ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Week 11

Mengqi Zhang

[email protected]

EA-07-21

2019.09.30 & 10.01

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Outline

L1 Week 7 (Mar. 5th, 8th) Viscous ows: introduction

L2 Week 8 (Mar. 12th, 15th) Viscous ows: derivation of the equations

L3 Week 9 (Mar. 19th, 22nd) Viscous ows: applications

Week 10 (Mar. 26th) No lecture on

L4 Boundary layer ows: concepts Quiz* Mar. 29th (PH)
Week 11 (Apr. 2nd) (Tentative) No lecture on
Apr. 19th
Week 11 (Apr. 5th)
L5 Boundary layer ows: Blasius solution and control of boundary layer
Week 12 (Apr. 9th)

Week 12 (Apr. 12th)

L6 Boundary layer ows: transition and turbulence
Week 13 (Apr. 16th)

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Last week

Boundary layer ows

• Concepts
• Development of boundary layer ows
• Boundary Layer Thicknesses

Laminar Boundary Layer Equations

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Recap

Development of
boundary layer

Boundary layer 99% thickness δ

∞ δ

∫0 ( Ue ) 0 ( Ue )
u(y) u(y)
∫
Boundary layer
δ* = 1− dy ≈ 1− dy
displacement thickness

∞ δ

Ue ( Ue ) Ue ( Ue )
u(y) u(y) u(y) u(y)
∫0 ∫
Boundary layer θ= 1− dy ≈ 1− dy
momentum thickness 0

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Recap
Prandtl’s boundary layer equations (for steady ows)
∂u ∂u 1 dp ∂ 2u ∂p
u +v =− +ν 2 =0
∂x ∂y ρ dx ∂y ∂y

x = (1) ∂u ∂v
y = (δ) + =0
u = (1) ∂x ∂y Steady Euler’s equation
v = (δ) (obtained by an Order of Magnitude analysis) dU∞ 1 dP
U∞ =−
dx ρ dx

Von Karman’s boundary layer integral equation (Ex. 5 in Week 10)

d 2
dUe τw
(Ue θ) + Ueδ* =
dx dx ρ
When Ue is not a function of x,
τw dθ
=
ρUe 2 dx
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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

This week

Drag on the at plate

(another derivation of von Karman’s integral equation)

Blasius solution (for laminar boundary-layer ows)

Boundary Layer Separation and Control

• Control of Separation
• Tripping Boundary Layer and Golf Balls
• Vortex generators

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

This week

Drag on the at plate

(another derivation of von Karman’s integral equation)

Blasius solution (for laminar boundary-layer ows)

Boundary Layer Separation and Control

• Control of Separation
• Tripping Boundary Layer and Golf Balls
• Vortex generators

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Drag on Flat Plate

We will discuss the drag on a at plate on the following slides. The discussion will eventually lead to von
Karman integral equation (Ex. 5 last week). The derivation takes a physical perspective.

The drag or skin friction on a at plate can be evaluated from the velocity pro le near the plate. At a
distance x from the leading edge, the shear stress at the wall τ0 (or τw) is given by:

( ∂y )
∂u
τ0 = τw = μ
y=0

The shear force or drag over a small distance dx per unit

width equals τ0dx . This must be equal to the rate of
change of momentum over the distance x.

Consider a small control volume AS1S2 B bounded

by the outer edge of the boundary layer as shown
on the RHS.

Note that the velocity above δ(x) is U∞

and we consider a steady boundary layer
ow with U∞ ≠ U∞(x).

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Drag on Flat Plate (mass ux)

Mass ow rate entering the control volume at the upstream station AS1:

∫0
m1 = ρudy per unit width

Mass ow rate leaving the control volume at the downstream station BS2:
δ δ

dx ( ∫0 )
d
∫0
m2 = ρudy + ρudy dx Taylor’s series

According to the conservation of mass, we have 1. Mass ow rate mS1S2 is non-zero.

(note that the ow is steady) 2. The velocity at the edge of the b.l. is U∞.

m1 − m2 + mS1S2 = 0

Therefore, the mass ow rate entering the edge of

the boundary layer S1S2:
δ

dx ( ∫0 )
d
mS1S2 = m2 − m1 = ρudy dx

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Drag on Flat Plate (momentum ux = mass ux*velocity)

δ δ δ
d
∫0 ∫0 ( ∫
dy) dx
Momentum ux entering AS1 = ρu 2 dy Momentum ux leaving BS2 = ρu 2 dy + ρu 2
dx 0
(Momentum ux = mass ux × vel.)
Taylor’s series

δ
d The mass ow rate mS1S2 (see last slide) multiplied
Momentum ux entering S1S2 = U∞ (
dx ∫0
ρu dy) dx
by U∞. The velocity at the edge of the b.l. is U∞.

