report.

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The report enunciates three directions for effort in educational renewal and reform :
 a holistic approach to education reform, encompassing all the sectors from basic
education to university study;
 re-defining roles and professional requirements of teachers; and
 the need for international cooperation with the concept of educating for a global
society.
Within this context, it identified four ‘pillars’ as the foundations of education that emphasise
the concept of learning throughout life:
Learning to Know – which focuses on combining sufficiently broad general knowledge
and basic education, with the opportunity to work in-depth on a small number of subjects,
in the light of rapid changes brought about by scientific progress and new forms of economic
and social activity. This also includes learning how to learn, so as to benefit from ongoing
educational opportunities arising throughout life.
Learning to Do – which emphasises the learning of skills necessary to practice a profession
or trade, including all schemes in which education and training interact with work. People
also need to develop the ability to face a variety of situations, often unforeseeable, and to
work in a team approach. Partnerships between education, business and industry are
encouraged.
Learning to Live Together – which argues that in the current context of globalisation,
people must come to understand others, their history, traditions and cultures, through living
and interacting peacefully together
Learning to Be – which emphasises the development of human potential to the fullest. As
we enter the 21st century, everyone will need to exercise greater independence and
judgment, combined with a stronger sense of personal responsibility.
The report is not a blueprint for reform but rather the ‘principal instrument for dialogue
concerning the role of education and the need for educational reform into the 21st century’.
It argues that the impact of globalisation and its interrelationship with the explosion in
information technologies and communication, together with increasing disparity between
nations and populations, calls for this dialogue to be held across national borders. It also
reminds us that the fundamental right to education is not yet a reality for many people.
While UNESCO remains committed to promulgating the deliberations and recommendations
of the report, it is the responsibility of regions and individual nations and states to consider
the report and to adapt its recommendations to the state, national and regional context.
This is beginning to happen.

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Chapter - 12

ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION

What is Educational Technology?

Technology refers to the techniques as also the technical contrivances. A systematic way
of applying the techniques to achieve an objective is as important as the use of technical
equipment for the same. As a matter of fact, techniques are reckoned as the software and
the equipment as the hardware of technology. Technology results in new designs and
devices as also new set of procedures and techniques. For example, the development of
telephone has led to phone books, answering machines, Fax, telephone shopping, etc.
The ‘hard’ component (physical device) may be differentiated from the ‘soft’ component
(methodologies) for the purpose of study.
Education, the act or process of acquiring and imparting knowledge, is crucial to the
development of a learner with a view to his/her participation in the transformation of the
world for a better tomorrow. Learning and understanding are basic to the definition of
education.
Education technology is not a simple combination of these two words as shown in Fig.
1.1. It is usually thought of even more than the sum of the following two interpretations:
1. Technology in education
2. Technology of education

Fig 1.1. Concept of Educational Technology

Early developments referred to the role of technology in education which signify the use of
audiovisual equipment, i.e., hardware in educational processes. Later developments
recognize the concept of technology of education, i.e., techniques and methodologies of
the teaching-learning process. This is indeed the software aspect of educational technology.
The origin of software is closely associated with the courseware, i.e., instructional design
and development of a subject.

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Use of technology in education results in increased effectiveness of the educational process.

Use of technology in training results in increased productivity through enhanced human
capability. For example, telephone extends our capability to travel large distance over
short period of time. Overhead projectors extend our capabilities to project a large image
of a visual on a screen and slides enable us to capture real-life events and bring them into
the classroom.
Audiovisuals have been on the move for quite sometime now. They have made an impact
in many different situations, e.g., seminars, conferences, extension lectures, meetings,
research and project report presentations. Classrooms are also beginning to feel their
influence!
Some of the recognised and oft-quoted definitions of educational technology given are as
follows :
Commission on Instructional Technology, USA
“Educational Technology is a systematic way of designing, implementing and evaluating
the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives, based on research
of human learning and communication and employing a combination of human and non-
human resources to bring about more effective instruction.”
Association for Educational Communications and Technology, USA
“Educational Technology is a complex, integrated process involving people, procedures,
ideas, devices, and organization, for analyzing problems and devising, implementing,
evaluating, and managing solutions to those problems, involved in all aspects of learning.”
Council for Educational Technology, UK
“Educational Technology is the development, application and evaluation of systems,
techniques and aids to improve the process of human learning.”
National Centre for Programmed Learning, UK
“Educational Technology is the application of scientific knowledge about learning, and the
conditions of learning, to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and training.
In the absence of scientifically established principles, educational technology implements
techniques of empirical testing to improve learning situations”
A close look at the definitions reveals that they underline educational technology as a
systematic way, a process or an application of the scientific knowledge, to improve the
efficiency of the process of learning and instruction. It is thus considered to be the technology
of education more than the technology in education.

