Journal of Cleaner Production 434 (2024) 140266

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Multicriteria analysis for quantifying sustainability of developed load

bearing lightweight geopolymer
Yi Wang a, Idrees Zafar b, *, Khuram Rashid a, c, **, Mounir Ltifi b, d, Minkwan Ju e, ***
a
School of Civil Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410075, China
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
c
Department of Architectural Engineering and Design, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
d
Department of Civil Engineering, National Engineering School of Gabes, University of Gabes, Tunisia
e
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Cecilia Maria Villas Bôas de In geopolymers, several factors such as the limited availability of amorphous aluminosilicate material, the need
Almeida for a high dosage of activator, the requirement for hot curing conditions, and the activation by pressure pose
challenges in considering geopolymer as a sustainable load-bearing material. Therefore, this experimental and
Keywords: analytical work aimed to address the aforementioned issues. The experimental work was carried out in four
FA-based geopolymer
distinct series, where fly ash (FA) was combined with sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA), slag (GGBS), and lime. The
Coupling minerals
alkaline to precursor (A/P) ratio and curing conditions were varied. Initially, the compression casting approach
Dune sand
Performance index was employed to reduce the dosage of activator. But later on, lime was added to prevent such a technique, and
Multicriteria decision-making the alkaline dosage was reduced due to occupying effect. Thereafter, three key performance indices of sus­
Sustainable selection tainability were quantified: load-bearing lightweight (Dp), environment (Ep), and economic (Cp). These indices
were determined by normalizing density, CO2 emissions, and cost by compressive strength, respectively. It was
observed that FA-lime-based mortar is a sustainable geopolymer. It is ambiently cured and has the least alkaline
activator, high strength, minimal CO2 emissions, and low cost. It was also compared to conventional construction
materials such as fired clay brick and concrete, and promising results were obtained. Sustainable quantification
was conducted analytically by extracting seven alternatives from four series and analyzing a 7 × 7 decision
matrix using the multicriteria decision-making technique. The FA-lime-based specimen was selected experi­
mentally and verified analytically, along with a prioritized list of all specimens.

1. Introduction 2023, 2022), increases the strength of recycled concrete and geopolymer
using lower amounts of expensive components, such as cement and al­
Fly ash (FA) has been extensively used and investigated for devel­ kali activators, respectively. However, energy is required to implement
oping geopolymer-based construction materials (Amran et al., 2021; Li this approach, which may hinder the industrialization of
et al., 2019; Ng et al., 2018). Several minerals, such as slag, clay, rice geopolymer-based construction materials. However, efforts are needed
husk ash, and sugarcane bagasse ash, have been combined with FA to to make the geopolymer more sustainable by efficiently using less
improve the performance of the resulting geopolymer (Jindal, 2019). amorphous FA that is available, utilizing abundantly available materials
Researchers are working to reduce the energy-intensive methods used to such as lime, reducing the dosage of activator, using ambient curing
develop geopolymers. This includes using low calcium and high calcium conditions, and avoiding the compressing casting approach for
precursors in combination to achieve strength under ambient conditions manufacturing loading bearing materials.
(Fang et al., 2018; Singh and Middendorf, 2020). Moreover, the recently The FA has primarily been used as a precursor for synthesizing
developed compression casting approach, or pressing (Ahmad et al., geopolymer. To activate it, a combination of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author. Department of Architectural Engineering and Design, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore,
Pakistan.
*** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (I. Zafar), [email protected] (K. Rashid), [email protected] (M. Ju).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.140266
Received 15 October 2023; Received in revised form 13 December 2023; Accepted 15 December 2023
Available online 20 December 2023
0959-6526/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Wang et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 434 (2024) 140266

and sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) is used as an alkaline activator. The condition. However, no literature was available for making products
strength of the resulting geopolymer highly depends on several factors, with the minor A/P ratio and applying the molding pressure to make the
including the reactivity of the FA (Zafar et al., 2022b), the A/P ratio product more sustainable.
(alkaline activator to precursor ratio), the Na2SiO3 to NaOH ratio Moreover, lime is a widely available material in the world (Scrivener
(Na2SiO3/NaOH) (Ahmad et al., 2021), the molarity of NaOH, and the et al., 2018) and is used as a raw ingredient in the production of ordinary
curing conditions (Zafar et al., 2022d). Several studies have investigated Portland cement. A significant amount of CO2 is emitted during the
the behavior of geopolymers, and a comprehensive summary of their calcination process (at approximately 1400 ◦ C) in cement
work has also been reported (Fahim Huseien et al., 2017; Li et al., 2019; manufacturing. The CO2 emissions from raw materials account for
Ng et al., 2018; Singh et al., 2015; Singh and Middendorf, 2020; Zhang 53.8% (Shen et al., 2015). Lime has also been used as a filler material in
et al., 2018). It is commonly concluded that a high curing temperature the development of bricks through cementing (Çiçek and Çinçin, 2015;
(70 − 110 ◦ C) is required to achieve strength in FA-based geopolymer. Gupta et al., 2020; Sahu et al., 2019). This reduces the amount of cement
The A/P ratio is also directly proportional to the strength, and a higher and makes it more economical, but cement is still used and remains
dosage of alkaline activator increases the strength. A database has been environmentally unsustainable. Lime was used along with FA and silica
established for FA-based geopolymers (Ahmad et al., 2021), where the fume in the polymerization process to cure at ambient temperature (Das
A/P ratio varies from 0.27 to 0.92, which renders the product unsus­ et al., 2020). However, the A/P ratio was not mentioned. Scarce data is
tainable. A higher amount of alkaline activator also increases the cost available on the addition of lime in the formulation of geopolymer-based
(Ma et al., 2018), and it is also considered an environmental burden due construction bricks with a low A/P ratio and curing at ambient tem­
to the significant amount of CO2 emissions during the manufacturing of perature. Adding lime to the geopolymer is beneficial because it is
activators (Turner and Collins, 2013). Therefore, the A/P ratio should be abundantly available in its raw form without the need for calcination.
minimized, which can be achieved by applying molding pressure, either Fired clay brick has been extensively investigated, and a review
through cold bonding (Ahmad et al., 2022; Ahmad and Rashid, 2022; report has been prepared by the author’s research group (Rehman et al.,
Shee-Ween et al., 2021), or hot pressing (Ranjbar et al., 2018, 2017; 2020). The database of 66 experimental observations was prepared, and
Takeda et al., 2014). The FA-based geopolymer blocks were recently it was observed that the bricks were made using pressing, molding, and
reported, and their A/P ratio was 0.25 under molding pressures of 20 extrusion techniques. Similarly, the manufacturing of bricks through
and 40 MPa (Ahmad et al., 2022). But the corresponding costs and CO2 geopolymerization has been reported by numerous researchers and is
emissions are not being investigated and may be higher than those of summarized in Table 1. The table only includes FA-based geopolymer
conventional fired clay bricks or concrete. and its composites. The A/P ratio is observed to vary between 0.25 and
Other mineral admixtures have been incorporated into the geo­ 0.70, and there is no available data for a lower A/P ratio. An alkaline
polymers to reduce costs and environmental burden (Ng et al., 2018). activator is corrosive and hazardous, and it is preferable to have lower
The FA is incorporated with sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA), an agricul­ utilization. It can also be observed from Table 1 that the specimen size
tural waste generated abundantly on an annual basis (Kolawole et al., during laboratory investigation is either a cube or a cylinder. However,
2021). Calcination and mechanical grinding are required to utilize it as a at the industrial scale, a prism measuring 225 × 112 × 75 mm has been
supplementary cementitious material (SCM) (Yadav et al., 2020). Both prepared. The curing temperature also varies from ambient to 200 ◦ C,
methods are energy-intensive, and because of the high concentration of and a high calcium precursor (such as slag or lime) may be used to
amorphous silica, using it as a precursor in geopolymer may be a viable achieve sufficient strength under ambient curing conditions. The
option. Recently, it has been used to develop geopolymer-based bricks, physico-mechanical performance of all bricks has been investigated and
and the A/P ratio was 0.55 (Yaseen et al., 2022). Clay was also used, but is therefore technically acceptable. As a result, they are marked with an
there was a higher demand for alkaline activators, which made it more “O" under the sustainability column in Table 1. However, the other
expensive. In another study, metakaolin was combined with SCBA, and pillars of sustainability, namely economic and environmental, are not
the A/P ratio was adjusted from 0.45 to 0.60 in order to create thoroughly investigated. However, several authors have used the term
geopolymer-based construction bricks using molding pressure (Meh­ “sustainability” in the titles of their investigations. It has also been
mood et al., 2022). However, exploring the use of sand instead of clay mentioned in Table 1 that the performance indicators of sustainability
and increasing the molding pressure may reduce the A/P ratio and have not been reported, even by a single study, for making the brick.
should be thoroughly investigated. Also, SCBA is rich in silica, so a high Based on recent literature on geopolymer synthesis, the FA has been
curing temperature is required. It may be incorporated with a extensively used, and hot curing conditions are recommended. Still, the
high-calcium-based precursor to cure at ambient temperature and pro­ availability of its reactive precursor is limited, and hot curing is also not
duce a sustainable product (Sandanayake et al., 2020; Zannerni et al., feasible. Furthermore, the A/P ratio has typically been set at a moderate
2020). to high level, leading to significant cost increases and posing an envi­
Another well-known precursor for geopolymerization is slag, which ronmental burden. Therefore, this study was designed to cure FA-based
is considered a high calcium precursor, along with sodium-alumina- geopolymers using the minimum amount of activator at ambient tem­
silicate-hydrate (N-A-S-H) gel, calcium-alumina-silicate-hydrate (C-A- perature. The FA was coupled with alternative precursors such as SCBA,
S-H) gel also developed during geopolymerization reaction and con­ slag, and lime. Manufacturing variables include the A/P ratio, curing
tributes toward the strength of the product. Calcium leaches out and temperatures, and molding pressure. The performance indices, such as
reacts with the alkaline activator at ambient temperature (Zafar et al., compressive strength for load bearing, density, environmental impact,
2022d), therefore, C-A-S-H developed at ambient temperature (Nath and and economic factors, were quantified and compared with those of
Sarker, 2014). The motive of researchers for using slag in geopolymer is conventional concrete and fired clay brick. Consequently, a decision
to cure geopolymers at ambient conditions instead of applying hot matrix was constructed to select the geopolymer with the least energy
curing. Its fresh and hardened properties had been investigated by intensity. The experimental results were also verified analytically
varying the A/P ratio from 0.35 to 0.50 (Elyamany et al., 2018). In through multicriteria analysis.
another study, the intermolecular bonding of the geopolymer matrix
was studied by adding slag, but again, the A/P ratio was high, and its 1.1. Significance of research
value was 0.50 (Bouaissi et al., 2019). Similarly, geopolymer paste and
concrete was prepared by adding slag and cured at ambient tempera­ The selection criteria for developing geopolymer construction ma­
ture, but the A/P ratio was 0.50 (Hadi et al., 2019). Slag-based geo­ terials must include the availability of amorphous alumina-silicate ma­
polymer product was further extended by adding different types of sand terials, ambient curing conditions, avoidance of energy-intensive
(Gholampour et al., 2019), but the motive was the ambient curing compression casting approaches, minimal activator dosage, low CO2

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Y. Wang et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 434 (2024) 140266

Table 1
FA-based geopolymer brick and incorporation of performance keys of sustainability.
Material A/P Size (mm) Pressure (MPa) Curing (◦ C) Sustainability Reference

Tech. Eco. Env.