The rate of change of momentum between the out ow and in ow is therefore:

= −MFAS1 + MFBS2 − MFS1S2 (Note the signs. Consider the direction of the surface normal vector.)

δ δ
d d
(
dx ∫0
dy) dx − U∞ ( ρu dy) dx
dx ∫0
2
= ρu

δ
d
= ρ ( u(u − U∞) dy) dx
dx ∫0

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Drag on Flat Plate

δ
d
The rate of change of momentum between the out ow and in ow is therefore: ρ (
dx ∫0
u(u − U∞) dy) dx

The time variation of the momentum must be equal the force exerted by the at plate on the control
volume (AS1S2 B). Drag force exerted by the uid on the plate (per unit width or /w) is equal and opposite
to it. Hence for the distance dx, we have the drag associate to it ΔD/w
δ
Additionally
d
−ΔD/w = ρ ( u(u − U∞) dy) dx
dx ∫0
Force = time variation of momentum ΔD/w = τwdx

Hence, equating the two expressions for Drag/w:

δ
d
−τwdx = ρ ( u(u − U∞) dy) dx
dx ∫0
δ
d
τw = − ρ ( u(u − U∞) dy)
dx ∫0
δ
d u u
τw = − ρU∞ ( − 1) dy)
dx ∫0 U∞ U∞
2
(

δ
d u u
τw = ρU∞ ( ) dy)
dx ∫0 U∞
2
(1 −
U∞ 11
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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics
δ
d u u
τw = ρU∞ ( ) dy)
∫
2
von Karman Integral equation (1 −
dx 0 U∞ U∞
δ
u u
∫0 U∞
Since (1 − ) dy = θ is the momentum thickness of the boundary layer, it follows that:
U∞

2 dθ
which is known as the von Karman integral equation
τw = ρUe in the case when Ue is not a function of x.
dx
(Recall the lengthy derivation in Ex. 5 in Week 10.)
U, Ue, U∞

Once the distribution of the shear stress τw is known, the drag on the length Δx of the plate per unit width
is given by:
ΔD/w = τwΔx
L

∫0
The total drag per unit width D/w on a plate of length L is therefore: D/w = τwΔx

By de nition, the total coe cient of drag (in this case skin friction drag) is given by:

D D/w
CD = 1 or CD =
ρU∞
2A 1
2 2
ρU∞
2L

where A is the total wetted area, and L is the length of the plate.
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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

This week

Drag on the at plate

(another derivation of von Karman’s integral equation)

Blasius solution (for laminar boundary-layer ows)

Boundary Layer Separation and Control

• Control of Separation
• Tripping Boundary Layer and Golf Balls
• Vortex generators

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics
∂u ∂u 1 dp ∂ 2u ∂p
u +v =− +ν 2 =0
∂x ∂y ρ dx ∂y ∂y
Blasius Solution for laminar boundary layer
The Blasius solution is the exact solution of a steady laminar boundary layer ow on a at plate at zero angle
of incidence with a zero pressure gradient.

Generally, U∞ = U∞(x),
dP
but we consider U∞ = const . ⇔ = 0.
dx

The boundary layer equations become

with boundary conditions:

∂u ∂u ∂2u ∂u ∂v 1. at y = 0, u = v = 0
u +v =ν 2 and + =0
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y 2. at y = ∞, u = U∞(x)

The idea on the following slides is to solve the above two equations using the streamfunction ψ. Recall Ex.
∂ψ ∂ψ
2 in Week 8 for the de nition of streamfunction u = ,v=− .
∂y ∂x
Note that the streamfunction automatically satis es the continuity equation, which means we don’t have
to consider the continuity equation when we adopt ψ.

