Water Operation and

Maintenance Bulletin
No. 211

In This Issue . . .
Stressing about the Summer Heat?

Introduction of a New Materials Engineer in the

Technical Service Center

Engine-Generator Maintenance, Inspection,

and Testing

Drainage of Irrigated Lands

U.S. Department of the Interior

Bureau of Reclamation March 2005
 This Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin is published quarterly for the benefit of water
supply system operators. Its principal purpose is to serve as a medium to exchange information
for use by Bureau of Reclamation personnel and water user groups in operating and maintaining
project facilities.

The Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin and subject index may be accessed on the
Internet at: <http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/infrastructure/inspection/waterbulletin>.

Although every attempt is made to ensure high quality and accurate information, the Bureau of
Reclamation cannot warrant nor be responsible for the use or misuse of information that is
furnished in this bulletin.

For further information about the

Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin, contact:

Jerry Fischer, Managing Editor

Bureau of Reclamation
Inspections and Emergency Management Group (D-8470)
PO Box 25007, Denver, CO 80225-0007
Telephone: (303) 445-2748
FAX: (303) 445-6381
Email: [email protected]

Any information contained in this bulletin regarding commercial products may not be
used for advertisement or promotional purposes and is not to be construed as an
endorsement of any product or firm by the Bureau of Reclamation.

U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation

 Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin
No. 211 – March 2005

CONTENTS
Page

Stressing about the Summer Heat? ..........................................................................1

Introduction of a New Materials Engineer in the Technical Service Center ...........5

Engine-Generator Maintenance, Inspection, and Testing........................................7

Drainage of Irrigated Lands ...................................................................................17

Available on the Internet at:

http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/infrastructure/inspection/waterbulletin

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 Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin

Stressing about the Summer Heat?

by Steven D. Engleman, CIH1

Now that we are experiencing the heat of summer in Colorado, it is important to

be aware of the effects of that heat on our bodies and health. Heat stress can
come from a variety of sources and can affect the body in various ways.
Temperature, humidity, radiant heat, and air velocity are four environmental
factors that affect the amount of heat stress an individual encounters. The body
reacts to high external temperatures by circulating blood to the skin, which
increases epidermal temperature and allows the body to give off excess heat
through the skin. But, if muscles are being used for physical labor, less blood is
available to flow to the skin and release the heat.

Sweating is another method the body uses to maintain a stable internal body
temperature. However, sweating is effective only if the humidity level is low
enough to permit evaporation and if lost fluids and salts are adequately replaced.
Fortunately, in Colorado, low humidity helps us in this respect.

If the body cannot dispose of excess heat, it will store it. When this happens,
the body’s core temperature raises, the heart rate increases, and, if necessary
precautions are not taken, a number of traumatic events can occur. Individuals
may not be able to concentrate, have difficulty focusing on tasks, become irritable
or sick, and may lose their desire to drink. Once these symptoms occur, the next
stage most often is fainting, but even death is possible if the person is not
removed from the heat-induced situation.

Electrolytes can help protect employees from heat-induced stress. Under ideal
situations, electrolytes flow through muscle cells to keep them functioning
normally. However, in heat stress situations, these precious minerals are lost
through perspiration or other forms of dehydration, which depletes muscle cells of
fluids and weakens muscle tissue. Drinking water can keep the body hydrated,
but drinking water alone does not quickly replace the electrolytes needed to keep
the body functioning properly. Water still reigns as nature’s perfect drink, but it
takes a back seat to electrolyte replacement beverages in high-heat situations. In
fact, the rate of absorption of electrolyte replacement products, when compared
with water, is 98 percent faster in the first minute. When working against heat-
related ailments, time can sometimes be the most critical factor in keeping safe
and protected.

1
Industrial Hygienist, Reclamation Safety and Health Office, Bureau of Reclamation,
Technical Service Center, Denver, Colorado; (303) 445-2696.

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Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin

Know the warning signs of heat-related ailments to help protect yourself and
others. There are three categories of heat-related ailments: heat cramps, heat
exhaustion, and heat stroke.

• Heat cramps are muscle spasms caused by heavy sweating. They

normally affect the arms, legs, or stomach and frequently don’t occur until
after work, at night, or when relaxing. To prevent heat cramps, it has been
advised that one should drink electrolyte solutions during the day and eat
fruit such as bananas.

• Heat exhaustion occurs when surface blood vessels and capillaries that
originally enlarge to cool the blood collapse from loss of body fluids and
necessary minerals. Symptoms include headache, cool moist skin, weak
and rapid pulse, and low blood pressure.

• Heat stroke is a life-threatening illness that occurs when the body has
exhausted its supply of water and salt, and the victim’s body temperature
rises dangerously. It can be mistaken for a heart attack, so co-workers
must be able to recognize symptoms:

o Elevated body temperature

o No sweating
o Dry skin that is red or flushed
o Rapid pulse
o Breathing difficulty
o High blood pressure
o Dizziness
o Headache
o Nausea
o Confusion

On average, 175 Americans die of heat-related injuries each year. In addition,

the costs associated with lost time due to workplace accidents are usually
overwhelming. According to 1998 statistics from the National Safety Council,
the cost per worker for a disabling lost-time injury averages about $28,000—this
includes both direct and hidden costs. Direct costs include medical and employee
compensation costs. Hidden costs can range from time lost from work to loss in
earning power; economic loss to the family of the injured employee; lost time by
fellow workers; loss of efficiency due to the breakup of the crew; lost time by
supervision; the cost of training new employees; damage to tools and equipment;
the time damaged equipment is out of service; spoiled work; loss of production;
spoilage from fire, water, chemicals, etc.; failure to fill orders; and increased
overhead cost while the work was disrupted.

