Bansilal Ramnath Agarwal Charitable Trust’s

VISHWAKARMA INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Department of Engineering & Applied Sciences

F. Y. B. Tech

Course Material (A brief reference version for students)

Course: Environmental Science (2023 pattern)
BS10233
Academic year 2023 – 24
Unit I: Sustainability and Resources

Disclaimer: These notes are for internal circulation and are not meant for commercial use.
These notes are meant to provide guidelines and outline of the unit. They are not
necessarily complete answers to examination questions. Students must refer reference/text
books; write lecture notes for producing expected answer in examination. Charts/diagrams
must be drawn whenever necessary.
 1.1 Environmental Studies: Definition, scope, and importance

1.1.1) Definition:
The term 'Environment' originates from the French word 'Environner,' which conveys the idea of
encircling, surrounding, or being around something.
The biologist Jacob Van Uerkal (1864-1944) first introduced the concept of 'environment' within
the field of Ecology. Ecology involves the examination of how organisms interact with their
surroundings.

Ecology is the science that studies the relationships between living things and the environment.
Environmental science was developed from the science of ecology. Ecology is the study of the
way organisms interact with each other and with their nonliving surroundings. These interactions
involve energy and matter. Living things require a constant flow of energy and matter to ensure
their survival. If the flow of energy and matter ceases, the organism dies. Ecology deals with the
ways in which organisms are shaped by their surroundings, how they use these surroundings, and
how an area is altered by the presence and activities of organisms. Everything that affects an
organism during its lifetime is in its environment
Environment Science is the systematic and scientific study of the environment and role of
human being in it.
Environmental Studies can be defined as the branch of the study concerned with environmental
issues.

According to the Environment Protection Act of 1986, the environment involves land, water,
air, their interconnected relationships, as well as their interactions with both humans and other
living organisms. This field investigates the origins, responses, movement, impacts, and density
of biological species within the air, water, and soil, including the influence of human activities
on these elements.
Thus,
• Environmental studies are a multidisciplinary study that focuses on examining human
interactions with the environment in order to address complex issues. It combines principles
from the physical sciences, economics, and social sciences to tackle current environmental
 challenges. Its systematic approach aims to find solutions to environmental problems that are
beneficial to society and the planet.
• Environmental studies include all aspects that impact organisms and their environment. It is an
applied science that makes an effort to find practical solutions for achieving the sustainability of
human civilization within the limits of the earth’s finite resources.
• Its components include physics, chemistry, biology, geology, engineering, health, sociology,
statistics, economics, computers, and philosophy.

1.1.2) Scope:
The environment consists of four segments of the earth namely atmosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere and biosphere:
1) Atmosphere: The atmosphere forms a distinctive protective layer, approximately 100
kilometres thick, encompassing the Earth. This layer of gases serves as a shield, safeguarding the
Earth's surface from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun while sustaining life. Furthermore, it
plays a pivotal role in regulating the planet's temperature, preventing it from becoming
excessively hot or cold, and providing protection against the challenging conditions of outer
space. The atmospheric composition consists of nitrogen and oxygen, alongside argon, carbon
dioxide, and trace gases.
2) Hydrosphere: The hydrosphere covers all categories of water resources, including surface
water, atmospheric water, and subsurface water, such as oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams,
reservoirs, polar icecaps, glaciers, and groundwater. Out of the Earth's total water supply, 97%
resides in the oceans, 2% remains locked in polar icecaps and glaciers, and the remaining 1%
constitutes freshwater sources utilized for human consumption and various other purposes.
3) Lithosphere: The uppermost segment of the Earth's crust, which encompasses soils and
various geological components like rocks and metals, is referred to as the lithosphere.
4) Biosphere: The biosphere signifies the realm of living organisms and their interconnectedness
with the environment, spanning the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.

Scope of Environmental studies:

The field of Environmental Studies includes various and multi-level scopes as follows:
1. Resource Analysis: Environmental Studies raises awareness among individuals regarding
both renewable and non-renewable resources within a region. This involves the assessment of
resource endowments, utilization patterns, and the maintenance of a sustainable balance for
future generations within a country or state.
2. Ecological Understanding: It imparts knowledge about ecological systems, explaining cause-
and-effect relationships within these systems.
3.Biodiversity Awareness: Environmental Studies offers essential insights into the richness of
biodiversity and the potential threats faced by various species of plants, animals, and
microorganisms in their natural habitats.
4.Disaster and Pollution Understanding: This field enables a comprehensive grasp of the
causes and repercussions of both natural disasters (e.g., floods, earthquakes, landslides, cyclones)
and human-induced environmental issues. It also explores measures to minimise these effects.
5.Alternative Solutions: Environmental Studies equips individuals to evaluate various
responses to environmental challenges, assisting in the decision-making process for addressing
these issues effectively.
6.Environmental Literacy: This field equips individuals with environmental literacy, enabling
them to make informed judgments and decisions for the protection and enhancement of the Earth
by understanding environmental acts, rights, rules, legislations, and more.
7. Social and Health Considerations: The study exposes the problems of over population,
health, hygiene, etc. and the role of arts, science and technology in eliminating/ minimizing the
evils from the society.
8.Eco-friendly Technologies: The study tries to identify and develop appropriate and
indigenous eco-friendly skills and technologies to various environmental issues.
9.Sustainable Resource Use: Environmental Studies educates citizens about the importance of
sustainably utilizing resources, recognizing that these resources are inherited from our ancestors
and must be passed down to future generations without compromising their quality.
10.Practical Application: The study enables theoretical knowledge into practice and the
multiple uses of environment.

1.1.3) Importance:
Environmental studies raise awareness about the vital need to safeguard and conserve our planet,
emphasizing the harmful consequences of polluting our environment. The escalating human and
animal populations, along with the expansion of industries and various other concerns, have
intensified the challenges associated with survival. An array of environmental issues has grown
in magnitude, progressively complicating the global system and posing a growing threat to
humanity's existence on Earth.
Some important features that make environmental studies significant are as follows:
1.Disseminating Fundamental Knowledge: Environmental studies serve as a platform for
imparting fundamental environmental knowledge to individuals, enabling them to comprehend
ongoing environmental initiatives and projects.
2.Promoting Sustainable Lifestyles: This field guides us towards more sustainable living
practices and equips us with the essential skills required to address environmental challenges
effectively.
3. Enhancing Resource Efficiency: Environmental studies contribute to the efficient utilization
of natural resources, ensuring their responsible and sustainable management.
4. Global Environmental Awareness: It has been well recognized that environment issues like
global warming and ozone depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely
national issues but are global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and
cooperation.
5.Impact of Population Growth: World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this
planet lives in India. Evidently with 16 per cent of the world’s population and only 2.4 per cent
of its land area, there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural
experts have recognized soils health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and organic
matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.
1.2 Sustainability:

1.2.1 Introduction:
Sustainability is often defined as meeting the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet theirs.
Sustainability refers to the ability to maintain or support a process continuously over time.

1.2.2 Three Dimensions/pillars of Sustainability:

Although sustainability is linked to the environmental movement, the notion that it is only
focused on the environment is a misconception. Sustainability is based on three dimensions:
economic, environmental, and social—also known informally as profits, planet, and people.
i) Economic sustainability: is the ability of human communities around the world to maintain
their independence and have access to the resources required to meet their needs, meaning that
secure sources of livelihood are available to everyone.
ii) Social sustainability: is the ability of a society to uphold universal human rights and meet
people's basic needs, such as healthcare, education, and transportation. Healthy communities
ensure personal, labour, and cultural rights are respected and all people are protected from
discrimination.
iii) Environmental sustainability: occurs when humanity’s rate of consumption does not
exceed nature’s rate of replenishment and when humanity’s rate of generating pollution and
emitting greenhouse gases does not exceed nature’s rate of restoration.
The three dimensions of sustainability can be visualized in different ways. The figure shows
how each dimension is dependent on the next. The economy is dependent on society, and both
are dependent on the environment.
1.2.3 Corporate sustainability:
Corporate sustainability involves adopting a business strategy that prioritizes ethical, social,
environmental, cultural, and economic considerations with the ultimate goal of creating lasting
value for stakeholders.
This approach is realized through practices such as resource conservation and the exploration of
eco-friendly alternatives, which aim to minimize the environmental impact of a company's
operations.
Numerous businesses are actively working to reduce their carbon footprints, reduce packaging
waste, decrease water consumption, and reduce other harmful effects on the environment. In
addition to the positive ecological effects, these sustainable practices can also yield financial
benefits. For instance, a reduction in packaging materials not only curtails expenses but also
enhances fuel efficiency.
For example, Walmart involved sustainability by launching its zero-waste initiative. This
initiative drove the reduction of packaging across its supply chain and promoted the use of
recycled or repurposed materials in packaging.
The society is also exerting pressure on companies to hold sustainability. Governments, citizens,
and various stakeholders increasingly expect companies to demonstrate their commitment to
community welfare.

