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01 material families

Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

WOOD p.10 / PAPER, CARDBOARD p.24 / LEATHER, HIDE p.32 / METAL p.40 / GLASS, CERAMICS p.52 / PLAS-
TICS p.64 / COMPOSITES p.72 / TEXTILES p.82 / STONE p.90 / CONCRETE p.98 / LIGHT p.106.

Unique in its ability to self-propagate under our very eyes, with ever reassuring familiarity, wood sets
itself apart from other materials that often require human intervention to make them suitable for use.
Spread over more than a third of our planet, with hundreds of species co-existing on it (broad-leaved
trees [angiosperms] and coniferous trees [gymnosperms]), forests – subject to changing climates
and soil types – provide today’s designers with a range of fine domestic woods and countless im-
ported species.
Amongst one of the oldest construction materials, wood never actually played a leading role in the
industrial revolution. Ironically, its inability to guarantee the uniformity, reproducibility and accuracy
that industry demands – which could have seen it disappear from the market – have proven to be its
strengths, helping to carve a niche market with a refreshing appeal in our modern age. Primarily and
quite simply because history and advances in technology do not prevent trees from growing. During
this era of sustainability, wood is able to claim a truly competitive ecological advantage, non-chemical
treatments recently perfected ensuring it is fully recyclable.
As a natural composite material, an organised set of bio-polymers, wood is lightweight yet by com-
parison extremely advanced. Admittedly, steel, for example, is ten times stronger than high-quality
spruce but it is also twenty times heavier. The anisotropy of the wood (different behaviour depending
on the effective orientation of the material), a quality which hindered its industrialisation, has now
been highlighted as a definite advantage reflected in the increased demand for composite, honey-
comb and other resin-reinforced materials.
In a modern world that is far from perfect, wood remains the material that is available, immediate,
obvious. It is the poor man’s material: accessible, taken for granted, ready for gathering. The real
survival material, it warms, helps to build and is interchangeable: the all-consuming exploitation of
the Amazonian jungle bears witness to this.
Reigning supreme, wood is irreplaceable for a number of applications, with advances in the field slow
but worthy of note. Other than solid timber, which can now be heat treated at the core by the process
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

of retification – the chemical pollution from components used up to now being eradicated – the world
of wood broadly opens to all of its derivatives, some of which are extremely refined. The line of prod-
ucts incorporates carefully designed timber products such as OSB (Oriented Strand Board), heat
treatments to achieve pliable wood (that can be worked like leather or even fabric), air foam wood,
plywoods that can be creatively moulded in three dimensions, right through to wood polymers, ‘liquid’
woods, which mix wood waste and plastic resins that can be extruded or injected.
If wood has not followed in the footsteps of competing materials and is not caught up in the un-
bridled onset of thundering innovation, it serves as a perennial reminder to us that no material is
ever intrinsically obsolete and continues, unassumingly, to grow under the watch of Robin (w)hood!

5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

13 14 15 16

silhouettes of A variety of tree species

within the broad-leaved tree family: 1 acacia 2 maple 3 bird’s eye maple 4 Oregon alder 5 birch 6 Australian or she oak 7 pecan
8 box 9 sweet chestnut 10 black bean 11 Ceylon lemon 12 violet wood (Jacaranda – Dalbergia genus) 13 cocobolo (Dalbergia
retusa) 14 Ceylon Ebony (Diospyros ebenum) 15 jelutong (Dyera costulata) 16 walnut

1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10

11 12 13 14 15
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

16 17 18 19 20

silhouettes of A variety of tree species

within the coniferous tree family: 1 European silver fir 2 kaori tree (New Zealand) 3 Panama pine 4 Australian pine 5 cedar of
Lebanon 6 cypress 7 rimu (or red pine) 8 European larch 9 European spruce 10 Sitka spruce 11 Californian sugar pine 12 plum-fruited
yew 13 Ponderosa pine 14 Weymouth pine 15 Scots pine 16 Oregon pine 17 sequoia 18 silver pine 19 cedar 20 Californian hemlock

today than the plants are able to absorb – this leads to is consumed in the form of firewood (in developing
greenhouse effect. The consequences of large-scale countries amongst others, where this may represent
deforestation – as in the Amazonian jungle – can be up to 80% of the volumes being exploited).
felt far and wide. Deforestation is responsible for ap-
proximately 20% of the world’s emissions of green- To differing degrees, more than 1.6 billion people ex-
house gases, which contribute to global warming and tract their means of existence from the forest, from
the decline of a number of endangered species. medicinal plants and food, to removing it for firewood.
• The raw material: The forest provides us with ‘wood’

as a raw material, a material that has the special qual

ity of being renewable (renewable in the short term TREES
compared with fossil fuels) and recyclable. The trans-
formation and processing of wood consumes little Wood is a natural material, which provides an exten-
energy and in some cases is self-sufficient. Wood is, sive range of species and grades. There are several 1

potentially, as much a material as a fuel source. Our thousand different species in the natural environment.
forests represent an enormous repository of raw mate- In the West, more than about a hundred species are
rials. Throughout our planet, they take up roughly 30% currently commercially available.
of the earth’s land surface (4.1 billion out of 12.7 billion Choice is determined by mechanical properties, densi-
hectares of land surface area). If the distribution of the ty or durability and by aesthetic properties, which with-
forest is not completely uniform between all countries, in a species can vary depending on the place of origin
varying between 1% and 98% of a country (in the case or the tree itself. As a result, when working with solid
of Guyana, for example), forested areas are actually timber, pieces have to be carefully selected (generally,
distributed relatively equally between the North and professionals buy a batch of complete logs – complete
the South of the planet. The large clumps of forested trunks – to guarantee a certain degree of uniformity in
area include: ex-USSR and North America, which rep production).
resent 40% of the forested land mass, followed by the
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

Amazon and Africa. A distinction must be made between two large fami-
lies, broad-leaved trees and coniferous trees:
The uncontrolled exploitation of forested areas – long • In the case of coniferous trees (gymnosperms),

considered to be an inexhaustible repository of materi- you will find approximately 400 species which essential
als – has in history led to very serious and hazardous ly come from the northern hemisphere (Canada, the
imbalances (the near complete disappearance of the Black Forest, Nordic Countries, the west of France).
English forest in the nineteenth century, when wood These are evergreen trees that are fast-growing (on
was widely used as fuel in the manufacture of steel). average 60 to 80 years). They are essentially used for
The well-ordered management of our woodland herit construction and structural framework.
age has given rise to the development of controls other • In the case of broad-leaved trees (angiosperms),

wise referred to as silviculture. The purpose of these you will find several thousands of species, which es-
controls is to regenerate the forested areas which exist sentially come from temperate and tropical forests (Af-
and to artificially create new ones, making it possible rica, South America, central France). These are decid
to achieve ecosystems that can be exploited in rela uous trees that are slow-growing (on average 120 to
tively short periods of time and can be maintained in 200 years). They are essentially used for furniture.

cross-section tangential section radial section

(end grain) (wood grain) (wood grain)

bark

cambium

annual growth ring

rays

pith

heartwood

sapwood

TREE TRUNK SECTION

crown
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

annual growth ring top log

trunk log

base

root

summer wood spring wood

MICROSCOPIC TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A SOFTWOOD FELLING AND PROCESSING

of a tree will reveal its history. You can distinguish, ration that determines the direction of the wood, or its
particularly in climates with distinct seasons, between ‘grain’. The fibres also run radially.
spring wood and summer wood – a light layer as op- • Vascular tissue: which allows the unrefined sap to

posed to a dark layer. be transported from the roots to the leaves (through the
Only perfect wood (heartwood) – wood that has reached sapwood).
maturity – is used in the commercial exploitation of • Spare cells (wood parenchyma).

wood. Sapwood is eliminated. It is wood that is ‘too

young’, saturated with all of the tree’s nutrients, which The arrangement of the tissue, the size and the shape of
usually neither has the colour nor the properties of the the cells are characteristics of each species.
heartwood and which quickly decomposes and also
represents an attractive home to parasites. Some sap- Wood, as it is used by all, is in fact the ‘dead’ part of the
woods, however, are not ‘characteristic’ and cannot be tree, the part where the sap no longer circulates.
distinguished from heartwood. The thickness of sap-
woods also varies greatly according to the species. Given the physico-chemical complexity of wood, each
The inner bark – or liber, which transports the pro- part of wood has a behaviour significantly different to
cessed sap (descending), is no longer used; nor is others, which explains the difficulties encountered in its
the bark nor the heart centre (often weak, very irregular industrial production.
and vulnerable to insects and fungi).
However, nothing goes to waste from the tree. Any- This sophisticated layout is also the source of the wood’s
thing that is not destined for the saw mill will be used anisotropy – a quality or defect? In fact, wood does not
for firewood or for pulpwood, for (paper) pulp and demonstrate identical characteristics according to its re-
some fibreboards and chipboards. spective grain or direction. In each direction, shrinkage, 6

mechanical and aesthetic properties can vary exten-

sively. A distinction is made between flat-grained wood,
MICROBIOLOGY cross-grained wood and end-grained wood. The way in
which wood is milled is therefore a critical factor.
Wood is a composite organic and natural material, a so-
phistication that man rarely achieves when applying him-
self to manufacture composite materials. Its microscopic Cutting
3 structure reveals this. Mainly made up of three polymers
(that is, ‘plastic’ materials), wood derives its unique prop In a tree, the commercially exploitable part of the joinery
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

erties from an intelligent layout of the cellulose, hemicel- timber is relatively limited. It comes down to the flitch,
lulose and lignin, in the approximate ratio of 50/25/25, (log) the most rectilinear and uniform part of the trunk.
depending on the species and biological variations: This inevitably determines the final dimensions of the
• The cellulose: Common to all plant species, is the sections of wood that will be made from it. There is no
source of the fibrous structure of wood cells and pro way of obtaining a plank three metres in length if the tree
vides it with its strength and rigidity. It can be found as a only measures two.
basic constituent of paper, plant textile fibres and even Depending on the species, the foot (stump) and the 4

some foods. second log (fork or crutch) can provide sections with
• Hemicellulose: Surrounds it. Absorbent and able to surprising aesthetics, such as the burr, a wood that is
swell, hemicellulose is otherwise responsible for the leafy and twisting. Otherwise, they will be used, in the
dimensional variations of wood. same way as the branches, as pulpwood.
• Lignin: Acts as a cement between the fibres of the Milling a trunk causes the internal tensions to be re- 5

wood and as a stiffening agent inside the fibres. Act- leased that were hitherto ‘locked away’. The behaviour
ing as a thermoplastic polymer, it is this amongst other and the quality of each piece of wood is dependant on
things that will allow deformation of the wood by stoving. the chosen method of conversion.

1 2

3 4

CLASSIC WOOD CUTTING METHODS

1 flat sawing 2 plain or slash sawing 3 rift sawing 4 quarter sawing

6 7

radial tangential transverse

(medium) (major) (minor)
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

WOOD SHRINKAGE ALONG THREE AXES OF WOOD SHRINKAGE AND DEFORMATION ACCORDING TO CUT

parts are sawn depending on their use: planks (construc- • or by impregnation (wood placed in an autoclave and

tion); flitches and strips (furniture); joists, slats and stud- pressurised)
ding (structural framework); wall posts (masonry); veneer Curative treatments are applied:
9 (by means of fine slicing or rotary cutting – modelled on • either by a paint-on treatment (brush-on or with a roller)

the ‘pencil sharpener’, for furniture, packaging) • or by spray (spray gun, air sprayer)

• or by injection (using types of syringe)

SHRINKAGE There are four major types of treatment:

• Insecticide treatments: To protect against insects.
7 Wood is constantly shrinking, particularly whilst drying Two to three hundred species of insects throughout
and sections of wood will have a tendency to deform the world are responsible for extensive damage to all
unevenly depending on the three directions in space. types of wood: dry wood, hardwood, softwood, inside
Well managed conversion will succeed in minimising the sapwood, heartwood and even paper. Amongst the
the consequences of shrinkage. most formidable are: the house longhorn beetle, which
is able to reduce a joist to sawdust within 10 years;
death watch beetles, which also effectively eat away at
DEFECTS floors and cupboards; termites, a veritable curse in the
tropics, which are even present in urban environments.
8 Wood may present a number of defects, some directly • Fungicidal treatments: To protect against fungi. If

linked to the phenomenon of shrinkage such as curling, wood retains more than 22% water, rotting processes
warping and splitting. Knots, frost cracking, ingrown take hold. The growth of fungi occurs intensively be-
bark are amongst the many irregularities that make this tween 25°C and 35°C. Interior and residential work can
material difficult to work with. suffer the attacks of trametes and polyporus, for exam-
ple, but the most formidable remains dry rot, otherwise
called ‘house fungus’. It causes so-called ‘cubic’, dry,
DRYING red rot and reduces wood so that it is similar to semi-
carbonised wood. At the outset it manifests itself in the
A tree is saturated with water, sometimes up to 200%, form of thick, white cotton wool. There is a wide range
according to the species and the ambient moisture of ready-to-use, commercially available products for
levels. Controlling the degree of moisture is therefore treating these pests, phenol-, chlorine-, fluorine-, creo-
essential for the commercial exploitation of the wood. sote-, copper-based.
In fact, wood (ready for processing, sawn up or made • Dampproofing treatments: To protect against damp.
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

into a chair) is constantly behaving like a sponge: In order to guarantee the highest possible degree of
upon drying out, it shrinks, when wet, it swells. dimensional stability and also to avoid rot, the wood
Drying therefore consists of removing the water con- is soaked by means of dipping or injection, with resin,
tent in the wood in order to best stabilise its behaviour. which saturates the wood and is able to go as far as to
There are two types of drying: natural (in the air, for remove any reaction causing shrinkage or swelling.
several months or several years) and artificial (by stov- There is currently a heat treatment called retification, an
ing or in a kiln, for a few days). Commercially, wood ecological alternative to the purely chemical, polluting
is deemed to be dry when it has a degree of moisture treatments. In an inert atmosphere, at more than 200°C,
that is between 18 and 22%. wood is heated to create a material with improved
dimensional stability and durability. A slight brown
colouration and a minor reduction in its mechanical
TREATMENTS properties are, however, side-effects of this procedure.
• Fire-proofing treatments: To protect against fire.

Wood, depending on the species, will have varying Wood is a combustible material and everyone knows
durability. It can be used without special treatment but that fire can be made with wood. Paradoxically, wood

1 2

4 5

DEFECTS IN WOOD
1 curling 2 bending 3 knot 4 crack 5 warping

9
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

PRODUCTION OF VENEER
1 rotary cutting (continuous) 2 slicing (sheet by sheet)

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can effectively counter the effects of fire. It does not veloped from derivatives: specific screw fittings and
deform, it does not release toxic gas, it burns slowly, assemblies, inserts and invisibles hinges.
allowing the necessary time for an evacuation of any If wood derivatives optimise certain qualities of solid
people. Its behaviour is predictable. wood, each type of derivative still has its advantages
International classifications are in place but, even to- and disadvantages (See part 02).
day, each country has its own standards. Wood derivatives are currently grouped under the
Wood and its derivatives can be fire-proofed, allow- classification of EWP (Engineered Wood Products).
ing it to be granted, in terms of fire performance, the
classifications ‘average flammability’ (M3 in France,
D for the European standard) to ‘inflammable’ (M1 in PROCESSING
France, B for the European standard). This fireproof-
ing process can be superficial by applying coatings Wood is without doubt the most commonly used mate-
or even paints or a barrier-type or intumescent-type rial for doing ‘odd jobs’, firmly rooted in tradition and
varnish. It can be mass-produced by injecting fireproof common practice. Alive and kicking handicraft wood-
saline solutions, which is effective but is unfortunately work has promoted the development of a whole range
also polluting. of small, portable electric tools, from ‘amateur enthusi-
The valid service life of fireproofing treatment is limit ast’ to professional in quality, allowing anyone to work
ed in time (between 3 and 10 years depending on the on location and directly on building sites. Bordering
treatments). on outlandish, there is now a tool for every operation.
This overspecialisation does, however, contribute to
Fire resistance defines the time during which construc making working with wood something that is familiar
tion elements can play the role for which they are intend and accessible. DIY enthusiasts, equipped with all the
ed in spite of the effect of a fire. There are 4 criteria to attributes of professionals (but to a lower standard)
take into account: are more and more prolific. On the other hand, the gap
• Mechanical resistance widens between heavy industry, equipped with high-
• Flame retardancy performance machinery, computer-controlled, etc. and
• The absence of flammable gas emissions from the craftsmen with lightweight equipment.
exposed surface area
• Heat insulation The method of manufacturing wooden objects has
Fire-stable elements are those in respect of which only evolved greatly. ‘Made entirely of wood’ is a rare
the first criterion is a requirement; flame-resistant el- thing: wood-metal and wood-plastic combinations
ements are those in respect of which the first three are emerging. The compatibility between wood and
criteria are required; fire-rated elements are those in these various materials does sometimes raise some
respect of which all of the criteria are required. concerns.

The appearance of kit furniture and structural frame

SOLID WOOD / WOOD DERIVATIVES work has also greatly simplified the process of making
things with wood.
From an industrial perspective, wood is in fact a mate-
rial whose faults limit its intensive exploitation. That is
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

why the nineteenth century, taking advantage of mech WOOD AND INNOVATION
anisation, developments in chemistry and the arrival
of high-performance adhesives and plastic materials, Given that man has had a relationship with wood as
saw the emergence of a new category of materials, a material for centuries and has not seen it changing,
wood derivatives. These allow wood to be adapted to developments in this field are discrete but without any
industrial requirements to create a reproducible, reli- doubt tangible. As opposed to the creation of new spe-
able and uniform material. Wood derivatives minimise cies, innovation focuses on tools, on the transition to
the chronic faults of solid wood: less dimensional limi- computerisation and robotics and on the development
tations, less shrinkage, better surface evenness, less of increasingly high-performance derivative wood prod
susceptibility to splitting. ucts. At a time when special attention is being paid
The arrival of wood derivatives has turned the design to the environment, wood as a material is attracting
of furniture upside-down. Where carcases used to be renewed interest. Retification of wood makes it pos-
manufactured and then finished with panels, they are sible to provide, for example, a treatment that does
now finished with actual single, contiguous boxes. An not involve the introduction of toxic products, allowing
entire range of adapted hardware has also been de- clean recycling of the material.

paper and cardboard consumption for wood-based

consumption (0,23 Gm3) panels (0,13 Gm3)

wood used as an energy

source (1,8 Gm3)

sawn-wood
consumption (1 Gm3)

consumption
for paper pulp (0,4 Gm3)

other consumption (0,2 Gm3)

industrial round wood (1,6 Gm3)

world production
of round timber (3,4 Gm3)
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

BREAKDOWN OF CONSUMPTION AMONG WOOD INDUSTRIES

(1 Gm3 = 1 billion m3)

Wood as a material, ‘pushed to the limits’ is capable

of producing: flexible wood, the product of ultra-high
compression and stoving of end grain, actual wood
en ‘wallpapers’, three-dimensional plywoods, obtain
ed by fragmenting veneer sheets, ‘wood-plastics’ or
‘wood-polymers’, which can be injected or extruded
using wood shavings (sawdust, powder) or pulpwood
in thermoplastic matrices.

Further research and development propositions contin

ue to emerge, with products like wood foam – manu-
factured from sawdust, stoved like a traditional loaf of
bread and wood welding – discovered by chance after
forgetting the adhesive in a friction adhesion test.
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

List of materials examined in part 02: Bamboo p.126 / Burrs

p.131 / Chipboard p.139 / Cork p.144 / Laminated timber, glued p.174 /
Laminates p.175 / Lathboard or coreboard p.177 / Mdf p.191 / Orient-
ed-strand board (Osb) p.199 / Plywood p.208 / Plywood, moulded
p.209 / Veneer p.243 / Wood polymers p.244 / Wood, retified p.245 /
Wood species p.246.

List of processes examined in part 03: Assembly p.272 / Bond-

ing p.278 / Cutting p.260 / Digital processes p.316 / Finishes p.324 / Ma-
chining p.268 / Printing p.320 / Resin moulding p.300.