Managers should know the symptoms and take quick action when heat-related
problems occur. Because heat stress illnesses manifest themselves on a

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 Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin

continuum of severity where heat cramps may lead to heat exhaustion or heat
stroke, it is imperative that each occurrence be seriously and cautiously addressed.
When persons are exhibiting symptoms of heat stress, it is best to seek advice on
subsequent actions to be taken from a medical practitioner.

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration offers tips for workers and
employers to follow when persons are working in hot environments:

1. Drink cool water. Someone working in a hot environment should drink

cool water in small amounts frequently—one cup every 20 minutes.
Employers should make water and/or electrolyte-replacement beverages
available. Avoid alcohol, coffee, tea, and soft drinks with caffeine,
which cause dehydration.

2. Dress appropriately. Wear lightweight, loose-fitting clothing and

change clothing if it becomes completely saturated. Use sunscreen and
wear a hat when working outdoors.

3. Work in ventilated areas. All workplaces should have good general

ventilation, as well as spot cooling in work areas of high heat
production. Good air flow increases evaporation of sweat, which cools
the skin.

4. Supervisors should assess the work force and environmental conditions

in order to assign tasks appropriately during high heat conditions. Under
extreme conditions, supervisors should assign a lighter workload and
longer rest periods during the days of intense heat. Short, frequent
work/rest cycles are best. Schedule heavy work during cooler times of
the day.

5. Ask workers how they’re feeling. Supervisors should monitor

workplace temperature and humidity and check workers’ responses to
heat at least hourly. Allow a large margin of safety, be alert to early
signs of heat-related illness, and allow workers to stop for a rest break if
they become uncomfortable.

6. Know the signs and take prompt action. Employees and employers
should learn to spot the signs of heat stroke, which can be fatal.
Get emergency medical attention immediately if someone exhibits
confusion, loss of consciousness, flushed face, hot and dry skin, or has
stopped sweating.

7. Train first aid workers. First aid workers should be able to recognize
and treat the signs of heat stress, heat exhaustion, heat cramps, and other
heat-related illness. Be sure all workers know who is trained to give
first aid.

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8. Reduce work for anyone at risk. Employers should use common sense
when determining fitness for work in hot environments. Lack of
acclimatization, age, obesity, poor conditioning, pregnancy, inadequate
rest, previous heat injuries, certain medical conditions, and medications
are some factors that increase someone’s susceptibility to heat stress.

9. Check with your doctor. Certain medical conditions, such as heart

conditions and diabetes, and some medications can increase the risk of
injury from heat exposure. Employees who have medical conditions or
take medication should ask their doctors before working in hot
environments.

10. Watch out for other hazards. Use common sense and monitor other
environmental hazards that often accompany hot weather, such as smog
and ozone.

For those who may find themselves wondering what may be done for a person
exhibiting symptoms of heat cramps (dehydration), it is generally accepted that
helping a person to a cooler place in order to rest and recuperate, providing cool
water for “sipping,” and an application of pressure to the effected areas of the
body provide relief in most cases. However, there are situations in which the
severity of the cramping may require transport to a medical facility for fluid
replacement therapy.

Initial emergency care for heat exhaustion also suggests that the person be
assisted to a cool place. At this stage, it is recommended that as much clothing be
removed as the conditions allow and that water be provided for sipping. In
addition, fanning and misting can be used to accelerate cooling, but caution
should be taken to not over-cool the individual, as this may lead to shock.
Ultimately, the victim should be transported to a medical facility for observation.

When heat stroke occurs, remember that it is a true “emergency,” and

transportation to a medical facility must not be delayed. In providing first aid
during transport, every effort should be made to cool the individual—this includes
removing as much clothing as is feasible. Gradually lower the person’s body
temperature by means that might include fanning, soaking clothing in cool water,
misting, or placing cold packs around the neck, under the arms, and ankles. In
addition, verify that the heat stroke victim’s airway is open.

Heat stress, when it progresses to heat stroke, can be fatal. Treat it with care.

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 Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin

Introduction of a New Materials Engineer in

the Technical Service Center

The Technical Service Center (TSC) is happy to introduce a new addition to their
staff. His name is Roger Turcotte, and he is the new Corrosion Engineer in
town. Roger will be taking on the responsibilities of Tom Johnson, who left last
year to accept a position with the Bureau of Land Management. Roger will be
working closely with Greg Myers on cathodic protection and other corrosion-
related issues. You may have seen Roger’s contribution, a light-hearted article on
the heavy subject of stainless steel written under the pen name Rusty H. Fingers
and entitled, ““Dear Rusty” – Answers to Corrosion Inquiries,” in the latest issue
of Reclamation Managing Water in the West.

Roger comes to the Bureau of Reclamation from the private sector, having
worked in various areas of Corrosion/Materials Engineering for about 25 years.
He is a licensed professional engineer, holds all three ANSI/API tank, vessel, and
piping inspector certifications, and is a NACE certified Corrosion Protection
Tester. Roger has a B.S. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Maine
and an M.S. in Ocean Engineering from the University of Rhode Island. He is
active in the National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Intl. (NACE), having
been a former chairman and trustee with the Greater Boston Section, and is a
member of the American Society for Metals, Intl. (ASM) and of the American
Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE).