FA 0.40 Cube:50 – 70–110 O N/A N/A Iftikhar et al. (2020)

FA 0.25 Ø71 × 140 20–40 110 O N/A N/A Ahmad et al. (2022)
FA-clay 0.40 Cube:50 – 70–110 O N/A N/A Iftikhar et al. (2020)
FA-clay 0.25 Ø50 × 100 10–60 110–200 O N/A N/A Ahmad and Rashid (2022)
FA-clay 0.25 225 × 112 × 75 20–40 110–200 O N/A N/A Ahmad and Rashid (2022)
FA-SCBA-clay 0.55 Ø50 × 100 ~7 Ambient O N/A N/A Yaseen et al. (2022)
FA-SCBA-clay 0.55 225 × 112 × 75 ~7 Ambient O N/A O Yaseen et al. (2022)
FA-slag 0.50 Ø75 × 150 No Ambient O N/A N/A Bouaissi et al. (2019)
FA-slag 0.4–0.7 Ø50 × 00 No Ambient O N/A N/A Hadi et al. (2019)
FA-slag-silica fume 0.35–0.50 – No 30–90 O N/A N/A Elyamany et al. (2018)

emissions, affordability, and the ability to bear loads while being more Along with that, the amorphous and crystalline silica content was also
sustainable than commonly used construction materials such as fired visualized. The diffractograms are presented in Fig. 4. The peaks and
clay bricks and concrete blocks. Who has an annual production in tril­ humps (lifting of the baseline) that appeared between 15◦ and 30◦ at 2θ
lions. If all the mentioned criteria are fulfilled, that work holds a lot of in raw SCBA indicate the presence of amorphous or vitreous materials.
significance. Moreover, by utilizing other abundantly available raw Quartz is found to be the main crystalline compound, followed by iron
materials (Snellings, n.d.), such as lime, byproducts like slag, and oxides and calcite as minor minerals. The peak that appears at 31◦ is a
regeneratable agricultural waste like SCBA, there are additional ad­ clear indication of quartz. The other minerals are highlighted and
vantages in waste management, the circular economy, and the indus­ mentioned in Fig. 4.
trialization of new materials. Moreover, the proposed work is significant The TGA (thermogravimetric analysis) and differential scanning
in providing a sustainability framework for evaluating the technical, calorimetry (DSC) of SCBA are also conducted as it is obtained from the
environmental, and economic performance of any material. The primary sugar industry and burnt at lower temperature. The thermogram of
research elements, objectives, and significance have been illustrated in SCBA is presented in Fig. 5, Due to hygroscopic nature of SCBA particle,
Fig. 1. it retains moisture, and the minor weight loss was observed between 100
and 200 ◦ C. The weight loss up to 330 ◦ C indicates the evaporation of
2. Methodology physico-chemically bonded water molecules within the SCBA particles.
Above 330 ◦ C till 500 ◦ C the shape of the curve changes indicating
2.1. Materials weight loss that depicts the combustion of organic matter (unburned
carbon). On further increasing the temperature the slight change in the
Geopolymer-based construction materials were developed in this thermogram is due to the reorganization of structural molecules. This
study to reduce the use of energy-intensive methods and create sus­ minor loss shows that dehydroxylation is not completed yet, and a
tainable products such as masonry bricks or blocks. FA, SCBA, and GGBS higher temperature is needed for the SCBA so that bonded hydroxyl
(slag) were the precursors used to synthesize geopolymer-based bricks. group to silicon is released and Si − O − Si structure is formed.
The XRF analysis was conducted, and the chemical composition of all Lime was used as a source of calcium, and its XRF analysis is
precursors is described in Table 2. The oxides of all precursors are described in Table 2. The comparison of oxides in Fig. 2 confirms the
compared in the ternary plot (Fig. 2). Both FA and SCBA are very fine high calcium content in lime compared to other minerals. The river sand
materials, and their particle size distribution curves are shown in Fig. 3. (RS) and dune sand (DS) were used as filler materials. The physical
It is observed that Dv50 of FA and SCBA are 3.10 μm and 18.80 μm, properties of both types of sand are compared in Table 3. Their grada­
respectively. Whereas GGBS was ground into fine particle, and it is tion curves, along with ASTM limits, are shown in Fig. 6. To activate
capable to pass sieve No 100. The XRD analysis of FA, GGBs and SCBA precursors in an alkaline environment, a combination of sodium silicate
was also conducted to assess the minerals present in the precursors. (Na2SiO3) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was used. The Na2SiO3 was

Fig. 1. Research elements, objective, novelty, and significance of the proposed work.

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Y. Wang et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 434 (2024) 140266

Table 2
XRF analysis of precursors used in this work.
Precursor SiO₂ Al₂O₃ Fe₂O₃ CaO MgO K₂O Na₂O SO₃

FA 54.14 28.19 4.93 4.81 0.90 0.57 0.09 0.65

SCBA 75.68 1.71 2.51 2.90 2.05 4.50 0.64 0.04
GGBS 34.72 13.25 1.29 40.85 1.63 0.01 0.42 0.64
Lime 0.1 0.03 0.023 54.6 0.21 0.006 0.023 –

* Loss on Ignition of Lime is 43.91%.

Fig. 4. Diffractograms of FA, SCBA and GGBS used in this work.

Fig. 2. Ternary plot for comparing oxides in precursors/fillers (SiO₂ − Al₂O₃

− CaO).

Fig. 5. Thermogram of SCBA used in this work.