Up to very recently, no other material will have better captured man’s language and memory than
paper. And yet, from a precious and essential material, paper has simply become banal. So readily
available that it is almost overlooked. Lightweight, accessible, the obvious choice, humdrum.
Serving a society in which the throw-away reigns supreme, it has started to develop into an object in
itself, available for a large number of applications: packaging (the vehicle for brand identity, which in
some countries is bordering on an art form or a cult object), hygiene, filtration and architecture.
With annual global production reaching 400 million tonnes at the start of the twenty-first century,
largely due to the United States and areas where Asians remain large-scale manufacturers (China
and Japan), the consumption of paper per inhabitant is indexed according to each countries gross
national product. Producing revealing statistics.
Like regional culinary specialities, there are many different recipes, methods of preparation and con-
sequently styles of paper. The fibres, which form its structure, are not limited to those extracted from
wood (where diversity, with all its differences, is still the dominant factor) but also come from recycled
paper, from rags or plants such as cotton, linen (flax), bamboo or algae. The non-industrial or indus-
trial production of paper pulp and then paper web leaves its mark. A very wide range of papers and
cardboards are now available, by freely varying the bulk, the hand, the formation or the format of the
material. The paper industry has in fact only recently been mechanised and yet the craftsman’s know-
how still endures. The pleasure of fine papers is shared by art editors, collectors, artists, designers.
Despite being considered a relatively natural material, the organised production of the material is not
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

without environmental impact and the paper and board industry still have some way to go to meet
the increasingly stringent environmental requirements. Even recycling, which plays a vital if not cen-
tral role in some countries, has recourse to use some disputed chemical products. This represents
one of the great challenges in this field. However, by nature, paper opens the door to a lighter, more
ephemeral, three-dimensional world. The tradition of Origami and the cardboard structures made by
Shigeru Ban are testimony of this. These structures are constructed quickly and easily, inexpensive
and less greedy in terms of materials than classical architecture. Its indisputable qualities of strength
compared to its weight, amongst other things, allow paper to proudly sit alongside the materials
of tomorrow, to be used for untold applications. Until last century paper was virtually the only aide-
mémoire. Today, however, such supremacy is fiercely contested by electronic memory. Books are
digitised and information technology has taken over. Will the electronic medium be as reliable or more
reliable, in time, than paper? There is every chance that the two will endure and combine in some way:
paper has not written its last word.

together were used to create a codex. paper pulp, which is full of fibres and then this pulp
Paper, as we still make it today, is of Chinese origin, is converted into webs. There are three distinct meth-
perfected around the 2nd century, from old rags and ods of obtaining pulp: mechanically, chemically or by
vegetable fibres – such as hemp – masticated, sieved means of recycling. We talk about obtaining ‘virgin
then dried. Forced to share their recipe in the eighth pulp’ in the case of the first two and ‘recycled pulp’ in
century by the Arabs in Samarkand, the knowledge of the case of the third.
the paper makers was exported, triggering large-scale
manufacture. Thanks to, amongst other things the in- • Mechanical procedure: Wood, converted into billets
vention of the printing press by Gutenberg in 1445, and chips, is mechanically defibrated (pulped) through
production spread from the Middle East to Spain and the action of abrasive grinding wheels combined with
then throughout Europe. water and heat. This coarse mechanical defibration or
The Industrialisation of the manufacture of paper is pulping produces pulp, the so-called ‘pulpwood’, with
only a recent development given its long existence. cut fibres and still with a high lignin content (see Wood
In fact, the first machines able to complete all of the p.10). With this pulp, you will obtain opaque paper offer

stages of its manufacture – from pulp to paper web – ing poor durability, which quickly yellows. This paper
only appeared in the eighteenth century. From the 19th will be mainly used for newspapers, magazines and
century paper has been manufactured from wood – an the inside of cardboard.
alternative to rags which were in short supply. • Chemical procedure: Wood, after it has been con-

verted or shredded into small chips, is put into a ‘digest-

er’ where it is baked for several hours at high tempera-
COMPOSITION tures (130°C to 180°C) with a chemical curing agent.
This type of process makes it possible to obtain a pulp,
It is cellulose – the basic component of fibres – which a so-called ‘non-wood pulp’, with fibres that are less
governs the existence of paper (like that of textiles, in damaged, widely used in America, Sweden and Finland.
fact.) A piece of paper mainly consists of fibres (up to It is a process offering a lower yield than the mechani-
95%), the remainder of its composition is then made up cal process. The curing agent used is either alkaline,
of glues or various bonding agents and pigments. or acidic. With an alkaline curing agent, we refer to the
For 90% to 95% of paper today, the cellulose comes Kraft process (a name with which you are likely to be
from wood. Different species of trees produce fibres, familiar) from the German and Swedish word meaning
which make it possible to structure paper as a mate- ‘force, strength or power’. The pulp that is obtained is a
rial – long fibres from softwoods, short ones from hard- brown or grey pulp, offering a high level of mechanical
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

woods. When the fibres do not originate from wood, they strength and which can be directly used to manufac-
can be obtained by reprocessing rags, amongst other ture packaging. With an acidic curing agent, the pulp
things. This method was used for a long time; and con- will not be as strong as a mechanical pulp, but it will
tinues today amongst some craftsmen. Long, uniform be more flexible than an alkaline pulp. It will be used to
cotton fibres and flax fibres make it possible to produce manufacture high-quality writing paper.
high-quality paper, solid, resistant to the onslaught of These two types of treatment have the same disad-
time and aesthetically pleasing. Jute, ramie, nettle and vantage: the chemical pollution that they cause. Gas
mulberry fibres can be used, as well as algae. eous toxic emissions or the disposal of chemical so-
The fibres of different plants, such as bamboos in Asia, lutions from the digesters are now prohibited.
kenaf in the tropical countries, sugar cane (particularly • Recycling: In this case, the pulp is obtained from paper

sugar cane bagasse, a by-product from the commer- and cardboard, which have already been used. The re-
cial exploitation of sugar), cereal straw (wheat, rice, cycled fibres come from a variety of recycling methods.
rye) are also used. At an industrial level, it is possible to collect the off-cuts
Mineral fibres (glass, amongst other things) and plas- at printing works, packaging, unsold newspapers and
tics sometimes (in fact increasingly) find their way into magazines and at a domestic level, packaging and

The paper’s level of whiteness is measured in ISO. obtained that is able to dispense with the ‘couch’ felt
100% being the maximum value. The ISO number cor- and is ready to be subjected to the successive drying
responds to the whiteness of magnesium oxide – the stages. The web is guided between large heating then
whitest material that we know – which reflects 100% cooling cylinders, which dry both sides at the same
of the light. Once the pulp has been bleached, it will time, removing virtually all of the water (approximately
have degrees of whiteness, which generally vary from 5% will remain).
70% to 93% ISO. Paper leaving the drying phase is referred to as ‘bulking
Different bleaching processes are available depending paper’, as its surface is still uneven. The final stages of
on the (mechanical, chemical) pulp. Hydrogen perox physical preparation, such as glazing and then calen-
ide, chlorine, ozone, oxygen are some of the bleach- dering, still between steel cylinders, crush any imper-
ing agents currently used. It is important to remember fections and optimise the thickness of the web and
that this stage of manufacturing paper is particularly the appearance of its surface. For example, you can
expensive and fairly polluting. Once bleached, the pulp obtain paper with a shiny surface by means of calen-
is then refined. The fibres are dipped in water and sub- dering. This is referred to as supercalendering.
jected to mechanical processes to reinforce their struc- After completing all of these processes, the webs are
ture and to increase contact surfaces. rolled onto a coil, ready for commercial use or are pre-
cut in a variety of formats.
Following the refining process, the pulp is then able to
receive additives. Mineral fillers such as Chinese clay,
talc, chalk, etc. improve opacity, the glazing of webs PAPER TREATMENTS
and printability. Bonding agents, such as rosin or
starch promote improved internal cohesion. Gelatine It is often necessary to undertake specific treatments
enhances resistance to solvents. Fungicidal and anti- to improve the surface of the paper and its printability.
bacterial agents inhibit deterioration of the paper and A widespread treatment is that of coating, in which an
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

colorants, of course, produce coloured paper. improved feel, enhanced writing quality, less porosity,
more attractive whiteness, etc. is produced. This can be
Once all these stages have been completed, the pulp, attained by depositing pigments (minerals additives) and
finally ready, will either be directly transformed into a binding agents onto one or both sides of the surface.
web in integrated factories, controlling the complete Most paper used for printing or writing is coated paper.
manufacture of paper from start to finish, or dried and
compacted to be transported to become paper webs.
characteristics OF PAPER

THE PAPER WEB The mass per unit area (grammage)

This is the mass per unit of surface area, measured in
While the art of manufacturing pulp consists of separat g / m2. This ranges from ultra-lightweight and lightweight
ing the fibres, to obtain webs of paper you need to bring paper, such as cigarette paper, which has a mass per
them together. Two main stages precede the manufact unit area of 15 g / m2, to 80 g /m2 traditional writing paper
ure of paper webs: the wet stage and then the dry stage. all the way up to high-gsm paper.

The grain A pair of scissors, a tube of glue, a stapler, a cutting

This is the feel of the surface of the paper, a very per- tool, a roll of Sellotape® and the adventure begins.
sonal assessment of its roughness. The extraordinary ease of working with paper makes it
familiar and obvious for us, although we face a power-
The formation (look-through) ful and largely mechanised industry.
By scrutinising a sheet of paper by looking through it,
you can discover its method of manufacture, its struc-
ture: faded formation for uniform fibres or cloudy for- PAPER AND INNOVATION
mation for non-uniform fibres.
For the paper-making industry today, one of the great
Bulking paper est challenges is to stop pollution or at least to mini-
Bulking paper, as we have seen, is unfinished paper mise its environmental impact. Similar to other sectors,
leaving the machine. It is also an adjective describing environmental issues are highlighting the need for re-
the tactile sensation of thick paper and finally a cat cycling. As a result the proportion of recycling in the
egory of unsized, printing paper, with lots of hand and production of paper is increasing. The collection and
fairly absorbent. The paper used in paperback books, sorting of used paper is organised in numerous coun-
for example. tries, with education about how to reduce packaging
and waste products being provided. Dare we dream of
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Whiteness closed-cycle production?

Measured in ISO, referred to earlier. A luxurious paper In addition to wood, alternative fibre sources, are
will have a level of whiteness of between 88% and 93% emerg ing. As previously stated, pineapple or other
ISO, whereas newspaper paper is around 65% ISO. fruit pulp, bamboo or hemp can be made into paper,
as well as algae, for example, those endemic to the la-
Gloss goon of Venice and whose harvest had no future other
A paper will be made shiny due to its specific composi- than incineration.
tion (using additives) and as a result of the calendering
process. Every day new paper or cardboard products are appear
ing. With the exclusion of ‘creative’ paper, which never
Format ceases to surprise and incorporate new visual experi
Paper, depending on its location and method of man ences (paper with pigments changing in colour; with sur-
2 ufacture, has long since come in different formats. face treatments providing the feel of suede or of wetness,
Since the Seventies, in the printing sector in particular, powerful deep colours; different surfaces, etc.), paper
an international AFNOR standard (Association Fran- and cardboard might assume a honeycomb structure,

1 2

7
6 5 4 3

8
11

9 10

PAPER MANUFACTURE
1 debarking 2 chipping 3 washing equipment 4 purification and washing 5 whitening 6 pulp tank 7 cleaning tank 8 pulp 9 pressing
10 drying 11 reel winder

paper for graphic and packaging

stationery use (50 %) (40 %)
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

1
various hygiene paper
2 (4 %) (6 %)

STANDARD PAPER FORMATS

1 landscape 2 portrait BREAKDOWN OF PAPER PRODUCTION

Papers and plastics enjoy quite an intimate friendship.

Indeed, paper can be found in the injection of ther-
moplastics: here it plays a filler role but it is also pos-
sible to find paper whose composition is verging on
that of a pure polymer. It is used for unrippable, imper-
meable, resistant paper… which is still printable, fine
and creasable. They are made into Tyvek® envelopes,
work boiler suits, bank notes, identity documents, etc.

Watermarks, as we have seen, remain a much appreci

ated mark and security feature (proof of authenticity). In
terms of security, inks also play their part. Permanently
inseparable from paper, they can now only react to ultra
violet light and can therefore only be detected under
special conditions (once again, the ability to check the
authenticity of a document). Inks offer some intriguing
visual effects. There are raised or puff inks, to provide
an embossed effect to your writing, phosphorescent or
fluorescent inks, temperature-sensitive, invisible UV-
reactive inks. The choice is extensive.

Printing techniques are also developing and the speed of

production, ease of processing and cost are enhanced.

Finally, the word paper has infiltrated the field of elec-

tronics and information technology to describe thin,
flexible and multi-functional substrates. Some papers
with a printed pattern communicate with ‘intelligent’
pens, able to transcribe your scribbles to computer-
ised message boards. We talk about ‘electronic paper’
to describe book screen surfaces of tomorrow, or even
‘luminous paper’ when referring to films, silkscreen
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

printed with electroluminescent ink (see Electrolumi-

nescence p.147). If you take a step back from cellulose,
in terms of its composition, the idea is there: one of the
substrate, the medium for information and memory,
the notion of an expressive surface, whatever it might
be: vertigo (or anxiety?) of the white page.

List of materials examined in part 02: Cardboard p.133 / Honey-

comb p.170 / Paper p.200 / Parchment p.202.
List of processes examined in part 03: Assembly p.272 / Bon-
ding p.278 / Calendering p.302 / Cutting p.260 / Digital processes
p.316 / Finishes p.324 / Folding p.264 / Machining p.268 / Printing p.320
/ Sewing p.288 / Stamping p.290.

An object of desire, a mark of luxury, with connotations of the illicit, adventure and sometimes deca-
dence, leathers and furs, second skins, create an air of ambiguity. Leathers continue to fascinate, veri-
table hunting trophies, awakening man’s animal instincts, separated from the animal, changing hands
to the highest bidder, even finding its way onto the black market, where the desire for the forbidden
becomes overwhelming.
A material with a unique character – which is what also gives it its value – each dismembered animal
will have its own specific characteristics, its own history. Like the close-fitting jacket, the fetish shoe,
polished a hundred times, or the tired club armchair, they too bear the mark of their owners’ past. One
of the rare materials for which wear and tear is accepted – indeed marketed – vaunting the imprint
and ravages of time, leather is a tactile, contact material, with an almost suspicious familiarity: like our
skin, it breaths, lives, gives way to many a whim and all the while emits a sensual sweet scent. The
opposite of armour and nonetheless, its uses, for clothing amongst other things, never fail to rise to
the occasion, to symbolise the inhumanity, the violence and the repression in the clicking of boots or
the rustle of full length coats.
A vital material questioning the relationship between man and nature. Is leather inexhaustible? For
some sought after pieces, sometimes banned (such as the hair coats of some protected animals),
it is a rare and precious material. For other more everyday, more accessible pieces, leather can be
found in abundance – as the by-product of calf, cow and pig rearing, for example. Worked, tanned,
embossed or calendared, the skins become disassociated from the animal. To such an extent we
confuse them with imitations. Plastics or textiles can be deceptive and make strong claims on the
elevated status of synthetic leathers and furs, even if the substitute is never perfect. Leather remains
a truly high-performance material, with its own integral functionality. It is capable of acting like a hinge
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

(like its distant cousin, polypropylene); it is extremely resistant to traction and to expansion; it remains
elastic and can be used in combination with traditional methods (special stitching, eyelets, collages).
As the only flexible material available to man for a long time, leather became the basis of a great craft
tradition, which continues despite industrialisation taking over many of the production processes.
Following close on the heels of technological innovation, leather can handle a torrent of treatments,
without compromising its intrinsic qualities of breathing and flexibility. It pays heed to the growing
concerns for preserving the environment by reducing the amount of water consumed during its
manufacture and by modifying the chemical compositions of tannins. However, at the same time, the
floodgates to animals, which up until now had been safe in their skins: birds, fish, new species of rab-
bit created by genetic crossings, amongst others, can now make claim to a place on our handbags
or over our shoulders.

Animal skin is the raw material of a family of well-known Whatever the animal species in question, the composi-
materials. Skins that have long since been used; tion of the skin can be described as follows:
whose work – in the preserved air of the craftsman’s • The epidermis: Essentially made of keratin. 1

workshop – sometimes borders on the artistic but has • The dermis: This is the part that will become leath

also been subject to widespread industrialisation. By er. The dermis, the looser or tighter felting of finer or
nature, skins and hides, like trees, are not subject to coarser fibres includes the ‘grain side’ and the ‘flesh
the exacting demands of perfection, of reproducibility side’. The sebaceous glands (which secrete sebum),
and dimensions of industry. Everything will depend on the sweat glands and the hair sheaths can be found
the animal’s life, its size, its age…obviously, a delicate implanted within the grain side of the dermis. The hairs
industrial process. are made of keratin whereas the dermis itself is made
up of collagen.
Skins are basically taken from mammals: cattle, sheep, •The subcutaneous tissue or hypodermis: Made of

pigs, goats, horses although it is also possible to find collagen.

the skin of fish, reptiles and birds.
The animals, which will be used to manufacture leath The differences in the composition of the three layers
er, are reared, mainly (with a few exceptions) for their (keratin and collagen) will make it possible to get rid
meat, their milk or their wool. The details that follow of the epidermis and hairs by means of an alkaline
concentrate on animals for slaughter, which constitute chemical treatment without damaging the dermis.
the main source for supplying the leather industry to- The subcutaneous tissue is removed mechanically.
day.

The animal’s skin is delicately separated from its car- CHARACTERISTICS OF SKIN
cass – either by hand or mechanically. At this stage,
great care has to be taken to avoid causing damage As for each family of materials, there is a vocabulary
to the skin. It is in fact flexible, with a ‘furry’ side and specific to the world of leather to describe skins, their
a side to which strips of flesh, blood and fat are still qualities and their imperfections. As we have previ-
attached. This skin is called fresh raw skin. It is rich in ously indicated, each skin – or rather each animal – is
water and as such will deteriorate very quickly. unique and, there is no identical skin even from the
There are different types of treatment available that same race or of the same origin.
can be used to preserve it:
• Salting (or curing): Salt will dehydrate the skins, Full or slack skin
stacked on top of one another for a few weeks. A skin is referred to as being ‘full’ when the dermal
• Brining (or pickling): This form of pickling is com- tissue is firm and tight. In contrast, it is referred to as
pleted by submerging the skins into a saturated brine being ‘slack’ when the dermal tissue is loose and soft.
solution. Dehydration takes place over a few days. This These two types can co-exist within the same piece.
procedure is a little more complicated to perform than
straightforward salting. Round or flat skin
• Drying out: When salt is a rare commodity, as it is in A skin is said to be ‘round’ when the central section
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

some countries, you simply dry out the stretched skin is thicker than the edges and ‘flat’ when its thickness
in the fresh air. However, you do need to ensure that is uniform.
drying takes place quickly otherwise the skins will have
a tendency to start to rot and decay. Skin imperfections
• Combined salting and drying. Numerous imperfections can appear and depreciate
its value whether it is during the animal’s life (para
Once treated, the skin is said to be raw skin. It is ready sites, scars, markings), when the skin is separated
to be shipped off to a tannery or dressing factory. from the slaughtered animal (non-symmetrical cut,
The raw skins are classified into different categories holes) or whilst being preserved (the start of the afore-
and weights to assist the tanners to make a selection. mentioned process of decaying heats the skin, marks
Thus, sheepskins depend on the length of the wool (a due to salting, insects).
1/4 wool skin, for example, has wool that is 1 to 2.5
cm long) and the weight of a dozen salted or dried Structure of the skin
skins. The cow hides are classified according to the Each skin also displays areas that are variable in struc-
bulk mass of fresh raw hide. ture. Depending on the type of animal, the common

hair

1
erector pili muscle

sweat gland
4
sebaceous gland

fat cells

a cross-SECTION of SKIN
1 epidermis 2 dermis 3 subcutaneous tissue 4 grain 5 flesh

2
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2 3

DIFFERENT PARTS OF SKIN (CATTLE, SHEEP, GOAT)

1 top of hide 2 back of hide 3 flank of hide

in structure. eral phases itself) is what makes it possible to obtain the

finished leather. However, the leather can already be sold
Big skins are rarely worked on as a whole, in fact there is after tanning. In fact you can purchase chrome tanned
more of a tendency to remove the sides. Skins that are leather – wet-blue – or vegetable tanned leather, called
smaller in size, where any differences become indistinct, ‘Rough tanned leather’.
are put to maximum use, as you might imagine. The processes of dressing-finishing will vary depend-
ing on the type of desired finished leather. Sole leather,
shoe upper leather, industrial leather, suede leather,
FROM SKIN TO LEATHER buckskin-type leather, grain embossed leather. So many
possibilities and sometimes all from the same piece.
Once the skin has been sent to the tanner, three imp Dressing-finishing reverts to mechanical, chemical and
ortant stages in its transformation are required to ob- drying processes. You start by placing the leather me-
tain leather: chanically between felt cylinders, you check and adjust
• Wet operation: This first stage helps to prepare the the thickness of the leather by splitting, separating the
skin for proper tanning. You start by soaking it for a few grain from the flesh split (the flesh side) or by shaving in
days in water in order to rehydrate and return the skin to order to make the thickness even. You then move on to
‘fresh raw skin’. The chemical process of ‘dehairing-lime ‘setting out’ where the leather is stretched and made as
treatment’ is then undertaken, where hairs and epidermis flat as possible. Chemically, you carry out dyeing (using
are removed by simultaneously rubbing or rinsing there- various colorants), nourishing (with fatty matter, to pro-
by slightly deteriorating the dermis. This becomes more vide flexibility and/or watertightness) and some finishing
flexible and helps to prepare it to receive the final treat- treatments (lacquering or other treatments to improve
ments. This is slightly different in the case of sheepskins, the properties of the leather and its surface appearance).
as it is at this stage that wool is also collected. The skin The finishes are applied by spray gun or by coating roll-
is then ‘defleshed’ and the subcutaneous tissue is thus ers and divided into three categories: aniline finish, for
mechanically removed. Only the dermis then remains, a beautiful appearance but delicate maintenance, semi-
ready to be tanned after the final stage of ‘deliming’, dur aniline finish and pigment finish, for protection against
ing which the dermis is treated and rinsed over a period water and stains and offering easier maintenance.
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

of several hours. Almost pure, it is then called ‘pelt’. Leather is dried in hot-air dryers, in the fresh air or in a
• Tanning: By starting with a pelt loaded with water, pu- vacuum. Leather can still undergo the processes of beat-
trescible and almost translucent, this makes it possible ing to increase its firmness or, conversely, of staking,
to obtain a slightly moist, rot-proof, opaque and flexible to make it more supple; sleeking, ironing, plating – to
leather. The tanning agents – tannins – are responsible perfect the finish of the grain; buffing to obtain suede
for this transformation. Different types of tannins are leather or finally the process of embossing, to create
available, which combined determine the quality of the relief imitating rare hides, for example.
leather product: vegetable tannins (oak or fir bark, su-
mach leaves, chestnut wood, fruits or roots); minerals Following all of these stages, the leathers are classified
products (chrome, aluminium, iron salts or sulphur) or into different categories. It makes it identifiable by future
organic products such as formaldehyde, cod liver oil or users that will include shoe manufacturers, leather goods
synthetic tannins. makers, glovers, clothes or furniture manufacturers, etc.
Chrome salts are the most commonly used and give Full-grain leather, flesh-split leather, velours leather, buck-
rise to all types of leather. Mineral tanning of this kind, skin, nubuck, etc. are all names allowing them to be dis-
applied industrially since the start of the twentieth cen tinguished and chosen.