Another technique applied in the derivation is that we de ne a similarity variable η for the length in y (see
next slide). The new length variable η is called a reduced variable, involving both x and y.
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Blasius Solution for laminar boundary layer

u
Assuming a similar velocity pro le in the b. l. = F(η), where the pro le of
U∞
F must be the same at all x from the leading edge.
In some sense, the similarity variable η is a normalised length. A natural choice for
y
the normalisation of y is the boundary layer thickness, that is, η ∼ .
δ
We also have
νx y y ∂η 1 y 1 y 1η
Since δ ∼ , η can then be de ned as η = ∼ . =− =− =−
U∞ νx δ ∂x 2 νx 3 2 νx
x 2x
U∞ U∞
U∞
Why? recall Ex. 6 in Week 10
∂η 1
=
∂y νx
∂ψ ∂ψ U∞
Introducing the streamfunction ψ (with u = ,v=− ), that is:
∂y ∂x
νx
∫ ∫
Ψ = u dy = U∞F(η)dη = U∞νx f(η)
U∞ Now, ψ is a function of
η and x, i.e.,
∫
where f(η)
= F(η)dη is called dimensionless streamfunction. ψ = ψ(η, x) and we
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂η 1 have replaced y by η.
Hence u = = = U∞νx f′(η) = U∞ f′(η)
∂y ∂η ∂y νx
U∞
∂ψ 1 νU∞ η 1 νU∞
v=− =− f(η) − U∞νx(− )f′(η) = (ηf′(η) − f(η))
∂x 2 x 2x 2 x




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Blasius Solution for laminar boundary layer

y
1 νU∞ η=
(ηf′(η) − f(η))
The equations from
u = U∞ f′(η) v= νx
last slide, 2 x U∞

u ∂η η ∂η 1
∫
ψ= U∞νx f(η) f(η) = F(η) dη = F(η) =− =
U∞ ∂x 2x ∂y νx
U∞

∂u ∂u ∂2u
Next, we will prepare the following terms, as they appear in the x-equation u +v = ν 2.
∂x ∂y ∂y

∂u ∂u ∂η η ηU∞
We have = = U∞ f′′(η)(− ) = − f′′(η)
∂x ∂η ∂x 2x 2x

∂u ∂u ∂η 1 U∞
= = U∞ f′′(η) = U∞ f′′(η)
∂y ∂η ∂y νx νx
U∞

2
∂2u ∂ ∂u ∂ U∞ U∞ ∂η U∞ 1 U∞
= = (U∞ f′′(η)) = U∞ f′′′(η) = U∞ f′′′(η) = f′′′(η)
∂y 2 ∂y ∂y ∂y νx νx ∂y νx νx νx
U∞

where prime means the derivative w.r.t. η





















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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Blasius Solution for laminar boundary layer

1 νU∞
From last slide, u = U∞ f′(η) v= (ηf′(η) − f(η))
2 x

∂u ηU∞ ∂u U∞ ∂2u U∞ 2
=− f′′(η) = U∞ f′′(η) = f′′′(η)
∂x 2x ∂y νx ∂y 2 νx

∂u ∂u ∂2u
The x-direction boundary layer equation is u +v = ν 2.
∂x ∂y ∂y

Using the above results, we can get

2 2 2
U∞ η U∞ U∞
− f′ f′′ + [ηf′ − f ]f′′ = f′′′
2x 2x x

After simplifying the above equation, we get 2f′′′ + ′′ = 0.


















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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics
1 νU∞
v= (η f′(η) − f (η))
Blasius Solution for laminar boundary layer 2 x
u = U∞ f′(η)

The equation 2f′′′ + ′′ = 0 is known as the Blasius Equation with the boundary conditions:
1) at η = 0 : f = 0 and f′ = 0 (at the wall) 1. at y = 0, u = v = 0
2) at η = ∞ : f′ = 1 (at the boundary layer edge) 2. at y = ∞, u = U∞(x)

Applicable to all x, y because of the similarity variable η being used.

Prime here means the derivative w.r.t. η.
Blasius (1908) solved the equation using power series expansion:
A2 2 A3 3 A4 4 A5 5 A6 6 A7 7 A8 8
f = A0 + A1η + η + η + η + η + η + η + η + ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8!
A2 A A A A A A Applying b.c. 1) to the power series
f′ = A1 + η + 3 η2 + 4 η3 + 5 η4 + 6 η5 + 7 η6 + 8 η7 + . . .
1 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! gives A0 = 0 and A1 = 0
A3 A4 2 A5 3 A6 4 A7 5 A8 6 Applying b.c. 2) using a numerical
f′′ = A2 + η + η + η + η + η + η + . . .
1 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! method gives A2 = 0.33206 (see
A4 A A A A the paper Howarth 1938)
f′′′ = A3 + η + 5 η2 + 6 η3 + 7 η4 + 8 η5 + . . .
1 2! 3! 4! 5!

