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характеристики згоряння суміші дизельного палива з рослинною олією на промисловому паливному пальнику

This study examines the combustion characteristics of blends of diesel fuel and vegetable oils used in an industrial fuel burner. Key findings include that viscosity is reduced by blending vegetable oils with diesel, enhancing fuel atomization and combustion efficiency. Density variation in the blends could impact combustion kinetics and injection dynamics. Energy content decreases with higher vegetable oil content, while flame behavior exhibits an inverse relationship with vegetable oil content, resulting in shorter, less intense flames.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
29 views10 pages

характеристики згоряння суміші дизельного палива з рослинною олією на промисловому паливному пальнику

This study examines the combustion characteristics of blends of diesel fuel and vegetable oils used in an industrial fuel burner. Key findings include that viscosity is reduced by blending vegetable oils with diesel, enhancing fuel atomization and combustion efficiency. Density variation in the blends could impact combustion kinetics and injection dynamics. Energy content decreases with higher vegetable oil content, while flame behavior exhibits an inverse relationship with vegetable oil content, resulting in shorter, less intense flames.

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Fuel Communications 18 (2024) 100104

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Fuel Communications
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/fuel-communications

Study of combustion characteristics of diesel-vegetable oil blends utilizing


an industrial fuel burner
Oluwaseyi O. Alabi a, b, Oluwatoyin J. Gbadeyan c, *, Anas Bala e, Ganiyu Olamide Ogunsiji d,
Nirmala Deenadayalu c
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lead City University Ibadan, Nigeria
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
c
Department of Chemistry, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nigeria Army University, Biu, Nigeria
e
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study delves into the combustion characteristics of diesel-vegetable oil blends using an industrial fuel
Combustion burner, shedding light on essential factors that impact the viability of these alternative fuels in industrial ap­
Vegetable oil plications. Viscosity, a key concern in vegetable oil-based fuels, can be effectively mitigated by blending with
Diesel
diesel. This viscosity reduction enhances fuel atomization, optimizing combustion efficiency and mitigating
Kinematic viscosity
Density
nozzle blockages. The study also explores the density variation in these blends, indicating potential implications
Energy for combustion kinetics and injection dynamics. Furthermore, the research addresses the trade-off between
energy content and viscosity reduction as the calorific value decreases with an increasing volume ratio of
vegetable oil. Flame behavior, crucial for combustion system design, exhibits an inverse relationship with the
volume ratio of vegetable oil, resulting in shorter and less intense flames at higher vegetable oil content. Through
comprehensive experiments, the study demonstrates that increased vegetable oil content leads to reduced flame
length and stability, primarily attributed to the elevated density and viscosity of vegetable oil. A comparative
analysis highlights the similarity in combustion properties between a 40 % vegetable oil and a 60 % diesel blend,
which exhibited a kinematic viscosity of approximately 1.58 cP emphasizing the potential of vegetable oil as a
viable substitute for diesel in industrial fuel burners.

1. Introduction gasoline and jet fuels, propelling the growth of the transportation in­
dustry [5,6]. In the forthcoming decades, an expected increase in both
Since vegetable oils have similar energy properties to fuel oils, using demand and utilization of diesel is on the horizon. Nonetheless, it is
them in liquid oil burners or blending them with light diesel oil may well-established that diesel is environmentally detrimental due to its
raise concerns about their potential risks and impacts. These concerns substantial emissions of sulfur and particulate matter during combustion
may include issues related to safety, efficiency, and environmental [7].
impact. It is important to understand and address these concerns in Biodiesel, derived from vegetable oils (VOs) through a process
order to ensure the safe and effective use of vegetable oils as a fuel known as transesterification, is a method that involves the interaction of
source [1,2]. However, there is a need for further investigation into the a vegetable oil or animal fat (triglyceride) with alcohol and a catalyst
combustion characteristics of these blends, to optimize their perfor­ like salt or potassium hydroxide, resulting in the creation of glycerol and
mance and efficiency. The furnaces or burner systems within a power biodiesel [8–10]. Soy methyl ester (SME), also known as methyl soyate,
plant facilitate a precise and efficient transformation of the chemical is the most widely used type of biodiesel globally, produced from soy­
energy contained in fuel, into heat energy, which is subsequently bean oil and methanol. It is a key focus of the current study. The
transferred to the heat-absorbing surfaces of the steam generator [3,4]. transesterification process improves the physical properties of the
Diesel ranks among the top three most influential fuels, alongside original VO, particularly by reducing its viscosity to enhance fuel