Table 3
Properties of river and dune sand used in this work.
Property River Sand Dune Sand

Specific Gravity 2.58 2.22

Density (g/cm3) 1.68 1.71
Fineness Modulus 2.12 1.79
Color Grey Yellowish brown

2.2. Specimen preparation and testing

Fig. 3. Particle size distribution of FA and SCBA used in this work.
The specimen was prepared in four series. In Series-I, FA was acti­
purchased in liquid form from the local market, and it contains vated by the combination of Na2SiO3 and NaOH. The ratio of Na2SiO3/
approximately 50% water content. In contrast, NaOH was purchased in NaOH was 2.5, which was optimized using artificial intelligence tech­
a white pellet form, and 12 M solutions were prepared in the laboratory niques in the author’s recent work (Ahmad et al., 2021). However, the
by adding distilled water 24 h before casting the specimens. ratio of alkaline to precursor (A/P) was varied and is described in
Table 4. In Series II, FA was coupled with a rich silica precursor, namely
SCBA (20% wt.). FA-SCBA-based paste and mortar were prepared, and
the curing condition for Series II was hot curing, as described in Table 4.

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Y. Wang et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 434 (2024) 140266

paste or mortar was placed in the cylinder (71 mm diameter), and then
pressure (20 MPa) was applied to it by a universal testing machine for
few seconds only (Fig. 7). However, in Series-IV, where lime and sand
were used, due to their filler effect, the slurry was formed at a lower A/P
ratio, and therefore cubes were cast instead of employing the
compression casting approach.
The summary of all specimens has been presented in Table 4. The
acronym defined in this work depends on the coupling mineral, A/P
ratio, curing conditions, and paste or mortar. Therefore, all acronyms
are defined and tabulated in Table 4. The specimen preparation and
curing conditions have been schematically presented in Fig. 4. The cy­
lindrical and cubical specimens were prepared and tested for compres­
sive strength after 7 d. The test was conducted following ASTM C 109.
The bulk density of each specimen was determined by calculating the
mass to volume ratio, as recommended by BS EN 12390–7:2009. Along
with that, the economic and environmental performance was also
evaluated and explained in Section 2.3.

Fig. 6. Gradation curves of both types of sand (RS and DS) used in this work 2.3. Performance indices
along with ASTM C 33 limits for fine aggregate.

2.3.1. Load bearing lightweight index (Dp)

The load-bearing lightweight performance index (Dp) was calculated
Table 4
Summary of constituent materials, curing condition and manufactuing condition by normalizing the bulk density with the compressive strength (Eq. (1)),
of all specimens prepared in this works. and its unit is kg/(m3.MPa). The Dp value of conventional concrete and
fired clay brick was also calculated, and the lower value of Dp is pref­
Series Precursor A/P Curing Fine Press Specimen
aggregate (MPa) ID
erable to obtain the lightweight construction, however, the minimum
strength criterion must be fulfilled for fired clay brick or concrete as
I FA 0.25 Ambienta 20d F-0.25A
defined by (ASTM C55, 2017, ASTM C67, 2013, ASTM C90, 2022).
–
0.25 Hotb – F-0.25H
0.10 Hot – F-0.10H Bulk Density
II FA-SCBA 0.17 Hot – F-SC-0.17H Dp = (1)
0.17 Hot RS F-SC-
fc′
0.17H-R
0.17 Hot DS F-SC- 2.3.2. Environmental index (Ep)
0.17H-D
The CO2 emissions were calculated to assess the environmental
III FA-GGBS 0.10 Ambient – F-G-0.10A
0.25 Ambient RS F-G-0.25A-
impact of the developed products. It was assumed that alkali-activated
R materials or geopolymers are eco-friendly, but the comparison of CO2
0.25 Hot RS F-G-0.25H- emissions by grade 40 concrete of both types showed comparable
R emissions (Turner and Collins, 2013). A lot of emissions were generated
IV FA-Lime 0.12 Ambient RS F-L-0.12A-
during the manufacturing of the alkaline activators, and therefore, CO2
R
0.12 Ambient DS 0e F-L-0.12A- emission by geopolymer-based construction bricks was quantified using
D their mix proportions (Table 4) and from their bulk densities. The CO2
0.18 Ambient RS F-L-0.18A- by each constituent is presented in Table 5. The value of FA, slag, coarse,
R
and fine aggregate is recommended by JSCE (Japan Society of Civil
0.18 Sun- RS F-L-0.18S-
driedc R
Engineering, 2007). The value of lime is taken as a sum of CO2 by coarse
0.18 Hot RS F-L-0.18H- and fine aggregates. The values of CO2 emission for concrete are quan­
R tified in various studies (Rashid et al., 2020a, 2020b; Zafar et al., 2022c)
a
25 ◦ C based on average annual temperature. by the author’s group, and in this work, CO2 emission was taken for
b
70 ◦ C. Grade 17 concrete (Rashid et al., 2020b). The value was in kg CO2
c
35 ◦ C. emission/m3 of concrete, but it was calculated for one brick, and its
d
Cylindrical. value is 0.450, and for fired clay brick, the value is 0.410.
e
Cubical. The environmental performance index (Ep) was also calculated by
normalizing CO2 emissions with the compressive strength, and mathe­
The mortar was prepared using both types of sand, and the sand to matically, it is expressed in Eq. (2). A similar expression has already
precursor ratio was 1:1. In Series III, FA was coupled with a high calcium been used (Ma et al., 2019, 2018).
precursor, namely GGBS (20% wt.). Again, paste and mortar were pre­ CO2 emissions
pared, and ambient conditions were also applied for Series-III due to the Ep = (2)
fc′
dissolution of the high calcium precursor under ambient conditions. In
Series-IV, FA was combined with lime, a readily available material with
2.3.3. Cost index (Cp)
a high calcium content. Lime-based mortar was prepared and cured
Similarly, the cost of each specimen was estimated using the market
under three conditions: ambient, sun-dried, and hot curing. The paste or
rate system of Pakistan. The rate of the constituent materials is presented
mortar was prepared in each series as described in Table 4.
in Table 5. The NaOH was used in liquid form with a 12 M concentration
Constituents (precursor and activator) were mixed according to the
of the solution, but it was procured in solid form, and therefore, the
designed A/P in a high-speed mixer. Based on the A/P ratio (as described
corresponding cost was calculated and used for accurate estimation.
in Table 4), semi-dry and slurry paste/mortar were obtained, and the
This work does not consider the cost increased by applying hot curing
compression casting approach was employed for the semi-dry mix. The
conditions. Moreover, the cost performance index (Cp) was calculated

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Y. Wang et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 434 (2024) 140266

Fig. 7. A methodology for optimizing the design of alternative eco-friendly load bearing blocks.