Using the power series of f, f′′, f′′′ in the Blasius Equation gives:
A22 11 3
A3 = A4 = A6 = A7 = 0, A5 = − and A8 = A2 See the note le.
2 4
Then, f, f′ and f′′ can be plotted or tabulated against η, see next slides.

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Blasius Solution for laminar boundary layer

A2 2 A3 3 A4 4 A5 5 A6 6 A7 7 A8 8
f = A0 + A1η + η + η + η + η + η + η + η + . . . u = U∞ f′(η)
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8!

Table: Blasius solution for the laminar boundary layer along a flat plate at zero angle of incidence.

U∞ u
η=y f f′ = f′′
νx U∞

From the table, if the

de nition of the boundary
layer edge δ is at the
u
point where = 0.99 ,
U∞
then from the table this
occurs at η ≈ 5.0.

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Blasius Solution for laminar boundary layer

u U∞
With η ≈ 5.0 corresponding to the y-position where = 0.99 (that is y = δ99%) and η = y ,
U∞ νx
we have
U∞
η=y
νx
U∞ νx δ 5
5 = δ99% or 5 =δ or =
νx U∞ x Rex
U∞x
Rex =
ν
The boundary layer displacement thickness for the Blasius solution is

∞ ∞
u νx νx νx
∫0 ∫0 (
δ* = 1− dy = 1 − f′(η)) dη = lim (η − f(η)) = 1.72
U∞ U∞ U∞ η→∞ U∞

The boundary layer momentum thickness for the Blasius solution is

∞ ∞
u u νx νx
∫0 (1 − ) dy = ∫ f′(η)(1 − f′(η))
θ= dη = 0.664
U∞ U∞ 0 U∞ U∞



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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Blasius Solution for laminar boundary layer

x ∂u
∫0
Drag/unit width for length x: D/w = τw dx τw = μ
∂y y=0

∂u U∞ U∞ U∞
but = U∞ f′′(η) τw = [μU∞ f′′(η)] = 0.332μU∞
∂y νx νx y=0 νx
where f′′(η) = A2 ≈ 0.332
y=0
x x
U∞ U∞ x 1
∫0 ∫0 ν ∫0
then D/w = τw dx = 0.332μU∞ dx = 0.332μU∞ dx
νx x

U∞x
= 2 × 0.332μU∞ = 0.664U∞ ρμU∞x
μ/ρ

D/w 1.328 μ 1.328 U∞x

CD = 1
= = Rex =
ρU∞
2x ρU∞x Rex ν
2

1 νU∞
The vertical velocity component v= (ηf′(η) − f(η))
2 x

νU∞ 0.8371U∞
At the b. l. edge (for η = 5.0): vedge = 0.8371 =
x Rex





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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Blasius Solution for laminar boundary layer

We can also solve the Blasius equation 2f′′′ + ′′ = 0 with a computer, using the Runge–
Kutta scheme for numerical integration, and plot the results.

10 10

u = U∞ f′(η)
5 5

0 0
0 0.5 1 0 5 10
df/d f
10 10
1 νU∞
v= (η f′(η) − f (η))
2 x
5 5

1.6742
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
d 2f/d 2 df/d - f

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Exercise 1
Compare the thicknesses of the laminar boundary layer (δ) over a smooth at plate at
zero angle of incidence for the following cases (assuming Blasius solutions):
(a) Flat plate in a water stream owing at 2 m/s.
(b) Flat plate in an air stream owing at 2 m/s.
(c) Flat plate in an air stream owing at 8 m/s.

You may want to calculate the b.l. thickness at a certain streamwise station x and
compare them.

Using the following data

Review: calculation based on the Blasius solution 23

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Exercise 2

Consider the kinematic viscosity of air and water is 1.5 × 10−5m 2 /s and
1.0 × 10−6m 2 /s, respectively. Use the equation on the last slides for the estimation.

The transitional Rex,tr is about 105. Check the Rex in each case and assess if the
estimation is reasonable.