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (O.J. Gbadeyan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfueco.2023.100104
Received 9 October 2023; Received in revised form 29 November 2023; Accepted 23 December 2023
Available online 25 December 2023
2666-0520/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
O.O. Alabi et al. Fuel Communications 18 (2024) 100104

Fig. 1. Brookfield digital viscometer.

atomization within the combustion system. reciprocating compression-ignition engines, biodiesel has the potential
Although research on using pure vegetable oil as fuel without turning to emit less NOX than diesel when used in gas turbines [19]. In a separate
it into biodiesel is relatively limited, it is still an important area of study. investigation, Fontaras et al. (2017) examined the impact of pure
There are several potential benefits to using pure vegetable oil as fuel, vegetable oil-diesel blends on vehicle emissions in a separate investi­
such as increased sustainability and reduced greenhouse gas emissions gation. They discovered that vegetable oil did not have the same effect
[11,12]. Using vegetable oils alone is generally considered unsuitable on engine exhaust as biodiesel because the inclusion of vegetable oil in
for extensive or widespread fuel use. This is because straight vegetable the fuel appeared to inhibit the formation of particles through a nucle­
oils possess high viscosity, which hinders effective mixing with air in ation mechanism. Throughout various test cycles, straight rapeseed oil
combustion chambers and results in inadequate fuel atomization [13]. increased carbonyl compound emissions and led to a more significant
Mixing vegetable oil with diesel represents one of the three commonly presence of acrolein/acetone in the carbonyl compound composition
employed solutions to address this problem [14]. In 2011, Hassan et al. [20].
conducted a study examining the impact of mixing producer gas-diesel Despite rigorous research towards blending diesel with biobased oil,
and vegetable oil on the efficiency and exhaust emissions of a super­ limited study has investigated blending vegetable oil with diesel as fuel
charged dual-fuel single-cylinder diesel engine. Various volume ratios of for Industrial fuel burner applications. In this regard, this study aims to
vegetable oil and diesel fuel were blended. As the concentration of investigate the combustion characteristics of diesel-vegetable oil blends
vegetable oil in the mixtures increased, engine performance declined using an industrial fuel burner, which is a significant research gap, as
while emission characteristics improved [15,16]. little research has been conducted on the combustion properties of these
In a study conducted by Panchasara et al., (2015) they examined the blends. By exploring the effects of different blend ratios and operating
combustion characteristics of pure biodiesel and diesel-vegetable oil conditions, this study provides insights into the practicality and feasi­
blends in a model gas turbine combustor. These experiments utilized air- bility of using these blends in industrial applications. This research fo­
assisted injectors/atomizers in swirling flows at atmospheric pressure. cuses on using renewable resources (vegetable oil) blended with
The results indicated that the impact of fuel chemistry on combustion conventional diesel, which addresses the growing need for sustainability
emissions was minimal, with atomization being the primary factor in the energy sector and could potentially reduce our reliance on non-
influencing emissions for a given fuel [17]. Campbell et al. (2013) renewable fossil fuels. To evaluate the potential of these blended fuels
focused on vegetable oils as potential alternative fuels for gas turbines. in industrial applications, it is important to understand how they affect
They highlighted several aspects of vegetable oils that require special key combustion properties and performance metrics, such as density,
consideration, including their distribution, storage, transportation, and kinematic viscosity, caloric value, flame stability, and overall burner
injection into commercial gas turbines [18]. In a gas turbine burner, performance. This study investigates these properties for six diesel-
Kai Deng et al., (2019) compared the emissions of biodiesel derived vegetable oil blends with volume ratios ranging from 20 % to 100 %.
from palm oil to those from fossil fuels. They found that NOX emissions
from palm biodiesel were consistently lower than those from diesel,
influenced by factors such as excess air ratio, average droplet diameter,
atomizing air pressure, and viscosity. These findings suggest that, unlike
the observed increase in NOX emissions in studies involving

2
O.O. Alabi et al. Fuel Communications 18 (2024) 100104

Fig. 2. Weighing machine.