1.2.4 Sustainable development:

Sustainable development is defined as development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
In other words, it is a way of organizing the society by which it can exist for a long duration
without compromising on the availability of resources for future generations.
To achieve sustainable development, it is imperative to consider aspects like the conservation of
the environment and natural resources, as well as the promotion of social and economic equity.
Another way to describe this concept is by referring to it as environmentally sustainable
economic growth.
Importance of Sustainable Development:

1. Using the available resources judiciously and working towards maintaining the ecological
balance.
2.To prevent degradation of the environment and laying emphasis on protecting the environment.
3. To prevent overexploitation of resources.

1.2.5 Sustainable Development Goals:

At the historic UN General Assembly Summit in September 2015, the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development was adopted by the UN’s 193 member states. The 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) and their 169 targets are part of this agenda.

17goals of sustainable development are as follows:

1.2.6 Achieving Sustainable Development:
Sustainable development can be achieved by following ways:
i) Resources- finding substitutes for nonrenewable resources and using renewable resources
judiciously. Solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, tidal energy and biofuels(like gobar gas)
are being widely and increasingly used as substitutes for energy sources like coal, oil and natural
gas that are being depleted rapidly. In many villages of India, solar energy appliances like solar
cookers, solar lanterns and solar heaters are being encouraged and promoted by the government.
In coastal areas the wind energy harnessed by windmills is being used to generate electricity.
ii) Recycling - to use again, to re-process. To make paper we need wood pulp which comes from
trees. By recycling used paper one can contribute to saving trees from being cutdown. Water is a
scarce resource yet people do not use water judiciously. One can reuse rainwater by rainwater
harvesting.
iii) Reduce - to use less or economize. Consumption should be restrained to meet basic needs.
For e.g. one can walk instead of driving to the local market or climb using stairs instead of taking
a lift, switch off fans and lights when not needed.
1.2.7 Importance:
Sustainability enhances our overall quality of life, safeguards our ecosystems, and conserves
precious natural resources for the well-being of future generations.
In the corporate world, sustainability involves an organization's holistic approach, about aspects
ranging from production and supply chain management to customer service. Implementation of
eco-friendly and sustainable practices not only advantages the company itself but also maximizes
the benefits from an environmental focus in the long-term.
For example
i) Focus on sustainable farming methods: It promotes agricultural techniques such as crop
rotation and efficient seeding techniques to take care of the needs of future generations and to
reduce burden of growing population.
ii) Stabilizing climate: Problem of climate change is due to the excessive use of fossil fuels and
the killing of the natural habitat of animals. Sustainable development plays a major role in
preventing climate change through practices such as reducing the use of fossil fuels that release
greenhouse gases that destroy the atmosphere.
iii) Sustainable Biodiversity – sustainable development focuses on preserving the ecosystem
that automatically helps in maintaining and protecting biodiversity.
iv) Financial stability – Sustainable development gives steady growth, the economies of
countries can be strengthened by using renewable sources of energy as compared to the use of
non-renewable sources such as fossil fuels.

1.2.8 Threats to Sustainability:

Though the measures are adopted for implementation of Sustainable Development, some of the
threats such as Energy depletion; climate system collapse; ecological collapse; Economic slump
etc are reduce the sustainability of life.
1) Energy depletion: The availability of crude oil resources are less and usage is more and
more. Since the increased number of human beings mainly dependent on energy source
especially fossil fuels, the future generation will have to work hard to restructure the way they
live.
2) Climate system collapse: Huge quantities of Green House Gases have been releasing into the
atmosphere over the last 100 years. And more is being released every day, future generation may
be unstable with the climate systems of floods, storms, droughts, extreme temperatures etc
3) Ecological collapse: Numerous industries are coming up by consuming the natural resources
and releasing the toxic substances into the atmosphere. These substances cause soil pollution, air
pollution; water pollution and in turn causing the imbalance of ecosystem.
4) Economic slump: Although the world has never had an economic recession all over, there
may be a global economic depression may takes place because of the destruction of ecosystem.

1.3 Renewable and non-renewable Resources

1.3.1 Renewable and non-renewable resources:

Renewable resources: which are in exhaustive and can be regenerated within a given span of
time e.g. forests, wildlife, wind energy, biomass energy, tidal energy, hydro power etc. Solar
energy is also a renewable form of energy as it is an inexhaustible source of energy.
Non-renewable resources which cannot be regenerated in a time span e.g. Fossil fuels like coal,
petroleum, minerals etc. Once we exhaust these reserves, the same cannot be replenished.
Even our renewable resources can become non-renewable if we exploit them to such extent that
their rate of consumption exceeds their rate of regeneration. For example, if a species is
exploited so much that its population size declines below the threshold level then it is not able to
sustain itself and gradually the species becomes endangered or extinct. It is very important to
protect and conserve our natural resources and use them in a judicious manner so that we do not
exhaust them. It does not mean that we should stop using most of the natural resources. Rather,
we should use the resources in such a way that we always save enough of them for our future
generations.
1.3.2 Conventional and Non-conventional Energy Resources

1. Conventional energy sources: Conventional sources of energy are the natural energy
resources which are present in a limited quantity and are being used for a long time. They are
called non-renewable sources as once they are depleted, they cannot be generated at the speed
which can sustain its consumption rate. They are formed from decaying matter over hundreds of
millions of years.
These resources have been depleted to a great extent due to their continuous exploitation. It is
believed that the deposits of petroleum in our country will be exhausted within few decades and
the coal reserves can last for a hundred more years. Some common examples of conventional
sources of energy include coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.
2. Nonconventional energy sources: Non-conventional sources of energy are the energy
sources which are continuously replenished by natural processes. These cannot be exhausted
easily, can be generated constantly so can be used again and again, e.g. solar energy, wind
energy, tidal energy, biomass energy and geothermal energy etc. The energy obtained from non-
conventional sources is known as renewable energy. These sources do not pollute the
environment and do not require heavy expenditure. They are called renewable resources as they
can be replaced through natural processes at a rate equal to or greater than the rate at which they
are consumed.

3.Comparison between Conventional and Non-conventional Energy Sources:

Conventional sources of Non-conventional sources of

energy energy
These sources of energy are These sources of energy are
not abundant, present in abundant in nature, e.g. solar
limited quantity, e.g. coal, energy, wind energy, tidal
petroleum, natural gas. energy, biogas from biomass
etc.
They have been in use for a They are yet in development
long time. phase over the past few years.
They are not replenished They are replenished
continuously. They are formed continuously by natural
over a million years. processes.
They are called non-renewable They are called renewable
sources of energy. sources of energy.
They can be exhausted They cannot be exhausted
completely due to over- completely.
consumption.
They pollute the environment They are environment-
by emitting harmful gases and friendly, do not pollute the
also contribute to global environment.
warming.
They are commonly used for They are used commonly used
industrial and commercial for household purposes.
purposes.
Heavy expenditure is involved Using these sources is less
in using and maintaining these expensive.
sources of energy.
They are used extensively, at a They are not used as
higher rate than the non- extensively as conventional
conventional sources. sources.