Table 5
The CO2 emissions and constituents rate used in this work to develop geo­
polymer based construction brick/block.
Material CO2 emissions/kg Rate (PKR/kg)

FA 0.020 2.5
SCBA 0.015 3.0
GGBS 0.027 4.0
Lime 0.011 5.0
RS 0.004 0.7
DS 0.004 100.0
NaOH 1.514 30.0
Na2SiO3 1.915 2.5

by normalizing the cost of one brick of size 225 × 115 × 75 mm with

compressive strength. Its mathematical form is presented in Eq. (2). Its
lower value is preferable but fulfills the minimum strength criterion (17
MPa).
Cost of one brick/block
Cp = (2)
fc′

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Compressive strength evaluation to develop load bearing block Fig. 8. Selection of FA-based brick/block under different curing condition and
A/P ratio.

3.1.1. FA-based load-bearing block

Fig. 8 presents the compressive strength of FA-based pressed bricks 2021).
that were cured under ambient and hot conditions. The strength at 7 Although some reduction in strength was observed in Fig. 8, it is still
d was only 11.6 MPa under ambiently cured conditions. But when cured higher than the targeted strength of 17 MPa. The limit for structural
at high temperatures (hot curing), the strength increased by 71.7% concrete and brick masonry is considered to be 51 (ASTM C62, 2017).
compared to the strength at ambient temperature. The molding pressure The optimized value for the FA-based building brick is an A/P ratio of
has already initiated the geopolymerization reaction. Actually, by 0.10 under hot curing conditions. In Section 3.1.2 - Section 3.1.4, it is
pressing the FA particles closer together and activating them with an explained that the mechanical performance of the brick was further
alkaline activator, the wettability of the particles increases (Ahmad and enhanced by adding various precursors/fillers.
Rashid, 2022). Furthermore, at high curing temperatures, the dissolu­
tion rate of FA particles increases, thereby increasing the geo­ 3.1.2. Coupling FA with SCBA
polymerization rate (Zafar et al., 2022b, 2022d). Therefore, a significant The FA-based building brick was modified to determine the optimal
increase in compressive strength was observed under hot curing con­ coupling precursor, and SCBA was added in amounts of up to 20%. Due
ditions. Moreover, the strength has exceeded the desired level of to the loose microstructure of SCBA (Kolawole et al., 2021; Yadav et al.,
strength (17 MPa). Therefore, in order to make it more cost-effective, the 2020), there is a greater need for an alkaline activator. As a result, the
A/P ratio is reduced to 0.10. As a result, the decrease in strength due to A/P ratio was increased from 0.10 to 0.17 in order to achieve a semi-dry
the reduction in activator amount becomes evident (Ahmad et al., mix. The pressed specimen was hot-cured, and its 7-d strength is shown

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Y. Wang et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 434 (2024) 140266

in Fig. 9. It was observed that strength was reduced by 32.8% when FA

was replaced with SCBA. The reduced strength was due to the light­
weight and highly porous nature of SCBA, which may not have the
ability to bear molding load. This resulted in a decrease in strength
(Zafar et al., 2022a). To bear the weight of the molding, sand was added
up to 50%. The sand can bear a compressive load and compact the
mixture by filling in the larger pores and tightly packing the particles of
FA and SCBA. This can lead to a rapid reaction with the activator and
result in increased strength. However, the strength of FA-SCBA mortar is
still lower than that of FA-based construction brick (Fig. 9). The sand
acts as a filler, and the overall reactivity of the medium has been
reduced. The sand is also porous and may absorb more activators;
therefore, alternative sand (DS) was used. Therefore, the strength was
further increased and met the targeted strength criterion of 17 MPa.

3.1.3. Coupling FA with GGBS

The compressive strength of the construction brick, produced by
using FA and GGBS as precursors, has been illustrated in Fig. 10. By
adding GGBS, it was observed that the need for hot curing decreases, and
similar strength is achieved compared to hot cured FA-based specimens.
GGBS has a higher calcium content (Fig. 2 and Table 2), which leads to
the formation of C-A-S-H gel and contributes to the development of
strength (Zafar et al., 2022d). The leaching of calcium from GGBS occurs
at ambient temperature in an alkaline environment. Therefore, hot
curing conditions are not required when using hybrid precursors such as
FA and GGBS. The A/P ratio was increased from 0.10 to 0.25 by adding Fig. 10. Selection of FA-GGBS based brick/block under different curing con­
sand. It was observed that the strength of the mixture increased dition and A/P ratio.
compared to the paste, likely due to the higher amount of activator.
Furthermore, it was observed that the strength was slightly reduced
under hot curing conditions. A significant amount of heat is released
during the geopolymerization process of high calcium precursor;
therefore, hot curing is unnecessary (Gholampour et al., 2019; Xiao
et al., 2020).