2. Methodology 2.1.1. Kinematic viscosity


In the fuel context, viscosity pertains to a substance’s resistance to
2.1. Blending diesel with vegetable oil flow. Viscosity plays a pivotal role in the performance of mixtures
comprising vegetable oil and diesel, impacting various combustion
The specific blend ratios were chosen based on a review of previous processes and overall engine efficiency. To address these challenges,
research, balancing the trade-offs between combustion efficiency and researchers and engineers have explored numerous methods to decrease
emissions [21,2]. The industrial fuel burner was calibrated and opti­ the viscosity of vegetable oil-based fuels. This includes the previously
mized to ensure reliable operation with the blended fuels. This process mentioned approach of blending vegetable oil with diesel. Blending
involved adjusting the fuel delivery, air-fuel ratio, and other burner reduces viscosity and enhances fuel atomization, thereby potentially
parameters to ensure efficient combustion. In addition, careful consid­ improving combustion efficiency and reducing emissions. Nonetheless,
eration was given to the design of the combustion chamber and instru­ it is crucial to meticulously determine the optimal blend ratio to strike a
mentation (e.g. thermocouples, pressure sensors, and emission balance between retaining the desirable properties of vegetable oil while
analyzers), to ensure accurate data collection. The experimental pro­ mitigating viscosity. Lubricants encompass a wide range of substances,
cedure, included controlled ignition, monitoring, Density, Kinematic including both petroleum-based and non-petroleum alternatives.
Viscosity and emissions [22]. In this study, various blends of vegetable Maintaining the appropriate viscosity of these fluids is vital for the
oil and diesel were prepared at volume ratios of 0 %, 20 %, 40 %, 60 %, proper functioning of machinery and equipment. Moreover, when it
80 %, and 100 %. Each blend was designated with the Blended Ratio comes to the handling, storage, and operation of various petroleum
"BR," followed by a numerical identifier representing the percentage of fuels, understanding their viscosity is essential. Consequently, precise
vegetable oil in the mixture. For instance, BR0 signifies that the blend viscosity measurements are pivotal in establishing and adhering to
contains 0 % vegetable oil and 100 % diesel, BR1 indicates 20 % vege­ product standards
table oil and 80 % diesel, BR2 represents 40 % vegetable oil and 60 % Blending vegetable oil with fuel is a common practice aimed at
diesel, BR3 denotes 60 % vegetable oil and 40 % diesel, BR4 stands for enhancing fuel flow characteristics by reducing viscosity. Extremely
80 % vegetable oil and 20 % diesel, and BR5 indicates 100 % vegetable low-viscosity fuels may fail to provide adequate lubrication for the
oil and 0 % diesel. The blending process was conducted at room tem­ precise components of fuel injection pumps, potentially leading to leaks
perature by adding a precisely measured volume of vegetable oil into the or wear and tear. Conversely, injecting high-viscosity fuels can result in
diesel while continuously agitating the mixture with a stirrer. Subse­ the formation of larger fuel droplets, which can contribute to inefficient
quently, the diesel-vegetable oil blends were stored in a container within combustion [23]. To determine the kinematic viscosity of the blends,
a fume chamber. ASTM Standard D445-88(9) (Standard Test Method for Kinematic Vis­
cosity of Transparent and Opaque Liquids) was employed. As depicted in
Fig. 1, a Brookfield Digital Viscometer (Model LVDV-I+) was utilized to

3
O.O. Alabi et al. Fuel Communications 18 (2024) 100104

Fig. 3. Bomb calorimeter.

measure the kinematic viscosity. Each sample, totaling 150 ml, under­ fuel efficiency. Eq. (1) provides insights into the density of
went the measurement process at various speeds while maintaining a diesel-vegetable oil blends, yielding the following information.
consistent room temperature. m
Density, ρ = (1)
V
2.1.2. Density
Density is an important factor to consider when blending vegetable As depicted in Fig. 2, 150 ml of each sample were collected and their
oil and diesel, as it can significantly affect the performance of the mass was determined using a precision weighing scale.
resulting fuel mixture [24]. To optimize the blending of vegetable oil
and diesel, it’s crucial to consider the density of the resulting mixture 2.1.3. Fuel analysis: calorific value
and how it aligns with the engine’s specifications and intended oper­ The calorific value measures the amount of heat emitted per unit
ating conditions. The experimental study was carried out to balance the mass of fuel during complete combustion. While the cetane number
density along with other factors like viscosity and calorific value is impacts combustion efficiency, it is the calorific value, in line with
essential to ensure efficient combustion, minimize emissions, and thermodynamic standards, that determines the maximum power output
maintain the overall performance of the engine running on this blended achievable [25]. This figure holds significant importance when assessing
fuel. The denser the oil, the more energy it contains. Higher density the thermal efficiency of machinery designed for power generation or
signifies greater thermal energy per unit of fuel, which in turn enhances heat production. Calorific value was determined following ASTM

Fig. 4. Diagram illustrating the setup of combustion unit c491 with high-speed camera.