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Development of Educational Technology

The subject of educational technology has developed over three aspects after the Second
World War :
Mass Communication
Individual Learning and
Group Learning Strategies.
According to Elton, each of these aspects has passed through the following three
phases :
Research ( R)
Development (D) and
Use (U)
This is shown schematically in Fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1.2 Elton’s Model for Development

Mass communication or mass instruction was the first one to be taken up around 1940.
Research and development led to the use of radio, television broadcast and closed circuit
television (CCTV) for mass instruction. It was believed that more people could be educated
faster and better without multiplying the number of teachers, classrooms and associated
resources. Closed circuit television systems were installed for large classes and for subjects
which were taught repetitively.

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The practice was not favoured by many as it lacked feedback and interactivity. Most
programmes were crudely produced, presented and employed. The practice was, therefore,
discontinued. Radio and television broadcast techniques have, however, survived.
Individualised learning became the focus of many researches in the fifties. Coupled with
Skinner’s behavioural psychology, it led to the development of individualized learning
packages. Skinner proposed that learning take place through a cycle of stimulus, response
and reinforcement. It resulted in linear programming and later, in branched programme
learning. Attempts to design programmed instruction texts and teaching machines signaled
the inadequacy of the simplistic models of learning. A revival of individualized learning has
taken place with the advent of computers in education.
The group learning aspect of educational technology began to be favoured in view of its
potential to develop group skills such as discussion and interpersonal skills. Research on
group learning came about with the humanistic psychology due to Rogers. The technique
of group dynamics.

Fig. 1.3 Instructional Systems Development

Refers to the interactive process of learning from one another in small group situations.
Simulation, role-play, games and case studies are some of the group learning techniques.
The hard-ware and software required for group learning are only those which help in
simulation, presentation of case studies, games, etc.

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Instructional Design and Technology

Instructional design refers to the strategic design and development of instruction for the
desired objectives, It incorporates the theories of learning, principles of communication
and hypotheses for interest, motivation and participation of learners. Instructional technology
implies the techniques and methodologies of instruction, i.e., technology of instruction.
It does not place any emphasis on audiovisual aids per se. Instructional design and
technology are, therefore, linked with the effectiveness and efficiency of the teaching-
learning process.
The stages of instructional systems development are shown schematically in Fig. 1.5. It
shows that an instructional system is developed by analyzing the needs of learners, designing
the curriculum, developing the lessons and media, implementation of instruction and finally
evaluating the progress of the students as also their terminal abilities.
Educational Technology vs Audiovisual Aids
There is often a confusion in the minds of the beginners about the terms. Educational
Technology is a vast subject concerned with the application of scientific knowledge about
learning and conditions of learning in order to improve the effectiveness of teaching, learning
and evaluation. Audiovisuals are merely the aids or resources, i.e., materials which are
employed to improve the quality of the message. Audio-visuals are a part of a subject of
Educational Technology as shown in Fig 1.4. A detailed comparison between audiovisual
aids and educational technology is shown in Table 1.1.

Fig 1.4 Audiovisual Aids as a Subset of Educational Technology

Table 1.1: Educational Technology vs Audiovisual Aids

Audiovisual Aids Educational Technology

Audiovisual aids arc physical objects. Educational technology is a vast subject.
Audiovisuals consist of print matter The subject of educational technology
projected and electronics resources such encompasses learning psychology,
as slides, Video and computers. communication and advances in science
and technology.

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Audiovisuals are material products which Educational technology connotes processes

may be used or misused. and products of instructional design.
Audiovisuals improve the quality of the Educational technology aims at improving
message they impart audio and visual all aspects of communication, i.e. encoding,
dimensions to it. channel, Barriers, decoding, retention and
application.
Audiovisual aids exist without regard to Educational technology deals with the
group dynamics and individual differences. processes of implementing methods and
resources with regard to group dynamics
and individual differences.
Audiovisuals are products of technology Educational technology is a great deal more
alone. They are technical gadgets. than Technology; it is based on psychology,
social Anthropology, etc.
Audiovisuals stand alone. These are Educational technology is a system with a
unrelated articles. number of Interconnected and interdepen-
dent components.
Audiovisual aids are different for different Educational technology principles are
topics and subjects. They fit in a applicable to all topics and subjects and
curriculum. hence basic to all curriculum development.
Audiovisual Resources : Media
An aural message is perhaps the minimum required for communication. It is often necessary
to supplement the aural message with a visual in order to convey it effectively. Visuals with
or without aural components are called audiovisual resources, aids, media or simply
audiovisuals. Audiovisuals resources consist of hardware and software components. In
fact, for every hardware, there is a corresponding software as shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 : Educational Hardware and Corresponding Software