Leather and water There is also imitation fur(more affordable). Certain

Paradoxically, leather is less damaged by water than types of cleverly designed weaves allow them to imitate
sweating. It is a material that is not desirable to have the silky fur of animals. For synthetic fur, there are many
in direct contact with skin, but similarly it is able to variations of colour, length and distribution of hair, etc.
‘breath’ – one of its understated qualities – and absorb
moisture. This makes it comfortable to wear in clothes Inverted skin relates to a sheepskin in which the wool
and shoes, for example. has been preserved (as it is or sheared). These skins
can generally be worked into clothing and footwear, with
Leather and fire the wool on the inside. The outside is buffed to give it a
The level of flammability of leather greatly depends on suede appearance, sometimes it’s also given a smooth
its basic nature, its tanning and the various finishes and film coating to obtain a shiny leather appearance, al-
treatments it undergoes. Nonetheless, leather is essen- lowing a distinction between suede sheepskin and oiled
tially fire-resistant. It is after all the blacksmith’s apron. sheepskin to be made. There are different grades of
sheep, Merino sheep (top of the range, silky and supple
Leather and resistant properties short-haired, sometimes curly), medium-fine, the Tus-
Some types of leather, such as leather intended for cany (long hair, which may be sheared), Shirling, etc.
furniture, the automotive industry or sports clothing
and equipment, display properties of high resistance The manufacture of leather and the associated pro-
to traction, tearing, bending, friction and puncture. cesses of conversion make it possible to recycle
powder or small leather offcuts, which can be reused.
Leather and temperature Compacted together, they constitute a less costly, ‘re-
As it contains a lot of air, leather is a good thermal constituted’ leather initially used in hidden sections of
insulator. It is generally warm in the winter and cold in footwear, for example, but which can also be found in
the summer. countless stationery and leather goods items.

Leather and moulds Synthetic leather, refers to materials made of bonded

Leather is extremely resistant to mould. (non-woven) fabrics or fibre textiles, polyamide, for
example, soaked or coated in resin (polyurethane
Leather and deformation or PVC, for example). The famous Skaï® trademark
Leather is a plastic material that is relatively elastic. It is an example of an imitation that is able to imitate
can be moulded whilst retaining its shape, for which it leather once it has been worked. You can also find lots
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

generally needs to be moistened. of leather imitations made of PVC, simple films calen-
dared with a ‘leather’ pattern.

leather derivatives Real leather, however, can also trick us into believing this.
For example you can imitate crocodile or snake with cow
Real fur is obtained by preserving an animal’s hair hide. Although only a specialist would be able to notice
(fleece) on its skin. The whole thing will undergo a a difference, the price of an item can be a give-way, a
variety of dressing and finishing processes (shaving, real crocodile bag will cost approximately 20 times more
surface dyeing or deep dyeing, printing, embossing, than a bag made of imitation crocodile leather
etch printed or lace effects, etc.), pretty much exactly
like those performed on leather. The fleece, in winter, is The variety of chemicals used in leather processing
made up of two grades of hair: coarse hair (long, solid does raise some environmental concerns. How to man
hair) and ground fur (short, soft hair). In summer, the age solid tanning waste (offcuts of leather, leather
ground fur disappears, giving the summer skin more of powder, etc.), the use of large quantities of water, how
a leather function than a fur function. True fur has real in- to treat chemical waste. More and more attention is

LEATHER AND INNOVATION

Despite being relatively unaffected in terms of innova-

tion, the leather sector is not lacking in activity. The
environmental issue remains one of the big axes of
improvement for this industry, which, amongst other
things, has been able to reduce its consumption of
water and chemical products over the past few years
and develop more natural tanning solutions.

There is future promise of machine washable leather,

swimming trunks and space suits made of leather.
Treatments, that are increasingly high-performance, al-
low leather to benefit from improved physico-chemical
properties. For example, we see the arrival of leathers
able ‘to absorb’ heat to ensure that drivers of convertible
cars always enjoy car seats of an acceptable tempera-
ture. Other developments are leather and liquid ceramic
combinations for a whole range of surface coatings; as
well as novelties: perfumed, fluorescent, stretch leather,
etc. There is absolutely no doubt that this ancient mate-
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

rial will continue to surprise us.

Tanneries also produce leather with exotic twists such

as fish skin (which ironically are not always washable),
cows’ intestine and stomach (small but with surprising
textured effects) or frog’s skin.

In the current context of sustainable development, there

is much talk about vegetable leather. This expression de-
scribes both leathers that have been worked with veg- List of materials examined in part 02: Full grain leather p.159 /
etable tannins and a composite material manufactured Nubuck – buckskin – suede p.198 / Sharkskin or shagreen p.231.
in the Amazon from 100% cotton fabrics impregnated List of processes examined in part 03: Assembly p.272 / Bond-
with natural latex (rubber tree), smoked and vulcanised ing p.278 / Calendering p.302 / Cutting p.260 / Digital processes p.316 /
in small furnaces, to create an appearance close to Finishes p.324 / Folding p.264 / Machining p.268 / Printing p.320 / Sew-
that of leather. ing p.288 / Stamping p.290.

Of the hundred-odd atoms that we have at our disposal on earth, the majority, approximately 75,
are metals.
Presenting itself to man, iron erupted from the sky in the form of the meteorite. Which is where the
word ‘siderite’ comes from, meaning ‘meteoritic iron’ closely linked to the French term ‘sidérurgie’
meaning ‘iron and steel metallurgy’, which has connotations of watching the substance arriving from
sidereal space. Before undergoing enormous transformations, iron contributed to promoting the
myth of this fascinating material, alien to man by nature, hard, cold, resistant. To master metal has
always been the holy grail to allow societies to assert themselves in taking up arms, minting coins or
self-defence. Resisting, was the vital, if not virile condition for subsistence in a Darwinian universe of
survival of the fittest.
Metals, as a result, have made their mark on history – the bronze age and iron age bear witness to
this as well as, of course, the industrial revolution – the crowning moment of the metal industry, with
the appearance of steel. A material which above all makes it possible to concentrate tremendous
forces and constraints on tiny surface areas, something that had hitherto been virtually impossible.
Steel represents the mechanical and is the material of precision. As the medium of electricity and
magnetism, it is also the precursor to the arrival of the electric motor. Foreshadowing the modern
world, it proves to be the ideal material for the systematic compartmentalisation of work and the or-
ganised assembly lines of mass production. Not a simple material but undisputedly a historical and
social phenomenon. Steel also serves to fashion other materials. Both the object and the tool, which
manufactures this object, it is recyclable. Resmelted, it is endlessly reincarnated. The stuff of dreams,
on the verge of the twentieth century, metal was the ultimate material.
Nevertheless, however high-performance it may be, this colossus still has its faults, as even though
metal is strong, it is heavy; even if it shines like a mirror, it will never be transparent. Even if it is ‘plas-
tic’, the quantities of energy required to transform it are considerable. These many weaknesses that
in a world in which energy is in short supply have reduced metal to the status of just another material
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

amongst many others. The metal empire has been dented on all fronts: by plastic materials in small-
scale domestic objects (household electrical, packaging, food), by concrete, in construction, which
offers compressive strength properties similar to if not greater than metal. In the field of high-tem-
perature and high-resistance materials it is surpassed by technical ceramics. In order to continue to
compete, the transformation of metal has left behind the empirical and turned to scientific innovation.
Lightweight aluminiums have been perfected by chemists, new areas are developing: super-alloys,
metals capable of high-speed deformation, metal foams, shape memory alloys, amorphous metals
and superconductors…

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METALLURGY duction of other materials, etc. A crystal always con-
tains faults, whether they are accidental or deliberate
Metals do not exist in nature as we are familiar with and paradoxically, it is these faults, which determine
them in day to day life. Only some, such as copper, the significant properties of the metals. It is in this
gold, platinum or the meteoritic rocks containing iron way that metallurgists ply their trade and are able to
and nickel, are naturally available, which are referred propose materials with varying mechanical properties
to as being metals in their native state. It is in this form subtly perfected.
that man started to work them.
Metals usually present themselves as oxides, in the
form of ores and certain transformation processes are PROPERTIES OF METALS
required (to reduce oxidation, amongst other things) in
order to render them into a more familiar form. The important properties of metals depend on their
When they are associated with other elements such as specific molecular structure. This will determine
oxygen, for instance, the metal atoms lose one or sev how they are processed and their ability to meet the
eral electrons: this is oxidation. Reduction (or deoxi- require
ments of specifications for components, ob-
dation), makes it possible to regain the lost electrons jects or metal structures.
thereby reclaiming the original metal atoms.
Metallic glint
Metallurgy is the term covering all of the stages of One of the important characteristics of metals lies in
the transformation of ore into metal up to the point of their metallic glint. These materials, once polished,
manufacturing semi-finished products. The secret of can reflect light to such an extent as to render a per-
reducing oxidation consists of adding a chemical ele- fect image, like mirrors (with tin, silver or aluminium
ment (often carbon) to the ore, at high temperature. deposited on a plastic or glass substrate). Metals are
It is in this way that hematite (iron ore) is combined also responsible for achieving tinted and reflective ef-
with carbon in blast furnaces to produce cast iron then fects which can be found, for instance, in paints or
steel. This is also how rutile will produce titanium or other materials. A ‘metallised’ plastic component, for
how bauxite, more complex to work, nowadays ‘trans- example, either contains metal as a solid mass or a
formed’ electrolytically, will produce aluminium. metallic deposit on its surface.

Hardness
THE STRUCTURE OF METAL This is a component’s resistance to penetration and
abrasion of its surface.
Ions are atoms, which have lost or acquired one or Hardness is, when you think about it, a completely
several electrons. relative notion. However, metals are amongst the hard-
The structure of a metal is characterised by metallic est of materials. In fact, they often constitute the ma-
bonds, which support the coherence of its atoms. The terial of which tools are made. Attaining ‘harder than
atoms actually share one or several electrons which hard’ is one of the great imperatives of today in terms
constitute a combination of positive ions surrounded of research and development.
by a cloud of free electrons. The electrostatic bonds,
which operate within the material are strong, the ionic Resilience
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

packing is well-ordered, regular and periodic: referred This is impact resistance, the capacity to absorb a me-
1 to as a crystal lattice. Different models of crystal lat- chanical energy in a small amount of time, at a given
tice can be listed, each one with a different ‘geometric temperature. A material with weak resilience is said to
structure’. be brittle.
On a higher level, of the magnitude of the micron or In the case of steels, for example, the colder the mate-
millimetre, each well-ordered lattice of ions can be rep- rial is, the more brittle it is and the more you increase
resented by a ‘grain’. Metal therefore acts as a granu- its temperature, the more the material will be able to
2 lar structure, an aggregate of crystallites with varying be processed.
degrees of orientation.
Elasticity
The properties of metals are first of all determined by This is its ability to return to its original shape after be-
the constitution of the crystalline lattices of ions and ing stressed. Steel and metal alloys can generally be
then by the configuration of these lattices in relation to considered as being perfectly elastic up to a certain
one another, for example, the distribution of the grains, point, referred to as their ‘elastic limit’. A prime example
the grain boundaries, dislocations, impurities, the intro- of elasticity is its use in springs.

EXAMPLES OF CRYSTAL LATTICES

1
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grain interfaces

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF A METAL

1 ordered ion lattice 2 grain or crystallite 3 grain clusters

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Plasticity / Ductility ALLOYS
Once a metal has reached its elasticity limits, plasticity
occurs. Plasticity will be its ability to be subjected to a Metals are rarely used in their pure form. By combining
permanent and irreversible deformation without break a metal with one or several other (metal or non-metal)
ing. This quality is compatible with cold methods of elements, you considerably enhance the properties of
processing the material, such as bending or shaping. the new material obtained: the alloy. It is the famous
‘magic formula of: 1+1=3’.
Ductility, the ability to stretch without breaking, is the The principal component of the alloy is the base metal,
challenge of the material’s plasticity. Gold is the most the added elements, alloy elements, play a part even
ductile metal: 1 g of gold can be stretched into a 2.4- in small quantities. Alloys come in a variety of ‘grades’,
km thread without snapping. that are constantly being enhanced.
Historically, one of the first alloys that man worked was
Magnetism bronze (copper and tin). Iron and carbon alloys provide
Metals are materials with the specific ability to develop the famous cast iron and steels. Steels, in turn, can
magnetic phenomena. be alloyed with a number of additional components,
Historically, magnetite, found in some ferrous deposits, which make it possible to subtly vary their properties.
is the component material of magnets. However, some For example, the much celebrated stainless steels
metals are also magnetic or easily magnetisable, such consist firstly of iron and carbon alloy to which chro-
as iron, as well as steel, nickel or cobalt. Once intro mium is added and then, according to requirement,
duced into a magnetic field, they can become perma nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, etc. Stainless steels
nent or temporary magnets, or even electromagnets. are characterised by their corrosion-resistance.
The magnetic properties of metals also make it pos- Aluminium can be combined with zinc to form zamac
sible for us to identify them. Aluminium and some (die-casting zinc alloy), for instance, or even with cop-
stainless steels do not react to the power of a magnet. per, magnesium, or manganese.
These are referred to as being non-magnetic. Alloyed with zinc, copper forms brass but it can also
be combined with nickel or aluminium, for example,
Isotropy which is referred to as copper-nickel or copper-alumin
Metals are commonly considered to be isotropic mate- ium alloys.
rials, that is they display the same behaviour in all three
directions in space.
However, their crystalline structure and the method of IRON AND STEEL METALLURGY
production of metal semi-finished products (rolling,
drawing or extrusion…), induces some orientation within Iron and steel metallurgy relates to the metallurgy of
the material, revealing some anisotropic characteristics. iron-based alloys, cast irons and steels, in particular.
It is often overlooked but is no less real. Two development processes currently co-exist:
• The ‘cast iron’ method: Cast iron is produced as a 3

Conduction of electricity result of adding carbon to iron ore, provided by coke

Metals are generally good conductors of electricity, (coal) in blast furnaces. Once liquid, cast iron is trans-
particularly silver, copper, aluminium and gold. ferred into an oxygen converter to lower its carbon
This property is explained by the type of metal bonds, content and becomes steel. At this stage, it is referred
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

which allow the circulation of free electrons within the to as ‘wild’ steel. As a result cast irons have a carbon
crystal lattice. These conduct electricity through the content of between 2 and 6% whereas steels do not
material. exceed 2%.
• The ‘scrap metal’ method: Steels are produced as

Conduction of heat and expansion a result of recycling and recasting recycled compo-
For similar reasons, metals are generally good con- nents. Wild steel is obtained as a result of putting this
ductors of heat. scrap metal into an electric furnace. This method of
When you increase the temperature of a metal, it ex- recycling is far from being negligible in terms of pro-
pands. This expansion is generally reversible. A 1m duction. Along with glass, it is in fact one of the first
long steel bar will stretch by 1.2 mm between 0°C and methods to have been implemented for the industrial
100°C. This is therefore a very important characteris- recycling of materials.
tic to take into account in the design of metal com-
ponents, particularly for moulding or welding, where The two methods are combined to refine wild steel
expansion and contraction can cause deformations or and to formulate different grades of alloy according to
even cracks. the final requirements. Then comes hot or cold rolling,

1 2 3

cast iron

steel
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8
9 10

MAIN OPERATIONS IN the PRODUCTION OF CAST IRON AND STEEL

1 ore 2 coke 3 blast furnace 4 ferrous scrap 5 oxygen converter 6 electric furnace 7 secondary furnace 8 slab or bloom 9 billet
10 rolling mill 11 iron and steel flat products 12 iron and steel long products

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where the material is progressively crushed. This is the by electro-zincing or galvanisation, such as chromium
5 final stage before finally obtaining long iron and steel for chromium plating. It can even be painted, enam
products such as coils of sheet metal, sheets, beams elled or varnished thereby slowing down the rusting
or steel wire. process.
In turn, aluminium can be anodised. Its surface is chem
ically treated by electrolysis and is then treated with
TREATMENTS a layer of protective aluminium oxides, anodisation,
which can produce tinted effects.
The mechanical properties of metals can be modified Some metals create what is referred to as a passiv-
by heat treatments, once the components have been ation layer, a type of self-protection, in the form of a su-
made. The structure of the material can then be mod perficial corroded layer which, paradoxically, protects
ified. the core material.
There are three major types of treatment:
• Annealing: The metal component is heated (between In some cases in which different metals co-exist, types
500°C and 850°C), maintained at this temperature and of corrosion can also be witnessed created by a ‘gal-
then slowly cooled. In this way the internal tensions of vanic effect,’ which takes hold between the two. The
the metal are released, making the material more mal- roles of anode and cathode are spread out and some
leable. An equilibrium structure is regained. electrons migrate from one metal to another, embrit-
• Quench hardening: In the same way, the com- tling one of the two. Combining different metals with
ponent is heated (> 800°C for steels, for example), one another thus requires special attention at the
maintained at this temperature then cooled abruptly design stage. This phenomenon is consciously used
(in water, oil, air or gases). Two types of hardening specifically to preserve some components. A metal is
are possible: solid or superficial. The metal then be- introduced (often zinc or magnesium), which will act
comes very hard but brittle. as a sacrificial anode and will corrode in place of the
• Tempering: Once hardening has been completed, the protected component. Steel ships are protected in this
component is reheated, amongst other things, to mini- way, by pieces of zinc ‘patched’ over the hull. Simi-
mise the embrittling effect of the quench hardening. larly, galvanisation (zinc treatment) to steel also helps
to protect it.
4 It is also possible to undertake strain hardening. This
alters the state of the metal in order to make it harder
by plastically deforming it cold. Paradoxically, the term Metal and innovation
also actually refers to a strain fault, which will occur
by dint of making demands on the material until a The largest areas of innovation in metallurgy focus on
strength quality is attained, specifically, by subjecting enhancing what are already very high-performance
the material to this strain beforehand. materials. These innovations, not necessarily spectac-
ular, nonetheless represent important breakthroughs.
Making it possible to face the crucial technical prob-
CORROSION lems in developing, for example, methods of producing
heat energy at high temperatures, transporting these
All metals are subject to corrosion, to varying degrees, energies and the safety of these installations, as well as
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

more or less visible and depending on the climatic applications in the automotive or construction sector.
conditions to which they are exposed (degree of mois- Of course, increasingly fine control over nanotechnolo-
ture, temperature, etc.). It is an irreversible degenera- gies will further enhance advances made in metallurgy.
tive reaction associated with contact with oxygen, that The properties of so-called ultra-high-temperature
is commonly referred to as rust. Metal is in fact simply metals (nickel-based super alloys, for example) or ul-
returning to its natural oxide state. tra-low-temperature metals (aluminium- and titanium-
based alloys, for example) will make the necessary
The most vulnerable metals are cast iron and steel; advances. Which could limit the risks of serious ac-
copper, brass and bronze are quite resistant to corro- cidents (industrial disasters of the type of the sinking
sion; aluminium and zinc are very tolerant and silver, of Erika) or otherwise increase the safety of the manu-
chromium, titanium and gold are exceptionally resis facturing of nuclear power reactor tanks.
tant to it.
To be protected from corrosion, steel is combined with In the design of road vehicles, the appearance of metals
chromium, for example, to produce a stainless steel. capable of very high-speed deformation, able to absorb
It can also be coated with other metals such as zinc the energy from front impacts at speeds greater than

1 2 3

MODIFICATION OF STRUCTURE OF ROLLED METAL

1 metal grain 2 strain hardening 3 re-crystallised crushed
grains

Melting point
Symbols

Density
(kg/m3)
Metals

BASE METALS Aluminium Al 660°C 2700

Copper Cu 1090°C 8920

Tin Sn 232°C 7310

Iron Fe 1535°C 7860

Mercury Hg –39°C 13600

Lead Pb 327°C 11300

Titanium Ti 1660°C 4500

Zinc Zn 420°C 7140

PRECIOUS METALS Silver Ag 960°C 10500

Gold Au 1063°C 19300

Platinum Pt 1764°C 21400

COMMONLY ALLOYED METALS Chromium Cr 1857°C 7140
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

Cobalt Co 1490°C 8900

Magnesium Mg 650°C 1750

Molybdenum Mo 2625°C 10200

Nickel Ni 1452°C 8900

Vanadium V 1890°C 6100

Antimony Sb 630°C 6697

ALLOYS Bronze Cu + Sn ~900°C 8400 - 9200

Brass Cu + Zn ~940°C 7300 - 8400

Zamak Zn + Al ~400°C 6600 - 6700

Cast iron Fe + C ~1100 - 1300°C ~7800

Steel Fe + C ~1500°C 7800 - 9000

MELTING POINT AND DENSITY OF THE PRINCIPAL METALS AND METAL ALLOYS

2 4 6
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3 5 7

STEEL PROFILE PRODUCTS

1 IPE beam 2 / 3 INP beam 4 / 5 HE beam 6 / 7 equal-flange T profile, unequal-flange T profile

2 3 4

5
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6 7 8

9 10 11

STEEL PROFILE PRODUCTS

1 UNP profile 2 UPE profile 3 angle steel (unequal angle) 4 angle steel (equal angle) 5 round 6 square 7 hexagonal 8 flat 9 welded
tube 10 seamless tube 11 square or rectangular section tube

The metal shape memory alloys (shape memory poly-

mers are also available) continue to constitute some
astounding materials. Their ability to ‘remember’ one
or two shapes that they can constantly return to within
certain predetermined temperature ranges, whatever
deformations that they may have suffered, has long
been the reserve of military applications. Today these
are surfacing in mechanical and medical applications
(small spirals, which are deployed in an artery called
stents) or even textiles (clothes, which return to their
shape without ironing, for example). These alloys
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

are extremely reliable compared with conventional

mechanics.

As we have seen, metals have a crystalline structure. List of materials examined in part 02: Alucobond® p.121 / Alu-
However, metals with an amorphous structure have minium (Al) p.122 / Brass p.129 / Bronze p.130 / Cast Iron p.134 / Copper
recently become available. These types of ‘metallic (Cu) p.143 / Foams p.158 / Gold (Au) p.168 / Honeycombs p.170 / Lead
glass’ represent a real revolution. Their structure pro- (Pb) p.178 / Liquidmetal® p.186 / Magnesium (Mg) p.188 / Magne-
vides greater elasticity, better response to moulding, tic materials p.189 / Shape Memory Alloys p.230 / Silver (Ag) p.235 /
high levels of strength and hardness and corrosion- Stainless steel p.238 / Steels p.239 / Tin (Sn) p.241 / Titanium (Ti) p.242 /
resistance. These special alloys have even surpassed Zamak Alloys p.252 / Zinc (Zn) p.253.
titanium. List of processes examined in part 03: Assembly p.272 / Bon-
ding p.278 / Calendering p.302 / Cast moulding p.298 / Cutting p.260 /
In the field of construction, head to head with concrete, Digital processes p.316 / Extrusion p.308 / Finishes p.324 / Folding
high-yield-point steel (HYP) gives birth to a range of p.264 / Forging p.294 / Founding p.292 / Heat sealing p.284 / Injection
stronger steel products. Amongst other things, this p.304 / Machining p.268 / Printing p.320 / Sintering p.296 / Stamping p.290.