Roger’s responsibilities include:

• Design of cathodic protection systems

• Field inspection of corrosion damage and of cathodic protection systems
• Review of contractor’s designs and submittals
• Corrosion testing, both lab and field
• Selecting materials of construction
• Failure analysis
• Corrosion R&D

Please feel free to approach Roger with your corrosion/materials issues. You can
come speak with him in person in the Materials Engineering and Research
Laboratory (D-8180) of the TSC, or he can be reached at (303) 445-2383 or
online at [email protected].

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 Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin

Engine-Generator Maintenance, Inspection,

and Testing

The purpose of this document is to clarify Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation)

practices for non-portable engine-generator maintenance, inspection, and
testing.

Executive Summary
Engine-generators are critical systems at powerplants, dams, and other water-
related facilities. They must be maintained and tested regularly to ensure they
will perform as expected. Manufacturer and National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) standards should be followed.

Background
Engine-generators provide essential power to supply critical loads in the event of
loss of normal power source. Spillway or outlet gates/valves may need to be
operated for water release purposes with engine-generator power. Powerplant
critical loads such as sump pumps, fire pumps, and battery chargers also are
dependent on reliable power. Engine-generators also may be used to power unit
auxiliaries and the generator excitation system for blackstart generators assigned
to restore the power system after a blackout.

Existing Reclamation guidance documents for operation, maintenance, and testing

of these engine-generators are incomplete. Although facilities are required to
demonstrate successful operation of engine-generators (e.g., for emergency gate
operation) during on-site facility reviews, there is no Reclamation guidance for
preventive maintenance, inspection, or testing in Facilities Instructions, Standards,
and Techniques (FIST) volumes. Many facilities rely on the manufacturer’s
maintenance recommendations.

Discussion
Conscientious, proactive maintenance and testing of engine-generators is required
to ensure they will perform as expected. Existing standards such as NFPA define
recommended practices for engine-generator maintenance and testing. These
eventually will be addressed by Reclamation FIST volumes, but guidance is
needed in the interim.

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Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin

Conclusions
Engine-generator maintenance and testing guidance are provided in this bulletin
and will be included in future revisions to FIST volumes.

Recommendations
Emergency power supply systems (EPSS) comprising engine-generators and
associated equipment such as automatic transfer switches must be maintained,
inspected, and tested in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations and
NFPA 110, Standard for Emergency and Standby Power Systems (2002). Refer
to NFPA 110, Annex A, Figure A.8.3.1 (a) for a complete maintenance schedule.
Key inspection and testing requirements are shown in the following table:

Key NFPA Requirements for Inspection and Testing of Standby Power System
NFPA 110
Component Requirement Frequency Reference
All EPSS Components Inspect Weekly 8.4.1
EPSS System Operated at available load At least once every 8.4.8 & 4.2
for assigned class duration 36–48 months and table 4.1(a)
or minimum of 4 hours
2
Generator Sets Exercised for a minimum of At least monthly 8.4.2
30 minutes1 (including
automatic cold start) by:

(1) Running at operating

temperature
conditions and at
not less than 30% of
the nameplate kW
rating; or

(2) Loading that maintains

the minimum exhaust
gas temperatures as
recommended by the
manufacturer
Generator Set Battery Inspected and maintained Weekly 8.3.6
in full compliance with
manufacturer’s
recommendations
Transfer Switch Operated electrically, both Monthly 8.4.5
directions
Circuit Breakers Exercised manually Annually 8.4.6
1
Load exercising at normal operating temperature is important because it prevents accumulation of carbon
particles, unburned fuel, lube oil, condensed water and acids in the exhaust system, and other engine
problems that can occur with unloaded exercising.
2
Note: In addition, per manufacturers’ recommendations, many facilities start and run the engine-generator
weekly.

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 Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin

See NFPA 110 and POM-400 form for complete inspection, testing, and
maintenance requirements.

Testing and maintenance records for engine-generators should be maintained on

site.

Engine-generator maintenance, inspection, and testing Power O&M Form

(POM-400) is available electronically at <http://intranet.usbr.gov/forms/>. A
Word version of this form is available from D-8450, phone (303) 445-2300.
This form may be altered to develop site-specific checksheets. Maintenance,
inspection, and testing should be conducted using the following definitions:

• Level 1EPSS maintenance, inspection, and testing are required when

failure of the emergency power supply system could result in the loss of
human life or serious injuries (NFPA 110, Section 4.4.1). This includes
engine-generators required for water release purposes (via gates/valves)
and for support of plant systems related to personnel safety. Level 1 EPSS
maintenance, inspection, and testing also applies to EPSS at plants
essential to power system blackstart restoration plans and to plants where
significant damage would occur upon failure of the emergency power
supply system.

• Level 2 EPSS maintenance, inspection, and testing are applicable when

failure of the emergency power supply system is less critical to human
life and safety and when flexibility greater than Level 1 is permissible
(NFPA 110, Section 4.4.2). Level 2 maintenance, inspection, and testing
apply when the emergency power supply system is not essential for water
release purposes (via gates/valves), when blackstart capability is not
required, and when no significant damage to the plant would occur if the
system failed.

Each facility with emergency power supply systems comprising engine-generators

and associated equipment should tailor maintenance, inspection, and testing in
accordance with this PEB, NFPA 110, and manufacturer’s instructions. These
requirements may need to be adjusted locally for engine-generators that are
inaccessible and not required to be in service due to location, weather, or seasonal
operation.