Hardware Software
Chalkboard Chalkwork
Overhead projector Overhead transparencies
Slide projector Slides
VCR and Monitor Video programme
Computer Computer programme
Blank paper Written matter
Audio-recorder Recorded audio

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The audio component may be added to any one of the above resources. It may either be
with recorded voice on cassettes, tapes and discs or it may be live oral message by the
presenter. Sometimes, the audio through a recorder or radio broadcast may be the only
channel for the message.
In view of the wide range of audiovisuals, they are best classified as non-projected,
projected and electronic resources as shown in Fig. 1.5.
Books/Journal Instruction Overhead Projection
Transparencies

Interactive Videodisc
Fig. 1.5 Classification of Audiovisuals
Audiovisual software is prepared through the steps of preparing instructional design,
development and associated processes, e.g., writing, printing and recording. Even so,
some early developments denounced all audiovisuals as technology in education and thus
narrowed down the scope of educational technology to the mechanical use of audiovisual
components. This view is no longer tenable since the basis of audiovisual education goes
deep into the psychology of learning and effective communication.
Audiovisual communication in the context of education is different from the media for mass
communication. Mass media may, however, overlap with audiovisuals for communication.
Use of radio, telephone and television in broadcast, cable or closed-circuit modes may
well be educationally meaningful if the message is identified through instructional design
and development processes. Furthermore, it is the effective use of the audio or video
programme that makes it educationally powerful. Techniques such as previewing the
programme, preparing the audience to look for the intended information in advance of the
programme and following up the sessions with further questions and discussions, etc. are
very useful activities.

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Educational Technology as a System

A ‘System’ is an assemblage of interconnected and interacting components. All the
components which comprise the system are conceptualized to be bounded by an imaginary
boundary for the purpose of identifying the system. The ‘region’ outside the system boundary
represents the conditions under which the system operates; it is referred to as the environment
for the system as shown in Fig. 1.6.
SYSTEM
Environment
with components,
the System
say, A, B, C, d and E for

Fig. 1.6 Concept of a System

One may choose to include any number and size of components to constitute a system for
a desired purpose. For example, the entire universe with all the creations of God, Man and
the Devil may be considered as a system; a biological cell, a television, a TV tube, an
institute, an industry are some further examples of systems. A system may consist of
subsystems, which when ombined constitute the system.
Systems are classified as closed systems and open systems. When a system operates in
isolation from the environment, i.e., without any effect or transaction from the environment
it is said to be a closed system. On the other hand if a system interacts with the environment
by way of some input and output, it is called an open system. The input may consist of raw
material information, energy or human beings and the output may be finished products or
qualified persons. The purpose of an open system may be to convert the given input into
the desired output. In that case, the system is indeed a transformation function, which is
either a process or a series of processes. An industry, an institute, and a car engine are
examples of open systems.
In terms of systems approach, educational technology may be viewed as

Fig. 1.7 Components of Educational Technology

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A system with a number of subsystems and components or elements as shown in Fig.

1.8.
Dealing with the interacting subsystems or components of the educational technology system
is referred to as the systems approach in dealing with institutional problems and
developmental issues. It brings into focus the process and the product orientation of
educational technology. The process concept directs our attention to the components of
needs assessment, goal analysis, task analysis, curriculum design, selection of instructional
delivery systems production and utilization of media as also the formative and summative
evaluation. The product orientation of educational technology makes reference to the
audiovisual devices and hardware. The total system consists of interacting processes and
products employed for the desired educational goals. The systems approach helps us to
identify the effectiveness and the weak points of subsystems and hence the means through
which instructional systems can operate at optimum efficiencies. It is desirable to learn in
detail about the subsystems and components of educational technology system before
taking up optimization of the whole system.
Systems have some general characteristics;
 A system refers to a collective entity consisting of a group of inter-related and
interacting elements.
 A system is a relative concept; it can be a subsystem of a larger system!
 A system may be closed or open-ended..
 All systems are directed to achieve certain goals and outputs under some
constraints and with given inputs.
 All systems may be optimized by way of considering the variables alternatives,
feedback processes, etc.
A simple systems model of the teaching-learning process is shown in Fig 1.9. It shows the
input, the system and the output. A more detailed system of the teaching-learning-evaluation
process of instruction is shown in Fig. 1.10. Inputs to the system are the entry-profile of
the student, audiovisual and other resources; the system results in improved exit-profile of
students. It also shows the interaction of elements and the iterative nature of the teaching-
learning-evaluation process. The starting point is the learning objectives from which content
is derived. A teaching-learning strategy is identified as also appropriate audiovisual material
and other resources are taken in. Learning thus created in students is evaluated. It the
learning is short of the objective, the strategy and learning process are reviewed. If the
objective is achieved, the next objective is taken up and so on. It may be observed that the
objectives play a multiple role in the total process. Content, i.e, subject matter is determined
from the objectives;