4. Advantages and Disadvantages of conventional and non-conventional energy sources:

Advantages and disadvantages of conventional energy sources:

Sr. Advantages of Sr Disadvantages

No conventional No of conventional
energy sources energy sources
1 Easy to use and convert 1 Exhaustible in nature
into other form of (Limited resources)
energy
2 High efficiency 2 Air/noise/water
pollution is created
when consumed/used
3 Easy to 3 Continuous
carry/transport/store extraction/utilization is
leading to
environmental
degradation
4 Comparatively low 4 Considering
initial cost intangible/environmenta
l costs these prove to be
costly in long term

Advantages and disadvantages of nonconventional energy sources:

Sr. Advantages of Sr Disadvantages of

No nonconventional . nonconventional
energy sources No energy sources
1 Available in 1 High initial
abundance(unlimited cost.(investment )
resources) in nature
2 Do not create pollution 2 Less efficiency/output.
when utilized.
3 Less operating and 3 Not available
maintenance cost. continuously in required
quantity.
4 In long term prove to be 4 Conversion is difficult
very economical and and costly into other
beneficial. form
5 Difficult or impossible
to carry or
transport/store
6 Completely dependent
on metrological
conditions (site
dependent).
 1.3.3 Importance and Impact on Environment:

Global Scenario:
• The global population of 7.7 billion people is increasing by 90 million people per year.
• Electricity consumption will grow faster, average 2000 to 2017: 66 %, than any other form of
energy consumption due to an increasing demand and population growth. One quarter of the
global population does not yet has access to electricity. Additionally, digitization, electro
mobility and sector-coupling will increase electricity demand. The International Energy Agency
(IEA) estimates that the annual demand will increase by +2.0 % until 2040.
• Highest renewable power generation is Hydro power. Hydro power is not only a reliable
renewable energy source, but also the frontrunner in the generation of electricity from renewable
energy sources.
• The Indian power sector is highly complex, given that both central and state government is
responsible for its development.
• Any successful development of infrastructure (power project, transmission or distribution lines)
requires buy-in from various stakeholders of central and state government.
• Many power generating and distribution companies are currently facing severe financial stress
due to sector-wide challenges beyond their control. With legislations governing the power sector
continuing to evolve (such as amendments to the Electricity Act 2003), the role of many
stakeholders is expected to change, leading to simplification in the process of generation,
transmission, distribution, and consumption of electricity.

Present Scenario:
• At Present in power sector nearly half i.e., 49.15% is under State electricity Boards, which is
followed by Public Sector Unit’s like National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), National
Hydro-electric Power Corporation (NHPC) and Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited
(NPCIL) etc.
• The role of private sector is about 19.85%, which is at present least among the three sectors, but
private sector is growing at a far greater pace than any other sector, the latest advancements in
this direction are allotment of Ultra Mega Power Projects (UMPP)’s to private sector.

1.4 Principle, Construction, Working of power plants

1.4.1 Principal, Construction, Working of Thermal Power Plant

Introduction:
A Thermal Power Plant converts the heat energy of coal into electrical energy. Coal is burnt in a
boiler which converts water into steam. The expansion of steam in turbine produces mechanical
power which drives the alternator coupled to the turbine. Thermal Power Plants contribute
maximum to the generation of Power for any country.
Types of Thermal Plants in India:
There are several types of thermal power plants in India:
• Coal fired Thermal Power Plants: These plants use coal as their fuel source. Coalfired thermal
power plants are the most common type of thermal power plant in India.
• Oil and gas fired Thermal Power Plants: These plants use oil or gas as their fuel sources.
• Nuclear Thermal Power Plants: These plants use nuclear fission to generate heat.
• Solar Thermal Power Plants: These plants use solar energy to generate heat. Solar thermal
power plants are the newest type of thermal power plant in India.
• Geothermal Thermal Power Plants: These plants use heat from the earth to generate electricity.
Geothermal power plants are the second most common type of thermal power plant in India.
• Almost two third of electricity requirement of the world is fulfilled by thermal power
plants (or thermal power stations).
• As of now, there are 106 thermal power plants in India. Of these 106 plants, 53 are coal fired, 24
are gas fired, 11 are oil fired, nine are mixed fuel fired and the remaining two use renewable
sources – solar and biomass.

Working principle:
• In thermal power station, steam is produced by burning some fossil fuel (e.g. coal) and then used
to run a steam turbine. Thus, a thermal power station may sometimes call as a Steam Power
Station. After the steam passes through the steam turbine, it is condensed in a condenser and
again fed back into the boiler to become steam. This is known as Rankine Cycle

• Firstly the water is taken into the boiler from a water source. The boiler is heated with the help of
coal.

• The increase in temperature helps in the transformation of water into steam. The steam generated
in the boiler is sent through a steam turbine.

• The turbine has blades that rotate when high velocity steam flows across them. This rotation of
turbine blades is used to generate electricity.

• A generator is connected to the steam turbine. When the turbine turns, electricity is generated
and given as output by the generator, which is then supplied to the consumers through high-
voltage power lines.
 Typical Layout of a Thermal Power Plant

Main Equipment:

1)Coal handling plant

2)Boiler

3)Turbine

4)Condenser

5) Cooling towers and ponds

6) Feed Water Pump

7)Alternator
 1) Coal handling plant

• Coal is transported to power station by rail or road and stored in coal storage plant and then
pulverized.

• The function of coal handling plant is automatic feeding of coal to the boiler furnace.

• A thermal power plant burns enormous amounts of coal.

In a coal based thermal power plant, coal is transported from coal mines to the generating station.
Generally, bituminous coal or brown coal is used as fuel. The coal is stored in either 'dead storage'
or in 'live storage'. Dead storage is generally 40 days backup coal storage which is used when coal
supply is unavailable. Live storage is a raw coal bunker in boiler house.

• The coal is cleaned in a magnetic cleaner to filter out if any iron particles are present which may
cause wear and tear in the equipment.
• The coal from live storage is first crushed in small particles and then taken into pulverizer to make
it in powdered form. Fine powdered coal undergoes complete combustion, and thus pulverized
coal improves efficiency of the boiler. Pulverizing is a means of exposing a large surface area to
the action of oxygen and consequently helping combustion.
• The ash produced after the combustion of coal is taken out of the boiler furnace and then properly
disposed. Periodic removal of ash from the boiler furnace is necessary for the proper combustion.

2) Boiler:

• The function of boiler is to generate steam at desired pressure and temperature by transferring heat
produced by burning of fuel in a furnace to change water into steam.
• The mixture of pulverized coal and air (usually preheated air) is taken into boiler and then burnt
in the combustion zone. On ignition of fuel a large fireball is formed at the center of the boiler and
large amount of heat energy is radiated from it. The heat energy is utilized to convert the water
into steam at high temperature and pressure, run along the boiler steel tubes walls in which water
is converted in steam. The flue gases from the boiler make their way through superheater,
economizer and air preheater and finally get exhausted to the atmosphere from the chimney.

(Superheater: The super heater tubes are hanged at the hottest part of the boiler. The saturated
steam produced in the boiler tubes is superheated to about 540°C in the super heater. The
superheated high-pressure steam is then fed to the steam turbine.

Economizer: An economizer is essentially a feed water heater which heats the water before
supplying to the boiler. Flue gases coming out of the boiler carry lot of heat. An economizer
extracts a part of this heat from flue gases and uses it for heating feed water saving coal
consumption and higher boiler efficiency.

Air Pre-heater: The primary air fan takes air from the atmosphere and it is then warmed in the air
pre-heater. Pre-heated air is injected with coal in the boiler. The advantage of pre-heating the air
is that it improves the coal combustion. The function of air preheaters is to preheat the air before
 entering to the furnace by utilizing some of the energy left in the flue gases before exhausting them
to the atmosphere.)

3) Steam Turbine:

• High pressure super-heated steam is fed to the steam turbine which causes turbine blades to rotate.
Energy in the steam is converted into mechanical energy in the steam turbine which acts as the
prime mover. The pressure and temperature of the steam falls to a lower value and it expands in
volume as it passes through the turbine. The expanded low-pressure steam is exhausted in the
condenser.
• In thermal power plants generally 3 turbines are used to increases the efficiency-
High pressure turbine, Intermediate pressure turbine and Low pressure turbine

4) Condenser:

• The exhausted steam is condensed in the condenser by means of cold water circulation. Here, the
steam loses its pressure as well as temperature and it is converted back into water.
• Condensing is essential because, compressing a fluid which is in gaseous state requires a huge
amount of energy with respect to the energy required in compressing liquid. Thus, condensing
increases efficiency of the cycle.
• The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger where cooling water flows through tubes
and exhaust steam fed into the shell surrounds the tubes, as a result, steam condense outside the
tubes.

5) Cooling towers and ponds:

• A condenser needs huge quantity of water to condense the steam.

• Most plants use cooled cooling system where warm water coming from condenser is cooled and
reused.
• Cooling tower is a steel or concrete hyperbolic structure with the height of 150m.

6) Feed Water Pump:

• The condensed water is again fed to the boiler by a feed water pump. Some water may be lost
during the cycle, which is suitably supplied from an external water source.

7) Alternator:

• The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator. When the turbine rotates the alternator, electrical
energy is generated. This generated electrical voltage is then stepped up with the help of
a transformer and then transmitted where it is to be utilized.

Advantages and Disadvantages of a Thermal Power Plant:

Advantages:

▪ Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.

