MECHANICAL MEASUREMENT &
METROLOGY
UNIT - 1
Measurement: The word measurement is used to
tell us the length, the weight, the temperature, the
colour or a change in one of these physical entities of
a material. Measurement provides us with means for
describing the various physical and chemical
parameters of materials in quantitative terms.
These are two requirements which are to be
satisfied to get good result from the
measurement:
1. The standard must be accurately known and
internationally accepted.
2. The apparatus and experimental procedure
adopted for comparison must be provable.
Metrology: [from Ancient Greek metron (measure)
and logos (study of)] is the science of measurement.
Metrology includes all theoretical and practical
aspects of measurement.
Metrology is concerned with the establishment,
reproduction, conservation and transfer of units of
measurement & their standards.
BASIC AND AUXILIARY FUNCTION ELEMENTS OF
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
The main functional elements of a
measurement system are:
i) Primary sensing element
ii) Variable conversion element
iii) Variable manipulation element
iv) Signal conditioning element
v) Data transmission element
vi) Data presentation element.
Primary sensing element: The quantity or the variable
which is being measured makes its first contact with the
primary sensing element of a measurement system. The
measurement is thus first detected by primary sensor or
detector. The measurement is then immediately converted
into an analogous electrical signal.
Variable conversion element: The output signal of the
variable sensing element may be any kind. It could be a
mechanical or electrical signal. It may be a deflection of
elastic member or some electrical parameter, such as,
voltage, frequency etc. Sometimes, the output from the
sensor is not suited to the measurement system. For the
instrument to perform the desired function, it may be
necessary to convert this output signal from the sensor to
some other suitable form while preserving the
information content of the original signal.
Variable manipulation element: Variable
manipulation means a change in numerical value of
the signal. The function of a variable manipulation
element is to manipulate the signal presented to this
element while preserving the original nature of the
signal. For example, a voltage amplifier acts as a
variable manipulation element.
Signal conditioning element: The output signal of
transducers contains information which is further
processed by the system. Many transducers develop
usually a voltage or some other kind of electrical
signal and quite often the signal developed is of very
low voltages, may be of the order of mV
Data transmission element: There are several
situations where the elements of an instrument are
actually physically separated. In such situations it
becomes necessary to transmit data from one
element to another. The element that performs this
function is called a Data Transmission Element.
Data presentation element: The function of data
presentation element is to convey the information
about the quantity under measurement to the
personnel handling the instrument or the system for
monitoring, control, or analysis purposes.
PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY
Static Characteristics: Static characteristic of an
instrument are the parameters which are more or
less constant or varying very slowly with time. The
following characteristics are static characteristics
performance terminology.
Range : Every sensor is designed to work over a
specified range i.e. certain maximum and minimum
values. The design ranges are usually fixed and if
exceeded, result in permanent damage to or
destruction of a sensor. For example, a thermocouple
may have a range of -100 to 12600C.
Span : It represents the highest possible input value
which can be applied to the sensor without causing
unacceptably large inaccuracy. Therefore, it is the
difference between maximum and minimum values
of the quantity to be measured.
Span = Maximum value of the input – Minimum
value of the input
Error : Error is the difference between a measured
value and the true input value.
Error = Measured value – True input value
Accuracy : A very important characteristic of a
sensor is accuracy which really means inaccuracy.
Inaccuracy is measured as a ratio of the highest
deviation of a value represented by the sensor to the
ideal value. The accuracy of a sensor is inversely
proportional to error, highly accurate sensor
produces low errors.
Sensitivity : Sensor sensitivity is defined as the
change in output per change in input. The factor may
be constant over the range of the sensor (linear), or it
may vary (nonlinear).
Hysteresis: is defined as the maximum differences in
output for a given input when this value is
approached from the opposite direction. It is a
phenomenon which shows different outputs when
loading and unloading. Simply, hysteresis means
that both the loading and unloading curves do not
coincide. That the deviation of unloading from
loading condition due to hysteresis effect.
Linearity: of a sensor refers to the output that is
directly proportional to input over its entire range, so
that the slope of a graph of output versus input
describes a straight line. If the response of the
system to input A is output A, and the response to
input B is output B, then the response to input C
(=input A + input B) will be output C (=output A +
output B).
Non-linearity: of a sensor refers to the output that is
not proportional to input over its entire range, so that
the slope of a graph of output versus input describes a
curve, Non-linearity error is the deviation of output
curve from a specified straight line as shown in
image.
Repeatability: may be defined as the ability of the
sensor to give same output reading when the same
input value is applied repeatedly under the same
operating conditions.
Reproducibility: may be defined as the degree of
closeness among the repeated measurement of the
output for the same value of input under the same
operating conditions at different times performance
terminology.
Precision: is defined as 'the quality of being
exact' and refers to how close two or more
measurements are to each other, regardless of
whether those measurements are accurate or not.
Stability: means the ability of the sensor to indicate
the same output over a period of time for a constant
input.
Resolution: is defined as the smallest change that
can be detected by a sensor. It can also be defined as
the minimum value of the input required to cause an
appreciable change or an increment in the output.
Zero drift: is the variation of change in output for a
given input over a period of time. When making a
measurement it is necessary to start at a known
datum, and it is often convenient to adjust the output
of the instrument to zero at the datum. The signal
level may vary from its set zero value when the
sensor works. This introduces an error into the
measurement equal to the amount of variation or
drift.
