LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENT

Precision linear measurements

Mass production which is a characteristic of modern engineering manufacture
makes it necessary to manufacture component part with close dimensional
tolerances to make them interchangeable. Interchangeability can be achieved
only by precision dimensional control of the parts being manufactured. Thus, to
measure the dimensions of the part with close accuracy precision instruments
play an important role.
Characteristics of precision measuring instruments
To measure the dimensions of the manufactured part, the precision measuring
instruments should possess the following characteristics:
(i) High degree of sensitivity. The precision measuring instrument should be
sensitive. If the measuring instrument is sensitive, a small change in the
measured dimension can be easily determined. The instrument should be
designed in such a manner that its sensitivity remains constant throughout the
range of dimension to be measured.
1

(ii) High degree of accuracy. It should have high degree of accuracy so that it
will be able to measure the dimensions of the parts close to be true values.
(iii) Precision. The instrument should give nearly the same reading for repeated
measurements of same quantity.
(iv) Proper calibration. The accuracy will be high if calibration is proper and
clear.
(v) Less wearing. Wear of the measuring surfaces and other parts of the
instruments should be as minimum as possible.
(vi) Minimum inertia. Inertia and friction in moving parts of instrument should be
minimum, so that it should not be sluggish. All the instruments which depends on
mechanical linkage and mechanical system, displacement of fluid, diaphragm etc.
are subjected to disadvantage of inertia. However, instruments based on the
optical principle are entirely free from inertia.
(vii) Good amplification. Measuring instrument should be able to amplify the
very small changes in the quantity to be measured.

2
Common measurement is dimensions of an object.

• Types of measuring instruments,

1. Low Resolution Devices (Up to 0.25mm)

1. Steel rule alone

2. Steel rule with the assistance of (i) Calipers, (ii) Dividers and (iii) surface gauges
3. Thickness gauges

2. Medium Resolution Devices (Upto 0.0025mm)

I. Micrometers alone.
2. Micrometers with assistance of (i) telescoping & (ii) extensible ball gauges
3. Vernier
4. Dial indicators
5. Measuring microscope

3. High Resolution Devices (Less than microns)

1. Gauge blocks alone
3
2. Comparators (iv) Optical flats

LINEAR MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1. Steel Rule

2. Calipers, Dividers with combination of steel rule

3. Dial indicators

4. Micrometers

5. Slip gauges

6. Comparators

4
 1. VERNIER CALIPER
Vernier calliper Pierre Vernier a Frenchman, devised principle of vernier for
precise measurements in 1631.
The principle of vernier is based on the difference between two scales or divisions
which are nearly, but not quite alike for obtaining small difference. It enables to
enhance the accuracy of measurement.

Least count of vernier instruments

Vernier instruments have two scales, main scale and vernier scale. The main
scale is fixed and the vernier scale slides over the main scale. When zero on the
main scale coincides with zero on the vernier scale, the vernier scale has one
more division than that of main scale with which it coincides.

6
One small division on main scale = 1 mm

No. of divisions on Vernier scale = 50

50 Vernier scale divisions = 49 divisions on main scale (or 49

mm)

Each division on Vernier scale = (49/50) mm

Least Count = One main scale division -

One Vernier scale
division = 1 - (49/50) mm

= (50 - 49)/50

= (1/50) mm

Least Count of Vernier = = 0.02 mm

7

a. TYPE-A VERNIER CALIPER

8
b. TYPE-B VERNIER CALIPER

c. TYPE-C VERNIER CALIPER

10
Errors in measurements with Vernier Caliper:
1. Errors may arise in manipulation of vernier caliper
2. Jaw movement should be perpendicular to scale reading.
3. Contact portion of measuring jaws should be good conditions. also when we
close the jaws, it should be tightly together.

• Care and precautions in use of Vernier Calipers:

1. The jaws should not be used as a hammer because vernier caliper is not a
strong instrument.
2. Instruments should be kept in box and not suddenly dropped and turned up and down.
3. Should not be used with oil, grit and chips in part to be measured.
4. One hand of operator should be used for stationary jaw and the other hand for
supporting the movable jaw while measuring.
5. The operator should wear eye-glass and magnifying glass during
measurement because the accuracy of measurement mainly depends on the sensing of
sight and sense of touch. 11

2. VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

12
 3. VERNIER DEPTH GAUGE

13

4. MASTER DIAL INDICATOR VERNIER CALIPER

• Combination of vernier caliper & dial gauge

• For internal & external measurements.