3.1.4. Coupling FA with lime

Instead of GGBS, which is scarce in many countries and available in
limited quantities, an alternative material rich in calcium, namely lime,
was used. It was simply pulverized and used without undergoing calci­
nation. Fig. 11 shows the compressive strength of lime-based mortar,

Fig. 11. Selection of FA-Lime based brick/block under different curing condi­
tion and A/P ratio.

where the A/P ratio was varied from 0.12 to 0.18. Using DS, the slurry
was formed instead of a semi-dry mixture. As a result, a non-pressed
specimen was also prepared (Table 4). A significant increase in
strength was observed by using FA, lime, and DS, which exceeded the
strength requirement limit of 17 MPa. For the preparation of slurry for
RS specimens, the A/P ratio was increased to 0.18. Three different
curing regimes were implemented: ambient curing (A), sun-dried curing
(SD), and hot curing. Additionally, the strength of the specimens was
enhanced by subjecting them to elevated temperatures. The compressive
Fig. 9. Selection of FA-SCBA based brick/block using paste and mortar. strength obtained for these specimens was 26.1 MPa, 28.1 MPa, and

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Y. Wang et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 434 (2024) 140266

39.5 MPa, respectively. At ambient temperature, the strength is still significantly lower, and this reduction in density is clearly visible, as
higher than the targeted strength of 17 MPa. Lime has excellent poten­ shown in Fig. 12. The reduction was 10.5%. However, the addition of
tial as a precursor or filler. sand significantly increased the bulk density. The increment was 24.8%
and 27.1% when RS and DS were added, respectively, compared to the
FA-SCBA paste. The density of mortar brick is slightly more than 1800
3.2. Compressive strength − bulk density relation kg/m3.
When FA was coupled with slag (Series III), an increase in the bulk
Fig. 12 presents a summary of the normalized bulk density of all density was observed, as shown in the increment (Fig. 12). The bulk
types of specimens developed by FA and its composites with SCBA, density was also higher than that of the FA specimen, as slag is denser
GGBS, and lime. It is also compared with the normalized compressive than SCBA and FA. Moreover, by adding slag, the paste quickly became
strength. It is worth noting from Fig. 12 that the bulk density values of activated and formed a C-A-S-H gel, which resulted in a dense structure
all specimens are significantly less than 1800 kg/m3, verifying their and increased the bulk density. Furthermore, with the addition of sand
lightweight material with adequate strength compared to brick or con­ in FA-GGBS precursors, the bulk density increased even more. Addi­
crete building materials, which have bulk densities of 1800 and 2200 tionally, the density was higher in the specimens cured at ambient
kg/m3, respectively. The values of masonry mentioned in codes (1800 temperature compared to those cured at high temperature. A similar
kg/m3 and 17 MPa) normalize the bulk density and compressive trend was observed in the values of compressive strength (Fig. 12). The
strength. For FA-based specimens (Series-I), it was observed that at a reason is the reactivity of highly reactive calcium precursors at room
0.25 A/P ratio, the bulk density of ambiently cured specimens was temperature.
higher than that of hot cured specimens. The possible reason could be Fig. 12 compares the bulk density and water absorption of FA-Lime
the presence of unreacted alkaline activator, which requires more time composites. In all cases, the bulk density of lime-based composites was
to fully undergo the geopolymerization reaction (Ahmad et al., 2021). higher than that of the FA-based specimens. The lime used was not
The reduction in bulk density was attributed to the acceleration of the calcined and had a higher density compared to FA, SCBA, and slag.
geopolymerization process by increasing the reactivity of FA at higher Additionally, sand was added in all cases. Therefore, the increase in bulk
temperatures (Zafar et al., 2022d). density is noticeable. The bulk density is greater than 2000 kg/m3 but
All of the activator is consumed in order to develop a tetrahedral significantly less than 2400 kg/m3, which is the density of normal-
network. It can also be verified by comparing the compressive strengths, weight concrete. The trend of increasing strength with different types
as shown in Fig. 12. The increase in strength is more influenced by of specimens, as shown in Fig. 12, is greater compared to the increase in
changes in the curing condition than the trend observed for the bulk bulk density. The increase in strength was due to the activation of all
density of the specimens. By reducing the A/P ratio (A/P = 0.10), the materials and the formation of tetrahedral structures. The calculation
bulk density increased by 13.7%. It was due to reducing the liquid and discussion of the load-bearing lightweight performance index are
content (A) and increasing the solid content (P). During the molding presented in detail in Section 3.3.
process, the solid particles were tightly packed, resulting in an increased
bulk density. However, due to a lower activator value, the strength was
also reduced, with a decrease of approximately 11.4%. Here, there is a 3.3. Load bearing lightweight performance
similar trend of increasing bulk density and decreasing strength.
The bulk density of the FA-based geopolymer block was compared by The load-bearing lightweight index (Dp) is calculated by normalizing
incorporating SCBA (Series-II) with FA. The density of SCBA is the bulk density value with the strength and is presented in Fig. 13. It

Fig. 12. Normalized bulk density and compressive strength of all specimen design in the four distinct series (Series-I – Series-IV).

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Y. Wang et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 434 (2024) 140266

Fig. 13. Summary of load bearing lightweight performance index (Dp) of

optimized specimens from Series-I to Series-IV. (unit: kg/(m3MPa). Fig. 14. Summary of environmental performance index (EP) of optimized
specimens from Series-I to Series-IV. (unit in kg/1k Brick).

can be observed that the Dp value increased by 17.8% for FA-SCBA

compared to FA-based brick. When selecting specimens from the FA-
GGBS series, the value of Dp decreases. Among all types of specimens,
those with lime have the lowest value of Dp. The value of Dp for concrete-
based brick and fired-clay-based brick is also mentioned in Fig. 13. And
it can be observed that all values are significantly lower than those of the
conventional materials. It can be concluded that the best specimen
among all is an FA-lime-based specimen with an A/P ratio of 0.18 under
hot curing. Moreover, the specimen cured in ambient conditions using
FA-lime also has a lighter weight, as shown in Fig. 13. Their strength
values and bulk densities have already been discussed in detail in Sec­
tion 3.2. It can be concluded that the increased value of Dp is unac­
ceptable. It simply adds the self-weight or dead load to the structure,
which leads to an increase in the size of structural elements and the
amount of reinforcement required.