Questions should be directed to Paul Price at (303) 445-2299.

This written material consists of general information for internal Reclamation operation
and maintenance staff use. Information contained in this document regarding
commercial products or firms may not be used for advertising or promotional purposes
and is not to be construed as endorsement of any product or firm by Reclamation.

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Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin

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Drainage of Irrigated Lands

by Roger Burnett, P.E.1

The science and engineering of drainage have come a long way in the last four
decades. Today, drainage is out of the “put the drain here and see how it works”
stage where it had been for so long. Although sound judgment is still essential to
a good job, technical tools are now available to make drainage an engineering and
economically feasible undertaking. This is fortunate because, except in rare
instances, drainage is essential to sustained high productivity under irrigation.
This is the way nature made it, and man cannot change it.

Irrigated areas start with certain basic characteristics. There are given soils
underlain by various substrata and geologic formations, and the area has a certain
topography. There will be a wild plant community of some sort. Rain and snow
fall more or less regularly, and under nature all these things have reached a
balance. They stay that way until farmers come along. The farmers clear the
land, level it, irrigate it, plant crops, try for high production, and put on more
water than native plants require. What happens? Waterlogging or salinization, or
both—they usually go hand in hand. These are drainage problems, which lead to
a simple definition for drainage—the “removal of excess water and excess salt
from agricultural lands.”

Most of our discussion will deal with the complexities of drainage that are
concerned with what happens beneath the surface—subsurface drainage. Surface
drainage is important, but it is a natural process. Water runs downhill; it must be
kept moving and not allowed to pond so the land will not get too wet. This is
surface drainage. The other kind of drainage that is so essential, subsurface
drainage, is a form of land maintenance. Dams, canals, pipelines, roads, and land
must be maintained. Drainage is an important form of maintenance. With
enough good drainage, even the poorest farmer cannot very well ruin land. With
poor drainage, the best farmer cannot be successful. Sooner or later salts or
groundwater, or both, will rise to the zone of the soil where the plants grow. This
may take 2 or 20 years, sometimes longer.

Irrigation or drainage districts are basically concerned with the drainage of

irrigated lands and sometimes with lands that are adversely impacted because of
nearby irrigation. The principal objectives of districts should be to predict and

1
Agricultural Engineer, Land Suitability and Water Quality Group, Bureau of Reclamation,
Technical Service Center, Denver Colorado; (303) 445-2508, e-mail: [email protected].

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Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin

prevent waterlogging and to keep salts and alkalies away from plants. They
should try to avoid the necessity of having to reclaim waterlogged lands by not
allowing them to become waterlogged in the first place.

In recent years, concern over the destruction of wetlands has changed the drainage
planning process. With passage of the Food Security Act of 1986, designated
wetlands cannot be drained without forfeiting eligibility for many farm programs.
It, therefore, becomes doubly important to predict and treat drainage deficiencies
before they manifest themselves as wetland environments.

The general feeling among people not closely associated with drainage problems
has been that the problems do not start for many years after irrigation. Although
there are exceptions, in most cases this has not been true. The problems
sometimes develop slowly, but they begin soon after irrigation starts. Sometimes
the causes are not readily apparent, and careful analysis is needed to locate them.
Often new problems develop merely because of changes in cropping practices,
like changing from alfalfa to beans. Sometimes new problems develop when
farms change hands. Usually, however, assuming reasonably good farming
operations and good water management by the irrigation district, the problems
stem from basic natural land characteristics or faulty irrigation works.

Inadequate subsurface drainage adversely affects plants in two ways. In one way,
the root zone becomes waterlogged and the plants literally drown. They cannot
get needed oxygen. In the other way, the plants are poisoned or starved of
nutrients and moisture by excessive salinity in the root zone. As the deep
percolation from irrigation moves downward, it carries along dissolved salts that
were in the irrigation water and it dissolves some of the residual salts in the soil.
Also, the salinity of the moisture within the root zone is concentrated because
the plants basically remove pure water and leave the dissolved salts behind.
When this water reaches the groundwater body, it adds this salt load, and the
groundwater becomes increasingly saline. More deep percolation results from
each irrigation, and gradually the water table builds up toward the ground surface.
Then, the phenomenon of capillarity becomes an important factor in the salinity
problem.

Capillarity is the force that moves oil up into the wick of a lamp, against gravity,
or ink into a blotter. Most people have seen some form of capillarity in a science
laboratory. Perhaps they suspended a capillary tube in a liquid. The liquid rose
in the tube above the level of the liquid, and the smaller the diameter of the
capillary, the higher the water rose. The same thing happens in soil. If the
groundwater is too near the surface, capillarity moves water upward into the root
zone. As the plants take up and use the good water from irrigation stored in the
capillary pores of the soil in the root zone, the salty groundwater moves upward
through the chain of small capillary pore spaces in the soil to replace the good
water. If displacement of the saltwater downward by good water from irrigation
or rain does not occur soon enough, the salty water eventually reaches the surface
or near enough to it to evaporate. When this salty water evaporates, which is very

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quickly in the arid West, the salt remains and rapidly accumulates. After this
happens, no plants can grow. Due to capillary rise of water in soils, excessive
salinity can and often does occur in the root zone even when there is not
waterlogging of the root zone.