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Fig 1.9. Systems Model of the Teaching-Learning Process

Teaching methods and audiovisual resources are identified in view of the intended
objectives and finally, the learning outcome of students is measured against the same
terminal objectives.
System concept of educational technology permits us to optimize the effectiveness of
whatever it is applied to Educational technology improves the teaching-learning process in
a classroom by way of the following:
 by reducing the time for learning the same thing and increasing the learning
outcome over the same time,
 by lowering the percentage dropout and increasing student achievement,
 by decreasing student frustration and by increasing teacher satisfaction.
Effectiveness of an educational process is not improved merely by the introduction of
technology into it. It is, in fact, a function of human skills of employing the technology as
also the hardware and software components of technology

Effectiveness = f (Human skills, software, hardware)

The role of a teacher is characterized by the following four broad functions:

Planning : establishment of the objectives, preparation of units and schedule of training,
etc.
Organising : arrangement of the learning resources, utilization of audiovisuals, etc.
Leading : motivation, encouragement and provision of stimuli to the students in the teaching-
learning process.
Controlling : assessment, feedback and regulation so as to realize the objectives optimally.
These four inter-related functions of a teacher constitute the Teacher as a system as shown
in Fig. 1.10.

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Fig. 1.10 Teacher as a System

Management for Learning
With the ever-increasing availability of audiovisual resources and greater knowledge of the
learning process, the primary role of a teacher is to be a Resource Person and manager of
resources.
Conventional libraries of books and journals are being converted into Learning Resource
Centres where a complete range of software is available. Videocassette, slide series, tape-
slide programmes, computer software and overhead transparencies are being added and
cross-referred to learning resource centre. With greater emphasis on the development or
Resources with the participation of teachers likely to use these resources, Resource Centres
are being set up where groups of teachers take up joint projects of audiovisual resource
development. Likewise, they take up the production of modules on different topics. Modular
format of instruction has created new interest from the point of view of self-instruction and
individualized instruction.
A learning resource centre may well be equipped with a number of viewing and work-
tables for interactive use of computer software. VCRs, monitors and headphones are
installed for the former and computer terminals or personal computers for the latter as
shown.
More and more libraries are being networked for providing access to books and journals
as also bibliographies of research on different topics. This is made possible through
computer and video technologies.

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DUCATION
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Research has let us to believe that learning is individual to a learner. The teacher-centered
approach of teaching is, therefore, being transformed into learner-centered methods of
learning.
It is thought that courses on Study Skills and Techniques of Learning may be given to
students early in their adolescence so that they should take over the responsibility of learning
and employ efficient methods of learning in classrooms, reading books and using other
software as also from the world of work. Teaching students to learn for themselves and
enabling them to learn how to study effectively is perhaps the latest development in
educational technology.

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References
1. Modern Education - Its Aims and Principles by J.C.Chakravarti
2. Philosophy and Principles of Education by Archana Banerjee
3. Elements of Educational Psychology by H. R. Bhatia
4. Advanced Educational Psychology by S. S. Chauhan
5. Education in India - Past, Present and Future by J. R Banerjee
6. Principles and Practices of Education by Dr. B. R. Purkait
7. Aspects of Child Life and Education by Granville Stanley Hall
8. Educational Psychology by Anita Woolfolk Hoy, Anita E. Woolfolk
9. Experience and Education by John Dewey
10. The Quality of School Teacher by William Glasser
11. Educational technology by K. L. Kumar
12. Modern introduction to Education by Dr. Dibakar Kundu
13. Higher Secondary Education by K. N. Mallick
14. Internet References on the Topicsz

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 Introducing
Education
Class XII
New Syllabus

West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education

Printed at
West Bengal Text Book Corporation Limited
(Government of West Bengal Enterprise)
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