If the purpose of a material is to be seen in order to assert its existence, glass is a paradoxal material,
it stands out by going unseen. Dissolving into light and yet still existing, painters such as Magritte
have been stumped by the question of how to portray it, opting in the end to show only the frame
which contains it.
As the only transparent and solid body available for use for a long time, the fascination with glass has
spanned centuries. Its mystique drawn from the improbable internal arrangement of silica, in a vitre-
ous state. Glass was long considered as a precious commodity. Its history has been one of a race for
purity; for absolute transparency. Glass lets us see, gives us the constant promise of the other side, as
it did for Alice as she passed through Lewis Carol’s forbidden looking-glass. A shop window works in
exactly the same way; offering us the provocative illusion of stealing for one’s own the objects on dis-
play, without ever touching them. Just as desire itself is born, so glass comes into its own. An enchant
ing material, glass creates attraction and repulsion alike; being both incredibly hard and yet fragile at
the same time, its potential destruction always hanging over it, stunning, dangerous and irreversible.
Glass has always held a symbolic and sometimes technical, place in the practice of architecture.
From stained-glass windows to entire glass-houses, architects have used this material to express
the most subtle of abstractions and metaphors. An expression of architectural modernity, glass plays
a fundamental role in drawing the line between public and private spaces. Nowadays it has become
the number-one instrument in dramatising subtle changes in décor conceived by architects.
At the beginning of the 20th century, industrialised mass production, in addition to the emergence of
polymers as a worrying rival, meant a deglamourising and popularising of transparency in all sec-
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

tors where glass had previously reigned: household wares, packaging, architecture. Glass is now
rebuilding itself around new values. It has become a mediator, a vector for information. Far from being
endangered, glass production continues to progress thanks to the addition of new properties: optical,
mechanical, electrical and thermal. It even learns from its worst enemies, the polymers, in order to
produce laminated glass – a true revolution in terms of protection and security. Glass is also refining its
very composition and can now be processed en masse, tempered, coloured, made into a conductor
and technology is in the process of making glass which can transmit or reflect variably, at the flick of a
switch. Fibre optics – so far removed from simple, flat window glass – have already allowed glass to en-
ter the world of textiles and electronics and thus foresee a future in all dimensions of space. Undoubt
edly glass must be placed amongst the ranks of the ‘intelligent materials’. The extraordinary mastery
of glassmaking techniques gives us the freedom to play with glass like a huge sieve; filtering duties,
sensations and emotions, which could mean that Alice’s Adventures might truly become our own.

methods (heating) and by the specific qualities which and fixed melting point. Conversely, if we decrease the
characterise them: temperature, the liquid will become solid once again
at the same temperature (melting point). If the mate-
Glasses and ceramics are made from mineral material rial concerned can be cooled to below its melting point
(silica sand for glass and clay for ceramics) and must be whilst retaining to some extent its liquid state, this is
subjected to a relatively long heating process to become called supercooling. In the case of glass, we see that
usable. The rise in temperature makes them undergo an liquid silica can be cooled to below its melting point with
irreversible physical and chemical transformation. an increase in viscosity, whilst still remaining liquid.
• In most materials and indeed throughout most of the

Legend has it that glass was discovered by accident solid state, atoms are organised according to a very
more than 6,000 years ago by Phoenician merchants. precise arrangement (in crystalline or semi-crystalline
The merchants had made a large fire on the beach structure, for example). This arrangement stabilises
and were intrigued by the block of hard, dense, vitre- and compresses the material. In the case of molten
ous material they discovered the next day amongst the glass, the liquid sets gradually whilst still keeping its
cooled ashes of the fire. It seems more likely, however, irregular atomic structure (vitreous state). The material
that the discovery of glass was part and parcel of the is therefore said to be non-crystalline, or amorphous. A
first ceramic and pottery kilns, as it is very difficult to vitreous state is an ‘intermediary’ state, which is just as
fire earths at very high temperatures without a bit of distinct as the other ‘liquid, solid and gaseous’ states.
sand turning into glass. The first rudimentary glass Glass is essentially made of silica (sand), soda and
might well be contemporary with the first functioning lime, but vitreous materials based on other constituents
kilns (around 5,000 BC), glass then being closely can be made. Nowadays, there are what are known as
linked to ceramic production from that point onward metallic glasses, in other words metals which, in a solid
via decorative and protective glazing. state, have an irregular atomic structure (see Liquid
Metal® p.186). More mundanely, caramel is nothing more
Glass and ceramics are very hard materials which re- than vitrified sucrose, or fixed liquid sugar!
sist high temperatures and are generally good electri-
cal and thermal insulators. They have very low elastic- Glass is the paradoxical material par excellence. It is
ity and break easily without being subject to a plastic a solid with the structure of a liquid, a brittle and rig
deformation phase. id material at ambient temperature and yet extremely
plastic when heated. It just loves to baffle us. Glass –
However, there is one fundamental difference distin- amorphous – can be made from quartz, for example,
guishing the two materials. As temperature rises, silica which in itself has an obvious crystalline structure!
goes into a liquid phase, whereas clays solidify without a
liquid phase. This simple detail completely changes the
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

finished product. Liquefaction of silica gives it its princi- COMPOSITION OF GLASS

pal distinguishing feature: an irregular atomic structure
which gives transparency to the solid obtained (glass). There is huge variety in the characteristics of glass
available, according to the composition and ratio of
ingredients which are designed to fit the desired prop-
GLASS erties and usage. Unlike the strict and rigid framework
governing crystals, the irregular atomic structure of
The invisibility of glass is almost supernatural. Before glass gives scope for the integration of foreign ele-
the advent of plastic materials, only air, open space ments.
and possibly water knew the enigma of transparency.
Glass, by this optical peculiarity, is therefore one of However, certain constituents are always necessary:
those rare materials which manages to trick nature • Glass Former: Essential base constituent; generally

(flies and birds alike are fooled by transparent win- silica, as sand.
dow panes). This ideal of invisibility has fascinated • Flux: Soda, sodium or more often, alkaline oxides.

for millennia and has also been a recurring source of These lower the melting point. Pure silica melts at

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around 1,800°C. By mixing it with oxides, melting can Transparency
occur from 1,400°C. The lack of light diffraction over this solid makes it
• Stabiliser: Adding lime makes the glass more stable more or less completely transparent, depending on
and inert and, more notably, makes it insoluble in water. its composition, purity and the care given to its man
• Additives: Along with the basic silica, sodium, cal- ufacture.
cium mixture (the batch), an extensive list of additives However, glass is not transparent under the entire
may be used to improve the optical qualities (refrac- spectrum of light. Under ultraviolet and infrared lights,
tive index, optical transmission, colour) or the physical a large amount of absorption occurs; glass will there
qualities (malleability, thermal stability). fore appear opaque. This phenomenon explains why
we are partially protected from UV rays behind a win-
First and foremost amongst the palette of glass com- dow. It also explains how a greenhouse works; the
positions are three main examples: infrared radiation being trapped by the glass roof.
• Crystal: Adding lead in large proportions changes a In the visible part of the light spectrum, glass is trans-
number of the characteristics of glass. The presence parent.
of this heavy metal lowers the working temperature,
lengthens the cooling time and increases hardness Stability
after cooling. It aids cold cutting and polishing and Glass is isotropic, in other words, its properties are
above all, improves the sparkle of the glass by increas- independent of directions of space. It is therefore a
ing its refractive index. This discovery won the Venetian directionless medium. In the commonest temperature
glassmakers their fortunes, followed by their English, range of use, glass has very good stability, varying
French and Bohemian counterparts. only slightly with temperature change.
It should be noted that the word ‘crystal’ is a misnomer
since the material is still amorphous and not crystal Instability
according to the laws of physics! Paradoxically, despite the appearance of durability
By upping the percentage of lead in the glass (to which glass exudes for us humans, it is in fact a funda-
greater than 50%), we get paste, also known as strass mentally instable material. On the one hand, it slowly
(after an 18th century jeweller from Strasbourg), which but surely crystallises, gradually becoming opaque
has a very high refractive index and is used in the man and powdery and on the other hand, it still remains
ufacture of costume jewellery. (See Crystal p.145) fluid and so continues to flow and sag.
• Borosilicate glass (Pyrex®): Adding boric oxide

greatly lowers the expansion coefficient, leaving the Insulation

glass much less susceptible to thermal shock. Pyrex® Thermal inertia and thermal expansion make glass a
is therefore a glass which can withstand large differ good thermal insulator. It is also an electrical insulator
ences in temperature within very short periods of time. at low temperatures, but becomes a conductor when
It does not deform at high temperatures. It is used for sufficiently heated.
ovenproof kitchenware, laboratory and industrial equip Glass also acts as a good dielectric and resists strong
ment and the construction of reflecting telescopes and electrical fields well.
bendable tubes for neon signs. (see Glass, borosilcate
p.156). Inertia
• Vitro-ceramic: Glass which has been ‘devitrified’, or Glass is a ‘closed’ material, it is relatively inert chemi-
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

rather, crystallised, by the addition of oxides which aid cally speaking and resists most acids and bases. It
crystallisation and by precise control of the solidifica- is not susceptible to UV radiation, oxidation or atmo-
tion temperature levels. Vitro-ceramic has dimension spheric erosion.
al stability, exceptional thermal resistance and much
great er mechanical performance (resistance and Density
strength) than normal glass. Vitro-ceramics, naturally, The density of glass is in the region if 2.5, which is
have to sacrifice their transparency and are generally roughly the same as that of classic concrete. To put it
translucent or opaque. (See Glass, vitro-ceramic p.167). another way, a 1 mm thick sheet of flat glass has a mass
of 2.5 kg per m2. If it contains a lot of lead, this density
can be six or above.
PROPERTIES OF GLASS
Duality
As we have seen, glass has an irregular atomic struc- This infinitely viscous liquid is hard and brittle at ambi-
ture. It is precisely this amorphous state which gives ent temperature, but we can alter its viscosity by heat-
this material its main paradoxical properties. ing it, when it can become malleable and plastic.

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Recyclability GLASS MANUFACTURE
Glass is, without doubt, one of the first materials to
have undergone recycling, either via direct reuse (the Delivered in the form of certain rocks (obsidian and
qualities of inertia and durability of glass make it high- tektite), glass exists naturally, without human interven-
ly reusable, requiring no more than a good clean) or tion. Lightning can also ‘produce’ glass when it strikes
following full recycling, including sorting and grinding, on sand and heats it up very fast (fulgurites, or petrified
to be reintroduced into the manufacture process as lightning).
some kind of cullet. While certain technical glasses The world’s primary producer of glass is not man, but
raise a number of recycling issues, everyday glass small unicellular algae (diatom) found at the bottom of
can be indefinitely recycled without detriment to its the sea! This rudimentary plant can make itself com-
quality. plex glass shells thanks to a chemical process which
remains little understood. It synthesises glass from the
silicates present in the water (a method which does
GLASS TREATMENTS not involve melting, known as sol-gel). A constituent of
plankton, the mass of glass produced this way is so
Annealing large that it far outstrips human production.
After shaping at very high temperatures, a piece of
glasswork (whether drawn, cast, pressed, blown or The manufacture and working of glass has undergone
from float production, etc.), will be subject to very large numerous evolutions in its history. It started with crude
tensions caused by the differences in temperature casting and moulding of impure vitreous matter to obtain
gradient. If nothing is done to rebalance the material, small or chunky objects (beads, balls and glazes) to the
these internal tensions can literally explode the piece. magnificent glasswork of Murano, Bohemia and Bacca-
The aim of an annealing treatment is therefore to bring rat, which called upon alchemical science and unpar
the strain down to an acceptable level, by reheating alleled knowledge. One of the greatest (r)evolutions of
the glass and then to lower it to an ambient tempera- this material took place in the middle of the 20th century,
ture by means of slow, controlled and consistent cool- when English company Pilkington put the finishing
ing. This process allows for normal cutting of glass. touches to a production method which was to give us
float glass. This production method for flat glass fin
Thermal tempering ally allowed large-scale industrialisation, making 1kg
This treatment simply plays on the internal tensions of of glass cheaper than 1kg of potatoes! Today, most
glass, but in a controlled way. The procedure consists flat glass is manufactured using the float method. The
of heating the object in question to its softening (an- main techniques employed for other glasses being
nealing) point and then rapidly cooling the external sur- blow moulding for hollow pieces, or extrusion for glass
face with forced draughts of air (in a matter of seconds fibres and wools. Traditional and semi-industrialised
the glass goes from 600°C to 300°C). This temperature glass production still survives for blown and drawn
difference between surface and inner portion creates glass, most notably for glass blown on a rod, sand
a state of permanent stress in the glass, compressing moulding, fusing (small fragments of glass melted and
the surface. The glass now resists compression to a assembled), glass mosaic and enamel work.
much greater extent than expansion.
This tempering process gives the glass increased me- Drawn glass
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

chanical properties. Glass must be cut to size before The principle of drawn glass was perfected at the be-
the heat toughening process. When hit by a concen ginning of the 20th century and was the first industrial
trated impact, the glass breaks into lots of smaller, production method of flat glass. The sheet of glass is
safer fragments. repeatedly stretched out vertically having been passed 2

through the slot of a heat-proof piece of equipment

Chemical tempering known as a ‘debiteuse’ or ‘debi’ for short (a ceramic
Chemical tempering also involves creating tensions, die), submerged in a bath of molten glass.
by modifying the chemical composition of the glass
object’s surface. The piece is submerged in a solution Float glass
of molten salts and the whole lot is heated to 400°C, The ‘float’ procedure, perfected by Alastair Pilkington in 1

chemical exchanges then occur which compress the 1952, uses a mixture of primary materials, continuously
outer surfaces. Compared to thermal tempering, this loaded into the melting furnace. Upon exiting the fur-
technique has the added advantages of being viable nace (at approximately 1,000°C), the liquid glass forms
for very small or complicated pieces and imparting me- a ribbon, floating on the surface of a reservoir of molten
chanical properties which are up to five times greater. tin. The surface of the tin is extremely smooth, giving

1550°C 3
5 6

1 4

PRODUCTION OF FLAT GLASS: FLOAT-GLASS PROCESS

1 oven 2 molten glass 3 bath of molten tin 4 float 5 annealing lehr 6 cutting

technical glass (2%) glass containers

(insulators, optics, (78%), (bottles,
laboratories, etc.) flasks, jars, etc.)

glass fibre (4%) flat glass (16%)

(insulation, textiles) (windows, mirrors, etc.)

GLASS APPLICATIONS
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

DIAGRAM SHOWING PRINCIPLE OF GLASS DRAWING

1 bath of molten glass 2 debiteuse 3 solidified glass
4 drawbar

into 6,000 x 3,210-mm panels and conditioned. This sheets of glass and two insert films, in between which
technique, so conceptually simple and yet so difficult an LC film (holding liquid crystals) is placed. At rest,
to perfect on a practical level, offers a vast array of the crystals sit in irregular directions, so the glass is
advantages over previous technologies: translucent with a frosted effect; when subjected to an
• Production is continuous, giving large sizes and electrical field, these crystals align themselves and the
mass production. glass becomes transparent.
• Resulting glass is totally flat, with smooth, shiny sur-

faces and no polishing is required. Current research is being carried out on the thermal
• Regular thicknesses are obtained, giving a totally insulation properties of glass, which will hopefully give
standardised product. rise to the advent of insulating glazing even more effi-
• Imperfections such as bubbles, striations, chord and cient than standard, opaque partitions. Glass aerogel,
lines do not occur. The glass is perfectly flat and trans- about 95% air and the rest glass, has exceptional in-
parent and void of optical defects and deformities. sulating properties. Holding a block of what has been
nick-named ‘frozen smoke’ is said to feel no heavier
Since its implementation, the float process has proved than holding air!
so efficient that it very quickly overtook all other meth- New methods of producing glass without melting (sol-
ods of flat glass production and introduced glass to gel) are also very promising and pave the way for ef-
mass consumption, big building projects and the fective surface treatments in very thin layers. This may
industrial era. However, float glass is so perfect that provide an opportunity to make so-called hybrid glass,
in fact there are some situations where it cannot be where the mineral enhances the organic (the latter
used. This is particularly the case in restoration work having low heat tolerance, amongst other problems).
for old buildings, where it may be detrimental to use a Other research is being done into luminous and super-
glass which does not have the same look and imper- light glass.
fections as the original windows. Similarly, the mass Last but not least, glass is also used in the treatment
production inherent to the technique does not allow for of radioactive and toxic waste (purification residues or
non-standard products (coloured glasses, glass with household wastes containing heavy metals, for exam-
special effects, varying thicknesses, opalescence or ple). Waste can be contained and confined by vitrifica-
opaqueness, specific physical characteristics). There tion in borosilicate glass.
shall always be a place for semi-industrial production
of flat glass, using less efficient but more flexible tech-
niques, such as glass drawing.

GLASS AND INNOVATION

The refined composition of glass, using multiple addi-

tives (laminated, coatings) is giving a wider range of
qualities and functions to the glassmakers of today.
Nowadays we have:
• Heat and light reactive glass: Glass which change s

colour under the influence of temperature change or

UV rays. List of materials examined in part 02: Aerogels p.120 / Crys-
• Electro-chromic glass: Glass which changes col tal p.145 / Fibres, glass p.153 / Glass, 3d p.162 / Glass, borosilicate
our under the influence of an electrical field (which can (Pyrex®) p.163 / Glass, coated p.164 / Glass, security – safety p.165 /
be fully adjustable and controllable). Glass, toughened p.166 / Glass, vitro-ceramic p.167 / Mirrors p.194.
• Heating glass: A new generation of glazing which is List of processes examined in part 03: Assembly p.272 / Bond-
used in building and household electrical appliances, ing p.278 / Calendering p.302 / Cast moulding p.298 / Cutting p.260 /
made using a conductive metallic layer (those with Digital processes p.316 / Extrusion p.308 / Finishes p.324 / Folding
low-emissivity coatings obtained through pyrolysis), p.264 / Heat sealing p.284 / Machining p.268 / Printing p.320 / Thermo-
which generates heat. forming p.314.

glass
dehydrated
air

metallic
armour

double glazing armoured glass

glass glass

PVB PVB

metal
layer

glass laminated with PVB glass laminated with a metal layer

glass
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

PVB

polyurethane
(plastic
interleaf)

polycarbonate
(with anti-scratch
protection)

characteristic shattered fragments

composite laminated glass of toughened glass

COMPOSITE GLASSES

proportion of metallic oxides – impurities which affect forgetting spark plugs! The word ‘pottery’ refers to
the colour of the finished product. hand-thrown pieces, made on a potter’s wheel.
Feldspar plays the role of a fluxing material, cementing
the kaolin and silica particles and reducing porosity. Terra Cotta
Feldspar also gives rise to the vitreous phases. Terra Cotta is a permeable, unglazed ceramic. Some
Following the irreversible firing of traditional ceramics, types of terra cotta can be used to make refractory
the water content in the original mixture evaporates. equipment. Terra cotta is used to make tiles or bricks,
for example.
By varying and supplementing the basic ceramic recipe,
3 the performance levels and characteristics of the product Earthenware
can be controlled. Other elements involved in the compo- Earthenware refers to red clay, with high iron content.
sition of ceramics are: mica, talc, chamotte (ground bits Fired at a low temperature (less than 1,100°C), it makes
of fired refractory ceramic), limestone, magnesia. up a large part of total clay used. It may also be creamy
white or black. Earthenware is certainly one of the old
So called ‘technical’ ceramics, truly booming at the est and most widely-used techniques. Earthenware
moment, are synthetic materials, mostly made of ox- pieces are porous and must be glazed. Many floor and
ides, carbides, nitrides, borides, sulphides, titanates, wall tiles are earthenware.
zirconia, etc., according to the desired final properties.
Porcelain
Porcelain is a white clay fired at high temperatures
CHARACTERISTICS OF CERAMICS (above 1,250°C). If made very thin, some porcelain can
be translucent. Porcelain is an impermeable ceramic
Ceramics have a structure characterised by: which is often used for tableware or decorative objects.
• Few or no free electrons: Ceramics are therefore bad

conductors of electricity and heat. They are used as Stoneware

electrical and thermal insulators. However, some ceram Stoneware is a grey or brown clay which, following fir
ics are semi-conductors and others are piezoelectric. ing, often has black or dark brown specks (which cor-
• Particularly stable and strong ionic and covalent respond to iron aggregates – pyrites – or other metals).
bonds: Ceramics therefore have very high melting Firing temperatures vary between 1,200°C and 1,400°C.
points. They may, for example, be used as refractory Stoneware stays opaque and is impermeable.
equipment in furnaces. In addition, the chemical sta- Stoneware is used for tiles and stoneware close to por-
bility of the bonds gives ceramics a certain level of re- celain it is used for sanitary ware.
sistance against environmental factors. Largely chemi-
cally inert, they do not readily degrade by corrosion or Finishes (colouring) do not come out the same across
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

oxidation. The strong bonds also give rigidity, however, the board of ceramics, due primarily to their different
ionic crystal dislocation can occur and the covalent firing temperatures. However, it is not always easy to
bonds are not very flexible. Ceramics therefore remain distinguish between these different materials.
brittle and break with no plastic deformation, except
when very near their melting point.
SLIP, PASTE and POWDER

CERAMIC, POTTERY, EARTHENWARE, To make traditional ceramic pieces either slip, paste,
porcelain or stoneware or powder/thermoplastic composites are prepared.
• Slip: Is a liquid suspension. The primary materials are