These are the things that must be controlled, and only by proper management of
irrigation and adequate drainage can they be controlled. The salt must be kept
within acceptable limits in the root zone by irrigation with the application of more
water than the plant can consume. At the same time, groundwater must be kept
below the depth that causes waterlogging of the root zone. There is complete
failure of agriculture when the salts become excessive or the groundwater
becomes too high.

Note that there is a delicate balance here in that water has to be applied in excess
of the crop needs but that excess application can cause groundwater levels to
rise. The key to this delicate situation is often management. Water conservation
is receiving a lot of attention, but without proper management, the water
conservation program alone could create as much of a problem as waterlogging.
The relationship between water conservation and management is all important for
the sustainability of a productive soil environment. Just as there are many types
of water conservation programs, there are also many types of related side affects.
Let’s consider a few examples.

Water conservation through use of buried pipe laterals, canal linings, and other
improvements to reduce seepage loss are effective in retaining more water in the
distribution system for the user. Two of the side effects of reduced seepage loss
are the removal of the local aquifer recharge and the loss of artificially created
wetlands. The wetlands may or may not have any value, but they need to be
considered in the overall scheme of the conservation program. Buried pipe
laterals can improve the management operations of the delivery system as well as
conserving water by reduced seepage loss, but the loss of the strip of lateral right-
of-way is often a loss of upland habitat. Improvements in farming efficiency, as
well as reduced operation and maintenance (O&M) costs, often exceed the
benefits of retaining this piece of habitat.

On-farm water conservation issues can be centered on management to strive for

more efficient use of irrigation water. The goal of the on-farm conservation
program is to apply water to crops at the time the crop needs it and only in the
amount needed to sustain maximum growth. The side effects of this type of
conservation are reduced surface runoff and reduced deep percolation to the water
table. Reduced surface runoff is desirable both from a conservation standpoint
and also from a reduction of the nonpoint source pollution potential. A reduction
in deep percolation is not always as desirable. The importance of deep
percolation cannot be overlooked when considering water conservation measures.
The salt balance in the soil can be readily upset by salts that come in with the
irrigation water and remain in the soil profile. Without the flushing that occurs
from deep percolation, the soil becomes less and less suitable for crop production.

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Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin

To avoid this scenario, the planners of water conservation programs need to

consider the amount of salts in the irrigation water, the required limits of salts in
the root zone for the types of crops grown, the contribution of seasonal rainfall (if
any), and the leaching requirement of the irrigation water for maintenance of the
salt balance. Water conservation goals can then be set to ensure that the least
amount of water will be used without creating harmful side effects.

Generally, most western crops have deep roots capable of reaching water below
the more arid surface layer. An exception would be in areas with long growing
seasons where double cropping of shallow-rooted vegetable crops is possible.
Deep-rooted crops need a well-drained zone about 4 feet or more deep. This
requires that the noncapillary, or gravity, water will move out of the root zone in
about 24 hours after irrigation so the roots can get air. If this zone is saturated
longer, the plants begin to suffer; if saturated too long, they die. In planning a
drain system, consideration must be given to the height to which groundwater can
be allowed to rise and saturate the soil and the required rate of removal of the
excess groundwater. This rate will depend on the hydraulic conductivity, or
permeability, of the soil and on the storage capacity available below the roots to
receive this water and store it as it gradually lowers and moves into drains. There
must be enough drainage to allow the storage space to be available again for the
next deep percolation event. Storage capacity of a soil is measured by its specific
yield characteristic, which is the amount of noncapillary pore space in the soil that
will hold water and allow it to run out by gravity. If it has no place to go, the soil
is saturated or waterlogged. Specific yield and permeability are two important
soil characteristics to be measured during an investigation for designing and
building drains. These factors, plus depth to barrier and the amount of deep
percolation to be handled, largely determine drain spacing and depth which, in
turn, determine the costs of drainage.

Although some people of the irrigated West have been talking drainage for over
50 years, most of the real understanding of the pertinent phenomena has come
in the last 40 years or so; the analytical capability has come mostly in the last
25 years. Earlier work focused on a practical approach of cut and try, which
always resulted in some waste and some unsuccessful work. The principal factors
that generated recent progress were signs of mounting problems and a real desire
of the farmers and irrigation districts to face and resolve them in view of the
comparative agricultural and national prosperity.

Those really interested in drainage and those responsible for getting it done
economically had to start practically from scratch in building a sound technical
approach to sure-fire handling of drainage problems. It was soon learned that the
provision of adequate drainage at least cost, or the accurate prediction of the
drainage and money that would be required to protect lands that were proposed to
be irrigated, demands a study of the problem and the collection of data. In other
words, an investigation, because the irrigated valleys of the West usually present a
complex relationship of soils, water, crops, and irrigation practices that must be
evaluated to varying degrees in the economical solution of drainage problems.

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Some drainage problems and, hence, some drainage investigations are much less
complex than others. Although investigations should be kept to the minimum
commensurate with satisfactory results, that part of the drainage dollar spent on
investigations is usually well spent and very seldom, if ever, can economies in
drainage construction be achieved through skimping on investigations.

A key factor in drainage or in drainage investigations is the water table.

Irrigators, irrigation district management, agriculturists, and engineers orient
much of their work around the water table. Successful irrigated agriculture in an
arid environment requires good control of the water table. The basic questions to
be answered in drainage investigations usually boil down to:

• Where is the present water table?

• Is the water table rising or is it static?

• Where can the water table be expected to level off with continued
irrigation?

• Is the water table too high or will it be too high when it reaches
equilibrium?