5. COMBINATION OF DEPTH & ANGLE GAGUE

• Looks like protractor

• Used to measure both angle & depth

6. DIGITAL LENGTH GAGUES

• Indicated in digital display while measuring

• Before measuring set to zero

17 14
 MICROMETER

15

TYPES OF MICROMETER

1. OutsideMicrometer 8. Micrometer For Measuring

Thickness Of Cylindrical Walls
2. InsideMicrometer
9. Dial Micrometer Caliper
3. StickMicrometer 10. Bench Micrometer
4. Micrometer DepthGauge 11. Taper-screw Operated
Internal Micrometer
5. ThreadMicrometer
12. Groove Micrometer
6. V-Anvil Micrometer Caliper 13. Digital Micrometer
7. BladeTypeMicrometer 14.Differential Screw Micrometer

16
 1. OUTSIDE MICROMETER

Pitch of the Barrel = 0.5 mm

Thimble graduation = 50 mm
So LC = 0.01 mm

17

2. INSIDE MICROMETER

• Used to measure Inner Diameter

• 4 Parts – Measuring Heads, Extension Rods, Spacing Collars,

Handles

• Used to measure cylinder Diameter, rings

• Ranges of IMM 25-150, 150-300, 300-450, 450-600mm

18
 3. STICK MICROMETER

• Used to measure larger length

• For maximum range of measurement

• Accuracy of stick MM is +0.005 mm or – 0.005mm

19

4. MICROMETER DEPTH GAUGE

• Used to measure depth of holes, slots

• Can side up & down & perpendicular to axis of hole

• Range of depth MM is 0 – 225 mm

• Length of extension rod equal to range of micrometer

20
 5. THREAD MICROMETER

• To measure threads within range of thread pitches

21

6. V- ANVIL MICROMETER CALIPER

• Range of error is checked by V-anvil MM in grinding & other spl m/c

• Accuracy is high because all parts in this caliper are precise

22
 7. BLADE TYPE MICROMETER

• Used for circular formed tools, diameters of narrow grooves, slots & keyways

• Rate of measurement is fast

23

8. MICROMETER FOR MEASURING THICKNESS

OF CYLINDRICAL WALLS

• Its difficult to measure OD of cylinder walls

•Anvil is in cylindrical form & spindle is perpendicular to spherical surface

24
 9. DIAL MICROMETER CALIPER

• Dial indicator is connected with movable anvil

• Anvil movement is indicated on dial indicator

•Its useful for statistical quantity for all different size of variation 25

10. BENCH MICROMETER

• All parts are mounted on bench

• Fixed anvil in one end and Movable anvil with dial with other end

Ex: Floating Carriage Micrometer

26
 11. GROOVE MICROMETER

• Used to measure grooves which are located centrally

• MM are satin-chrome finished for high precision

• Used to measure the distance between edge to land

27

12. DIGITAL MICROMETER

•Digital is as numerical

•Spindle can be located at desired position &

•Interpolation can be
adjustment of spindle is easy
avoided

•Accuracy is higher than 32 28

analog type
 SLIP GAUGES

 These are small blocks of alloy steel.

 Used in the manufacturing shops as length standards.
 Not to be used for regular and continuous measurement.
 Rectangular blocks with thickness representing the dimension of the block.
 The measuring surfaces of the gauge blocks are finished to a very high degree of finish,
flatness and accuracy.
 Come in sets with different number of pieces and a typical set consisting of 88 pieces for
metric units.

Indian standard on slip gauges.

According to IS:2984-1966, the size of the slip gauges is defined as the distance
between two plane measuring faces, are being constituted by the surface of an
auxiliary body with which one of the slip gauge faces is wrung and other by exposed
face to the slip gauge.

Generally the slip gauges are made from high grade steel with coefficient of thermal
expansion (11.5±1.5)×10-6 per degree Celsius between 1o C to 30o C. Slip gauges
are hardened more than 800 HV to make them wear resistant =IS 2984 slip gauges
gives recommendations covering the manufacture of gauge blocks upto 90 mm in
length in five grades of accuracy.

30
 TYPES OF SLIP GAUGES
Grade II : Workshop grade for rough checks.

Grade I : Used for setting up sine bars, checking gap gauges and setting dial test
indicators to zero.

Grade 0 : Used in tool room and inspection department.

Grade 00 : Kept in standard room and used for high precision work such as checking
Grade I and Grade II slip gauges.