4
O.O. Alabi et al. Fuel Communications 18 (2024) 100104

Fig. 5. Volume ratio of blended vegetable oil and diesel.

D240-92 standards (Standard Test Method for Heat of Combustion of flame.


Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuels by Bomb Calorimeter). A weighted fuel The combustion exhaust was discharged vertically upwards from the
sample was subjected to controlled conditions within an oxygen bomb combustion chamber through a dedicated duct, separate from the
calorimeter to estimate its calorific value. Temperature readings taken burner. The combustion unit must be placed in a well-ventilated envi­
before, during, and after combustion, along with corrections for ther­ ronment, ensuring access to at least one of the two sides adjacent to the
mochemical and heat transfer factors, were used to calculate the heat of burner end. Throughout the entire study, the flow rates of gas (5.4 m3/
combustion. Both adiabatic and isothermal calorimeter jackets can be hr), fuel (1 g/s), and air (25 kg/hr) were maintained at constant levels.
employed for this purpose. Fig. 3 showcases the bomb calorimeter uti­ The combustion process was documented using both a standard digital
lized in calculating the calorific value. The air/fuel ratio and gas flow camera and a high-speed camera, allowing for the observation and
rate remained constant during the entire combustion process. Once the analysis of combustion parameters in the diesel-vegetable oil blend.
temperature reached 400 ◦ C, the diesel-vegetable oil blends were
introduced into the burner. The outcomes of these experiments are 3. Result and discussion
presented in the subsequent sections.
3.1. Blended diesel with vegetable oil

2.2. Combustion of diesel-vegetable oil blends One of the primary objectives of combining vegetable oils with diesel
fuel was to reduce viscosity, thereby enhancing fuel flow characteristics.
Fuel and vegetable oil combustion were carried out using Combus­ Fuels with low viscosity may not provide sufficient lubrication for the
tion Unit C491. This unit comes equipped with a burner, combustion precise fit of fuel injection pumps, potentially leading to leaks or wear.
chamber, control panel, and instrumentation. The schematic represen­ Conversely, injecting high-viscosity fuels can result in the formation of
tation of the experimental setup is presented in Fig. 4. Thanks to its larger fuel droplets, which may contribute to inefficient combustion
frame-mounted design, both the burner control and the combustion [10]. Blending diesel with vegetable oils effectively mitigates the vis­
chamber of the C491 unit are easily accessible. The package burner cosity of the latter [26], preventing issues such as fuel line blockages,
sequence involved air purging, ignition of the fuel (oil or gas), and self- suboptimal atomization, and elevated particle emissions [27]. The
adjustment to a safe firing condition. An integrated fan supplied com­ experimental details demonstrate the viscosity-reducing effect of mixing
bustion air and a flame sensor was incorporated to monitor the flame vegetable oils. For property analysis, 1000 ml samples of each
and shut off the fuel valve in case of flame failure. Pipes facilitated gas diesel-vegetable oil blend were prepared, with the volume ratios of each
supply to the frame connections, while portable tanks equipped with the sample indicated in Fig. 5. Notably, there is a visible color change among
oil burner delivered the fuel. The combustion chamber, constructed the blends in Fig. 6. From the right, BR0 of 0 %/100 % vegetable
from stainless steel, was water-cooled and adequately sized to prevent oil-diesel blend containing no vegetable oil, exhibits a slightly bright
flame impingement under normal operating conditions. Observation yellow color, while the hue progressively darkens with increasing
windows on the chamber’s side allowed for visual monitoring of the

Fig. 6. Samples (BR0 on the right and BR5 on the left).