Ceramic and pottery first ground and then mixed to form, with the addition of
The word ‘ceramic’ is of Greek origin (keramikos) and re- water or another binder, a suspension ready to be cast or
fers to animal horn; the first material used for drinking ves- injected. The viscosity and thixotropy of the slip (variation
sels. ‘Ceramic’ was also the name of an area of Athens of viscosity according to flow speed) governs the slip’s
where the tile and brick workshops were located. behaviour and the success rate of the above methods.

quartz

electrical porcelain wall tiles

transparent porcelain bricks

soft porcelain hard porcelain

dental porcelain floor tiles

FELDSPAR kaolin

composition of different types of ceramics

other tiles bricks / tiles

(ceramic tiles, (earthenware)
decorative ware)

sanitary ware refractory crockery /

(vitreous) products ornamental
(earthenware) ware
(porcelain)
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

TECHNICAL TRADITIONAL
CERAMICS CERAMICS

main applications of ceramics

a thermoplastic. The whole lot is injected into a mould makes them create an electric field and vice-versa.
and then fired once to eliminate the thermoplastic bind These ceramics are highly used in applications such
er and a second time to insure grain cohesion within as telephone transmitters, watch batteries, ultrasound
the ceramic. This is known as ceramic sintering. This and sonar emitters.
procedure is relatively recent but full of potential; many • Shape-memory ceramics: Providing small defor-

ceramic techniques already make use of sintering. mations but high forces.
• Bio-ceramics: Of particular use in the field of med

icine, growing bone tissues colonise these macro-

FIRING OF CERAMICS porous bio-compatible ceramics. The ceramic then
disappears and gets reabsorbed, once the bone has
Once cast, injected, pressed, extruded or thrown etc., ‘taken up its post’!
the pieces are then dried – in the open air or inside – then
fired. This firing takes place in one or more stages.
In the case of earthenware, for example, the first firing
(between 1,000°C and 1,050°C) gives a piece known
as ‘biscuit’ or ‘bisque’. This may then be decorated
with glazes. The second firing (between 940°C and
980°C) makes the glaze coating vitrify and completes
the piece’s manufacture.

technical ceramics

Care given to the choice of materials, their mixture

and the firing temperatures used greatly improves the
ceramic’s performance. In this family of technical ce-
ramics, distinction should be made between alumina
(aluminium oxide), which is able to resist wear and tear
very well and yet is still quite affordable in price; zirco-
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

nia (zirconium dioxide) which is resistant to friction and

wear and has good thermal insulation properties; and
silica carbonate or silica nitrate, which both have good
mechanical and thermal properties.
In certain cases, these ‘technical’ ceramics meet
requirements which neither metals nor polymers can
fulfil. Refractory, with high melting points (sometimes
greater than 2,000°C), being either electrically insulat
ing or semi-conductive, corrosion, wear and compres-
sion resistant, light, etc. they have made their niche in List of materials examined in part 02: Ceramic, Architectural
several high-tech sectors. They are used in mechan p.136
/ Ceramic, Technical p.137 / Ceramic, Traditional p.138.
ics, electro-technology, surgery, optics, the nuclear List of processes examined in part 03: Assembly p.272 / Bon-
industry, filtration, abrasive cutting tools, electronics, ding p.278 / Calendering p.302 / Cast moulding p.298 / Cutting p.260 /
cement furnaces, ceramic matrix composite materials, Digital processes p.316 / Extrusion p.308 / Finishes p.324 / Injection
glassmaking, steel manufacture. p.304 / Machining p.268 / Printing p.320 / Sintering p.296.

The widespread appearance of plastics in the Nineteen Fifties, rocked the world of materials, set-
ting them apart in a league of their own. Plastic, originally an adjective made noun. An uncertain
term, refers to a plasticity that this material does not possess, at least, not in its appearance. The
chemists and the professionals, however, prefer to call it a ‘polymer’. Unlike wood and metal that
can be understood more empirically or in terms of technical intervention, polymers are primarily
defined in terms of their chemistry – mainly the chemistry of carbon. With them, man affects the very
essence of the material, perceiving his relationship with Nature and God differently. Long ago, al-
chemists burned more than their fingers attempting to ‘manufacture’ matter. These ‘manipulations’,
devised to reveal a wide range of properties, otherwise strengthen the common perception of ar-
tificiality associated with plastics. Similarly, the immediate industrialisation of these polymorphous
materials, that bypassed any maturing influence of the craftsman, is an important contributory fac-
tor to their marginalisation. Free from any ancestral tradition, the emergence of plastics was swift
by a process of ‘substitution’, during the two Great World Wars. A practical replacement, It played a
strong, utilitarian role but one, which without doubt was to boost its image of being a sub-material.
It found its niche by a process of ‘imitation’. A chameleon material mimicking all other materials:
from false wood to false skin or stone. Plastics intervene as essential but distinct agents between
two materials: joints providing a watertight seal or expansion; adhesives for assembling, endless
packaging. Even the walls are covered with it: paint.
However, this opportunism has certainly not contributed to elevating the status of plastics to that of a
noble material, in fact the immediate industrialisation of these polymorphous materials – that bypassed
the maturing influence of the craftsman – is certainly a contributory factor to their marginalisation.
A material which could actually be the most symbolic in our industrial society, or at least, in our
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

consumer society, plastic is now suffering a real identity crisis – is it a question of time or its intrinsic
nature? The concepts of waste and recycling, where thermoplastics specifically demonstrate their ef-
ficiency and production flexibility, seem to integrate seamlessly with an economy continuously in need
of further renewal. The plastic object is always brand new, regardless of design. If there are dimen-
sional and structural limits (no plastic architecture, for example), then polymers cover the entire field
of material states: from the hard to the soft. Steadfastly modern, they play their part in the emergence
of thousands of new hybrid materials thrusting an abundant selection upon us. They overturn the very
design of objects. Today, a designer can think about ‘function’ before thinking about ‘material’ and it is
this plasticity of polymers that makes it possible to modify the material to fit the function.
It is symptomatic that polymers assume a leading position throughout the emergence of so-called
intelligent materials and nanotechnologies. It is probably here, that their true identity comes to the
fore. Revolutionaries, in the Copernican sense mimicking the word, they displace centres of gravity
and categories, which up to that point had served to help us to understand matter.

heated, allowing macromolecules to slide amongst

In order to understand the great properties of plastic one another and then reappear when cooled. This ma-
materials, we need to examine some basic principles terial is referred to as a ‘thermoplastic’.
of chemistry. Thermoplastics soften when heated and harden when
cooled. A behaviour similar to that of butter or choco-
Plastics are materials made up of a set of macromol late. Demonstrating reversible processing properties
ecules (long molecular chains), whose central atom under the action of heat, they have a high degree of
is nearly always carbon (apart from some instances flexibility to transform themselves, making them easy
such as silicones where the silicon replaces carbon, to recycle.
for example). The hydrogen atoms complete the ba- Current thermoplastics represent 83% of the produc-
sic molecular structure, which then, depending on the tion of ‘plastic’ objects.
material in question, accommodates oxygen, nitrogen, The appearing/disappearing act of the Van der Waals
chlorine, or fluorine atoms, etc. links completely defines plastic as a material. Indeed
the overwhelming interest in thermoplastic polymers,
The components needed to manufacture plastics are the many promises of form and appearance that they
extracted from a variety of natural substances, mainly are able to offer and their ability to be recycled are all
from petroleum, but also from natural gas, from coal or attributed to their transformation reversibility.
from other mineral and organic materials such as sea Current thermoplastic polymers: polystyrene, polyeth
salt, limestone, water or wood. ylene, polypropylene, polycarbonate, saturated polyes-
ters, polymethylmethacrylate, poly vinyl chloride.
• Thermosets: Long chains of molecules interlinked

POLYMERS by means of strong covalent links, that the action of

heat does not break (other than at the point of com-
Plastic materials are sometimes obtained by means of plete destruction of the material). This material is re-
a simple chemical alteration of a natural ‘plastic’. But ferred to as a ‘thermosetting plastic’.
generally, in order to synthesise plastic materials and Thermosets harden through the action of heat, similar
to thereby obtain macromolecules, monomers are to the process of curing. Demonstrating a behaviour
used, small molecules where carbon atoms have cre similar to that of cake mixture. Processing is irrevers-
ated twin bonds. ible once subjected to heat and catalysts and is there-
1 These monomers then undergo a polymerisation reac- fore a more delicate and longer process. Direct recy-
tion (polyaddition or polycondensation), which bond cling is not possible.
them together mainly by means of covalent links (sim- Thermosets generally have mechanical, thermal and
ple links, resulting from ‘opening’ carbon-carbon twin structural properties that are superior to those of ther-
links). These covalent links, the principle of exchang moplastics. However, they ultimately remain materi-
ing electrons between carbon atoms, are strong and als ‘like any other’ – still offering a high-performance
constitute the fabric of the long chains of monomers weight / mechanical strength ratio. All the unpublished
assembled in this way: macromolecules. ‘plastic’ properties and characteristics of thermoplas-
tics are lost.
Here are some basic monomers, manufactured by Current thermosetting polymers: polyurethane, epoxy,
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

the chemical industry: styrene, propylene, ethylene, unsaturated polyesters.

which, once polymerised, will produce polystyrene,
polypropylene, polyethylene macromolecules.
AMORPHOUS AND CRYSTALLINE
Plastic materials, synthetic materials, are therefore more
accurately referred to as polymers, a set of macromol- The organisation of macromolecules can also assume
ecules resulting from the transformation of monomers. two different forms: 2

• Either long chains of molecules completely entangled,

irregularly, regardless of the nature of the links that

THERMOPLASTICS AND THERMOSETTING bond them (Van der Waals or covalent). This is the ma-
PLASTICS (THERMOSETS) terial’s amorphous state and only this is able to pro-
duce a transparent material.
There are two broad types of ‘plastics: • Or long chains of molecules properly aligned, regard

• Thermoplastics: Long chains of molecules weakly less of the nature of the links that bond them (Van der
interlinked by the intermolecular links referred to as Waals or covalent). This is the material’s crystalline or

1 2

POLYMERISATION
1 monomer 2 polymer (macromolecular chains)

semi-crystalline structure

amorphous structure

TWO TYPES OF ORGANISATION OF POLYMER CHAINS

3
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

strong links (covalent)

weak links (Van der Waals)

COMPARATIVE STRUCTURES OF THERMOPLASTIC AND

THERMOSETTING MATERIALS

ELASTOMERS
COPOLYMERS
Elastomers constitute a family of polymers with proper-
Nowadays there is a general tendency towards having ties of enhanced elasticity, we even talk about ‘hyper
‘alloys’. The main objective is to unify the positive prop elasticity’. In effect, these materials are able to stretch
erties without combining the bad ones. The mixture is 5 to 10 times their initial length without breaking and
not intimate, it is more of a co-existence. return to their original shape after stretching.
Polymers are no exception to the rule, which is why we It is therefore sensible to make a distinction between
are witnessing an increase in the number of copoly the concepts of ‘elasticity’ and ‘plasticity’, which can be
mers. A current famous examples is ABS, Acrylo differentiated by their ability or inability to return to the
nitrile-Butadiene-Styrene, used for interior automotive initial shape of the material after stretching.
components such as dashboards or door handles and
mobile phone and vacuum cleaner bodies. The copo- Natural rubber (NR) or latex, collected in rubber tree
lymer Polypropylene – Polyamide (PP-PA) is also widely plantations, is the oldest and the most typical elasto-
used in the field of automotive manufacturing for rear- mer. Synthetic rubber also exists. Elastomers include:
view mirrors and bodywork parts. some silicones, some polyurethanes, Neoprene (trade-
mark registered by Dupont de Nemours for the first
synthetic elastomer: polychloroprene), EPDMs (ethyl-
ADDITIVES AND AGENTS ene propylene diene monomers).

Rarely used in their pure form, polymers are increasing Paradoxically, most elastomers are thermosetting poly-
ly formulated depending on the end use of the objects mers, so processing them is complex and recycling
(chemical strength, impact-resistant). They are manip them is difficult.
ulated, within the limits of their compatibility, either by TPEs (thermoplastic elastomers) have recently ap
combining them (to obtain copolymers) or by adding peared, which can easily be injected and are gradu-
various elements to them in order to enhance their ally replacing rubber in some applications. The glue
properties. These elements are called additives (when sticks for hot glue guns, for example, are made of TPE.
they represent more than 10% of the weight of the fin- Unfortunately, for the time being they have fairly low
ished product) or agents (when they represent less temperature resistance (less than 100°C), which does
than 10% of the weight of the finished product). represent an obstacle to their progress. Worthy of note
are styrene-based TPEs (SEBS), olefin-based TPOs
The following are examples of additives: and polyurethane-based TPUs.
• Plasticisers: To make the material more flexible.
• Fillers: To save on the plastic material and to mini

mise shrinkage, often chemically inert materials are CLASSIC POLYMERS /

added, such as sawdust, talc or carbon black. APPLICATIONS AND PROPERTIES

• Stiffening agents: To structure the material, to in-

crease its mechanical behaviour and to limit shrinkage, Thermoplastics constitute the overwhelming majority
short fibres (0.1 to 0.5mm long) are added such as of polymers used today. To identify them in terms of
glass fibre, carbon fibre or aramid fibre. recycling, an international standard classifies them into
• Expanding agents: For making foams.
7 families.
Most requirements are met by the first six polymers,
The following are examples of agents: that can be identified by the following markings:
• Colorants and pigments (note: a colorant is able to
dissolve in the material, giving it a transparent color.
Impressive transparent effects can not be achieved us-
ing pigments as they remain dispersed in the material.) 1. PET, polyethylene terephtalate
• Lubricants
2. PEHD, high-density polyethylene
• Anti-static agents
3. PVC, poly vinyl chloride
• Anti-UV agents
4. PEBD, low-density polyethylene

sport and leisure (5%) furnishings / bedding (3%)

electricity and medical (1%)

electronics (7%)
various (8%)
transport
(14%)

building and
public works (22%) packaging (40%)

MAJOR SECTORS OF POLYMER APPLICATIONS

Use with food

Transparency
Appearance
resistance

resistance

adhesives
Chemical
Abrasion

Use with
Impact

Heat
Fire

PS
Standard

PEBD-PEHD

PVC *

ABS

PET

TPE

PMMA

PC *

POM

UP
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NR (LATEX)
High performance <

EP *

**
SI
***

PTFE

PEEK

: poor / : average / : good / : excellent / …: not relevant / *: self-extinguishing / **: with itself / ***: with others
(NB: the presence of additives or fillers can have considerable influence on these properties)

ABS: acrylonitrile butadiene styrene / EP: epoxides / NR: natural rubber / PA: polyamide / PC: polycarbonate / PEBD: low-density poly-
ethylene / PEEK: polyether etherketone / PEHD: high-density polyethylene / PET: polyethylene terephthalate / PMMA: polymethyl metha-
crylate / POM: polyoxymethylene / PP: polypropylene / PS: polystyrene / PTFE: polytetrafluorethylene / PU: polyurethane / PVC: polyvinyl
chloride / SI: silicone / TPE: thermoplastic elastomer / UP: unsaturated polyester

SOME GENERAL COMPARATIVE DATA ON POLYMER PROPERTIES

Kula, D., & Ternaux, É. (2013). Materiology : The creative industry's guide to materials and technologies. ProQuest Ebook Central <a
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5. PP, polypropylene PLASTICS AND INNOVATION
6. PS, polystyrene
7. Category 7 corresponds to the ‘all others’ heading, One of the main imperatives in the field of plastic ma-
which is a collection of a number of higher-performance terials (as in all fields, in fact) is the overriding issue
thermoplastics, such as polycarbonate, PMMA, poly of ecology. If recycling is often possible – and some
amide, etc. plastics resulting from recycling are available today
– the resources are not always invested to make this
You shouldn’t have too much difficulty in identifying a possible on a large scale. Alongside the recycling is-
polymer as there is actually a good chance that it will sue, many alternatives to petroleum are emerging as
be one of the first six. a basic component for plastic materials. Biopolymers:
maize-based, lactic acid-based plastics, etc, are now
The use of thermosetting polymers is negligible as biodegradable, in full or in part.
they are non-recyclable. In general, however, they Polymers also play an important role in the field of bio-
have physico-chemical properties that are far superior materials – materials compatible with the human body.
to those of thermoplastics. This sector is under development and plastic materials
More than half of them are used in paints, resins, var- will without any doubt play an influential role.
nishes, adhesives (for plywood and chipboard, for
example) and various coatings (laminates). Electrical Nowadays plastics are also innovative through the
and electronic products are one of the big production combinations that they create, not only with one an
sectors. They are also found in composites, small ob- other but also with other materials. The field of com-
jects, etc. Polyurethanes, unsaturated polyesters and posites bears witness to this: polymers are pushing
epoxides are the main families of thermosets used. performance ever further through their combination
Silicones, cyanoacrylates (Super-Glue adhesive), in with fibres, for example.
comparison, represent small quantities but ones with
which we have become familiar with. Finally, polymers can be made to be intelligent. A range
of changing materials and/or multifunction materials
(liquid crystals, temperature-sensitive materials, phase
PROCESSING change polymers) are waiting on the fringes of the field
of plastics.
Plastic materials are unique, unlike other materials
such as wood, they have not been subjected to crafts-
manship – a process which would have allowed us to
familiarise ourselves with them. There are, however,
some craft-like applications for small mouldings or
unique components. Industrial processes are on the
whole large-scale (large – or very large-scale series
production) although very energy-efficient (twice as
less as with steel).
List of materials examined in part 02: Acrylonitrile Butadiene
4 As soon as they come out of the machine, products Styrene (Abs) p.119 / Bakelite p.125 / Biopolymers p.127 / Cellulose
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

produced with plastic materials are already finished (or Acetate (Ca) p.135 / Epoxy p.149 / Foams p.158 / Honeycombs p.170 /
semi-finished). This is the magic of plastics. Some can Polyamide (Pa) p.210 / Polycarbonate (Pc) p.211 / Polyester p.212 /
have highly integrated functionality and their finish and Polyether Etherketone (Peek) p.213 / Polyethylene (Pe) p.214 /
colouring can be controlled directly. Polyethylene Terephthalate (Pet) p.215 / Polymethyl Methacrylate
(PMAA) p.216 / Polyoxymethylene (Pom) p.217 / Polypropylene (Pp)
In terms of recycling, only thermoplastics can lay claim p.218 / Polystyrene (Ps) p.219 / Polytetrafluorethylene (Ptfe) p.220 /
to this benefit and this can be achieved very quickly, Polyurethane (Pu) p.221 / Polyvinyl Chloride (Pvc) p.222 / Rubber –
without any elaborate preliminary preparations. latex p.225 / Silicone (SI) p.234 / Solid surfaces p.236 / Thermoplastic
Elastomer (Tpe) p.240 / Wood polymers p.244.
There are a large number of techniques for the process- List of processes examined in part 03: Assembly p.272
/ Bond-
ing of plastic materials, not all will be examined in detail ing p.278
/ Calendering p.302
/ Cast moulding p.298
/ Cutting p.260
/
in this work but most will be derived from the main prin- Digital processes p.316
/ Extrusion p.308
/ Finishes p.324
/ Folding p.264 /
ciples set out in the ‘processes’ section. The processing Heat sealing p.284
/ Injection p.304
/ Machining p.268
/ Printing p.320 /
of thermosets (TS) is different to that of thermoplastics Resin moulding p.300 / Rotational moulding p.312 / Sewing p.288 /
(TP), which are a lot more ‘malleable’. Sintering p.296 / Thermoforming p.314.

Of all the forces we live amongst, gravity remains one of the greatest mysteries. Gravitation is one of
the four fundamental interactions (the others being electromagnetism, weak nuclear interaction and
strong nuclear interaction) which define the forces acting on bodies which have mass. This phenom
enon explains why, for one thing, objects fall at our feet when we let go!
This attractive force which is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between two bodies,
discovered by Newton, has proven to be an invariable and intangible law: ‘the law of gravity is hard
but it is the law’. The human race’s persistent desire to free itself from this iron rule probably stems
from the moment in history when we realised that it was our unlucky fortune to remain stuck on the
ground for the rest of eternity. That’s just the way we are as a race and humanity’s path has crossed
many-a-time with the fantasy of lifting off from the ground, the fantasy of ‘enlightenment’. The myth of
Icarus is a cruel reminder of this fact, if ever we needed one!
In the past being light was a technical and tangible way of getting things done, particularly to sat
isfy our expansionist ambitions. It first became important out at sea, where lower densities (mass
to volume ratio) allowed us to keep our heads above water. Experiments to decide whether to use
force or lightness to defy gravity have been ongoing. After long and vain attempts to mimic birds, the
industrial society of the 19th century temporarily succeeded with the force of a motor. However, the
infinity of space to be conquered is offset by the constraints of our energy reserves, with today’s major
ecological crisis calling for radical changes in our values and stratagems. While previously, strong
and heavy was considered beautiful; it now seems that being light has taken the lead and become a
new attribute of modernity. It is unquestionable that to travel far, we must travel light. To confront the
effort and energy usage required to liberate ourselves from the grasp of gravity, the only tool we have
to replace brute force is ingenuity. The 20th century has marked the start of this change in mentality,
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

which the 21st century will no doubt continue. Intense development of sandwich structure materials
and composite materials bears witness to this revolution. A rethinking of solid matter used for shells
containing nothing but air, as well as an optimisation of the structure of materials used and their
intrinsic strengths (nanotechnologies are very promising here) will undeniably lead to composites,
which combine and compose. In addition to becoming the best candidates in the field for aeronautics
and space travel, composites are being more commonly used for everyday objects. By striving for
this liberating quest for lightness, the overlap of new information technologies into the ultra-lightness
of matter and composites has brought about the conditions necessary for new victories over what
Newton diagnosed to be an unpleasant inevitability.