3.4. Environmental performance

Based on the CO2 emissions of constituents (Table 5), the CO2

emissions of optimized blocks, from Series-I to Series-IV, were calcu­
lated based on their constituent proportions (Table 4). From Eq. (2) the
environmental performance index (Ep) of the selected specimens is Fig. 15. Summary of cost performance index (CP) of optimized specimens from
Series-I to Series-IV. (unit: PKR/(brick.MPa).
calculated and presented in Fig. 14. It is noted in Section 2.3.2 that the
COe emissions for 1000 fired clay bricks and concrete blocks of size 225
× 115 × 75 mm are 410 and 446 kg CO2 emissions/1000 bricks/blocks, raw materials. These reasons are further explained in Section 4. It can be
respectively. Additionally, it is observed that almost all geopolymer- observed from Fig. 15 that the Cp of FA only and its composite with
based specimens have higher emissions than conventional bricks, SCBA/slag is higher than that of conventional concrete and fired clay
except for the FA-lime specimen with an A/P ratio of 0.12. By increasing brick. Therefore, replacing conventional materials with developed ma­
the A/P ratio, the CO2 emissions will increase. Among all specimens, the terials is not suitable. In contrast, lime-based construction materials
slag-based geopolymer emits the highest amount of CO2 due to its higher have a lower Cp than conventional materials. Thus, it is concluded to be
A/P ratio (0.25). Since the lowest value of Ep is preferable, it is found the most cost-effective performance. The lime-based specimen, which
that all specimens in the FA-lime series have a lower value of Ep than was hot-cured, has the lowest value of Cp (0.6), which is significantly
concrete brick and fired clay brick. These specimens are considered to be lower compared to the Cp values of concrete brick (1.1) and fired clay
environmentally friendly. brick (0.9).

3.5. Economic performance 3.6. Optimization based on performance indices

The cost of each type of specimen is calculated based on the size of a Based on the performance indices discussed in Sections 3.3 to 3.5, a
conventional brick (225 × 115 × 75 mm). The Cp of the selected spec­ comparison was made among selected specimens from Series I to Series
imen has been presented in Fig. 15 Only a few specimens have been IV. The performance indices of specimens based on FA have higher
selected that fulfill the strength criterion of 17 MPa. The main reasons values than other types of specimens with coupling minerals. The
for selecting these specimens are their strength and lower A/P ratio, comparison of all types of optimized specimens with all performance
ability to cure at ambient temperature, and the abundant availability of indices has been made in Fig. 16. It has been observed that the FA-SCBA

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Y. Wang et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 434 (2024) 140266

4. Multicriteria assessment to develop sustainable block

4.1. Sustainability framework

Several parameters need to be considered for developing a sustain­

able brick. The three main pillars of sustainability are social, environ­
mental, and economic. When these pillars are integrated, they result in a
sustainable product. In terms of social aspects, the availability of raw
materials is the first thing that needs to be considered. Undoubtedly, the
availability of lime is abundant compared to other materials (Scrivener
et al., 2018; Snellings, n.d.). The strength criteria must be fulfilled as
specified by codes in order to ensure social acceptability. The third
factor considered for social acceptance is the lightweight nature of the
construction material. The mentioned criteria have been incorporated
into this work under the social criterion of sustainability. The respective
quantitative values are presented in Fig. 17.
In terms of environmental performance, three criteria were consid­
Fig. 16. Comparison of the performance indices: load bearing light weight (Dp)
ered. The first criterion is CO2 emissions, which have been quantified
– environmental (Ep) – economic (Cp).
and discussed in Section 3.4. The other parameter in the environment is
the curing temperature. Hot curing requires energy, so ambient curing is
and FA-GGGB specimens have a higher value of Dp. However, all spec­ preferred. Similarly, the compression casting approach has been
imens meet the strength criterion and are considered load-bearing. considered in relation to environmental factors. To employ this
However, using higher density materials increases the dead load, mak­ approach, a lot of energy is needed. If it is employed, the value is taken
ing it impractical for use as construction material. Similarly, FA-Lime- as two. If it is not used, the value is one, as presented in Fig. 17. In terms
based specimens with an A/P ratio of 0.12 have a higher Dp value of economic criteria, only cost has been taken into account. However,
compared to other FA-Lime-based specimens. But other specimens have there are several other qualitative criteria that could be defined, such as
higher strength and, therefore, are more durable blocks. Similarly, the industrialization using lime, cost savings through ambient curing, and
preferred values for the environmental and economic performance cost savings by not employing the compression casting approach. In this
indices (Ep and Cp) are the lowest, as shown in Fig. 16. It can be observed work, only cost, based on the constituent, has been considered and is
that FA-Lime-based specimens are the best and have the lowest value presented in Fig. 17.
among the three performance indices.

Fig. 17. Decision matrix to develop sustainable block.

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Y. Wang et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 434 (2024) 140266

4.2. Multicriteria analysis

As defined in Section 4.1, the quantification of sustainability is the

multicriteria problem, and optimization can be made by employing the
multicriteria decision-making technique. The first step in decision-
making is the formulation of a decision matrix (Eq. (4)) (Blouch et al.,
2023; Ju et al., 2023). Which is a list of criteria against each alternative.
In Fig. 17, the specimen ID is alternative and presented by A in Eq. (4),
and seven columns under sustainability presents the seven criteria (c1 −
c7) in Eq. (4). After the decision matrix, the next step is normalization,
and it can be accomplished from Eq. (5).
⎡ ⎤
c11 c12 ⋯ c1n
[ ] A1 ⎢ c21 c22 ⋯ c2n ⎥
Decison Matrix [D] = cij m×n = A2 ⎢⎣ ⋮
⎥ (4)
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⎦
An
cm1 cm2 ⋯ cmn