5
O.O. Alabi et al. Fuel Communications 18 (2024) 100104

Fig. 7. Kinematic viscosity against sample.

vegetable oil content to the BR5 of 100 %/0 % diesel-vegetable oil to the lower viscosities.
left. Fig. 6 illustrates 1000 ml samples of each diesel-vegetable oil blend. Similarly, the oil quality, such as its purity and presence of impu­
The kinematic viscosity of each sample was measured using a rities, in addition to the type and quality of the vegetable oil and the
Brookfield Digital Viscometer (Model LVDV-I+) at different speeds of blend ratio of the vegetable oil and diesel fuel, also affect the kinematic
15 m/s to 20 m/. As depicted in Fig. 7, it is evident that vegetable oil viscosity of the mixture. Generally, as the percentage of vegetable oil in
(BR5) exhibits a higher kinematic viscosity compared to diesel (BR0). the blend increases, the kinematic viscosity increases, leading to vege­
The graph illustrates a clear trend where the kinematic viscosity of the table oils having a higher viscosity than diesel fuel. The temperature and
blend increases in correspondence with the increasing proportion of pressure conditions can also influence the viscosity of the blend. The
vegetable oil in the mixture. Three key characteristics of the diesel- kinematic viscosity decreases as temperature increases while increasing
vegetable oil blend were scrutinized, as outlined in the preceding sec­ pressure increases viscosity. Other factors that can affect the kinematic
tions. The analysis demonstrates that, under constant temperature and viscosity of the vegetable oil-diesel blend include the viscosity index,
at a consistent speed, the kinematic viscosity of the diesel-vegetable oil density, and shear rate. The viscosity index measures the rate at which
blend increases proportionally with the volume ratio of vegetable oil in viscosity changes with temperature, while density measures the mass
the mixture as shown in Fig. 7. This performance may be attributed to per unit volume of the blend. Shear rate is when the fluid deforms when
several factors affecting the increases in kinematic viscosity as the per­ subjected to stress. All of these factors can affect the blend’s viscosity
centage of vegetable oil increases in the diesel blend. These factors and should be considered when assessing the mixture’s viscosity.
include the type and quality of the vegetable oil, the blend ratio, and the Also, the increase in kinematic viscosity is due to the higher molec­
temperature and pressure conditions. The type and quality of vegetable ular weight and degree of unsaturation of vegetable oils compared to
oil have a strong influence on the kinematic viscosity of the blend. diesel fuel. In addition, the blending process itself can have an impact on
Moreover, different types of vegetable oils possess different chemical the kinematic viscosity of the resulting mixture. If the mixture is not
compositions and properties, which impacts their viscosity. For properly homogenized, the vegetable oil may not be evenly dispersed
example, oils with higher unsaturated fatty acid content tend to have throughout the diesel fuel, resulting in a higher apparent kinematic

Fig. 8. Density against sample.

6
O.O. Alabi et al. Fuel Communications 18 (2024) 100104

Fig. 9. Calorific value against sample.

viscosity. Furthermore, the temperature at which the viscosity is mixture may not be simply additive, as there can be some interaction
measured can also have an effect, as higher temperatures typically result between the diesel fuel and vegetable oil molecules. The effect of
in lower viscosities. Each sample was assessed by taking a 100 ml vegetable oil on the density of a diesel-vegetable oil blend is related to
portion and measuring its weight using a precision weighing scale. As the chemical structure of the vegetable oil. Vegetable oils are composed
evident from Fig. 8, it can be deduced that vegetable oil (BR5) possesses of triglycerides, which are molecules made up of three fatty acids con­
a higher density when compared to diesel (BR0). The graph illustrates a nected to a glycerol backbone [10]. These fatty acids can vary in length
clear trend wherein the density of the blend increases in tandem with the and degree of unsaturation, which will affect the density of the vegetable
rising ratio of vegetable oil in the mixture. Similarly, the density of the oil. In addition, the degree of crystallization of the vegetable oil can also
diesel-vegetable oil blend rises as the proportion of vegetable oil in the play a role in determining the density of the blend. However, due to
blend increases as shown in Fig. 8. The density of a diesel-vegetable oil vegetable oil’s lower calorific value, the calorific value of
blend will also be affected by the volume ratio of vegetable oil in the diesel-vegetable oil blends decreases as the volume of vegetable oil in
mixture. Generally speaking, vegetable oils have higher densities than the blend rises as shown in Fig. 9. The calorific value, or heating value,
diesel fuel, so the blend density increases as the vegetable oil content of a diesel-vegetable oil blend will be higher than that of pure diesel fuel,
increases. However, the exact effects will depend on the specific types of due to the higher calorific value of vegetable oils. The calorific value is a
vegetable oil and diesel fuel used, as well as other factors such as tem­ measure of the amount of energy released when a fuel is burned.
perature and pressure. It is also worth noting that the density of the Vegetable oils have higher calorific values than diesel fuel because they

Fig. 10. Flame intensity of each blend.