All materials have characterising properties: glass and Reinforcements in composite materials are usually fi-
ceramics are rigid, brittle and fragile; metals are du- bres. These fibres may be of varying lengths and ori-
rable, ductile and heavy; plastics are flexible and light. gins. They can be yarns, textiles, or mats (non-woven). 2

Nevertheless they display both sought-after advan There are several types of fibre:
tages and disadvantages which have to be considered • Glass fibres: The very first reinforcements for com-

when working with them. The choice of material lies posite materials were glass fibres, which may be of
in opting the one which offers the greatest number of varying qualities, depending on the quantity of silica
favourable properties for the job and whose unfavour used in their formation. High performance glass fibres,
able properties can be mitigated and are non-harmful. particularly when it comes to temperature resistance,
The objective of composite materials is to avoid this are made of pure silica. These fibres are made by ex-
choice between the lesser of two evils, by exploiting trusion of filaments about 1-2 mm in diameter, which
and combining favourable properties from a number are then hot-drawn to give fibres about 5-10 microm-
of materials. These often simple combinations can cre- eters in diameter.
ate new properties or increase the efficiency of those The main problems arising from the use of glass fibres
displayed in the original constituents. stem from their tendency to scratch and the contact
It is a principle of magical addition: 1+1=3! between fibres and inserts, which could lead to stress
This current strategy is actually very old: cob – com- concentration spots and the beginning of breaks.
posites of dried mud and straw, have been made for Therefore, particular care must be taken in their use
centuries and all over the world. The end of the 19th and the final composite must be protected by coatings
century saw the invention of plywood, closely packed and surface treatments (of gel-coat type).
stratum of overlapping wood, considerably reducing Glass fibre composites offer mechanical properties
the defects of solid wood. Solid wood can also be con- similar to aluminium-type metallic alloys. They are
sidered a ‘natural composite’ in itself – a combination amongst the less expensive composites.
of cellulose and lignum fibres. Nature develops these • Carbon fibres: This second type of fibre is expe-

kinds of solutions to problems quite frequently. riencing fast growth and is used in many composite
developments. Produced from the carbonisation of
The use of composite materials has undergone huge polymer fibres (polyacrylonitrile), carbon fibres offer
developments thanks to the impetus of plastics engi- remarkable properties, far superior to those of glass
neers who aim to better the all too weak rigidity of plas- fibres. Nevertheless they are very costly (10 times as
tic materials. The efficiency of polymer composites has expensive as glass fibres!)
meant that the principle was quickly extended to metals • Polyamide fibres: Fibres made from aromatic poly-

1 (alloys) and ceramics. amides have recently entered the stage, under the
Kevlar® name (Dupont of Nemours). Once again, very
A composite material can be schematically defined as expensive, these fibres are used as high-performance
being made up of two (or more) constituents: the matrix reinforcements.
and a reinforcement material. On paper, these two com- • Metallic fibres: Certain metals, such as boron and

ponents should not have any chemical affinity or very beryllium, can form reinforcement fibres and are par
few; so that they do not create weaknesses or fragili- ticularly useful for high temperature applications. Their
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

ties at the junctions between matrix and reinforcement. price limits their use to closely-guarded and state-of-
The choice of constituent materials which go to make the-art applications (space projects).
up a composite must have very high levels of specific
properties as the object of the exercise is to obtain high
structural rigidity for low volume masses. The ratio of THE MATRIX
matrix to reinforcement mass will vary the behaviour
of the overall composite. Depending on the reinforce- Materials which make up the matrix bind the fibres and
ment system used, various composite materials can guarantee the transfer of stresses within the composite.
be distinguished: The most common matrix materials are either thermo-
• Unidirectional: Reinforcements are all orientated in set or thermoplastic plastics. Examples:
the same direction (generally the same as that of the •Unsaturated polyesters: These are frequently used,

principle stress). These composites are very aniso often in conjunction with glass fibre in industrial produc-
tropic. tion, to moderate costs and speed up setting times. They
• Multidirectional: Reinforcements are randomly ori- can be cold press moulded but may also be hot press
entated. moulded to accelerate polymerisation. These resins

1 2

THREE COMPOSITE-BASED MATERIALS

AND THEIR COMBINATION
1 ceramic 2 metal 3 plastic

2
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

1 2 3

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ORGANISATION FOR FIBRES IN FIBRE REINFORCING

1 woven or twill-woven 2 unidirectional fibre 3 mat or non-woven

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must be handled with great care (in both small-scale sign. The resistance to weight ratio of these unidirec
and industrial production environments) and require tional composite materials has proven to be compa-
specific protective measures (against toxicity, allergies, rable, even superior, to that of metals and alloys.
safe removal of strong odours caused by solvents such
as styrene). They are best suited to temperatures of be-
tween 60°C and 120°C. They are not recommended for SANDWICH STRUCTURED COMPOSITES
use in temperatures above this range.
• Epoxy resins: These are often used in more techni- The sandwich, other than being one of our society’s most
cal applications. If we compare epoxy resins to polyes- munched-on meals, has also become an increasingly
ters, we see that they give better performance, but cost consumed structural material.
two to five times more. Their resistance to temperature Sandwich structured materials fall under the same ob-
is better: 150°C to 200°C and their mechanical prop- jectives as composite materials; the only differences
erties are better in every way, particularly in terms of being in the level of bonding within the chosen mixture
shearing. In addition, these resins are not very sensi- and its components. Each element of the sandwich
tive to humidity. They offer low shrinkage possibilities continues to exist, whereas matrix and reinforcement
and only low amounts of heat are given off during po- materials are harder to separate out from a composite.
lymerisation, which further improves processing con- These materials were first developed by 19th century
venience. However, the long curing or polymerisation cabinetmakers who, wanting to tame the legendary in-
times make them unsuitable for mass production. stability of wood, broke it up into sheets and stacked
• Phenolic resins: These resins give good heat resis it into veneered panels by overlapping and crossing
tance (up to 400°C) for relatively low cost, but pose the grain of the wood. Creating the first plywoods and
problems such as hard-to-master colouring techniques, wood laminates. Light, stable and solid; they have be-
mediocre UV resistance and unsuitability for contact come serious contenders for space design and have
with food. been subject to spectacular developments, thanks to
• Melamine resins: Similar to phenolic resins in some progress in adhesives and adhesion techniques. We
respects, melamine resins offer high abrasion resis- haven’t made wooden aeroplanes for a very long time,
tance and good uptake of colour. These factors make however, the idea of adding materials as layers, has
it ideal for their most common use which is coating of definitely lasted. Today, a multitude of combinations of
decorative panelling and working plans (used on chip- materials have been tried and tested with great suc-
board, amongst other things). cess in a number of fields:
• Thermoplastic matrix materials: These materials • Aluminium – Polyethylene – Aluminium sandwich:

have recently undergone a consistent development Light and efficient for use in architecture, for example.
process, allowing for improvements to be made in the • Compact laminates: These are like thick wafers of

properties of everyday mass consumed plastic objects. Kraft paper and resin, with outer surfaces dressed with
Short glass fibres (less than 1mm) are mixed with com- decoration (wood or imitation wood veneers, metallic
mon polymers such as polyethylene, polyether ketone, leaf, pictures), sometimes including aluminium plat
or polystyrene, which reinforces the polymers whilst ing, for striped slice effects and electrically conductive
incurring little or no change to classic formation tech strata.
niques (injection, extrusion, etc.) • Sheet steel surrounding a polymer film which

• Metal matrix materials: Nowadays, research is fo- dampen sound.

cusing around the production of metallic matrix com- • Laminated glass which is in fact a combination of

posites (aluminium reinforced with aluminium oxide glass and PVB polymer film (polyvinyl butyral) or Eva-
particles or silicon carbide, for example). The use of safe.
these types of composites is foreseen in the making of • There have also been numerous successful hon

lorry drive shafts or automotive break discs. eycombs. In fact cellular materials (with air pockets) 3

• Carbon matrix materials: There are also now car- called ‘honeycombs’ have recently brought a breath of
bon matrix composites, developed to create high-per- fresh air to creative industries. These sandwich struc-
formance reinforced carbon-carbon. tured materials, inspired by the animal world, have
• Ceramic matrix materials: The high temperature very high resistance to compression, optimum weight
resistance of ceramics opens the doorway for com- and excellent thermal and noise insulating properties.
posites to be used as refractory materials. We find them in such fields as aeronautics, transport
(floors for trains and planes). Entirely plastic honey-
High-performance composite materials: carbon-car- combs, entirely aluminium or cardboard honeycombs
bon, carbon-epoxy, boron-aluminium, are now direct (used for fire door filler); honeycombs with an alumin
competitors with metals in aeronautics and space de- ium core and acrylic fascias; honeycombs with card

HONEYCOMB COMPOSITE
1 decor 2 facing 3 core

3
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

FILAMENT WINDING
1 glass or carbon fibre 2 impregnation with thermosetting resin 3 rotating mandrel

IMPLEMENTATION

Various procedures linked to the implementation of

composites overlap with those of thermoset resins,
since most composites include this class of matrix.
Some implementations are therefore detailed in the
‘processes’ section of this book, for example contact
moulding, spray-up moulding, vacuum moulding and
compression moulding (SMC and BMC).
Below are a few of the procedures which are reserved
solely for the field of composites:
• Compression between heated plates: Sandwich-

es of resin (phenolic resins) and layers of wood, paper,

or glass, fabric, etc. are highly compressed between
two heated plates. Materials worked in this way are
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

very strong. Infamous ‘laminates’ such as Formica are

made this way.
• Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM): Thermoset resins

are injected at low pressure into a closed mould con-

taining a mat of fibres – glass fibre, for example. Resin
can be introduced under vacuum.
• Filament winding: To make revolutionary shapes

4 such as mats, tubes or tanks, fibres impregnated with

resin (as sheets or ribbons) are wound round a rotat-
ing core. The whole piece is then baked to ensure List of materials examined in part 02: Epoxy p.149
/ Fibres, car-
polymerisation and then the core is removed. bon, aramid, basalt p.152
/ Fibres, glass p.153
/ Honeycombs p.170
/
• Centrifuging: This procedure is a lot like rotational Polyester p.212
.
moulding. An open mould (for revolutionary shapes List of processes examined in part 03: Assembly p.272
/ Bond-
and the like) is set to rotate at a very high speed with ing p.278
/ Cutting p.260
/ Digital processes p.316
/ Finishes p.324
/ Ma-
resins and reinforcements inside (long or cut fibres). chining p.268 / Printing p.320 / Resin moulding p.300.

If we categorise matter simply in terms of molecular configuration, then ‘textile’ is not a valid cat-
egory. It comes under ‘material’ (rather than ‘matter’), but it is in fact a composite – perhaps one of
the first – made up of vegetable, animal and mineral components, or synthetic polymers. The field
of textiles is a prime example of the limitations of matter as a classification and helps us see that it
may be thought of as a continuum, in a state of constant transfer; a complex tapestry, if you like. In
a world, which we regard as being increasingly virtual, we sustain, more than ever before, an amaz-
ing intimacy with this matter which acts as a second skin.Seemingly neither old nor new, textile is a
material of connections, of civilisation. Rarely facing each other naked, it is a material which identi-
fies us, embodies our status and role in society.
Textiles have always been at the heart of economic, social, aesthetic and technical issues, even hi-
tech ones! Economic, as in the Silk Road or contemporary China; social, as in the inter-bound nature
of slavery and cotton, or the first fights against mechanisation seen at the advent of the industrial
revolution. Aesthetic, as shown by the ripples of fashion trends, felt throughout our societies, espe-
cially when you consider how often the learning and development of good or bad taste, of shape,
colour and standards, is gained via the intermediary of textile and how power over material, which
men have always exercised, seems so much more vague when it comes textiles: even though they
have maintained control of this industry, the female presence remains decisively large.
This seemingly flimsy material therefore fulfils two essential roles: it is both a vehicle for expres-
sion and a functional material. Its main function is that of protection; an area in which spectacular
progress is predicted. Notably, under the pseudonym ‘technical textiles’, we see the proliferation
of textiles which are conductive, breathable yet waterproof, deodorising, scented, flame-retardant,
heat-storing, therapeutic, information-storing, etc. Such a range of performance shows us just how
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

much textiles have risen to the call for them to extend their uses beyond the traditionally assigned
duty of mere protection.
Textiles act as an interface between humans and the world around us. The creative potential of
textiles borders on the infinite and is wholly in tune with developments in information technology:
after all, isn’t weaving just a succession of 1s and 0s? In fact it was perhaps the first formal binary
expression (as the 19th century mechanised looms and punched cards can bear witness) of a pixel
ated material. It seems that through the mists of time, there has always been a thread linking the
fabric of these two technologies. And aren’t textiles just the visible form of matter’s complexity?

81
81

etc.) fibres. Reeling is a process performed on man-made

This section on textiles describes the different stages fibres. Silk – a natural fibre – is the product of a natu-
of transforming fibre into fabric, in terms of the transi- ral biological reeling process. Silk fibres are long and
tion from fibre to yarn, to textile, as well as some of the continuous by nature.
finishing processes used. Reeling man-made fibres is a form of extrusion. The
material (polymers) is fed through a spinneret under
pressure. The shape of the spinneret is very impor- 1

TEXTILE FIBRES tant as it determines the profile and the diameter of

the filament. The shape of the filament determines its
Amongst current textile production, two main types of characteristics: lustre (whether it is matt or shiny, lu-
fibres can be distinguished: minous, or reflective, etc.), properties of adhesion or
• Natural fibres: These fibres represent less than half absorption, texture, flexibility and how fine it is (micro
of all fibres used. They are in turn divided into three fibres, for example, are only a few microns in diameter
categories: vegetable fibres (cellulose-based, such and, amongst other things, are very soft, very fluid and
as cotton, flax, hemp, kapok); animal fibres (wool and very light). While the shape of man-made fibres can be
silk); and mineral fibres (glass, basalt) manipulated during this process, making a number of
• Man-made fibres: Making up the majority of fibres variations and applications possible, natural fibres, on
used and obtained by forcing (or extruding) fibre form the other hand, have pre-defined shapes.
ing materials, man-made fibres can be divided into
two categories: artificial fibres – these can be based At the end of the extrusion process, the filament is so-
on vegetable, animal, or mineral constituents which lidified by hot or cold air or by dipping it into a reactive
have been modified (cellulose is modified to provide liquid. A number of filaments can then be assembled
viscose, for example) and synthetic fibres (nylon, poly- and drawn to make up a multi-stranded yarn. Single
ester, etc.) filament yarn is also possible.

The catalogue of materials, in the second part of this

book, provides some detailed information on fibres. THROWING, GIMPING AND TEXTURING

At the end of the reeling process, some yarn, known as

YARN PRODUCTION ‘single’ yarn, may be used directly. However, most yarn
undergoes subsequent processing:
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

Each individual fibre has its own characteristics and as • Throwing: Several single filaments are interlinked

such, the lengths and strengths are not sufficient, nor by means of twisting. The resultant yarn is referred
uniform enough, to be woven or knitted. Fibres there- to as ‘thrown’ or ‘twisted’ yarn. Twisting increases the 2

fore need to be worked and assembled into yarn (or strength of yarn. There are two types of twist: S-twist
thread) of a continuous length and constant diameter. – from left to right and Z-twist – from right to left. Both
Yarn is deemed multi-stranded, as it often combines twists may be used within one length of yarn, creating
several fibres. a more solid yarn known as ‘cabled’ yarn.
Yarn production started in ancient times, with spindles • Gimping: One or more threads are wound around a

and bobbins, like those in children’s fairy tales. It is an ‘core’ of yarn. This is how special yarns and threads
age-old technique, which has been industrialised over are created, using different colours and textures: mot
the course of time. tled, plush, gold thread.
• Texturising: By means of heat treatment, it is pos-

There are two ways of producing yarn: sible to vary the volume and elasticity of the yarn,
•Spinning: This consists of twisting together short, thereby obtaining crimped yarns, shrinkable yarns (for
discontinuous fibres. These are often natural fibres puckered fabrics), etc.

1 2 3

4 5 6

EXAMPLES OF PROPERTIES OF FILAMENTS AS A FUNCTION

OF SPINNERET SHAPE
1 standard 2 capillarity 3 insulation 4/5 adherence 6/7 gloss

S-twist single, Z-twist yarn threads, single, S-twist yarn threads, single, S-twist yarn threads,
Z-twist threads Z-twist threads S-twist & Z-twist threads

SINGLE THREADS (ON LEFT), EXAMPLES OF TWISTED THREADS (ON RIGHT)

WEAVING
KNITTING
Once the yarn is ready, it can then be woven to pro-
duce fabrics. Weaving is a process passed down from Knitted fabrics are made up of loops of yarn, linked to-
generation to generation and found all over the world. gether to make stitches. While the threads and yarns
Mechanised, weaving is now a large-scale industrial in woven fabrics cross in straight lines, knitting inter-
operation. Weaving rates are now much faster. No his- links yarns in a curvilinear fashion. The knitting industry
tory of the mechanisation of weaving would be com- mostly uses computer controlled machinery nowadays.
plete without a mention of the name ‘Joseph-Marie There are two main types of knitted fabric: 4

Jacquard’, who introduced the automatic shuttle loom • Weft-knits: The stitches are made of one continuous

to Lyon during the 19th century. ‘Jacquard’ is now used yarn, making the loops of each row. This type of knit-
to describe a particular type of weaving. ting gives the fabric stretch in both directions. How
ever, it only takes one break in the yarn for the whole
The principle behind weaving is even and alternate thing to unravel. Jersey knit, rib knit and Jacquard knit
crossing of perpendicular threads: the warp (vertical) are all weft knits. As are all those scarves knitted by the
and the weft (horizontal). The pattern produced is called fire with knitting needles and balls of wool.
the weave type. It is by varying the weave type that dif- • Warp-knits: This technique uses multiple yarns and

There are three basic weave types, which are the start simultaneously using separate yarns. For the next
ing point for all other variations: course, the stitches in the same column (or ‘wale’) will
3 • Plain weave: Also known as canvas weave, this is cer- be made by another needle, using another yarn, thus
tainly the simplest, oldest and most widely used weave linking the entire piece of fabric together. Warp-knits
type. The weft goes under and over the warp at regular are less stretchy than weft-knits, but are more solid
intervals and the under-over order is reversed for each and less likely to ‘run’.
new line. Plain weave fabric has no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ side.
This method can be used to make fine, transparent fab Knitted fabric is measured in two dimensions. We use
rics (voile), just as well as heavy-duty canvases and pat- the terms stitch gauge: stitch density for a given width
terned cloths (Vichy cloth or tartan, for example). and row gauge: number of rows in a given length.
• Twill weave: The yarns are less tightly woven. In fact,

the weft goes over two warp yarns at a time and then Stretchy, flexible, comfortable; knitted fabrics are high-
under just one. Each row is offset from the last, creating ly prized for a number of products: tights, lingerie and
a diagonal effect in the finished cloth, as with denim, for jumpers, but also furniture and automotive upholstery,
example. The front and back of the cloth are different. as well as for certain technical applications.

3 Jacquard card representation

WEAVING: THREE BASIC WEAVE types

1 plain weave 2 twill weave 3 satin weave

niques, weft yarns are twisted around warp yarns to ical treatment suited to the type of fibre.
make hexagonal-stitch fabrics. This is how nets, for • Dyeing: Dyeing refers to colouring the entire fibre.

example, are made. By adding a third thread, patterns Some colorants are natural (red from cochineal or mad-
can be created in the fabric producing lace and gui- der, purple from shells, brown from berries, indigo from
pure. The term lace machine is used to describe the creepers, etc.), others are synthetic (indigo used partic
looms which twist yarns in this way. These machines ularly in the manufacture of jeans is man-made).
are relatively recent (19th century). Dyeing can be done earlier in the textile manufacture
line, by dyeing the unprocessed fibres. This is often the
case for wool and some man-made fibres must receive
NON-WOVEN their pigment before extrusion through the spinneret.
Fibres may also be dyed once they are yarns or cloths,
5 Non-woven textiles are formed by the matting (intend after weaving or knitting.
ed or accidental) of natural or man-made fibres. Fibre • Printing: Patterns can be printed onto woven, knit-

cohesion is obtained through mechanical procedures ted, or non-woven fabrics. Colour is only applied to the
(applying pressure), physical procedures (heating), or surface, as opposed to dyeing which has a deeper ac-
chemical procedures (gluing). A combination of the tion. There are various printing methods: using paraffin
above may also be used. to make certain areas resist the colour; ‘woodblock’
The most well-known non-woven fabric is felt. Felts are printing (one of the oldest methods) where patterns
made of wool fibres, assembled by mechanical move- are carved into a block of wood which is then inked
ment, heat and humidity. Felts are used in a number of and the pressed onto the cloth; by ‘roller’ where the
applications nowadays: hats and shoes can be made pattern is carved into cylinders; ‘stencilling’ where co-
of felt, but felt also has uses in industrial filtration lour is applied with a brush or is dusted on, or ‘rotary
equipment and the automotive and creative industries. screen printing’ whereby a canvas is coated with var-
The uptake of non-woven textiles in various fields is nish and passes over the fabric to be printed, allow-
gathering speed. Also known as ‘bonded-fibre fabrics’, ing ink to pass through only certain areas. Silk screen
these kinds of textiles are light and unlikely to crease, printing onto fabrics is also possible.
they can be found in furniture and décor (wall cover • Treatments: Either mechanical or chemical, there

ings, for example), hygiene and cleaning, automotive are countless treatments for fabrics, affecting their ap-
(insulation, filtration), agriculture and geotextiles (seed pearance, thickness and other properties (lining, seal
protection, soil stabilisation, drainage, etc.), medicine ing, embossing, mercerising – for cotton, to give shine
(dressings, masks, protective clothing), etc. They are and strength, watering, scraping, etc.) Fabrics can be
very well suited to disposable items. Most non-woven made to be crease-resistant, non-shrink, waterproof,
fabrics are made of man-made fibres (polyester, nylon, flame-retardant, stain-resistant, antibacterial, scented,
viscose, etc.) but non-woven cotton and wool is also cosmetic releasing, etc.
possible (felt).
A layer of fibres is created in one of three ways: either
under dry conditions by laying fibres on top of one an- TEXTILES AND INNOVATION
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

other after carding; or under wet conditions, as with pa-

per, to make a pulp of fibres from which the water evap- It seems that textiles innovation fascinates more than that
orates; or finally by melting the fibres together, as with of any other field. Perhaps it is due to our close contact
synthetic fibres, immediately after extrusion. This layer with these materials, which occurs on a daily basis.
is then bonded either mechanically (by a needleloom There has always been true excitement – in the media
process), physically or chemically (using a binder). especially – surrounding this area. Textiles are not just
used by the fashion industry. Nowadays we find them
everywhere from our sofas to our cars, in industrial fil-
FINISHING PROCESSES tration and even in architecture (where their efficiency
may see a revival of light, nomadic-style structures).
Once woven or knitted, fabric is then ready to receive Here are a few of the most important research and de-
various finishing touches, improving certain proper- velopment areas:
ties. There are many finishing processes and they are • Microfibres: The maximum sensation of comfort and

becoming more refined everyday. Here are just a few: touch, extremely light, quick-drying. Recent develop-
• Flaring: Fabric is passed over a flame to remove sur- ment has given rise to electrospinning of polymers to