• What manmade works are required to control the water table at safe
levels?

• What will be the cost?

One of the first steps in a drainage investigation is to determine the source of the
groundwater causing the problem. The source must be known so that the proper
protective measures can be undertaken. As a first step, local irrigation practices
should be observed and the amount and distribution of their irrigation should be
discussed with farmers. Attempts should be made to determine whether the
problem is or may be expected to be general for the whole area or whether it is
applicable only to specific portions of the area. Perhaps the area has always had
poor natural drainage and the drainage problem is merely the result of
encroachment of irrigation upon natural conditions. The problem may have
developed from construction of a dam or a leaky canal or it may have developed
from changes in irrigation practices. Sometimes it may be the result of cycles of
high rainfall, the expansion of irrigated areas, or of periods when excessive
irrigation water has been applied.

At least some investigational data are normally needed to go further into the
problem and pinpoint the source of the groundwater. Test borings and
observation wells will indicate groundwater levels, directions of movement,
fluctuations, and possible causes. Some in-place permeability tests are usually
essential. In addition to the permeability of the principal strata, data are needed

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Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin

on the type of soil and thickness, position, and continuity of such strata. It has
been learned, sometimes the hard way, that no matter how favorable the soil and
subsoil characteristics of an area appear to be, at least some knowledge of deeper
substrata is also required.

There are only a few sources from which groundwater can come, and it is usually
not too difficult to pinpoint the source causing the trouble. Even in the Western
States, rain can sometimes be the cause of the high water table, so precipitation
records should be compared with groundwater levels. To determine whether
excess irrigation is the source of the drainage problem requires a study of the
effect of individual irrigations on the water table, the fluctuations of the water
table throughout the irrigation season and during times of no irrigation, and
changes in water table elevations over a period of years, both before and after the
beginning of irrigation.

In many drainage problem areas, seepage is a major source of the groundwater.

Most seepage comes from canals, laterals, reservoirs, or the irrigation of higher
lying lands. Here again, comparisons are made of groundwater fluctuations with
water levels in, or the presence of water in, canals or reservoirs or with irrigation
at higher levels. Sometimes cattails, willows, or other water-loving plants
indicate seepage and a possible source of recharge. Other methods of detecting
seepage involve the use of piezometers. Quantifying the seepage loss can be done
by ponding tests in the canal.

Artesian pressure is sometimes a source of high water tables. In this case,

piezometers are needed to define the problem and solution. Artesian pressures are
usually found where a slowly permeable layer overlies a saturated permeable
layer whose source of groundwater intake is at a higher elevation. Water may be
forced upward into the root zone, through the slowly permeable layer or through
fractures, displacements, or permeable lenses in this layer. Sometimes old
artesian wells leak below the ground surface or are allowed to run freely without
proper facilities to dispose of the surface flow. Drainage problems under artesian
conditions are usually difficult to pinpoint and more costly to solve.

Once the source of the high groundwater is determined, a start has been made on
the solution to the drainage problem, and it will then be known what additional
information will have to be obtained. This would usually include more data on
groundwater levels and fluctuations, salt concentrations in both water and soil,
past and probable future irrigation and cropping practices to permit evaluation of
irrigation schedules and deep percolation, quantitative losses from irrigation
channels, and permeabilities of soils, subsoils, and the stratification thereof. More
or less standard techniques have been developed for obtaining this information,
but skill and good judgment are required to get reliable answers.

After the investigations are completed, what can be done about removing the
excess water and the salt? The groundwater table can be lowered and the salt can
be moved by leaching it. In leaching, still more water is put on to dissolve the salt

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 Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin

in the soil and move it to safe depths. But more water cannot be put on until a
place is provided to put it because the groundwater would only be raised still
more and then all the problems would be intensified. Drainage is the solution.

There are several kinds of drains. Open drains are simply open ditches excavated
to the right depths for the local conditions. Closed drains are constructed by
burying pipe in the water-bearing strata. Closed drains have the great advantages
of eliminating weed and silt problems and of permitting cultivation over the drain.
There are also other kinds of drains that are not so well known. Pumped wells are
one. The Salt River and Wellton-Mohawk Valleys in Arizona, as examples,
are drained by pumped wells. These wells remove groundwater, which is the
objective of drainage. Sometimes the water can be reused by mixing it with canal
water and sometimes it cannot because of the water quality.

Another method of drainage that many people are not familiar with is by inverted
or recharge wells. These are upside-down wells. Instead of taking water out of
the ground, they are used to put water into the ground in places where it will do
no damage. Inverted wells serve as drainage outlets. First, there usually is some
kind of a conventional drainage system that gathers the water and takes it out of
the root zone. Then, where no natural or cheaper outlet is available, wells are
drilled into unconfined aquifers that can take the water conveyed to them from the
drains. There are examples of inverted well drainage in Idaho and in Texas. In
the Snake River country of Idaho, some of the underlying basalts are fractured,
and the water that gets into this material through inverted wells eventually finds
its way to the river through subsurface channels. However, many of these wells
have been ordered closed due to environmental considerations. Environmental
restrictions must be followed when considering the use of inverted wells.

In recent years, disposal of drain system flows has become subject to water
quality standards. The quality and estimated quantity, including specific
constituents of drain flows, must be determined before a disposal method can be
selected. For most locations, mixing with existing surface flows will be adequate.
Local and State regulations should be checked before a disposal method is
selected. Some States require onsite disposal when base quantities of certain
elements or agricultural chemicals are exceeded. Remember that maintaining salt
balance in the soil profile is a primary goal of drainage. Any plan that does not
meet the salt balance goal is not a long-term solution to the drainage problem.