▪ It requires less land as compared to hydro power plant.
▪ The fuel (i.e. coal) is cheaper.
▪ The cost of generation is lesser than that of diesel power plants.
▪ It is one of the most reliable sources of energy, considering other power plants that depend on
weather conditions, such as wind power plants and hydropower plants.

Disadvantages:

▪ It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke. This is one of the
causes of global warming.
▪ The overall efficiency of a thermal power station is low (less than 30%).
▪ Higher maintenance cost and operational cost
▪ Require huge amount of water

Efficiency of a Thermal Power Station:

A huge amount of heat is lost in various stages of the plant. Major part of heat is lost in the
condenser. That is why the efficiency of thermal plants is quite low.

1. Thermal Efficiency: The ratio of 'heat equivalent of mechanical energy transmitted to the
turbine shaft' to the 'heat of coal combustion' is called as thermal efficiency.

Thermal efficiency of modern thermal power stations is about 30%. It means, if 100 calories of
heat are produced by coal combustion, the mechanical energy equivalent of 30 calories will be
available at the turbine shaft.

2. Overall Efficiency: The ratio of 'heat equivalent of electrical output' to the 'heat of coal
combustion' is called as overall efficiency.

The overall efficiency of a thermal plant is about 29% (slightly less than the thermal efficiency).

1.4.2 Principal, Construction, Working of Hydroelectric Power Plant

Introduction:
In hydro power plant gravitational force of water is used to run the turbine which is coupled with
electric generator to produce electricity. This power plant plays an important role to protect our
fossil fuel which is limited, because to generated electricity in hydro power station, water is used
 which is renewable source of energy and available in lots of amount without any cost. It do not
cause any type of pollution and after generated electricity the price of electricity is average and
not too much high
Working principle:
• The working principle of the hydroelectric power plant is that it converts the potential energy
(due to the elevation of water from the channel) and the kinetic energy (due to fast-flowing
water) of the water into mechanical energy with the help of turbines.
• The water that is stored in the reservoir or forebay behind the dam falls through the penstock,
and it strikes the blades of the turbine with high pressure, and the turbine runner starts rotating.
• The runner is attached to the central shaft that is connected to the generator, which eventually
generates electricity, i.e., the turbine’s mechanical energy is converted into electricity through
electric generators.
• The electrical energy obtained is then supplied for domestic or industrial uses through the
transmission lines after the voltage regulation by the transformers. The electrical energy obtained
through the hydroelectric plants is proportional to the rate of flow of water and the elevation
drop.
Construction and Working of Hydro Power Plant:
Components of hydroelectric plant:
1) Reservoir
2) Forbay
3) Dam
4) Spillways
5) Penstocks
6) Water Intakes
7) Sluice
8) Surge Tank
9) Tailrace
10) Power house
11) Turbines
12) Draft tube
13) Generator
14) Transformer
Basic components of hydroelectric power plants are as follows:
1) Reservoir
A reservoir is the most essential part of the hydropower plant. It stores the water and supplied it
down to the hydro turbine for electricity generation. The reservoir can be natural lakes in the
hilly areas, or it can be made artificially by establishing a dam across the water bodies. The
reservoirs of the hydropower plants are also used for flood control, irrigation purposes,
industrial, and aquaculture.

2) Forebay
A Forebay is an area to temporarily store the water before flowing it down to the turbine. It
stores the excess water in the case of rainy seasons and supplies it during the dry seasons, i.e., it
maintains the amount of water to be needed as per the requirement at the load area. The forebay
is constructed when the hydroelectric plants are situated far from the reservoir, else the reservoir
itself acts as the forebay when it is located near the plant.
[Instead of surge tank some hydro-electric power plants used Forebay. The Forebay are useful as
the surge due to change in load that occur. Foreby is an enlarged body of water at the intake (dam)
to store more quantity of water. It is nothing but regulating reservoir. Forebay stores the rejected water
as the load on the turbine decreases & supplies water immediately when load on turbine increases i.e. it
is nothing but surge tank for small capacity hydro power station.]
3) Dam
A dam is the most expensive element of the hydroelectric power plant. It is a barrier constructed
across the water bodies to restrict the flow of the naturally flowing water and to raise the water
level in the reservoirs. They are usually made of concrete, rocks, earth, or stone masonry. The
type of dam also depends on the foundation condition, local material, and transportation
available.
4) Spillways
In case of heavy rainfall or flood situations, the water level in the reservoir may rise beyond its
storage capacity that may affect the proper functioning of the hydropower plant. In order to
discharge the surplus water from the storage area into the river downstream, a concrete path
constructed alongside the dam called spillways is used to drain the excess water.
They consist of metal control gates to stop or discharge the water from the reservoir.
5) Penstocks
Penstocks are the (open/closed) channels or large pipes at the hydroelectric station that carries
the water down to the turbines at the power station from the reservoir. The penstocks are
generally made of steel or reinforced cement concrete (RCC). The material to be used for
constructing penstocks depends upon the water-head of the dam. The water-head is the vertical
height between the source of the water and the turbine, i.e., the vertical distance travelled by the
water from the elevation to the turbine; it is usually measured in meters or feet. The steel
penstocks can be used for any head or working pressure of water, whereas the RCC penstocks
are used for the low water heads, usually less than 30 meters. As a large amount of water flows
through the penstocks, hence the abrupt opening and closing of the gates at the ends of the
penstock can cause a water hammer effect (pressure surges). To withstand the water hammer
effect, the penstocks are carefully designed, for example, short-length penstocks are provided
with thick walls, and surge tanks are installed in the long-length penstocks.
6) Water Intakes
The water intake includes the structures that collect the water stored in the reservoir or forebay
and direct it towards the turbines through the penstocks. Water intakes consist of several gates,
screens, filters, booms, sluices, and trash racks that control the amount of water that reaches the
turbines and also block any kind of debris such as trunks, waste products, or branches from
entering the channel.
Gate:
A gate is used to regulate or control the flow of water from the dam.
Pressure tunnel:
It is a passage that carries water from the reservoir to the surge tank.
Track Rash:

Track Rack

It is used in hydro-electric power plant to filter the water before it flows towards turbine. The
unwanted impurities (e.g. fish, plastics etc.) present in the stored water are avoided to flow towards
turbine.
7) Sluice
Sluices are also part of water intake structures. The flow of water through the penstocks is
controlled by the sluice; the sluice is the gate that is installed at the ends of the penstocks, which
can be raised or lowered according to the requirement of the water at the turbine. The water
freely flows through the penstocks when the sluice is open completely, but less water flows
through the penstock when the sluice is partially closed. They are generally kept open in the dry
seasons to allow water to pass through the penstocks, but in rainy seasons they are slightly kept
closed to avoid flooding. A small containment water pond is constructed before the upper
opening of the penstock to store the water that cannot be entered through the penstock in case of
the closed or partially closed sluice and also to avoid pressure on the closed sluice. The
instalment of the sluice in the penstocks prevents the overall dam failures, and they ensure that
penstocks can be easily cleaned, inspected, and repaired in case of any damages such as holes, or
cracks in the penstocks.
8) Surge Tank
When the open conduit is used to carry water to the turbine it requires no protection but when the
closed conduit is used it needs protection to limit the pressure in the conduit. For this reason, a
surge tank is used for closed conduit.
A Surge tank is a small reservoir or tank in which the water level rises or falls due to sudden
changes in pressure.
The sudden water surges due to the changes in the water flow may result in variations in the
pressure that can damage the components of the hydropower plant. To control the pressure
changes, small cylindrical water storage tanks called surge tanks are used. Surge tanks are open
 from their top to reduce or neutralize the pressure changes in the reservoir and are used to
regulate the turbines. They protect the channel from excess internal pressure and are also capable
of storing water to raise the internal pressure in case of pressure drop. Surge tanks are usually
located at the centre of the penstock (steep-sloped) before the water turbine.
Purpose of surge tank:
• To serve as a supply tank to the turbine when the water in the pipe is accelerated during
increased load conditions and as a storage tank when the water is decelerating during reduced
load conditions.
• To reduce the distance between the free water surface in the dam and the turbine, thereby
reducing the water-hammer effect on penstock and also protect the upstream tunnel from high
pressure rise.
[Water-hammer effect: The water hammer is defined as the change in pressure rapidly above or below
normal pressure caused by sudden change in the rate of water flow through the pipe, according to the
demand of turbine. When load on power plant or alternator decreases then Governor (valve) reduces
discharge of water. Due to sudden reduction in water discharge causes increase in pressure of the
water in the penstock. Due to high pressure penstock may damage. This effect is known as ‘Water
hammer effect’ With the help of surge tank water hammer effect is eliminated OR at that time
surge tank helps by storing this rejected water immediately. In this way it avoids Water hammer
effect.]