Impedance: is the ratio of voltage and current flow
for a sensor. Two types of impedance are important
in sensor applications: input impedance and output
impedance. Input impedance is a measure of how
much current must be drawn to power a sensor.
Output impedance is a measure of a sensor’s ability
to provide current for the next stage of the system.
Dynamics characteristics: Sensor and actuators
respond to inputs that change with time. Any system
that changes with time is considered a dynamic
system. Dynamic characteristics of an instrument
are the parameters which are varying with time. The
following characteristics are dynamic characteristics.
Response time: The time taken by a sensor to
approach its true output when subjected to a step
input is sometimes referred to as its response time.
Dead Zone: of a sensor is the range of input values
for which the instrument does not respond. The dead
band is typically a region of input close to zero at
which the output remains zero.
Measuring lag: The delay in the response of an
instrument to a change in the measured quantity is known
as measuring lag.
Dead time: is the time taken by the sensor from the
application of input to begin its response and change.
Overshoot: refers to an output exceeding its final, steady-
state value.
Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measuring
instrument is capable of faithfully reproducing the
changes in input, without any dynamic error.
Frequency Response: Maximum frequency of the
measured variable that an instrument is capable of
following without error. The usual requirement is that the
frequency of measurand should not exceed 60% of the
natural frequency of the measuring instrument.
Overshoot
MEASUREMENT METHOD
1. Direct and indirect measurement.
2. Primary and secondary & tertiary measurement.
3. Contact and non-contact type of measurement.
Direct measurement: The value of the physical
parameter is determined by comparing it directly with
different standards. The physical standards like mass,
length and time are measured by direct measurement.
Indirect measurement: The value of the physical
parameter is more generally determined by indirect
comparison with the secondary standards through
calibration. The measurement is convert into an
analogous signal which subsequently process and fed to
the end device at present the result of measurement.
Primary and secondary & tertiary measurement
The complexity of an instrument system depending
upon measurement being made and upon the
accuracy level to which the measurement is needed.
Based upon the complexity of the measurement
systems, the measurement are generally grouped
into three categories.
i. Primary
ii. Secondary
iii. Tertiary
In the primary mode: the sought value of physical
parameter is determined by comparing it directly
with reference standards the required information is
obtained to sense of side and touch.
Examples: Matching of two lengths is determining
the length of a object with ruler.
Secondary and tertiary measurement: are the
indirect measurements involving one transmission
are called secondary measurements and those
involving two convergent are called tertiary
measurements.
Example: Bellows convert pressure into displacement
is a typical example of secondary measurement.
The measurement of static pressure by bourdon
tube pressure gauge is a typical example of tertiary
measurement.
Bourdon tube:
Bourdon tube is oval or elliptical in cross-section of
thickness between 0.01 to 0.05 inches. It has one end
sealed & another end open for pressure
measurement & fixed into the socket.
The socket has provision for attaching the gauge
with equipment whose pressure has to measure. The
material of construction for the bourdon tube is
stainless steel, phosphor bronze, etc.
Generally bourdon tube is made in three shapes, C-
shaped bourdon tube, Spiral shaped bourdon tube,
helical bourdon tube.
Geared sector & pinion arrangement:
The movement of the free sealed end is non-linear &
smaller multiplication of movement of tip end is done
by means of geared sector & pinion arrangement.
It is connected to the sealed end of the bourdon tube
by means of an adjustable link.
Pointer & Dial:
The pointer is mounted onto the spindle of the pinion
wheel. The dial is circular arc-shaped fitted onto the
housing.
Working of Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge:
The open end of the bourdon tube is connected to the
equipment or fluid. Transfer line whose pressure is
to be measured.
When the fluid enters into the bourdon tube, hoop
stresses are generated into the tube which tries to
straighten the circular tube.
This allows the sealed end of the tube to move in a
non-linear manner.
This movement of the sealed end is magnified by
gear sector & pinion arrangement which allows the
pointer to move onto the calibrated dial.
When the pressure is removed, the bourdon tube
regains its shape & it allows the pointer to move on
zero position.
Contact type: Where the sensing element of
measuring device as a contact with medium whose
characteristics are being measured.
Non-contact type: Where the sense doesn't
communicate physically with the medium.
ERROR AND THEIR
CLASSIFICATION
Error: The difference between a measured quantity and
its true value gives measurement error.
Absolute error: is the variation between the actual
values and measured values
Classification of Errors:
Errors are classified in three types – Systemic
(Determinate) Random (Indeterminate) and Gross error.
Systemic (Determinate) errors: Errors which can be
avoided or whose magnitude can be determined is called
as systemic errors. It can be determinable and
presumably can be either avoided or corrected.
Random Errors: It occurs accidentally or randomly so
called as indeterminate or accidental or random error.
Gross Error: Human mistake in reading instruments
and recording and calculating measurement result.
Classification of Systemic (Determinate) errors:
Observational errors may occur due to the fault study
of the instrument reading, and the sources of these errors
are many.
Environmental errors will happen due to the outside
situation of the measuring instruments. These types of
errors mostly happen due to the temperature result, force,
moisture, dirt, vibration otherwise because of the
electrostatic field or magnetic.
Instrumentation errors:
These errors occurs due to three main reasons.
Due to inherent short comings of the instrument.
Due to misuse of instruments.
Due to loading effects of instruments.
Reading error: these types of error apply
exclusively to instruments. These errors may be the
result of parallax and optical resolution etc.
Alignment error: This occurs if the checking of an
instruments is not correctly aligned with the
direction of the desired measurement.
Parallax Error