Calibration Grade. This is special grade, with the actual size of the slips calibrated
on a special chart supplied with a set. The chart must be referred while marking up
dimension.

The following two sets of slip gauges are in general use:

Normal set (M-45)
Range (mm) Step (mm) Pieces
1.001 to 1.009 0.001 9
1.01 to 1.09 0.01 9
1.1 to 1.9 0.1 9
1 to 9 1 9
10 to 90 10 9
Total 45 pieces 32
 Special set (M-87)

Range (mm) Step (mm) Pieces

1.001 to 1.009 0.001 9
1.01 to 1.49 0.01 49
0.5 to 0.95 0.5 19
10 to 90 10 9
1.005 - 1
Total 87 pieces
Care of slip gauges
General care
1. Protect all surfaces against climatic conditions by applying suitable
anticorrosive such as petroleum jelly.
2. Keep the slip gauges in a suitable case in which there is a separate
compartment for each gauge and keep the case closed when not in use.
3. Protect the gauges and their case from dust and dirt.
33

• Wringing is defined as the property of the measuring faces of slip gauges to adhere to
the measuring faces of other slip gauges.

• Wringing is nothing, but removing the atmospheric air between two mating surfaces
of any two gauge blocks, so that the blocks stick to each other due to vacuum.

• Due to do this, hold the two blocks edge-to -edge, and gently push one of the blocks
inside so as to make it sit on the other block, completely.

6
 MANUFACTURE OF SLIP GAUGES

The following additional operations are carried out,

1. Approximate size of slip gauges is done by Preliminary operations

2. Blocks are hardened & wear resistant by a special heat treatment process

3. To stabilize the life of the block, seasoning is done

4. The approximate required dimension is done by final grinding

process

5. To get the exact size of slip gauges, lapping operation is done

6. Comparison is made with grand master sets

7 35

Gauges should not be magnetized otherwise they will attract metallic dust.
Preparation before use

1. Remove protective coating applied to it with petrol

2. Clean gauges to be used with chamois leather or soft linen cloth even if they are
temporally returned to the case uncoated.

Care in use

1. During the actual use, the fingering of lapped faces should be avoided.
2. Handling should be as minimum as possible to avoid transfer of heat from hand
to gauges.
3. If the gauges have been handled for some time, they should be allowed to settle
down to the prevailing room temperature.
4. For highest accuracy measurement at a temp. of 20o C is necessary. (in air
condition room free from dirt and dust).
36
5. Actually both the work to be tested and gauges wrung together should be
allowed to settle down to the prevailing temperature of the room before doing
any test.
6. Gauges should not be held above the open case when being wrung together.
The required gauges should be selected and the case then closed.
7. Placing gauges with their working surfaces on surface plate etc. Should be
avoided.
8. While wringing gauges standard procedure as already explained should be
followed.
9. If during wringing process, any sign of roughness or scratching is felt the
process of wringing should be stopped and faces examined for burns or
scratches.

37

Care after use

1. Gauges should not left wrung together for an unnecessary length of time.
2. Immediately after use, the gauges should be slid apart, (not pulled) cleaned
and the measuring faces coated with suitable protective layer of jelly, grease
etc. with a clean piece of soft linen. A brush should not be used as this may
aerate the jelly and moisture in the air bubbles so formed may cause rusting
of faces.
3. Calibration- due to handling in the laboratory of inspection room for
considerably long period, slip gauges are liable to wear and, therefore, they
should be checked or recalibrated at regular intervals.

Workshop and inspection grade gauges are calibrated by direct comparison with
the calibration grade gauges in a comparator.

38
 Angular measurements

Angular measurements are frequently necessary for the manufacture of

interchangeable parts. The ships and aeroplanes can navigate confidently without
the help of the sight of the land, only because of precise angular measurement.
Precise measuring devices can be used in astronomy to determine the relation of
the stars and their appropriate distances.

The angle is defined as the opening between two lines which meet at a point. If one
of the two lines is moved around a point in an arc, a complete circle can be formed.
The basic unit in angular measurement is the right angle, which is defined as the
angle between two lines which intersect so as to make the adjacent angles equal. If
a circle is divided into 360 equal parts each part is called as degree (o).

This method of defining angular units is called as sexagesimal system, which is

used fro engineering purposes. 39

Angle is defined as the opening between the two lines meet at a point. If a angle is
divided into 360 parts, each part is called as degree (ᵒ). Each degree is divided into 60 parts
and each that part is called minute (‘). Each second have 60 parts and each that part is
called second (“).