9) Tailrace
The water left at the hydroelectric plant after being generated electricity by the hydro turbine is
carried away from that area through a channel called tailrace. The tailrace is present behind the
dams at a lower level than that of the reservoir. As the potential energy of the water due to the
elevated reservoir is being used up by the hydro turbine, the water through the tailrace flows at
the natural speed of the water and joins the same or another water stream.
10) Powerhouse
A powerhouse is a separate room or building at the hydroelectric power stations, which consist
of various electrical and hydraulic components. The powerhouse is responsible for controlling
the various inlet and outlet gates and stopping the flow of water in the equipment areas in case of
repairing or changing various pieces of equipment. Like other power plants, hydroelectric power
plants also consist of general auxiliaries like control panels, service area, testing rooms,
generators, and transformers.
In Power house main function is to produce electrical power. For that purpose, the turbine or
prime mover is mechanically coupled with generator. The mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy through generator or whenever turbine starts to rotate at higher speed the
generator produces electrical power output.
11) Turbines
Water Turbines: Those devices which convert water’s potential and kinetic energy into
mechanical energy are called water turbines.
The fast-flowing water running down from the elevated surface is directed towards the blades of
the turbine, and the turbine blades start spinning due to the force on the blades by the water. As
the blades are spinning, and the force is acting through a distance hence, the work is said to be
done (W=Fs, where W=work done, F=force applied, s=distance covered), i.e., the water-energy
is transferred to the mechanical energy of the turbine shaft.
Types of water turbines:
The type of turbine to be used in the hydroelectric power plant depends upon the water-head, the
volume of the water, and the depth at which the turbine is to be placed. For e.g.
i) Impulse Turbine: Such types of turbines are used at high heads. In an impulse turbine the
entire pressure of water is converted into kinetic energy in a nozzle & the velocity of the jet
drives the wheel. The example of this type of turbine is Pelton Wheel.
ii) Reaction Turbine: Reaction turbines are used for low & medium heads. In a reaction turbine
water enters the runner partly with pressure energy & partly with velocity head. The reaction
turbines are classified into two types: Francis & Kaplan turbines.
12) Draft Tube
The draft tube is a conduit or the pipes of appropriate diameter that are connected from the
turbine runner to the trail race. These tubes discharge the left water (after rotating through the
turbine) from the turbine to the trail race by maintaining the atmospheric pressure of the
discharged water. As we know that most of the water pressure (potential and kinetic energy) is
converted into mechanical energy by the hydraulic turbine, the discharged water at the end is left
with the pressure less than the atmospheric pressure at the exit of the turbine. This may result in
the backflow of water from the tailrace to the turbine. To prevent this situation of backflow of
water, draft tubes are used as they increase the water pressure above the atmospheric pressure
that eventually prevents the water from backflowing.
13) Generator
The electric generator used at the hydroelectric power plant converts the mechanical energy of
the water turbine into electrical energy. The working of the generator is based on the principle of
Faraday’s law; it states that the voltage induced in the electric circuit is directly proportional to
the rate of change of the magnetic flux in the circuit. The generator consists of two main
components, i.e., the stator and the rotor. The mechanical force of the turbine shaft is applied at
the rotating structure of the generator, i.e., the rotor, while the stator is the stationary part of the
generator at which the voltage is induced upon exciting or magnetizing the rotor. The rotor is
fixed with the field poles (electromagnets) at the inside of its edges, and when the rotor rotates,
the field poles rotate around the conductors of the stator. This results in the induced voltage and
the flow of electricity at the output terminal.
14) Transformer
The electricity generated by the hydroelectric power plant is not of the appropriate voltage that
can be used at the homes or the other general purposes, which is why transformers are used at the
hydroelectric power stations. The transformers convert the alternating current (A.C) produced at
the plant into the required voltage while maintaining the constant electric power. This power
supply is connected to the national grid, which is further distributed for industrial or domestic
use.
Working of hydroelectric plant:
The dam is constructed across the river where the catchment area stores the water to provide a
sufficient water head. The penstock is connected to the dam for carrying the water. Turbine is
connected at the far end of the penstock. The turbine shaft is coupled with alternator shaft which
moves at synchronized speed after the water falls on the turbine. When a certain of water head is
available on the dam, water with some potential energy is carried through the penstock to the
blades of turbine where the kinetic energy of the water is utilized and converted into the
mechanical energy by the movement of the shaft. The turbine shaft is coupled with the alternator
shaft both moves at synchronized speed. The alternator shaft moves in the magnetic field where
 the magnetic flux is linked with the stationary coils and induced EMF is produced. Here the
mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.

Classification/Types of hydroelectric plants:

Hydropower plants are generally constructed in the hilly areas across the rivers, oceans, or other
water bodies, where the dams and large water reservoirs can be easily built. Different types of
hydroelectric power plants are constructed as per the requirements.
1) Classification According to Quantity of Water Available:
a. Run of River Plants Without Pondage
b. Run of River Plants with Pondage.
c. Reservoir Plants.
a. Run of River Plants Without Pondage:
In this type of hydro-electric power plant, the available water from river or lake is not stored in
pond. Whenever the water available from river or lake it is directly used to run water turbine. The
capacity of such plants depends upon the rate of flow of water. Such type of plant may run during
rainy season.

b. Run of River Plants with Pondage:

The above-mentioned runs of river plant without pondage have some limitations. To overcome
this drawback, in this type of hydro-electric plant the available water from river or lake is stored
in pond. Due to this storage water inpond, it is useful to run the plant during off-peak & peak
period. The capacity of such type of hydro-electric plant is depends upon the size of pond.
c. Reservoir Plants:
This type of hydro-electric plant is totally different form the above mentioned two plants. In this
type of hydro-electric power plant, reservoir is provided. This reservoir is useful to store an
ample quantity of water during rainy season, & this is useful throughout the year. Such type of
power plant hasbetter capacity. This type of hydro-electric power plant may be used as base load
plant. Majority of the hydro-electric power plants are of this type.
2) Classification According to Available Water Head:
a. Low Head Plants (Below 30m)
b. Medium Head Plants (30 to 300 m)
c. High Head Plants (above 300m)
a. Low Head Plants:

Low Head HPP

The low head plants have water head below 30m. A low head power plant store water by
construction of dam across river or lake. The power house is installed near the base of dam on the
downstream side. The barrages with regulating gates are provided to flow of excess water in river
or lake. In low head hydro-electric power plant Kaplan turbines can be used.

b. Medium Head Plants:

Medium Head HPP

If the available water head is between 30 and 300 m, the plant is called a medium-head plant.
Water is led to the turbines from the Forebay by the penstocks,which may be steel pipes. Forebay
also stores the rejected water as the load on the turbine decreases. Francis turbines are normally
used.
c. High Head Power Plant:

High Head HPP

If the available head is more than 300 m, the plant is called high-head plant. The civil works
include a surge tank, the function of which is to meet the sudden changes in the requirement of
water caused by the fluctuations in the system load.

3) Classification of plants According to Nature of Load:

a. Base-Load Plants
b. Peak-Load Plants
c. Pumped Storage Hydro-Electric Power Plant for Peak Load.