Review: de nition of boundary layer thickness under different circumstances 24

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

This week

Drag on the at plate

(another derivation of von Karman’s integral equation)

Blasius solution (for laminar boundary-layer ows)

Boundary Layer Separation and Control

• Control of Separation
• Tripping Boundary Layer and Golf Balls
• Vortex generators

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Boundary Layer Separation (Effect of dp/dx)

So far we have considered ows in which the pressure outside (in fact, also inside) the boundary layer is
constant. However, if the pressure varies in the direction of ow, the behaviour of the boundary layer ow
may be greatly a ected. We will now consider the e ect of pressure gradient on the development of the
boundary layer ow. For the purpose of providing di erent pressure gradients dp/dx, let us consider the
ow over a convex surface as shown below:

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Boundary Layer Separation (Effect of dp/dx)

So far we have considered ows in which the pressure outside (in fact, also inside) the boundary layer is
constant. However, if the pressure varies in the direction of ow, the behaviour of the boundary layer ow
may be greatly a ected. We will now consider the e ect of pressure gradient on the development of the
boundary layer ow. For the purpose of providing di erent pressure gradients dp/dx, let us consider the
ow over a convex surface as shown below:

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Boundary Layer Separation (Effect of dp/dx)

So far we have considered ows in which the pressure outside (in fact, also inside) the boundary layer is
constant. However, if the pressure varies in the direction of ow, the behaviour of the boundary layer ow
may be greatly a ected. We will now consider the e ect of pressure gradient on the development of the
boundary layer ow. For the purpose of providing di erent pressure gradients dp/dx, let us consider the
ow over a convex surface as shown below:

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Boundary Layer Separation (Effect of dp/dx)

So far we have considered ows in which the pressure outside (in fact, also inside) the boundary layer is
constant. However, if the pressure varies in the direction of ow, the behaviour of the boundary layer ow
may be greatly a ected. We will now consider the e ect of pressure gradient on the development of the
boundary layer ow. For the purpose of providing di erent pressure gradients dp/dx, let us consider the
ow over a convex surface as shown below:

TBL: intensi ed
interchange of mass,
momentum, energy.
The “fuller” the
velocity pro le, the
more resistance of
the ow to
separation.

Implication for ow
separation:

Reason is adverse p.g.

When to occur: du/dy=0.
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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Boundary Layer Separation (Effect of dp/dx)

So far we have considered ows in which the pressure outside (in fact, also inside) the boundary layer is
constant. However, if the pressure varies in the direction of ow, the behaviour of the boundary layer ow
may be greatly a ected. We will now consider the e ect of pressure gradient on the development of the
boundary layer ow. For the purpose of providing di erent pressure gradients dp/dx, let us consider the
ow over a convex surface as shown below:

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Boundary Layer Separation (Effect of dp/dx)

∂P
So, separation can only occur when > 0 (Week 10). This is true for both laminar and turbulent
∂x
boundary layers, but laminar layers are more prone to separation than turbulent ones.
The greater the adverse dP/dx, the sooner the separation.
Once a laminar boundary layer is separated, it may become turbulent.
In the ow separation region, the ow is chaotic, associated with an escalated degree of energy
consumption. This is the drag.

δ*
Recalling the de nition of shape factor H = which is a good indicator of pressure gradient (Week 10).
θ
The higher its value, the stronger the adverse pressure gradient.

For ow around a circular cylinder (above), separation point S occurs further downstream in the case of
turbulent boundary layer. This is because turbulent boundary layer is more resistant to separation
(adverse pressure gradient) due to its “fuller” velocity pro le, compared to laminar boundary layer.

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Flow separation in a divergent nozzle (experiment)

A surface needs not to be curved to produce an

adverse pressure gradient (dp/dx > 0), for example,
ow through a di user.
Boundary layer separation can occur on the di user
wall due to adverse dp/dx which is caused by
increasing cross-sectional area in the ow
direction, that is, if the di using angle θ is too large,
adverse pressure gradient inside the di user can
cause the boundary layer to separate.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x6v3rK4Ikhc&t=307s

Play from 13:01 to 15:10 32

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Flow separation around an airfoil (numerical simulations)

See the boundary layer on the surface of the airfoil and how it gets separated when the AoA increases.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5YwnY0wPphA

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Flow separation around a rectangular cylinder (numerical simulations)

White colour: low pressure region https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c8zKWaxohng

Black colour: high pressure region
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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Boundary Layer Separation (Effect of dp/dx)

SUMMARY

Velocity pro les in boundary layer ow over a solid surface can be:

It is therefore possible from a given velocity pro le to nd out whether the boundary layer ow is
attached, detached or at the verge of separation based on the above criteria.