NON-WOVEN FABRIC

• New fibres: Everything from bamboo, pineapple, active gas which changes the surface of fibres), for
corn-based biopolymers, milk casein, wood and bark, example, brings new solutions for the problems of
to crab, seaweed, soya and nettle extracts have been cleaning, of thin coatings and of surface alteration of
looked into for textile production. textiles without changing their feel and appearance.
• Spider’s silk: Immensely strong, this silk is being This method requires less water and energy than tradi-
studied by scientists who are now able to synthesise tional treatments. Nowadays we use laser markings to
the proteins involved and extract them from goat’s milk. bleach textiles or chemical grafting solutions and elec-
Yet another angle of research focuses on genetically tron beams to fix polymers to the surface of textiles. This
optimising silk worms. is very durable as it utilises chemical bonds and can be
• Variable effect textiles: Just like butterfly wings, fol- used to make filtration or antimicrobial textiles.
lowing various procedures (fibre structuring, printing, • Shape-memory textiles: Metallic or polymer alloy

multilayer coatings) textiles can shimmer and dance with based, these textiles provide certain uses (they roll up
colour. There is even talk of self-camouflaging textiles, or wrinkle under certain temperatures).
able to analyse and reproduce their surroundings, dis • Protection: Textiles protect us by absorbing or
appearing from sight, all thanks to variable pigments. reflecting UV and infrared radiation (sensation of cool-
• Textiles inspired by nature: Nanometric imitation ness or heat, protection from the sun); by being flame-
of lotus leaves, for example, to give new waterproofing retardant, etc.
models. • Ecology: Sustainable development is, of course, an is-

• Fibre structure: Still on a nano or micro scale, fibres sue for this vast domain. Organically grown fibres (such
can be optimised in order to give greater wear-resis- as cotton), vegetable dyes with no toxic chemicals,
tance, improved thermal comfort, surprising behaviour synthetic fibres made from non-petroleum resources
towards light, etc. such as PLA (polylactic acids from corn). There are so
• Micro-encapsulation: Performed on the surface (by many labels popping up on textiles, like the Oeko-Tex
coating) or within the fibre itself, micro-encapsulation certificate which guarantees that a fabric does not con-
allows gradual release of scents, cosmetic substanc- tain ‘undesirable’ substances. Nevertheless, sustain
es, antimicrobial agents, even pharmaceuticals (‘tex- able development does not simply involve environmen-
tile medicines’). The effects of this kind of textile still tal concerns; the textile industry also plays a huge part
remain to be accurately tested and regulated. Some of in today’s economy and has sociological impacts all
these treatments, which fade with washing, may soon over the world. There is still so much more that could be
be refilled in the washing machine. Phase-change done. Did you know that a pair of jeans on display in your
materials (PCMs) – able to store and emit thermal en- supermarket has probably travelled around 27,000km to
ergy – can also be encapsulated, ensuring thermal get there? Is that really reasonable?
regulation within a garment.
• Luminous textiles: These can be created by includ

ing fibre optics or LEDs so small that the flexibility of

the cloth is not compromised.

• Interactive textiles: Using weaving techniques or

metallic coating which allow data to be transmitted

(flexible keyboards, barcode labels), textiles have be-
come interfaces. Conductive textiles such as these
may also be antistatic textiles, but tempting applica-
tions lie mainly in the field of medicine, where moni
toring garments could be made to record patients’ List of materials examined in part 02: Felt p.150 / Fibres, artificial
heart rates or respiration. p.151 / Fibres, carbon, aramid, basalt p.152 / Fibres, glass p.153 / Fi-
• Breathable waterproof membranes: Optimum com- bres of animal origin p.154 / Fibres of vegetable origin p.155 / Fibres,
fort against humidity, useful for sports clothing. Micro synthetic p.157 / Fur p.160.
porous membranes (Gore-Tex®, etc.) have been List of processes examined in part 03: Assembly p.272 / Bond-
developed as well as pore-less hydrophilic textiles. ing p.278 / Calendering p.302 / Cutting p.260 / Digital processes p.316 /
• Innovative production methods: ‘Seamless’ knitting Finishes p.324 / Folding p.264 / Heat sealing p.284 / Machining p.268 /
for tubular products without lateral seams; one-piece Printing p.320 / Sewing p.288 / Stamping p.290.

Carved in stone, buildings haunted by the whispers of stone-cutters and statues wearing the same
expression – frozen for eternity, conjure images of the past. A material of memory – from a time of
cathedrals and crazed constructions, heading for the skies – stone is the loyal side-kick of architec-
tural megalomaniacs; it lasts and promises posterity. Bearing the scars of time, the material consists
of sedimentary deposits: histories stacked up and turned into minerals, solidified, fossilised, petrified,
frozen as statues, or buried deep within a harsh but placid tombstone.
Mapping the contours of our land, filtering our water and protecting us, rocks are a precious material
to mankind. Intrusting in the myth of the philosopher’s stone, which alchemists believed was capable
of both healing people and transmuting ordinary metals into gold. Stone, the fifth element along with
earth, air, fire, and water, is fabled to be the elixir of life.
Overcoming an intangible yet insurmountable separation which existed between inert matter and
organic matter for a long time, scientists in the 19th century managed to synthesise organic matter
(urea) from inert salts. The transformation, at a molecular level, of mineral matter into living matter
suddenly became conceivable, a revolution consolidated by the observation that certain minerals are
able to reproduce. Effectively, there is no difference on an atomic level, between a crystal and a living
being; both are self-assembled, spontaneous arrangements of structure in time and space. Living
organisms also produce superb and extremely complex minerals, e.g. shellfish, molluscs, teeth, or
mother-of-pearl. Corals, with their improbable forms and exuberant colours: are surely (living) proof
that the boundary between animal, mineral and vegetable is not as insurmountable as it appears?
Using primitive mineral soups and energy sources – to test different hypotheses whilst watching
out for that miraculous appearance of a rudimentary form of life, mankind continues to experiment;
searching for a knowledge and understanding of the mechanisms which shaped life on earth.
According to the latest research from numerous scenarios, clay would be a prime candidate to hatch
life from. A prediction with surprisingly biblical echoes.
Today, it seems likely that living molecules may have been formed at the surface of certain minerals
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

which provided assistance and protection to the first carbon-based molecules, whilst contributing to
natural selection.
Are minerals the forefathers of organic structures? Stone – inanimate matter – doesn’t really have
a soul, but surely we must take issue with the qualifier ‘inert’ matter.

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STONES, ROCKS AND MINERALS der high pressure and great depth), volcanic, or extru-
sive rocks (fast-cooled at the surface, during a volcanic
Rocks are the principal constituents of the lithosphere eruption, for example) and dyke rocks (with an interme-
– the Earth’s crust. Natural mineral aggregates (mostly diate formation process). Granite is a classic plutonic
crystalline in structure), referred to as ‘rocks’, are in op- rock, present in most of the mountainous massifs; ba-
position to that which is vegetable or animal. salt, lavas and pumice stones are volcanic rocks, while
Referred to more often as stone, especially in the do- porphyry is a dyke rock.
main of construction; rock is more of a geological notion. • Sedimentary Rocks: Over time, igneous rocks
Fine, semi-precious, or precious stones (brilliant crystals change and disintegrate into particles of various siz-
which rouse passions and greed, as with diamonds, em- es. Erosion (by water, ice and wind) transports these
eralds, rubies or sapphires) are often called gems. particles and creates areas of loose deposits: sedi-
ments. Sediments – made of sand, mud and organic
Just like animal skins, each stone found on Earth is waste – accumulate and become compacted into lay-
‘unique’. Even if they come from a precise quarry and ers, which are often parallel and of variable thickness.
have some general, shared characteristics, uniformity They become increasingly dense and hard, undergo-
will not be guaranteed throughout one mined seam. A ing the transformation into sedimentary rocks, under
neighbouring quarry will give a slightly different mate- the action of processes such as water infiltration (the
rial which poses a continuity-of-supply problem, when phenomenon of diagenesis). A stratification effect is
a mine closes, for example. visible due to differences in composition, colour, tex-
ture and the grain size of layers. We distinguish be-
tween clastic rocks (formed by erosion of pre-existing
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCK rocks) such as sandstone, sand, clay or schist; bio-
chemical sedimentary rocks (made of decomposed
1 There are different ways to classify rocks. The chemi- living organisms) such as limestone or chalk; and
cal composition of the constituent minerals; their tex- chemical precipitate sedimentary rocks (made when
ture (loose like sand or clay, friable like schists, coher- a chemical solution precipitates) such as salt or gyp-
ent like granites); their physical properties (hardness, sum. Sedimentary rocks form the surface veneer of
resistance to thermal shock, resistance to frost) or their the Earth’s crust (igneous rocks being the greatest by
aesthetic appearance are all ways to evaluate them. volume).
Generally, the geological formation process presides • Metamorphic Rocks: By the movement of the tecton

over the classification of rocks. We speak of petrol ic plates, certain igneous and sedimentary rocks are
ogy, which has its source in the original magma at the buried and due to the high pressure and temperature
centre of the Earth and studies the different types of undergo transformations. These substantial changes
formation at play in the Earth’s crust. Closely related, (recrystallisation) give rise to new minerals and textures
petrography describes and analyses rocks. Petrology, and create distinctive structures. Rocks formed in this
amongst other things, has the advantage of clear-cut way witness a complete modification of their properties.
classification in terms of appearance and properties, Certain schists (of clayey origin), marbles (of limestone
as well as the area and methods of extraction of rocks origin) or quartzites (created from sandstone) are
which are categorised in this way and highlight poten- metamorphic rocks.
tial fields of application.
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

It is important to see this geological approach to the CHARACTERISTICS OF STONES

genesis of the Earth’s crust as a description of a per-
petual cycle: from magma – molten rock – to magma, Various parameters are used to describe the proper-
via various stages of formation. ties of stone. Density; resistance to crushing; fracture
The following distinctions are made: appearance (straight, conchoidal – in other words a
• Igneous Rocks: Magma, rising to the surface of the smooth, curved breakage surface which may be rip-
Earth, gradually cools and crystallises, forming silicated pled) all have a strong influence on the choice of stone.
minerals. These igneous rocks – rising from the fire of
the Earth’s belly – arrive at the surface via various dy- Hardness
namic movements of floating plates (plate tectonics). Hardness is the capacity of the stone to resist penetra-
They constitute the majority of the crust by volume; our tion. We distinguish between very soft, soft, semi-firm,
mountains are made of them, for example. firm, hard, very hard and ultra-hard stones. The harder
Within the category of igneous rocks, it is customary to the stone, the more difficult it is to cut to size. The
separate plutonic or intrusive rocks (slow-cooled, un- Mohs scale, from 1 to 10, classifies stones according

4 EROSION

transport

SEDIMENTATION

3 1

5 BURIAL 2

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROCKS IN THE EARTH’S CRUST

1 sedimentary rocks 2 metamorphic rocks 3 plutonic rocks 4 volcanic rocks 5 magma

3 4

medium small untrim- trimmed

major block block med block block slab aggregates

OBTAINING ROCK PRODUCTS

1 rock work face 2 raw quarry products (blocks, waste and roadstone) 3 sorting by size 4 crusher

Structure Dressed Stone

Stones may also be differentiated by their structure: Stone may be dressed by hand, using a dressing
flaky, compact, granular, crystalline, granitoid, schis- hammer; or mechanically, using a hydraulic hammer
toid, sandy, etc. The term ‘coquina’ describes rock equipped with a bushing head – which are studded or
containing fossilised shells; ‘solid stone’ refers to rock toothed tools. The surface of the stone is hammered
without any visible cracks or veins; etc. to give a characteristic ‘dotted’ finish.

Porosity Embossed Stone

Some rocks are impermeable, like clay; others are po- Embossed stones are worked on the face, visible in
rous, like sandstone which allows water infiltration. the final construction. There are embossing processes
such as chamfering, diamond stud and wrinkling (as
Frost susceptibility on the facades of the Louvre in Paris, for example).
A stone is called frost susceptible if it does not resist
successive cycles of freeze and thaw. For outdoor uses, Planed stone
non frost susceptible stone is preferable. This character A mechanical finish done on dry, hard stones, which
istic is also applicable to concretes and ceramics. eliminates the saw marks associated with cutting. The
stone is lightly polished, using diamond or carborun-
dum abrasives and the planed surface is characterised
FINISHES FOR STONE by fine, barely visible, circular marks. This finish is used
for exterior dressing.
Stone finishing techniques are an essential step to us-
ing some stones, ranging from practical issues – such Softened stone
as the constraints posed by a more or less slippery Polishing heads (with variable grains according to the
surface, for example – to a question of aesthetics. The desired final result) polish the surface of the stone un-
various surface effects and treatments applied to stone der water, mounted on a conveyor belt. Softened stone
sometimes change every aspect of their appearance. gives a mat polish with slight reflective properties, used
inside rather than out.
Raw Stone
Left in their natural state, stone surfaces don’t always Polished stone
need to undergo any particular finishing process. Just like softening, the stone is polished, but this time
with a finer grained abrasive. This process usually re-
Sawn stone veals the colouring and veins of a stone and gives a
A stone face which has been sawn may be mechani- shiny surface – ‘mirror’ effect. Not all natural stone can
cally created using a diamond wire. In this case, the be polished (their mineral composition and texture can
finish bears characteristic saw marks, creating parallel compromise the finish). Polished stone is suitable for
irregularities in the direction of sawing (‘waves’), a few exterior use, for wall dressing.
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

10ths of a millimetre deep.

Flamed stone STONE USES

Flaming, best suited to hard stone, consists of a ther-
mal treatment applied superficially using a blowtorch. Stones are mostly used for the construction of build 3

It gives a rough surface – crystals and surface grains ings. The term building stone, refers to those stones 5

shattering upon contact with the flame. which – being non frost susceptible, hard and durable
– are used for masonry (granite, sandstone, marble,
Cloven stone flint, etc.). From the various stones, according to the
Some stones have a tendency to split along definite desired usage, we get blocks (large and not yet cut to 2

4 natural cracking planes. This is known as cleavage. In size), dressed stone (‘squared’ off, ready to be assem-
the case of slate, for example, or mica, cleavage can bled) and bricks (smaller sized dressed stone). Bits of
create thin leaves, whose surfaces follow that of the stone broken into more or less fine pellets, or powders
split. It is not always easy to determine the cleavage can be mixed into concretes, mortars, or loaded into
planes and to cut stones to size in this way, as they can plastics, or used to make reconstituted stone.

FINISHING OPERATION: SURFACE ROUGHENING

BONDS IN BRICKLAYING
do not superimpose vertical joints

EXAMPLES OF BRICK BONDS

STONES AND INNOVATION

The stone sector is not an area rich in research and

development policies. However, some products have
been developed to respond to, for example, problems
of weight; like stone/aluminium honeycomb hybrids,
for a ‘real stone’ effect – but much lighter (highly praised
for interior coverings in luxury lifts, for example). White,
translucent marble and glass, stuck together in thin
layers, provide the durability required for building
facades but with a false solid marble effect. Reconstitut
ed stone can be made in unusual colours and precious
or semi-precious stones can be cleverly worked and,
in the form of tiny fragments invisibly stuck together,
make decorative panels with a changing sparkle and
illustrious overtones.
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

List of materials examined in part 02: Asphalt p.123 / Basalt,

melted and lava p.124 / Granite p.169 / Limestone p.185 / Marble p.190 /
Precious stones p.223 / Sandstone p.227 / Schist p.228 / Silicon p.234 /
Solid surfaces p.236.

List of processes examined in part 03: Assembly p.272 / Bond-

ing p.278 / Cutting p.260 / Digital processes p.316 / Finishes p.324 / Ma-
chining p.268 / Printing p.320.

Thanks to technological advancements, concrete, a material which suffered as a result of a negative

image in the public eye 15 years ago, has experienced a rebirth. A relatively modern material (dating
back to the middle of the 19th century), the varyingly complex mixture of cement and aggregates, has
become both the symbol and the cause of the evils of our modern urban societies, a scapegoat for
the architectural and urbanistic excesses. In addition, concrete does not seem reinforced enough
to withstand other more technologically advanced materials such as glass, metallic alloys, polymers
and composite materials.
Associated with uniformity, rigidity and a greyish colour, it is however, the exact opposite. Concrete
has no predetermined colour, texture or form. It has no definitive appearance, but rather an infinity of
possible appearances. An architectural revolutionary material: a ready-made creative paste, continu-
ously mixed even when in transport. Concrete: there’s certainly no moss growing on this rolling stone!
The cement-mixer lorries so beloved of little boys everywhere, reinforce the modern mythology of
moving clay. Concrete: because everyone has once experienced its ceremonial transformation, even
if just on a local building site and its revelation from its formwork, which is somehow always magical.
We know it and we can identify with it.
A noble and founding material (forming the foundations of buildings), it is one of the only materials
made by man to reach the dizzy heights of Earth, of Nature: excessive, impressive, just, hard and
austere. Roadblocks, sea walls, sky-scrapers, nuclear power stations: it feeds the most ambitious of
construction fantasies and the campaign for great building works.
Researchers, engineers and industrialists have all greatly improved the various characteristics of con-
crete, principally by reinforcing its use in the natural habitats of construction, engineering structures,
roadways and urban management. Concrete is now lighter, more solid, more durable, more flexible
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

to use, finer and more beautiful. If these progressions have effectively allowed the construction of
tours de force like the viaduct at Millau, then the qualities gained also authorise the beginning of a
new trial period in the history of concrete, where new applications should be sought. It should not
be left to producers to imagine a new future for their concrete products, but to creative profession
als of all sectors to shake up their industries. It is hoped the increased number of people who twist
this matter and push it to within an inch of its limits, including those who work with furniture, interior
architecture, lighting and packaging, will allow matter to have expression in fields other than those
of their traditional role.
Finely strung slats for modern concrete building sites, lace-like structures, lengths to which designers
dream of going, even translucence these are all now accessible. Concrete, unfaltering, works hand
in hand with the architect, toward a revolutionary desire for the purest of gestures.

monly called cement, this binder produces mortars ed clay, glass pellets, recycled materials (concretes,
or concretes. When the aggregates used in conjunc- waste, bricks), wood chips, or polystyrene aggregates
tion with a hydraulic binder are small like sand, this is may also be used.
known as mortar (used for finishing processes such as • Admixtures: Of lesser volume in the final mixture, ad-

grading, damp-proofing, sealing, bonding, re-pointing); mixtures are, however, imperative to the required quali-
when the aggregates are larger in size, this is known as ties of concrete. Plasticisers allow for a large reduction
cement concrete. in the proportion of water needed, which perceptibly
The preparation of a cement-based concrete goes increases the mechanical qualities of the concrete.
through a stage of batch mixing, where water is added There are also accelerators and retardants, to control
to the dry matter and the whole lot is mixed for several curing times to accommodate works on site or allow
minutes. This process can to be done manually or me certain specific surface states, for example. There are
2 chanically (cement-mixer, vertical-shaft mixer). also water-repellent admixtures which allow extra pro-
• Hydrocarbon binder: These are bitumen type bind tection against outdoor forces; oxides which increase
ers. Bituminous concrete (also called bituminous mix- the self-cleaning, even decontaminating, properties of
ture, or asphalt) uses grit coated in bitumen. This is the concrete; anti-freeze agents which avoid freeze-thaw,
concrete used on our roads. It is made at hot tempera- the shattering of blocks under the effect of cold and
tures (approximately 150°C) to facilitate coating and super-plasticisers which create self-levelling concrete.
must be compacted before cooling by ‘steam rollers’
to ensure good cohesion and strength throughout the
finished product. Once made, bituminous concrete CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCRETES
can be used straight away; this is not the case for ce-
ment concrete. The quality of a concrete largely depends on the pre-
• Polymer-based binder: This is also known as resin cise amount of water used, the duration of mixing and
concrete, e.g. poured floors. the dispersion of components. The aim is to make a
homogenous material.

CEMENT CONCRETE Strengths and weaknesses

Concrete possesses mechanically interesting proper-
Cement concrete is the most well-known concrete. ties under pressure. However, its tensile strength is
Used since the 19th century, it has become the most limited and quickly provokes cracking and breaks if it
widely used construction material: 1 m3 per annum, per is not reinforced or does not have fibres mixed in. 5

capita, worldwide. This success is partly explained by

the fact that this material has become so transform Workability

able; it does not need firing and it can be worked di- The workability of a concrete measures its aptitude to
rectly on site. being easily worked. It depends on the rheology of the
3 The recipe is relatively simple, even if the ratios to be mixture obtained (elasticity, plasticity, viscosity) and on
respected are precise: between 7 and 15% cement, 60 the method of implementation.
to 70% aggregate, water, admixtures (less than 2%) and
air (1 to 6% of the volume). Nature dictates the ingredi- Density
ents, as well as the proportions, which differ, of course, Concretes are in the ‘heavy’ materials family. We do
according to the project requirements – in terms of aes- however distinguish several categories:
thetics, durability, mechanical and chemical resistance, • Very heavy concretes: more than 2,500 kg / m 3 (some

etc. However the following basics are constant: reach 6,000 kg / m3 but, by comparison, steel is around
• Cement: Produced from primary raw materials which 8,000 kg/m3).
are abundant in the natural world – limestone and clay • Heavy concretes: from 1,800 to 2,500 kg / m 3.