Base & Peak Load

a. Base Load Plant:

The unvarying load which occurs almost the whole day on the station is known as base
load. Refer the load curve as shown in figure. It is clear that 20 MW of load to be
supplied by the station at all times of day & night. i. e. throughout 24 hours. Therefore
20 MW is the base load of the station. The base load on the station is almost constant in
nature. The base load plants have largest capacity & load factor.

b. Peak-Load Plant:
The various peak demands of load over & above the base load on the station are
known as peak load. These peak demands of the station generally form a small
part of the total load & may occur through the day. Run-off River plants with
pondage can be used as peak load.
c. Pumped Storage Hydro-Electric Power Plant:

Pumped Storage Hydro-Electric Power Plant

The schematic arrangement of Pumped Storage Hydro-Electric Power Plant is

as shown in figure. This type of power plant is useful where availability of
water for power generation is insufficient. Generally, there are two ponds. One
is in head race level & other is in tail race level. The stored water from head
race pond is useful for electrical power generation. When the water flows

31
 towards turbine, it starts to rotate. The discharge water from turbine is stored in
tail race pond. During off peak period, the stored water from tail race pond is
pumped to head race pond again, with the help of motors. This cycle is
continuously repeated, that’s why it is known as Pumped storage hydro-electric
power plant.
Advantages of Hydroelectric Power Plant:
1) Water is a renewable energy source.
2) Maintenance and operation charges are very low.
3) The efficiency of the plant does not change with age.
4) Hydro-electric power plants are also useful for flood control, irrigation purposes,
fishery and recreation.
5) Plants have a longer life (100 to 125 years) as they operate at atmospheric
temperature.
6) Water stored in the hydro-electric power plants can also be used for domestic water
supply.
7) Since hydro-electric power plants run at low speeds (300 to 400 rpm) there is no
requirement of special alloy steel construction materials or specialised mechanical
maintenance
8) Hydropower stations are very agile, reliable, and adjustable. The production of
electricity can be easily maintained by controlling the flow of water through the
penstocks.
9)Hydroelectric power plants provide enormous energy as the water at the high
altitudes has a remarkable amount of potential energy, and even the smaller part of the
fast-flowing water is enough to provide abundant energy that can serve the need for
electricity for millions of people.
10) As the dams are often located in remote rural areas that are not much developed.
The construction of hydropower plants requires the transport of various equipment and
materials from the cities, and to improve the connectivity, proper highways, and roads
need to be built, which eventually results in the development of the rural towns. The
lakes (reservoirs) can also be used for recreational purposes, which may attract mass
tourism and eventually result in an economic boost for the nearby towns.

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Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Power Plant
1) The initial cost of the plant is very high.
2) Since they are located far away from the load centre, cost of transmission lines and
transmission losses will be more.
3) During drought season the power production may be reduced or even stopped due to
insufficient water in the reservoir.
4) Water in the reservoir is lost by evaporation.
5) The electricity generation process from the hydroelectric power plant may not
produce emissions, but the plants that are grown at the bottom of the reservoirs releases
harmful greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide upon decomposition that
can impact the environment.
6) The construction of dams restricts the natural flow of water that can cause a negative
impact on the breeding cycle of the fishes and other aquatic animals, which may result
in the extinction of some species.
7) Although flood control dams store the extra water and prevent floods; heavy rainfall
or any kind of malfunctioning in the dams may result in the collapse of the dams, which
can cause the lives of people residing in the nearby areas at risk.

1.4.3 Principal, Construction, Working of Solar Power Plant

Introduction:
Solar power plant uses solar radiations of sun and converts into electrical energy.
It is renewable form of energy as the Sun is natural and heat is free of cost
Solar energy is has been employed with 2 major technologies-
• Solar thermal power plant
• Solar photovoltaic power plant
1) Solar thermal Power plant:
Solar collector:
A solar collector is a device that collects and/or concentrates solar radiation from the Sun.
These devices are primarily used for active solar heating and allow for the heating of water for
personal use. These collectors are generally mounted on the roof and must be very sturdy as
they are exposed to a variety of different weather conditions.

33
The use of these solar collectors provides an alternative for traditional domestic water
heating using a water heater, potentially reducing energy costs over time. As well as in
domestic settings, a large number of these collectors can be combined in an array and used to
generate electricity in solar thermal power plants.

Types of Solar Collectors

There are many different types of solar collectors, but all of them are constructed with the same
basic premise in mind. In general, there is some material that is used to collect and focus energy
from the Sun and use it to heat water. The simplest of these devices uses a black material
surrounding pipes that water flows through. The black material absorbs the solar radiation very
well, and as the material heats up the water it surrounds. This is a very simple design, but
collectors can get very complex. Absorber plates can be used if a high temperature increase
isn't necessary, but generally devices that use reflective materials to focus sunlight result in a
greater temperature increase.
i) Flat Plate Collectors

A diagram of a flat plate solar collector.

These collectors are simply metal boxes that have some sort of transparent glazing as a cover
on top of a dark-coloured absorber plate. The sides and bottom of the collector are usually

34
covered with insulation to minimize heat losses to other parts of the collector. Solar radiation
passes through the transparent glazing material and hits the absorber plate. This plate heats up,
transferring the heat to either water or air that is held between the glazing and absorber plate.
Sometimes these absorber plates are painted with special coatings designed to absorb and retain
heat better than traditional black paint. These plates are usually made out of metal that is a
good conductor - usually copper or aluminum.
ii) Line Focus Collectors/Parabolic Trough Collector:

A diagram of a line focus solar collector.

These collectors, sometimes known as parabolic troughs, use highly reflective materials to
collect and concentrate the heat energy from solar radiation. These collectors are composed of
parabolically shaped reflective sections connected into a long trough. A pipe that carries water
is placed in the center of this trough so that sunlight collected by the reflective material is
focused onto the pipe, heating the contents. These are very high powered collectors and are
thus generally used to generate steam for Solar thermal power plants and are not used in
residential applications. These troughs can be extremely effective in generating heat from the
Sun, particularly those that can pivot, tracking the Sun in the sky to ensure maximum sunlight
collection.

35
iii) Point Focus Collectors/ Parabolic Dish Collector:

A point focus solar collector.

These collectors are large parabolic dishes composed of some reflective material that focus the
Sun's energy onto a single point. The heat from these collectors is generally used for
driving Stirling engines. Although very effective at collecting sunlight, they must actively track
the Sun across the sky to be of any value. These dishes can work alone or be combined into an
array to gather even more energy from the Sun.
Point focus collectors and similar apparatuses can also be utilized to concentrate solar energy
for use with Concentrated photovoltaics. In this case, instead of producing heat, the Sun's
energy is converted directly into electricity with high efficiency photovoltaic cells designed
specifically to harness concentrated solar energy.

Solar Pond
A solar pond is simply a pool of saltwater which collects and stores solar thermal energy. The
saltwater naturally forms a vertical salinity gradient also known as a "halocline", in which low-
salinity water floats on top of high-salinity water. The layers of salt solutions increase in
concentration (and therefore density) with depth.
A solar pond is a solar energy collector, generally fairly large in size, that looks like a pond.
This type of solar energy collector uses a large, salty lake as a kind of a flat plate collector that
absorbs and stores energy from the Sun in the warm, lower layers of the pond. These ponds
can be natural or man-made, but the solar ponds that are in operation today are artificial.

36
How do they Work
The key characteristic of solar ponds that allow them to function effectively as a solar energy
collector is a salt-concentration gradient of the water. This gradient results in water that is
heavily salinated collecting at the bottom of the pond, with concentration decreasing towards
the surface resulting in cool, fresh water on top of the pond. This collection of salty water at
the bottom of the lake is known as the "storage zone", while the freshwater top layer is known
as the "surface zone". The overall pond is several meters deep, with the "storage zone" being
one or two meters thick.
These ponds must be clear for them to operate properly, as sunlight cannot penetrate to the
bottom of the pond if the water is murky. When sunlight is incident on these ponds, most of
the incoming sunlight reaches the bottom and thus the "storage zone" heats up. However, this
newly heated water cannot rise and thus heat loss upwards is prevented. The salty water cannot
rise because it is heavier than the fresh water that is on top of the pond, and thus the upper layer
prevents convection currents from forming. Because of this, the top layer of the pond acts as a
type of insulating blanket, and the main heat loss process from the storage zone is stopped.
Without a loss of heat, the bottom of the pond is warmed to extremely high temperatures - it
can reach about 90°C. If the pond is being used to generate electricity this temperature is high
enough to initiate and run an organic Rankine cycle engine.

Diagram of a solar pond showing the temperature and saline gradient.