An alternative method of defining angle is based on the relationship between the radius
and arc of a circle. It is called as radian. Radian is defined as the angle subtended at the
centre by an arc of a circle of length equal to radius. It is more widely used to mathematical
investigation.

2π radian= 360o, giving.

1 radian =57.2958 degrees.

In addition to linear units such as 1 in 30 or millimetres per metre are often used for
specifying tapers and departures from squareness or parallelism. 40
Instruments for angular measurements

There are many instruments which can be used for measuring the angles. The
selection of an instrument to be used for angular measurement depends upon the
component and the accuracy of measurement required.

For example, the ordinary level protractor with vernier scale can read to 2½ minutes
accuracy and optical protractor is accurate to 2 minutes.

These are usually not adequate for metrological work and for high precision work to
with in few second.

To obtain these fine accuracies for high precision work, use is made in sine bar
angle gauges, and optical instruments.

The spirit level and the dividing head are also employed. 41

INSTRUMENTS USED FOR ANGULAR MEASUREMENT

Face Standard Angular Measuring Devices

Sine Bar
Line Standard Angular Measuring Devices
 Protractor

 Universal Bevel Protractor

Angle Gauges
Measurement of Inclines
 Clinometers
 Spirit Level
Angle Comparators
 Auto Collimator
 Angle Dekkor
Alignment Telescope 42
 1. FACE STANDARD ANGULAR MEASURING DEVICES
- SINE BAR
• It is a precision measuring instrument and is an excellent example of combination of linear
measurement and angular measurement when used in conjunction with gauge blocks (slip
gauges).
• Sine bar is made of high carbon, high chromium corrosion resistant steel, suitably
hardened, precision ground and stabilised.
• It consists of a bar carrying a suitable pair of rollers set a known centre distance.
• Relief holes are provided for easy handling of sine bar and for reducing the weight of the
sine bar.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SINE BAR

• The principle of operation of sine bar is relay upon the application of
trigonometry.
• The sine bar is placed on the surface plate with the slip gauges of the required length (H)
under one roller and opposite to the angle ϴ as shown in figure.

The angle ϴ is given by, Taper Angle, Sin θ = h / L in Degrees

h = Height of the Slip Gauge in mm. L = Length between two rollers in mm

5
 USE OF SINE BAR
1. Checking unknown angles of small components:

 When an angle of component to be compared is unknown, it is necessarily first find out the approximate
taper angle with the help of bevel protector.
 If the angle is ϴ, then the sine bar is set at an angle ϴ with the help of slip gauges and clamped to an
angle plate as shown in figure.
 A dial indicator is set at a one end of the work and moved to the other end and the deviation is note down.
 Again slip gauges are so adjusted (according to the deviation) such that dial indicator reads zero as it
move from one end to other end of the work piece.
 If the deviation is noted down by the dial indicator .

45

2. For locating any work to a given angle

 For this, assume surface plate is perfectlyflat, so that its surface is perfectly horizontal.
 One roller of the sine bar is placed on the surface plate and the other is placed on the slip gauge
rack of height H.
 Let the sine bar is set to an angle ϴ. Sine Ө = h/L
 where L is the distance between the center.
 Thus knowing ϴ, H can be found and any work can be set out at this angle as the top
face of the sine bar is inclined at angle ϴ to the surface plate.
 For better result both rollers must placed on slip gauge of height h1
and h2 respectively.

7
 3. Checking of unknown angles of heavy component:

 When components are heavy and cannot be mounted on the sine bar, the sine bar is mounted on the
component as shown in figure.
 The height over the rollers can be measured by a Vernier height gauge using a dial gauge mounted on
the anvil of it.
 The difference in the two readings of height gauge divided by the centre distance of sine bar gives the sine
angle of the component to be measured.

TOOLS NEEDED

SURFACE GROUND GAUGE BLOCKS

GRANITE TABLE

HEIGHT GAUGE

9
 Accuracy requirements of a sine bar:

The accuracy of sine bar depends on the following constructional features:

 The rollers must have equal diameters and equal cylinders.
 The rollers should be placed parallel to each other and also to the upper face.
 The accurate length of center to center of rollers must be known.
 The top surface of the bar must be flat with high degree of accuracy.

Classification of sine bars:

Generally, sine bars are classified into two categories:

1. According to the accuracy of center distance

a. Grade A - These sine bars are more accurate up to 0.01mm of length.
b. Grade B - These sine bars are accurate up to 0.02 mm of length.