Up to about 1972, pipes for closed drains were made with clay or concrete, but
now most subsurface drains are constructed with corrugated plastic drain pipe.
Specifications have been developed for the plastic drain pipe, which include
requirements that ensure a long life when installed properly. Irrigation districts
should try to develop the best drain designs and use the best material for the
purpose so their farmers get the most for their money over the long haul. To do
this, the drains sometimes require more initial investment in materials, in methods
of placement, and in quality of design than would shorter-lived structures.

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Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin

Most drainage specialists of this country are convinced that closed subsurface
drains are much better than open ones, except where capacity requirements are so
great that the size of closed drains would be prohibitive in cost or where
considerable surface waste or storm runoff must be handled. Pump well drainage
and inverted well drainage are used only in special instances in which aquifer
conditions are ideal and the costs are less than for open or closed drains. Feasible
pump well drainage requires low-cost electric power and chemical characteristics
of the soil and water that permit long life of the well components.

In most localities, costs of closed drains are less than for open drains of the same
depth if all factors are considered. Maintenance costs of properly designed closed
drains are insignificant compared with those for open drains, and the productivity
value of the land taken out of cultivation by the open drain is appreciable,
whereas all the land over closed drains can be cultivated.

The cost of drainage is an important economic factor, deserving of serious

thought. Although there are many miles of drains already built on irrigation
projects, this is only a fair start on the total needed for optimum productivity of
irrigated western lands. Economic fluctuations have had some affect on rate of
drain installation, more so in the humid areas, however, than in the irrigated arid
lands. Drainage in the West, because of the salinity and seepage factors, is so
often vital to good productivity, even for pasture. Since farmers, as well as public
and private financial assistance agencies, now know much more about the benefits
of drainage than they did 25 years ago, progress will continue year after year,
even through economic depressions.

While there are some exceptions, today’s costs for providing adequate drainage
for irrigated lands range from about $100 to over $1,000 per acre. This is a high
price for most farmers to accept and finance, even though they can see the
ultimate benefits. Most of these costs are in the material and the installation. The
improvements in the use of plastic pipe have been much greater than the advances
in equipment well suited to construction of good closed drains. Few contractors
are equipped to install efficiently, for example, a first-class, 10-foot-deep closed
drain. Most drainage requirements are progressive—an area here this year, one
there next year—and therefore contracts are usually small compared with those
for construction of other phases of irrigation projects. The work being small,
scattered, and usually spread over several decades, is not sufficiently attractive to
substantial contractors who would have to buy drain trenching equipment for the
job. This results in little competition, limited generally to small, local contractors,
and high costs. Many contractors are equipped only with draglines, backhoes,
and similar equipment, which usually cannot perform efficiently on drainage
work, but a few have trenchers capable of excavating up to 12 feet or more.
Trenchers capable of placing drains at 20 feet have been developed.

Drainage contractors in irrigated areas of the West have developed specialized

pipe laying trenching machines that do a good job at minimum cost. The most
versatile of these rigs will dig trenches up to 12 feet deep; place or permit easy

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 Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin

and safe placing of the pipe in the trench; and place gravel envelope under,
around, and over the pipe; all without caving. Some also backfill the trenches
over the pipe. Where such machines are locally available, contract costs are
often much less than where the contractors have only conventional excavating
equipment. It would undoubtedly be wise for some irrigation districts to invest in
such highly efficient, specialized drain construction equipment.

Through the years, various formulas have been used for determining drainage
requirements such as depth, spacings, and discharge capacities. These formulas
have been based mostly on empirical concepts and opinions or experiences of
individuals rather than on more exact engineering methods. With luck, the
drainage job or estimate came out about right. Frequently, however, the guesses
were too far off, or the empirical relations were not applicable to the particular
case. As a result, many irrigation districts suffered in various ways. In recent
years, substantial technical breakthroughs have been made in this regard.

Ways have been developed to use measurable soil and irrigation factors to
compute more accurate answers than ever before possible with empirical data and
variable judgment. Measurable field data can now be taken on soils and substrata
from any place, any amount of recharge from either rain or irrigation can be
assumed, and the spacing of drains that will be required to control the
groundwater table under any irrigation, operating, or cropping conditions can
be accurately estimated. Not only can the elevation of the water table be
considered, but the time during which it encroaches upon the root zone, the time
required for it to decline to a predetermined level, and any seasonal variations can
be specified.

These new methods of predicting and determining subsurface drainage

requirements have been proven by comparing computed drain spacing and water
table behavior with measured values for areas where drains were already installed.
Data on groundwater position and fluctuations, drain discharge measurements,
and permeabilities have been used to compute spacings that would be required to
give the same amount of water table drawdown as had been actually measured in
the field. In one such study, 67 comparisons were made from such widely
separated irrigated areas as Australia, Canada, and the Southwestern United
States. Computed water table elevations at specific time periods were within
5 percent of the measured height in 54 percent of the cases, within 10 percent in
79 percent of the cases, and within 15 percent in 88 percent of the cases.
Groundwater prognoses, historically, have never before been nearly this accurate,
so these results are highly gratifying and confirm the usefulness of the new
methods. These results also amply demonstrate the value of in-place permeability
tests. Such tests, when field-tested procedures have been followed, undoubtedly
provide values of permeability that are realistically close to the actual.