It is vital that the salt concentrations and cool temperature of the top layer are maintained for
these ponds to work. The surface zone is mixed and kept cool by winds and heat loss
by evaporation. This top zone must also be flushed continuously with fresh water to ensure
that there is no accumulation of salt in the top layer, since the salt from the bottom layer
diffuses through the saline gradient over time. Additionally, a solid salt or brine mixture must
be added to the pond frequently to make up for any upwards salt loses.
37
Applications:
The heat from solar ponds can be used in a variety of different ways. First, since the heat
storing abilities of solar ponds are so great they are ideal for use in heating and cooling
buildings as they can maintain a fairly stable temperature. These ponds can also be used
to generate electricity either by driving a thermo-electric device or some organic Rankine
engine cycle - simply a turbine powered by evaporating a fluid (in this case a fluid with a
lower boiling point). Finally, solar ponds can be used for desalination purposes as the low
cost of this thermal energy can be used to remove the salt from water for drinking or
irrigation purposes.
Benefits and Drawbacks:
One benefit of using these ponds is that they have an extremely large thermal mass. Since
these ponds can store heat energy very well, they can generate electricity during the day when
the Sun is shining as well as at night.
Despite being a source of energy, there are numerous thermodynamic limitations as a result of
the relatively low temperatures achieved in these ponds. Because of this, the solar-to-electricity
conversion is fairly inefficient - generally less than 2%. As well, large amounts of fresh water
are necessary to maintain the right salt concentrations all through the pond. This is an issue in
places where fresh water is hard to come by, especially in desert environments. These ponds
also do not work well at high latitudes as the collection surface is horizontal and cannot be
tilted to collect more sunlight.
A natural example of these effects in a saline water body is Solar Lake in the Sinai Peninsula
of Egypt.
The heat trapped in the salty bottom layer can be used for many different purposes, such as
the heating of buildings or industrial hot water or to drive an organic Rankine cycle turbine or
Stirling engine for generating electricity.
Types of Solar Thermal Power Plants:
To utilise solar energy for power generation, various systems are being tried.
These are:
• Low temperature solar power plant using flat plate collector.
• Medium temperature solar power plant using concentrated solar collectors.
• High temperature solar power plant using tower system.

38
(I) Low Temperature Solar Power System :
1. The low temperature solar power plants use the working fluid temperatures in the range
of 60°C to 100°C which can be obtained using flat plate type collectors or by solar
ponds.
2. The efficiency of such plants is only 2% to 3%.
3. The working fluids used in such plants are the fluids having low boiling temperatures
at atmospheric pressure.
4. The fluids used are refrigerant R-11, butane gas etc.
5. These systems require storage system.

(II) Medium Temperature Solar Power Plant :

1. These systems employ an array of parabolic trough concentrating collectors spread over
a large area. The general range of working temperatures are between 100°C to 400°C.
2. Parabolic in line focusing type collectors are used and generally preferred because of
low cost and require sun tracking in one plane
3. The system works on Rankine cycle.
4. The system consists of an array of large parabolic trough to collect the solar radiations
which is used to heat a fluid (water).
5. This heat is transferred to storage tank and finally to feed water where the steam is
generated in the steam generator.
6. This steam is utilised to run a turbine coupled to a electric generator. The mechanical
energy developed by the turbine is converted into electric power by the generator.
7. A 30 MW plant have been installed in Rajasthan under the department of non
conventional energy sources.
(III) High Temperature Solar Thermal Power Plants :
1. For efficient utilization of solar heat energy into electrical energy, the working fluid has
to be supplied at high temperatures. Large solar thermal plants can be built in the
capacity of 5O MW to 200 MW.
2. Such plants use paraboloidal dish collectors or heliostats. These systems have high
thermal efficiency.

39
2) Solar photovoltaic power plant
Solar Cell: Working Principle & Construction:
What is a Solar Cell?
A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined as an electrical device
that converts light energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell is
basically a p-n junction diode. Solar cells are a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device
whose electrical characteristics – such as current, voltage, or resistance – vary when exposed
to light.
Individual solar cells can be combined to form modules commonly known as solar panels. The
common single junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage of
approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts. By itself this is not much – as these solar cells are tiny. When
combined into a large solar panel, considerable amounts of renewable energy can be generated.
Construction of Solar Cell:
A solar cell is basically a junction diode, although its construction it is little bit different from
conventional p-n junction diodes. A very thin layer of n-type semiconductor is grown on a
relatively thicker p-type semiconductor. A few finer electrodes are applied on the top of the n-
type semiconductor layer.
These electrodes do not obstruct light to reach the thin n-type layer. Just below the n-type layer
there is a p-n junction. A current collecting electrode are provided at the bottom of the p-type
layer. The entire assembly is encapsulated by thin glass to protect the solar cell from any
mechanical shock.

40
Working Principle of Solar Cell:
When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in the junction, through
very thin n-type layer. The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient energy to
the junction to create several electron-hole pairs. The incident light breaks the thermal
equilibrium condition of the junction. The free electrons in the depletion region can quickly
come to the n-type side of the junction.
Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of the junction. Once,
the newly created free electrons come to the n-type side, cannot further cross the junction
because of barrier potential of the junction.
Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot further cross the junction
became of same barrier potential of the junction. As the concentration of electrons becomes
higher in one side, i.e. n-type side of the junction and concentration of holes becomes more in
another side, i.e. the p-type side of the junction, the p-n junction will behave like a small battery
cell. A voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage. If we connect a small load across the
junction, there will be a tiny current flowing through it.
V-I Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Cell

41
Materials Used in Solar Cell
The materials which are used for this purpose must have band gap close to 1.5ev. Commonly
used materials are-
1. Silicon.
2. GaAs.
3. CdTe.
4. CuInSe2
Criteria for Materials to be Used in Solar Cell
1. Must have band gap from 1ev to 1.8ev.
2. It must have high optical absorption.
3. It must have high electrical conductivity.
4. The raw material must be available in abundance and the cost of the material
must be low.
Advantages of Solar Cell
1. No pollution associated with it.
2. It must last for a long time.
3. No maintenance cost.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar Energy:
Advantages:
1. Sun is essentially an infinite source of energy. Therefore solar energy is a very large
inexhaustible and renewable source of energy and is freely available all over the world.
2. It is environmentally very clean and is hence pollution-free.
3. It is a dependable energy source without new requirements of a highly technical and
specialized nature for its wide spread utilization.
4. It is the best alternative for the rapid depletion of fossil fuels.
Disadvantages:
1. It is available in a dilute and is at low potential. The intensity of solar energy on a sunny
day in India is about 1.1 kW/square meter area. Hence very large collecting areas are required.
2. Also the dilute and diffused nature of the solar energy needs large land area for the power
plant for instance, about 30 square kilometers area is required for a solar power station to
replace a nuclear plant on a 1 square kilometer site. Hence capital cost is more for the solar
plant.
3. Solar energy is not available at night or during cloudy or rainy days.
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1.4.4 Principal, Construction, Working of Wind Power Plant

Wind Power Plant:

Wind energy is actually a byproduct of the sun. The sun's uneven heating of the atmosphere,
the earth's irregular surfaces (mountains and valleys), and the planet's revolution around the
sun all combine to create wind. Wind is a stream of air flowing relative to the Earth's surface,
usually more or less parallel to the ground. It is caused by a pressure gradient, i.e., a
difference in atmospheric pressure between two points, lines, or surfaces. The main objective
of wind farms in the short term is to produce renewable energy power that homes and
businesses can utilize. Wind farms can also help offset the use of fossil fuels, such as coal
and natural gas, used to generate electricity.
The main components of wind power plant are the foundation, the tower, the rotor and hub
(including three blades), the nacelle, and the generator. The installation of all these elements
requires specific wind turbine equipment to fulfill the needs of each one.
Principle:
Energy in the wind turns two or three propeller-like blades around a rotor. The rotor is
connected to the main shaft, which spins a generator to create electricity. Wind turbines are
mounted on a tower to capture the most energy. At 100 feet (30 meters) or more above
ground, they can take advantage of faster and less turbulent wind. Wind turbines can be used
to produce electricity for a single home or building, or they can be connected to an electricity
grid for more widespread electricity distribution. Wind turbines work on a simple principle:
instead of using electricity to make wind—like a fan—wind turbines use wind to make
electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. This
mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water),
or can be converted into electricity by a generator.
Classification of Wind Turbines:

A. According to Design:
There are two kinds of wind turbines,

i) The Horizontal axis design:

The horizontal wind turbine has two to three blades. This type functions best when it
is directly facing the wind.
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ii) The Vertical axis design:

The vertical axis type is designed like an egg-beater. Darrieus, a French man, invented
it.

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B. According to Size:
Wind turbines vary not only with their designs but also with their sizes.
i) Smaller turbines:
They are usually lower than 100 kilowatts and they are most often found in homes. They are
associated with simple diesel generators and water pumping needs.
ii) Utility-scale turbines:
They start at 100 kilowatts and reach up to even a few megawatts. There are also the really
large turbines seen in wind farms. These turbines serve as the primary source of electricity in
the electrical grid.
Wind Turbine Basic Parts & Functions:

• Anemometer – is a tool that measures wind speed.