7
O.O. Alabi et al. Fuel Communications 18 (2024) 100104

Fig. 11. Percentage of flame length reduction.

contain more oxygen, which results in some of the energy being used to as the pressure and temperature of the combustion chamber, also have
break the oxygen-carbon bonds during combustion. As a result, the an effect, but the surface area has the greatest impact. In addition, the
diesel-vegetable oil blend requires more fuel to produce more amount of characteristics of the fuel, such as its viscosity and volatility, also in­
energy as alternative fuel. These findings align with prior research fluence the length of the flame.
conducted by Ajay et al., [23] which also suggests that increasing the The relationship between the length of the flame and the flame in­
proportion of vegetable oil in the blend leads to higher viscosity, higher tensity can be described by the following equation:
density, and lower calorific value of the blend.
L = AS × F b (2)
The calorific value of each blend was determined using a bomb
calorimeter. As depicted in Fig. 9, it can be inferred that vegetable oil
where:
(BR5) exhibits a lower calorific value when compared to pure diesel
L is the flame length,
(BR0). This performance may be attributed to the viscosity and density
A is the surface area of the burning fuel,
of diesel and vegetable oil. The calorific value is the amount of energy
F is the flame intensity,
released when a fuel is burned, which shows that pure diesel burns
b is the slope of the curve relating flame length to flame intensity;
better than vegetable oil. It also shows that pure diesel exhibited better
Fig. 11 illustrates that when the diesel-vegetable oil blend contained
flow properties than vegetable oil. The graph demonstrates that the
20 % vegetable oil (BR2), the flame length was reduced by approxi­
calorific value of the blend decreases as the volume ratio of vegetable oil
mately 2.83 percent. As the volume ratio of vegetable oil in the blend
in the mixture increases, which may be due to the poor burning prop­
increased, the percentage of flame length reduction also increased.
erties of vegetable oil.
Notably, the combustion of 100 % vegetable oil (BR5) resulted in a flame
length that was 16.58 % shorter than that of pure diesel (BR0). This
3.2. Combustion of diesel-vegetable oil blends reduction in flame length can largely be attributed to the elevated ki­
nematic viscosity and density of vegetable oil. As the volume ratio of
Observations of flame activity were made through the side viewing vegetable oil in the mixture increased, so did the blend’s density and
glass, and standard video cameras were employed to measure flame kinematic viscosity [11]. As per existing literature, fuels with higher
length. A predefined time interval was used to capture images and re­ viscosity may produce larger droplets during injection, potentially
cord videos, with each data point recorded at 0.02-second intervals. A leading to inefficient combustion.
rough estimate of flame length was obtained by measuring the distance
between the flame’s tip and the burner. To provide a more stable 4. Conclusion
reference, the average length over a substantial period was considered,
given the inherent instability of the flame tip as a reference point. This study examined the combustion properties of diesel-vegetable
Fig. 10 illustrates the flame intensity of diesel and vegetable oil oil blends across various volume ratios. The experimental results
mixtures, showcasing a decline in flame intensity as the volume ratio of showed that an increase in the volume ratio of vegetable oil resulted in a
vegetable oil in the blend increases. This finding is in alignment with the decrease in both flame length and stability. This was likely due to the
literature, highlighting the importance of considering flame length in higher density and viscosity of vegetable oil, which reduced the fuel’s
design considerations. Flame length serves as an approximation of ability to mix with air and burn efficiently. As a result, the diesel-
frontal fire intensity, where lower-intensity flames exhibit more vegetable oil blend burned less efficiently than pure diesel fuel. Subse­
frequent pulsations with slight variations in length, while higher- quently, a comparative analysis of the combustion properties of diesel
intensity fires pulse less frequently with a broader range of flame du­ fuel and diesel-vegetable oil blends was conducted, revealing remark­
rations. The most dominant factor affecting the length of the flame is the able similarity in the combustion properties of a 40 % vegetable oil and
surface area of the burning fuel. The larger the surface area, the longer 60 % diesel blend, which exhibited a kinematic viscosity of approxi­
the flame will be. The other factors that influence the flame length, such mately 1.58 cP. In conclusion, this study indicates the feasibility of

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O.O. Alabi et al. Fuel Communications 18 (2024) 100104

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