Cij
∑m 2 , (1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n)
Pij = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ (5)
i=1 Cij
Fig. 18. Verification of least energy intensive geopolymer by multicriteria
analysis along with the priority for sustainability of each alternative.
The third step adopted is the quantification of positive and negative
ideal solutions for the defined decision matrix (Fig. 17). There should be Specimens were divided into four distinct series and optimized based on
maximum availability of raw material, maximum strength, minimum three performance indices: load-bearing lightweight, environmental
density for lightweight, minimum CO2 emission, minimum curing impact, and economic efficiency. Optimization was also carried out by
temperature, minimum value of compression casting approach and conducting multicriteria analysis. Based on experimental and analytical
minimum cost. Such an alternative is considered as the positive ideal work, the following conclusions were drawn.
solution. However, it can be observed that no row can be selected, and
we need to employ multicriteria analysis. From the ideal solution, either 1. FA and its composites with SCBA, slag, and lime can be used as load-
positive or negative, the separable matrix was developed from Eqs. (6) bearing construction blocks. However, hot curing is required for FA
and (7). It is made by separating each criterion from the positive (a+ j ) and FA-SCBA specimens, and a high alkaline activator is necessary
and negative a−j ideal solutions. Finally, the relative closeness coefficient for FA-slag-based specimens. All three types also require the
(RCC) is calculated from Eq. (8), and its maximum value presents the compression casting method. In contrast, FA-lime is the best option
best alternative, while its least value presents the worst alternative. The among all types due to its ambient curing, minimal activator
values of RCC are considered the priority vector and the ranking of the requirement, and lack of a compression casting approach.
specimen. The methodology explained in this section is called the 2. The density-to-strength ratio is used to determine the load-bearing
TOPSIS (Technique for Order Preference Similar to Ideal Solution) lightweight performance index. Among all types of specimens, FA-
technique published in previous studies (Rashid et al., 2019, 2018, Lime-based specimens have the lowest value. Moreover, it has a
2017). lower value compared to conventional concrete and fired clay brick
⎡√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅⎤ by 26% and 12%, respectively.
√∑
√ n ( )2 3. The cost performance indices (Cp) of FA-lime-based specimens have
S = ⎣√
+
Pij − a+ j
⎦ (6) the lowest value, with a quantitative reduction of 37.5% compared to
j=1
concrete and 12.5% compared to fired clay brick.
⎡√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅⎤ 4. The ratio of CO2 emissions to strength indicates the environmental
√∑
√ n ( )2 performance (Ep). Lime-FA, with an A/P ratio of 0.12, showed the
S = ⎣√
i
Pij − a−j ⎦ (7)
j=1
lowest Ep value, which was 27.8% and 21.2% lower than the Ep
values of concrete and fired clay brick, respectively.
Si− 5. Among all specimens, the FA-lime-based specimen is experimentally
RCC = (8) optimized based on three performance indices, both when FA is used
Si+ + Si−
alone and when it is coupled with SCBA, slag, and lime.
6. Analytically, MCDM was employed on a 7 × 7 decision matrix, and
4.3. Priority based on least energy intensive geopolymer
the results showed that FA-lime-based specimens had the top four
priorities in order. This confirmed the findings of the experimental
Based on the methodology described in Section 4.2, the multicriteria
investigation. However, seven criteria were considered, and top
analysis was conducted on the decision matrix (Fig. 17). Selected
priority was obtained for FA-Lime with 0.18 A/P, and sun dried was
specimens from all series have been prioritized, and their preference has
opted as curing condition.
been described in Fig. 18. It can be observed that the best alternative is
the FA-lime based specimen, with an A/P ratio of 0.12, which exhibits
The sustainability framework must be strengthened by conducting
the highest RCC value. The same sample has also been selected for the
life cycle assessment and life cycle cost of each constituent, and also
three performance indices (Fig. 18). Although seven criteria were used
considering the processing of raw materials, their transportation,
in the multicriteria analysis to select the least energy-intensive geo­
manufacturing, and application.
polymer block.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
5. Conclusions
Yi Wang: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Methodology,
This study aimed to develop a load-bearing construction material Investigation. Idrees Zafar: Writing – review & editing, Resources,
using fly ash (FA) and a combination of mineral additives, including Project administration, Methodology, Funding acquisition,
SCBA, slag, and lime. The material is based on geopolymer technology.

11
Y. Wang et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 434 (2024) 140266

Conceptualization. Khuram Rashid: Writing – review & editing, Iftikhar, S., Rashid, K., Ul Haq, E., Zafar, I., Alqahtani, F.K., Iqbal Khan, M., 2020.
Synthesis and characterization of sustainable geopolymer green clay bricks: an
Writing – original draft, Validation, Supervision, Investigation, Formal
alternative to burnt clay brick. Construct. Build. Mater. 259, 119659.
analysis, Conceptualization. Mounir Ltifi: Writing – review & editing, Jindal, B.B., 2019. Investigations on the properties of geopolymer mortar and concrete
Funding acquisition, Data curation, Conceptualization. Minkwan Ju: with mineral admixtures: a review. Construct. Build. Mater. 227, 116644.
Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Visu­ Ju, M., Rashid, K., Zafar, I., Ltifi, M., 2023. Developing FA-based cementless binder
composite by opting sustainable technology: application of brick and paving block.
alization, Validation. Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 48, 101580.
JSCE, Japan Society of Civil Engineering, 2007. Standard Specification for Concrete
Structures: Design.
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of-the-art review on the use of sugarcane bagasse ash in cementitious materials.
Cem. Concr. Compos. 118, 103975.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Li, N., Shi, C., Zhang, Z., Wang, H., Liu, Y., 2019. A review on mixture design methods for
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence geopolymer concrete. Composites, Part B 178, 107490.
the work reported in this paper. Ma, C., Long, G., Shi, Y., Xie, Y., 2018. Preparation of cleaner one-part geopolymer by
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