• Blades – are the main electricity-generating parts of the turbine. Once wind passes
through it, they will rotate thereby causing a series of reaction which will eventually
lead to electricity production.
• Brake – as with any other break, this is used to stop the turbines in emergency cases.
This could be a mechanical, electrical, or hydraulic break.
• Controller – this dictates the wind speed at which turbines start and stop. It usually
starts the machine when the wind hits 8 mph and stops it upon reaching 55 mph. It is
an important part of the machine since it automatically stops any machine activity when
wind speed is more than 55 mph because blades may easily be damaged.
• Rotor - The rotor connects to the generator, either directly (if it's a direct drive turbine)
or through a shaft and a series of gears (a gearbox) that speed up the rotation and allow
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 for a physically smaller generator. This translation of aerodynamic force to the rotation
of a generator creates electricity.
• Gear box- Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the
rotational speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1000 to 1800
rpm,
• Generator – produces electricity usually at 60 cycles.
• High-speed shaft- Drives the generator.
• Low-speed shaft- The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 rotations per
minute (rpm).
• Yaw Drive- The yaw control mechanism comprises a motor and drive. The main
purpose of this arrangement is to move the nacelle and blades according to the wind
direction. It enables the wind turbine to capture the maximum available wind. During
the nacelle movement, a fair chance of cable twisting occurs inside the tower.
• Nacelle- The nacelle sits atop the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed
shafts, generator, controller, and brakes
• Tower – is a place where turbines may be placed to get more wind.

Power Calculation:
The power in the wind is proportional to,

• the area of windmill being swept by the wind

• the cube of the wind speed

• the air density – which varies with altitude

The formula used for calculating the power in the wind is shown below:

P = ½.ρ.A.V3

Where, P is generated power in watts (W)

ρ is the air density in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3)

A is the swept rotor area in square meters (m2)

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V is the wind speed in meters per second (m/s)

The fact that the power is proportional to the cube of the wind speed is very significant. This
can be demonstrated by pointing out that if the wind speed doubles then the power in the
wind increases by a factor of eight. It is therefore worthwhile finding a site which has a
relatively high mean wind speed.
Wind into Watts:
Although the power equation above gives us the power in the wind, the actual power that we
can extract from the wind is significantly less than this figure suggests. The actual power will
depend on several factors, such as the type of machine and rotor used the sophistication of
blade design, friction losses, and the losses in the pump or other equipment connected to the
wind machine. There are also physical limits to the amount of power that can be extracted
realistically from the wind. It can be shown theoretically that any windmill can only possibly
extract a maximum of 59.3% of the power from the wind (this is known as the Betz limit). In
reality, this figure is usually around 45% (maximum) for a large electricity producing turbine
and around 30% to 40% for a wind pump, (see the section on coefficient of performance
below). So, modifying the formula for ‘Power in the wind’ we can say that the power which
is produced by the wind machine can be given by:
PM = ½.Cp.ρ.A.V3 Where,
PM is power (in watts) available from the machine.
Cp is the coefficient of performance of the wind machine
It is also worth bearing in mind that a wind machine will only operate at its maximum efficiency
for a fraction of the time it is running, due to variations in wind speed. A rough estimate of the
output from a wind machine can be obtained using the following equation;
PA = 0.2 A V3 Where,
PA is the average power output in watts over the year
V is the mean annual wind speed in m/s
Advantages of Wind Energy:
1. Wind energy is a renewable energy source.
2. It does not require any fuel and avoids transportation.
3. Being free from pollution helps in maintaining ecological balance.
4. It is very economical and competitive. Wind power is cost-effective

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 5. High-altitude areas which are isolated from public use can be utilized for setting the
windmill.
6. A small plot of land is required.
7. It does not require water.
8. Free from risks associated with volatile fossil fuel.
9. Wind power creates good-paying jobs.
10. Wind power benefits local communities.
11. Wind turbines work in different settings.
Disadvantages of Wind Energy:
1. Noisy is in operation during the conversion of energy
2. It needs high storage capacity due to its irregularity.
3. Wind energy systems have a high overall weight
4. Continuous power generation is not possible due to fluctuation
5. These systems require proper maintenance.
6. Some of the main disadvantages of wind energy include unpredictability,
7. it is a threat to wildlife,
8. they aren't aesthetically pleasing
9. there are limited locations suitable for wind turbines.

1.4.5 Principal, Construction, Working of Tidal Power Plant

Tidal Power Plant:

Tide or wave is periodic rise and fall of water level of the sea. Tidal energy is a form of
power produced by the natural rise and fall of tides caused by the gravitational interaction
between Earth, the sun, and the moon. Tides contain large amount of potential energy which
is used for power generation. When the water is above the mean sea level, it is called flood
tide. When the water level is below the mean level it is called ebb tide.
Working:
A dam is constructed separating the tidal basin from the sea and a difference in water level is
obtained between the basin and sea. The arrangement of this system is shown in figure. The
ocean tides rise and fall and water can be stored during the rise period and it can be
discharged during fall.

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During high tide period, water flows from the sea into the tidal basin through the water
turbine. The height of tide is above that of tidal basin. Hence the turbine unit operates and
generates power, as it is directly coupled to a generator.

During low tide period, water flows from tidal basin to sea, as the water level in the basin is
more than that of the tide in the sea. During this period also, the flowing water rotates the
turbine and generator power.

The generation of power stops only when the sea level and the tidal basin level are equal. For
the generation of power economically using this source of energy requires some minimum
tide height and suitable site.
Kislaya power plant of 250 MW capacity in Russia and Rance power plant in France are the
only examples of this type of power plant.
Tidal Power Plant Components:
The three main components of a tidal power plant are,

1) Dam or barrage: The most efficient way to capture tidal energy is with a tidal
barrage, a common type of hydropower energy system. This is a dam-like structure

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 across an ocean inlet or tidal river that creates an artificial tidal basin. Sluice gates
control the flow of water through turbines built into the barrage. A coastal barrage for
tidal energy might upset an entire estuarial ecosystem. Mechanical devices also can
leak lubricants and emit noises that make trouble for fish and aquatic mammals.
2) Sluice ways: Sluices are channels for conducting water through regulating valves or
gates. They may be self-contained or part of larger dams or weirs where the aim is to
regulate as well as impound water.
3) Power house: The powerhouse of a tidal power plant consists of several important
components, including turbines, electric generators, and auxiliary components. The
design of the power plant may also include provisions for pumping water between the
basin and the sea in either direction.
Tidal generators (or turbines) work like wind turbines, except it is ocean currents, not
wind, that turns them. The spinning turbine is connected to another device that
produces electricity. The electricity then travels through wires to a city where people
need it. A reversible type turbine is used in a Tidal Power Plant. Kaplan turbine with
variable pitch blades is normally used in tidal range plants. Tidal turbines must be
more durable than wind turbines in order to withstand ocean currents. A tidal turbine
utilizes the tides under water to push against a generator, forcing it to move. This
turbine is connected to an electrical generator, allowing for electricity to be stored.
Moreover, tidal energy systems are inherently age resistant and have long lifespans.
The average estimate for most tidal systems is 75–100 years of working use. Spinning
blades may injure or kill aquatic species. The turbine blades are 18 meters (59 feet)
across. It weighs 143 tons (286,600 pounds) and stands 22.5 meters (almost 74 feet)
high. It is capable of generating enough electricity to power more than 1,000 homes.
The most common type of tidal energy technology is the horizontal-axis turbine.

Power Calculation:
𝜌
P= x 2 𝐴𝑉 3 watts

Where

P = Power generated in watts

x = The turbine efficiency

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𝜌 = The density of water (sea water is @1025 kg/m3)

A = Sweep area of turbine in m2

V = Velocity of the flow

Advantages of Tidal Power Plant:

• It is pollution-free.
• Energy is freely available.
• Power is available around the year.
• It is unaffected by the unpredictability of monsoon.

Disadvantages of Tidal Power Plant:

• The capital cost of the plant is high and needs a long construction time.
• The interest and depreciation component of the generation cost is very high.
• The construction of tidal barrage calls for advanced technology due to very complex
problems associated with it. The regions which are most suitable for tidal energy
generation tend to be the ones which are difficult for barrage construction. So every
location is not ideal for installing such a system.
• Tidal power output is not constant throughout the day (unless pumping is used). The
production is the form of pulses (2 pulses every day and each pulse lasting about 4 to
6 hours). The extent to which the power system can absorb the tidal pulses depends on
the static and dynamic characteristics of the system.
• Sedimentation of basins is a problem. Seawater is very corrosive in nature.
• Marine life is affected.

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