2. According to the availability of different designs

a. Type 1 b. Type 2
c. Type 3 d. Type 4 49

2. According to the availability of different designs:

a. Type 1 Sine Bar

:
It is the most commonly used type. In this type, the rollers are arranged in such a way that their
outside surfaces on one side is level with the plane top surface of the sine bar.

11
 b. Type 2 Sine Bar

In this type 2, a sine bar with hollow rollers which outside diameter
is equal to the width of sine bar. This type is very much useful in
instances where the width of the bar enters into calculation of
work.

12

c. Type 3 Sine Bar

A sine bar with pins on both sides is used where the ordinary sine bar cannot
be used on the top surface due to interruption.

13
 d. Type 4 Sine Bar

Generally preferred where the distance between the rollers can be adjusted exactly.

14

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SINE BARS

• Advantages of sine bar

1. It is precise and accurate angle measuring device.
2. It is simple in design and construction.
3. It is easily available
• Disadvantages
1. It is not fairly reliable at angles less than 15 but become increasingly
inaccurate as the angle increases. It is impractical to use sine bar for
angle above 45 .
2. It is difficult to handle and position the slip gauges.
3. The sine bar is physically clumsy to hold in position.
4. The application is limited for a fixed center distance
between two rollers.
5. Slight errors of the sine bar cause larger angular errors. 18
 SOURCES OF ERROR IN SINE BARS
The different sources of errors are listed below:

• Error in distance between roller centers.

• Error in slip gauge combination.

• Error in checking of parallelism.

• Error in equality of size of rollers and cylindricity.

• Error in parallelism of roller axes with each other.

• Error in flatness of the upper surface of sine bar

19

2. LINE STANDARD ANGULAR MEASURING DEVICES– PROTRACTOR

• A simple Protractor is the basic device for measuring angles.

• Like a steel rule, the simple protractor has limited usage in engineering
metrology.
• Bevel protractors is a type of protractor which is used as an
angular measuring instruments.

• Types of bevel protractors:

1. Vernier Bevel Protractor or Universal Protractor

2. Optical Protractor

20
1. Vernier or Universal Bevel Protractor
 It has a base plate or stock whose surface
has a high degree of flatness and surface
finish and it is placed on the workpiece
whose angle is to be measured.
 An adjustable blade attached to a
circular dial is made to coincide with the
angular surface.
 It can be swiveled to the required angle and
locked into position to facilitate accurate
reading of the circular scale that is mounted
on the dial.
 The main scale on the dial is graduated in
degrees and rotates with the rotation of the
adjustable blade.
 A stationary vernier scale mounted close to the dial, enables measurements to
a least count of 5‘ or less.
 An acute angle attachment is provided for the measurement of acute angles.

21

58
• The main scale on the dial is divided into four quadrants, each measuring 90°. Each
division on this scale reads 1°.
• The Vernier scale has 12 Divisions each side of the centre zero.
• These are marked 0-60 minutes of arc, so that each division equals 1/12
of 60, that is 5 minutes of arc.
22

2. Optical Bevel Protractor

•A recent development of Vernier bevel
protector is optical bevel protector.

•In this instrument, a circular glass

plate is divided at 10 minutes intervals
throughout the whole 360º are fitted
inside the main body.

•A small microscope is fitted through

which the circular graduations can be
viewed.
•The readings are taken against a Vernier
scale with the help of a microscope.
• With the help of microscope it is possible
to read about 2 minutes. 60
 APPLICATIONS OF BEVEL PROTRACTOR
1. For checking a ‘V’ block 2. For measuring acute angle

3. For checking inside beveled face of a ground surface

24

25
 3. ANGLE GAUGES

• Angle gauges are made of hardened steel and seasoned carefully to ensure
permanence of angular accuracy, and the measuring faces are lapped and
polished to a high degree of accuracy and flatness like slip gauges.

63

4. MEASUREMENT OF INCLINES

 Inclination of a surface generally represents its deviation from the horizontal or

vertical planes.

 Gravitational principle can be used in construction of measurements of such

inclinations.

Examples:
1. Spirit Level

2. Clinometer

27
 SPIRIT LEVEL

 Commonly used to inspect the horizontal position of surfaces.

 It essentially consists of a closed glass tube of accurate form and is

called as the vial.

 It is filled with a low viscosity liquid such as ether, alcohol or benzol,

65
leaving a small space for the formation of an air or gas bubble.