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Exercise 3

We consider a zero-pressure-gradient boundary layer ow

Review: y-derivative of ow pro le 36

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Exercise 4

1.328
CD =
Rex

Review: calculation of drag coef cient CD in boundary layer ows 37

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Control of Separation
As mentioned in previous lectures, separation of a boundary layer from the surface of a body is
accompanied by a reversed ow in the vicinity of the body.
Reversal of ow and consequent eddy formation are undesirable because they are accompanied by
abrupt changes in pressure distribution and drag forces, thus causing considerable lost of energy. It is
therefore necessary to control the boundary layer ow and prevent or delay the phenomenon of
separation as far as possible.
Some methods of delaying separation in some di erent situations are described and shown below:

1) Flow past aerofoil

When uid ows pass an

aerofoil, the pressure on the
surface drops and rises
thereafter.
The chances of boundary layer
separation are, therefore, very
high in the latter part of the
surface, as described earlier.

To prevent ow separation on an aerofoil, the retarded boundary layer may either be removed and re-energized
by high-energy uid, so as to enable it to continue unseparated against an adverse pressure gradient. It is
therefore necessary to re-energize or suck the boundary layer on the surface.
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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Control of Separation
2) Flow through a di user

We have discussed the di user earlier.

To prevent boundary layer separation

in a di user, the adverse pressure
gradient should be kept low. This can
be achieved by:
(i) using a small angle of divergence in the
passage but long di user (as shown on
RHS).
The semi-angle of divergence of a di user
is limited to about 5°.

( ii ) injection or removal by suction of the retarded boundary layer on the di user wall as for the
case of ow past aerofoil.

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Drag of Bluff and Streamlined Bodies

The (total) drag force experienced by a body as it moves through a uid is due to two components called
viscous (= frictional = skin friction) drag and pressure (= form) drag:

1. Viscous drag is due to the viscous stress developed in the boundary layers, and it scales with
Reynolds number.
2. Pressure drag is due to eddy motion that is set up in the wake downstream of the body, and it is
usually less sensitive to Reynolds number than viscous drag.

The ball is
moving to the
left.

Formally, the fundamental reason for both types of drag is the viscosity (if the body was moving
through an inviscid uid, there would be no drag at all), but the distinction is useful because the two
types of drag are due to di erent ow phenomena.
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Drag of Bluff and Streamlined Bodies

Total drag = Pressure drag + Skin friction drag

Viscous drag is important for attached ows (that is,

there is no separation), and it is related to the surface
area exposed to the ow.

Pressure drag is important for separated ows, and it

is related to the cross-sectional area and shape of
the body.

Pressure drag : negligible substantial

Skin friction drag: substantial negligible 41
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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Tripping Boundary Layer and the aerodynamics of golf balls

By tripping the laminar boundary layer, for example using a

piece of small diameter wire (called trip wire) placed on the
surface of the body, we can accelerate the transition to
turbulence.

The dimples act as a very e ective trip wire, and the

consequent delay in separation reduces the pressure drag
(and hence the total drag) on the ball and allows the ball to
travel further for the same amount of e ort.
(A good golfer can easily make a golf ball carry 250 yards, but
the same golfer using a smooth ball will drive it only about
100 yards).

https://www.quora.com/Why-do-dimples-on-a-golf-ball-or-other-things-reduce-drag-What-s-the-underlying-physics 42
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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Numerical simulations of golf ball aerodynamics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LvVuuaqCC7A
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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Controlling ow separation using traveling wave actuation

Travelling wave actuation means the wavy motion of the controllable surface of the airfoil here.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gCbV5vBgf4M
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Vortex generators
Vortex generators are most often used to delay ow separation (by triggering the turbulent
boundary layer).

From wikipedia
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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Vortex generators

almost straight
With vortex generators strings

random
Without vortex generators motion of
the strings

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Vortex generators

12 mins (02:46 VG) www.youtube.com/watch?v=SXwVyxorvno&ab_channel=hbykv

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 ME2135 Intermediate Fluid Mechanics

Next week

Boundary layer ows: transition and turbulence

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