– cement is a fired mineral powder which, when mixed • Light concretes: from 500 to 1,800 kg / m 3.

with water, forms a paste that cures. After harden- • Very light concretes: less than 500 kg / m 3.

100

MIXTURE STRUCTURE
1 ballast 2 binder

1 2

3
ER
WAT
air

SA NT
ND ME
CE

GRAVEL ADDITIVE

BASIC COMPONENTS OF CONCRETE

101

Deactivation
We can slow the curing of the binder at the surface of CONCRETE AND INNOVATION
concrete, by spraying with a deactivator. By high-pres-
sure rinsing, this removes laitance and reveals the aggre- Ultra-high-performance concretes which have fantas-
gates present in the mixture to give a more ‘raw’ aesthetic tic mechanical qualities, almost no porosity and good
effect. Quenched concrete is often found in the dressing elasticity are now available. Their very fine constituents
of urban flooring (public spaces, for example). (often much smaller than a micron) and their great flu-
idity allow for self-placing implementation as well as
Colours very good reproductions of the textures in the mould.
Concrete can be tinted through and through, thanks to
the incorporation of pigments or metallic oxides into the Concrete, a material which has always been opaque,
mixture. is now learning how to associate itself with and how
to transmit light, becoming translucent, either by the
addition of transparent aggregates (glass aerogels
IMPLEMENTATION OF CONCRETES or plastic pellets), or thanks to the careful position-
ing of fibre optic networks. The striking effect is being
4 Concretes are generally poured using gravity into snapped up by architects like hot cakes, who see the
moulds, formwork, caissons, or onto large pre-prepared development as a new direction for architecture.
surfaces (cast concrete floors). This type of process can
be done in advance (as with prefabricated pieces, furni- Another seemingly paradoxical quality of innovative
ture parts) or in situ on a building site. Once the matter is concrete is its increasing flexibility. American universities
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

cast, the next step is to compact it by vibration (except have developed a very supple and flexible concrete by
in the case of self-placing or self-levelling concretes) by adding distinctive textile microfibres to a special cement
placing large vibrating needles into it. Air bubbles are recipe. One might even call it bouncy! The results are
then brought to the surface and the vibrations ensure impressive, giving a 40% lighter material, which is 500
good placement of the matter into the formwork, good times more crack resistant and very highly shock and
distribution around reinforcements and more homog- vibration absorbent, unlike normal concrete.
enous mechanical and aesthetic properties.
Researchers’ files are bulging with promising projects,
Self-placing and self-levelling concretes are very fluid, particularly those referencing so-called ‘intelligent’
homogenous and stable concretes, which are charac- concretes, which bear the promise of new functions
terised by their quick casting. These concretes, which integrated into the matter. By effectively mixing carbon
are very compact and slightly permeable, bypass the fibres with conventional concrete, they have obtained
need for grading (levelling to obtain a surface which is an element whose electrical resistance varies accord
flat enough to receive flooring such as parquet, carpet, ing to its internal structure, its cohesion, possible ab-
tiles) and similarly the need for vibration after pouring. normalities and cracks, as well as the strains and efforts

102

formwork

concrete

PREFABRICATED FORMWORK ELEMENTS

concrete

REINFORCED CONCRETE

103

In the even longer term, researchers at a British univer-

sity have incorporated a thermo chromic ink into con-
crete, which, thanks to a mesh of thin electrical heating
wires in sub-layers, displays totally controllable infor-
mation and pictures. Information in flooring could direct
us, walls could tell the time and buildings could change
colour at the drop of a hat!

Last, but by no means least, is the paradox that con-

crete is now actually showing real environmental qual
ities. Thanks to the simple incorporation of titanium di-
oxide into the formula of classic concrete, the facades
of buildings made with this material become real pollu-
tion hoovers, due to the joint action of natural light and
titanium oxide. Permanent photo-catalytic reactions
decompose marks, clean the surface and purify the
air by destroying nitrogen oxides produced by cars as
well as volatile organic components of the ozone.
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

List of materials examined in part 02: Asphalt p.123 / Concretes,

conventional p.140 / Concretes, fibre p.141 / Concretes, high perfor-
mance p.142 / Mortar p.195 / Plaster p.207.

List of processes examined in part 03: Assembly p.272 / Bon-

ding p.278 / Cast moulding p.298 / Cutting p.260 / Digital processes
p.316 / Finishes p.324 / Machining p.268 / Printing p.320.

104

Absolute, elusive, mystical and mysterious, long since regarded as being a source of energy, can
light be considered as being a material? Its wave-particle duality, which still now causes physicists to
ponder, leaves lingering doubts. It also holds a fascination for the intangible photon, this enigmatic
grain of pure energy, this weightless object. Naturally feeding the curiosity of creative designers, light
has created new professions. Some claim to be light ‘technicians’, while others ostensibly present
themselves as ‘sculptors’ of light, playing with a fashioned synthesis of light and material, stripped
virtually bare of technology and substrate. Light is also able to metamorphose into a cutting tool – the
laser. This concentrated, searing light beam – proving itself as the hardest of resistant materials, fit for
engraving and separating with hitherto unattained surgical precision.
Illumination, however, remains light’s main function. Presented with an abundance of light sources
and devises, the old ideals of the lamp are gone. Now, even the most unexpected objects can turn
into light sources: carpets, stair banisters or even goldfish bowls. As a result, the old and beautiful
incandescent light bulb is slowly but surely sliding into obscurity. The technological advances that
are currently materialising, are on a par with the transition from the candle to the light bulb that our
ancestors witnessed. Which of all of these new light sources will come out on top? Is there a place
for all of them? The prognosis is clearer… Halogen light sources have taken the top spot thanks to
the self-regeneration of their filament, harmlessly increasing lighting power tenfold in the domestic
environment. Compact fluorescents have made advances into the commercial exploitation of low-
energy cold sources. Without any heat emission, the source is able to start to secrete itself into the
object, inside the hermetically sealed material. LEDs, the formidably long-lasting light source (more
than 100,000 hours of continuous operation), previously used for simple light indicators, are poised
to evolve thanks to the increased control over semi-conductors, sparking excitement internationally.
For their part, electroluminescent sheets and wires are used more and more frequently in signage
and have taken up their place in the ‘light designer’s’ toolbox. The undetectable source becomes the
material itself or at least gives the illusion of this. Optical fibres work in conjunction with concrete or
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

resin and cut through the most opaque of walls, they infiltrate the fabric of smart clothing or illumi-
nated hangings. An object is more inhabited by light than illuminated or exposed to it. Finally, light
now finds a place in images, image processing, their capture and reproduction. This virtual material,
this mirage of our screens is nothing other than material/light which both creates and illuminates the
sign. Ironically light is far from illuminating when it comes to our doubts over what is real, instead, it
adds a veil, a deep seated layer which makes our relationship with the material ever more complex
and enigmatic as advances are made. Light travels at two hundred and ninety-nine million, seven
hundred and ninety-two thousand, four hundred and fifty-eight metres per second.

107

It may seem peculiar to set aside a chapter about light Power

in a work devoted to the subject of materials. Light in Power is measured in watts (W).
fact thrusts us to the limits of matter. Since the nineteenth It is the electrical power consumed by a lamp. In
century, scientists have vacillated between a wave-based theory, the greater the power, the brighter the lamp.
concept of light (Maxwell’s Laws around 1870) and a par- However, lighting power also depends on the type of
ticle-based concept (Max Planck in 1899 introduced the lamp used.
notion of quanta and then in 1905, Albert Einstein spoke
about photons). Today, the profound nature of light is Luminous flux and luminous efficiency
still not fully understood but the two theories effectively Luminous flux is measured in lumens (lm). It is the
coexist. Light is neither a wave, nor a particle but is con- amount of light emitted by a lamp.
sidered as being both at the same time. Luminous efficiency is measured in lumens per watt
Quantum mechanics – which reverts to highly complex (lm / W). This is the relationship between luminous flux
mathematical models that are scarcely intelligible to and power.
mere mortals – is based on the wave-particle duality For example, a 40 W incandescent lamp has a lumi-
introduced by de Broglie in 1924. This has allowed us nous flux of 415 lm. Its luminous efficiency is therefore
to make huge advances in understanding the micro 10.4 lm / W. A 36 W fluorescent tube has a luminous flux
scopic world, atoms and particles. Up to then, classi- of 3,350 lm, or a luminous efficiency of 93 lm / W. Given
cal physics had failed to provide us with a satisfactory the same consumption, the fluorescent tube therefore
description of the infinitely small. An understanding of gives out nine times more light.
the phenomena at work in ‘semi-’ and ‘super-’ conduc-
tors, in radioactivity, in the tunnel effect, amongst other Life expectancy
things, can be attributed to quantum theories. Far from The service life of a source is measured in hours (h).
being reserved to the fields of fundamental research, This is the time during which a source is able to function
every day quantum mechanics is responsible for mate- before becoming inoperable.
rial advances within industry. Once more it is proof, if it The service life of sources varies from 1,000 h for a
is required, of the importance of the ‘techno-sciences’. standard incandescent light bulb to 12,000 h, for ex-
ample, for a fluorescent tube and can be as much as
Let us return to the good old classical theories of phys 100,000 h for some LEDs.
ics and consider light as a wave. Light visible to the
1 human eye is between wavelengths of 0.38 to 0.78 Colour temperature
microns. The wavelength will determine its colour. By Colour temperature is measured in Kelvin (K).
extension, waves such as infrared and ultraviolet, that It is the apparent colour emitted by a light.
we will not be able to distinguish, are also referred to The greater the colour temperature (> 5,500 K), the
as being light. ‘colder’ the light is (rich in blue, closer to daylight). The
lower it is (< 3,300 K), the ‘warmer’ the tones are (rich
in red and yellow).
OBTAINING LIGHT For example, a classic incandescent lamp has a colour
temperature of 2,700 K, or a warm colour, the same as
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

There are many ways of obtaining light. The sun and the for halogen lamps. In contrast, a ‘daylight’ fluorescent
stars, for example, produce more radiation than they tube is cold in colour, with a temperature of 6,000 K.
receive and provide us with ‘celestial’ light; some living
organisms, such as fireflies or some jellyfish, produce Colour rendering index
light by means of a chemical reaction (known as biolu- The acronym for the colour rendering index is CRI or Ra.
minescence). Further, combustion of course produces It is the capacity of a light source to render the colours
light, from bonfires, hurricane lamps to candles; flashes of the object that it is illuminating. Values range from
of lightning (plasmas), the laser or fluorescence are 50, ‘bad’ to 100, ‘very good’. Below 50, the CRI fails to
‘quantum-type’ lights. However, the most widespread render anything.
method for currently obtaining light remains the electric The CRI of incandescent sources is generally 100,
power source. Thanks to electricity, light appears, by some fluorescent tubes, however, can reach an CRI of
heating or by the quantum phenomenon. In this way the up to 66, which does not make easy viewing.
4 incandescent light bulb, fluorescent tube, electrolumi- The sodium light sources of a tunnel (having a CRI of
3 nescent diode, cathode-ray tube constitute our every- 25) completely modify, for instance, our perception of
day ‘light’. the colour of objects.

108

400 nm VISIBLE LIGHT 700 nm

ultraviolet violet blue green yellow orange red infrared

LIGHT SPECTRUM

2
Luminous efficiency

Colour Rendition
temperature (K)

Average life (h)

Index (CRI)
Power (W)

Colour
(lm/W)

INCANDESCENCE

Standard 15 - 1 000 8 - 18 2 600 - 2 900 1 000 100

LV halogen 50 - 2 000 13 - 20 3 000 2 000 100

ELV halogen 15 - 100 16 - 22 3 000 2 000 - 4 000 100

DISCHARGE

Metal halide 50 - 2 000 70 - 100 3 000 - 6 000 6 000 - 8 000 65 - 85

High-pressure sodium 35 - 1 000 50 - 150 2 000 - 2 500 8 000 - 24 000 80

FLUORESCENT

Tubes 18 - 36 - 58 60 - 100 2 700 - 6 500 8 000 - 12 000 66 - 98

Substitution lamps 5 - 23 40 - 60 2 700 - 3 000 8 000 85

Integrated lamps 5 - 55 80 - 95 2 700 - 4 000 8 000 - 12 000 85

led 1-3 12 - 60 60 - 90 50 000 - 100 000 75 - 80

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF DIFFERENT LIGHT SOURCES

DISCHARGE
mercury
sodium
fluorescence
(tubes, compacts)

INCANDESCENCE
standard
halogen

optical fibre

LED electroluminescence

phospho / fluo

SOURCES

109

11 12 13

LAMP SHAPES
INCANDESCENT LAMPS: 1 standard 2 / 3 with internal reflector 4 fantasy 5 low voltage twin-cap tungsten-halogen 6 / 7 double-envelope
low voltage tungsten-halogen 8 extra-low voltage tungsten-halogen with dichroic reflector 9 miniature ELV tungsten-halogen
DISCHARGE LAMPS: 10 metal halide 11 high-pressure sodium tube 12 high-pressure ‘white-light’ sodium 13 high-pressure mercury vapour

110

1 2 3 4

5 6

13 14

LAMP SHAPES
DISCHAGE LAMPS (FLUORESCENT): 1 to 8 compact substitution fluorescent 9 special integrated compact fluorescent lamps without
integral starter 10 special integrated compact fluorescent lamps with integral starter 11 standard fluorescent tube 12 / 13 integrated
compact fluorescent lamps 14 circular fluorescent tube

111

Today, controlling light phenomena is dependent upon

the ability to resolve energy issues and the ability to
produce this energy. Issues relating to safety, endur
ance, in particular (electricity involves a physical con-
nection), power consumption (energy savings) are all
good reasons for research and innovation. Other than
optimising existing sources – LEDs, which are becom
ing light sources in their own right and the OLEDs
(Organic Light-Emitting Diodes, both light sources or
displays, gradually replacing liquid crystal displays) –
the spotlight is set on the following areas:
• ELV (Extra-Low Voltage) or ULV (Ultra-Low Voltage)

addressing safety and energy-saving issues, amongst

other things.
• Delocalisation of the electric source, made possible,

for example, using fibre optics. You can submerge fi-

bres in water without danger. Lighting equipment and
water have never made good companions up to now.
• Batteries are becoming more and more high-perfor-

mance ensuring increased endurance.

List of materials examined in part 02: Electroluminescence

p.147 / Fibres, glass p.153 / Laser p.176 / Led p.179 / Light source,
discharge fluorescent p.181 / Light source, halogen incandescent
p.182 / Light source, sodium, mercury discharge p.183 / Light source,
standard incandescent p.184 / Phosphorescence – Fluorescence
p.203 / XX-Chromatic p.251.

112

Group Period I II III IV V VI VII VIII

114
1 2 (NG)

K 1 H He
Hydrogen Atomic number 45 (TM) M = metals Helium

TM = transition metals
3 (M) 4 (M) NM = nonmetals 5 (NM) 6 (NM) 7 (NM) 8 (NM) 9 (NM) 10 (NG)
Symbol Rh
Li Be RE = rare earths B C N O F Ne
L 2 Lithium Beryllium Rhodium NG = noble gases Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon

Created from bibliouis-ebooks on 2021-02-19 20:50:10.

AG = all groups
11 (M) 12 (M) 13 (M) 14 (NM) 15 (NM) 16 (NM) 17 (NM) 18 (GN)

M 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magne- Aluminium Silicon Phospho- Sulfur Chlorine Argon
sium rus

19 (M) 20 (M) 21 (TM) 22 (TM) 23 (TM) 24 (TM) 25 (TM) 26 (TM) 27 (TM) 28 (TM) 29 (TM) 30 (M) 31 (M) 32 (NM) 33 (NM) 34 (NM) 35 (NM) 36 (NG)

N 4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manga- Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germa- Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
nese nium

37 (M) 38 (M) 39 (TM) 40 (TM) 41 (TM) 42 (TM) 43 (TM) 44 (TM) 45 (TM) 46 (TM) 47 (TM) 48 (M) 49 (M) 50 (M) 51 (M) 52 (NM) 53 (NM) 54 (NG)

O 5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybde- Techne- Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
num tium

55 (M) 56 (M) 57-71 72 (TM) 73 (TM) 74 (TM) 75 (TM) 76 (TM) 77 (TM) 78 (TM) 79 (TM) 80 (M) 81 (M) 82 (MS) 83 (M) 84 (M) 85 (NM) 86 (NG)
P 6 Cs Ba — Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Ti Pb Bi Po At Rn
Caesium Barium Lantha- Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
noids

87 (M) 88 (TG) 89-103 104 (TM) 105 (TM) 106 (TM) 107 (TM) 108 (TM) 109 (TM) 110 (TM) 111 (TM) 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Q 7 Fr Ra — Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo
Francium Radium Actinoids Rutherfor- Dubnium Seabor- Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Ununnilium Ununu- Ununbium Ununtrium Ununqua- Ununpen- Unun- Ununsep- Ununoc-
dium gium nium dium tium hexium tium tium

57 (RE) 58 (RE) 59 (RE) 60 (RE) 61 (RE) 62 (RE) 63 (RE) 64 (RE) 65 (RE) 66 (RE) 67 (RE) 68 (RE) 69 (RE) 70 (RE) 71 (RE)

Kula, D., & Ternaux, É. (2013). Materiology : The creative industry's guide to materials and technologies. ProQuest Ebook Central <a
Lantha-
noids
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Lanthanum Cerium Praseody- Neody- Pro- Samarium Europium Gadoli- Terbium Dyspro- Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
mium mium methium nium sium

89 (RE) 90 (RE) 91 (RE) 92 (RE) 93 (RE) 94 (RE) 95 (RE) 96 (RE) 97 (RE) 98 (RE) 99 (RE) 100 (RE) 101 (RE) 102 (RE) 103 (RE)
Actinoids Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Actinium Thorium Protacti- Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Califor- Einstei- Fermium Mendele- Nobelium Lawren-
nium nium nium vium cium

PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS

The periodic table of the elements is the result of research by the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev (1834-1907). It is an overview of all the fundamental chemical elements, listed by increasing atomic
number (the atomic number is the number of positively-charged protons in the nucleus of an atom and so it follows that, for an atom with a neutral charge this value is also the number of negatively-charged
electrons orbiting the nucleus). Some of these elements, at a normal temperature and pressure (0°C and 1 atmosphere) are in liquid form (only bromine and mercury) and the remainder exist as gases or
solids. The majority of elements are metals. There are several sub-categories of metals, such as alkaline metals, the lanthanides. Metalloids are elements with properties that are a mixture of those metals
and non-metals or somewhere in-between. The remainder are in categories such as non-metals, noble gases or halogens, for example.

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115

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Materiology The Creative Industry's Guide To Mater... - (01 Material Families)

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Materiology The Creative Industry's Guide To Mater... - (01 Material Families)

Uploaded by

01 material families

Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

silhouettes of A variety of tree species

silhouettes of A variety of tree species

as a raw material, a material that has the special qual­

cross-section tangential section radial section

annual growth ring

TREE TRUNK SECTION

annual growth ring top log

summer wood spring wood

MICROSCOPIC TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A SOFTWOOD FELLING AND PROCESSING

wood. Sapwood is eliminated. It is wood that is ‘too

mechanical and aesthetic properties can vary exten-

CLASSIC WOOD CUTTING METHODS

radial tangential transverse

• or by injection (using types of syringe)

SHRINKAGE There are four major types of treatment:

The appearance of kit furniture and structural frame­

paper and cardboard consumption for wood-based

wood used as an energy

other consumption (0,2 Gm3)

industrial round wood (1,6 Gm3)

BREAKDOWN OF CONSUMPTION AMONG WOOD INDUSTRIES

Wood as a material, ‘pushed to the limits’ is capable

Further research and development propositions contin­

List of materials examined in part 02: Bamboo p.126 / Burrs

List of processes examined in part 03: Assembly p.272 / Bond-

verted or shredded into small chips, is put into a ‘digest-

THE PAPER WEB The mass per unit area (grammage)

The grain A pair of scissors, a tube of glue, a stapler, a cutting

Whiteness closed-cycle production?

paper for graphic and packaging

STANDARD PAPER FORMATS

Papers and plastics enjoy quite an intimate friendship.

Watermarks, as we have seen, remain a much appreci­

Printing techniques are also developing and the speed of

Finally, the word paper has infiltrated the field of elec-

printed with electroluminescent ink (see Electrolumi-

List of materials examined in part 02: Cardboard p.133 / Honey-

pigs, goats, horses although it is also possible to find collagen.

DIFFERENT PARTS OF SKIN (CATTLE, SHEEP, GOAT)

in structure. eral phases itself) is what makes it possible to obtain the

Leather and water There is also imitation fur(more affordable). Certain

Leather and moulds Synthetic leather, refers to materials made of bonded

LEATHER AND INNOVATION

Despite being relatively unaffected in terms of innova-

There is future promise of machine washable leather,

rial will continue to surprise us.

Tanneries also produce leather with exotic twists such

In the current context of sustainable development, there

EXAMPLES OF CRYSTAL LATTICES

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF A METAL

Conduction of electricity result of adding carbon to iron ore, provided by coke

MAIN OPERATIONS IN the PRODUCTION OF CAST IRON AND STEEL

MODIFICATION OF STRUCTURE OF ROLLED METAL

BASE METALS Aluminium Al 660°C 2700

Copper Cu 1090°C 8920

Tin Sn 232°C 7310

Iron Fe 1535°C 7860

Mercury Hg –39°C 13600

Lead Pb 327°C 11300

Titanium Ti 1660°C 4500

Zinc Zn 420°C 7140

Gold Au 1063°C 19300

Platinum Pt 1764°C 21400

Cobalt Co 1490°C 8900

Magnesium Mg 650°C 1750

Molybdenum Mo 2625°C 10200

Nickel Ni 1452°C 8900

Vanadium V 1890°C 6100

Antimony Sb 630°C 6697

Brass Cu + Zn ~940°C 7300 - 8400

Zamak Zn + Al ~400°C 6600 - 6700

Cast iron Fe + C ~1100 - 1300°C ~7800

Steel Fe + C ~1500°C 7800 - 9000

STEEL PROFILE PRODUCTS

as a raw material, a material that has the special qual

The appearance of kit furniture and structural frame

Further research and development propositions contin

Watermarks, as we have seen, remain a much appreci