Drain spacing and depth are interdependent and for given conditions there is an
economically optimum combination. For some lands, 7-foot-deep drains 200 feet
apart might be least costly, while in another area, 12-foot-deep drains 800 feet

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Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin

apart might be less expensive. Spacings may vary from 50 to 1,500 feet. Nine
feet is a practical depth for most closed drains, but the size of pipe, depth, and
spacing must be selected on the basis of the physical characteristics of the
substrata and the amount of deep percolation to be handled, which depends on the
local land use and irrigation practices. Once the proper determinations of
location, spacing, and depth have been made, the construction designs for closed
drains are simple compared to many other irrigation structures. Even so, several
basic elements of design are necessary for an efficient drainage system.

One highly desirable element is a gravel envelope around the drain pipe. The
total number of drains needed for a required job can sometimes be reduced as
much as one-half simply by using the right gravel envelope. Usually, at least
4 inches of gravel should be placed completely around the pipe. This will help
stabilize the pipe and prevent movement into the pipe of the soil being drained,
and at the same time act as a conductor for movement of water from the soil into
the openings in the pipe. For plastic drain pipe, the gravel also serves as a support
for the flexible pipe. An all-important rule is that permeability of the envelope
must be high compared to permeability of the soil, sometimes called the base
material. Some pit-run gravel will meet the requirements. The gradation of the
envelope should be well graded with nothing larger than 1½ inches and less than
5 percent passing the No. 200 screen.

Other elements of good closed drains are manholes, junction boxes, or silt traps.
These are valuable because they provide better inspection of a newly constructed
line, easier and cheaper cleaning and repair, and a means of finding blockages and
measuring discharges of individual segments of the line. The last operation in
constructing an effective closed drain is a careful job of backfilling to ensure that
the gravel stays in place and the pipe joints are not moved or broken, and to
ensure that the surface is left as close to original conditions as possible.

Finally, after the drains have been built and water is flowing from the outlet, there
are a few things that should become part of the regular O&M program. If the
drain system becomes clogged or flow from the outlet becomes restricted, then
the same sequence of events that occurred prior to drain construction will begin to
happen again. The symptoms of a shallow water table, the yellowing of crops, the
appearance of salts, prolonged wet soils, or the re-appearance of cattails are a sign
that the drains are not functioning properly. These should be a warning sign to
get out into the field and check the drains. Regular inspections as a part of the
O&M program can help to prevent crop damage if the maintenance is kept
current.

What are some of the things to look at during the O&M inspection? To begin
with, the outlet should allow water to flow away without backing up against the
pipe. From there, the manholes can be opened and visually checked to see if the
water level is below the pipes entering and leaving the manhole. Restrictions or
blockage downstream from the manhole will cause water to backup and create a
“head” in the manhole. Blockages upstream from a manhole may be indicated by

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 Water Operation and Maintenance Bulletin

slowly moving water or a quantity of flow that is less than normal, but this is
usually hard to detect without using some type of flow meter. Keep in mind that
the flows in a drainage system are a reflection of the groundwater conditions in
the area. If the seasonal rainfall is above normal, then the area groundwater levels
may be high and consequently greater flow may be observed in the drains. Also,
during the irrigation season, greater flows in the drains may be observed due to
on-farm irrigation and canal seepage contributions. Over the winter months, or
non-irrigation season, water levels in the manholes should all be normal, and
some decrease in the flow rate may be observed. The flow rate should reflect the
seasonal variations of the groundwater levels.

All in all, profitable farming operations and financially healthy irrigation districts
are ensured if:

• Drainage problems are approached with the knowledge available today

• Designs are properly developed for the conditions

• Good construction is insisted upon

• The irrigation district consistently conducts a first-class maintenance and

water management program

• Farmers wisely perform their job of good water and land use

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 Mission
The mission of the Bureau of Reclamation is to manage, develop, and protect
water and related resources in an environmentally and economically sound
manner in the interest of the American public.

The purpose of this bulletin is to serve as a medium of exchanging operation and

maintenance information. Its success depends upon your help in obtaining and
submitting new and useful operation and maintenance ideas.

Advertise your district’s or project’s resourcefulness by having an article published in

the bulletin—let us hear from you soon!

Prospective articles should be submitted to one of the Bureau of Reclamation contacts

listed below:

Jerry Fischer, Bureau of Reclamation, ATTN: D-8470, PO Box 25007,

Denver, CO 80225-0007; (303) 445-2748, FAX (303) 445-6381;
email: [email protected]

Vicki Hoffman, Pacific Northwest Region, ATTN: PN-3234, 1150 North Curtis
Road, Boise, ID 83706-1234; (208) 378-5335, FAX (208) 378-5305

Steve Herbst, Mid-Pacific Region, ATTN: MP-430, 2800 Cottage Way,

Sacramento, CA 95825-1898; (916) 978-5228, FAX (916) 978-5290

Albert Graves, Lower Colorado Region, ATTN: BCOO-4846, PO Box 61470,

Boulder City, NV 89006-1470; (702) 293-8163, FAX (702) 293-8042

Don Wintch, Upper Colorado Region, ATTN: UC-258, PO Box 11568,

Salt Lake City, UT 84147-0568; (801) 524-3307, FAX (801) 524-5499

Dave Nelson, Great Plains Region, ATTN: GP-2400, PO Box 36900,

Billings, MT 59107-6900; (406) 247-7630, FAX (406) 247-7898