SPIRIT LEVEL
 The liquid due to its greater specific weight tends to fill the lower portion of the
closed space.

 The upper side of the vial is graduated in linear units.

 Inclination of a surface can be known from the deviation of the bubble
from its position when the spirit level is kept in a horizontal plane.

 An angular value is assigned to the vial when the distance moved by the bubble from
the zero will correspond the angle directly.

 Temperature variations in the ambient condition cause both liquid and vial to expand or
contract. Therefore, selection of proper liquid and material for the spirit level is very
important for accurate result.

 To reduce the effect of heat transfer in handling spirit levels are made with thermally
insulated handles. 29 66
 CLINOMETER
 A Clinometer is a special case of the
application of spirit level.
 In Clinometer, the spirit level is mounted
on a rotary member carried in a housing.
 One face of the housing forms the base of the
instrument. On the housing, there is a circular
scale.

 The Clinometer is first placed on one face of the

workpiece and the rotary member is adjusted till the
bubble is exactly at the center of the spirit level. The
angle is noted on the scale.
 A second reading is taken in a similar manner on
the second face of the workpiece.
 The included angle is then the difference
between the. two readings 30
30 67

AUTOCOLLIMATOR
Auto- Collimator
Auto-collimator is an optical instrument used for the measurement of small angular
differences, changes or deflection, plane surface inspection etc. For small angular
measurements, autocollimator provides a very sensitive and accurate approach. An auto-
collimator is essentially an infinity telescope and a collimator combined into one instrument

If the reflector is tilted through a small angle θ, the parallel beam is deflected twice that
angle and is brought to a focus in the same plane as the light source, but to one side at a
distance x=2f θ.

Where f= focal length of lens

θ= angle of inclination of reflecting mirror.
68
 69

Basic Principle
If a light source is placed in the flows of a collimating lens, it is projected as a parallel
beam of light. If this beam is made to strike a plane reflector, kept normal to the
optical axis, it is reflected back along its own path and is brought to the same focus.
The reflector is tilted through a small angle ‘⍬’. Then the parallel beam is deflected
twice the angle and is brought to focus in the same plane as the light source.

The distance of focus from the object is given by

70
Working of Auto-Collimator:

There are three main parts in auto-

collimator.

1.Micrometer microscope.
2.Lighting unit and
3.Collimating lens.

Figure shows a line diagram of a

modern auto-collimator. A target
graticule is positioned perpendicular
to the optical axis.
When the target graticule is
illuminated by a lamp, rays of light
diverging from the intersection point
reach the objective lens via beam
71
splitter.

From objective, the light rays are projected as a parallel rays to the reflector. A flat
reflector placed in front of the objective and exactly normal to the optical axis reflects
the parallel rays of light back along their original paths. They are then brought to the
target graticule and exactly coincide with its intersection.

A portion of the returned light passes through the beam splitter and is visible through
the eyepiece. If the reflector is tilted through a small angle, the reflected beam will be
changed its path at twice the angle. It can also be brought to target graticule but
linearly displaced from the actual target by the amount 2θ x f. linear displacement of
the graticule image in the plane tilted angle of eyepiece is directly proportional to the
reflector. This can be measured by optical micro meter.

The photoelectric auto- collimator is particularly suitable for calibrating polygons, for
checking angular indexing and for checking small linear displacements.
72
 Applications of Auto-Collimator
Auto-collimators are used for
1) Measuring the difference in height of length standards.
2) Checking the flatness and straightness of surfaces.
3) Checking square ness of two surfaces.
4) Precise angular indexing in conjunction with polygons.
5) Checking alignment or parallelism.
6) Comparative measurement using master angles.
7) Measurement of small linear dimensions.
8) For machine tool adjustment testing.
73

Angle Dekkor
This is also a type of auto-collimator.
There is an illuminated scale in the
focal plane of the collimating lens.

This illuminated scale is projected as a

parallel beam by the collimating lens
which after striking a reflector below
the instrument is refocused by the
lens in the filed of view of the
eyepiece.

In the field of view of microscope,

there is another datum scale fixed
across the center of screen.
74
The reflected image of the illuminated scale is received at right angle to the fixed scale as
shown in fig. Thus the changes in angular position of the reflector in two planes are
indicated by changes in the point of intersection of the two scales. One division on the
scale is calibrated to read 1 minute.
Uses of Angle Dekkor

(i) Measuring angle of a component

Angle dekkor is capable of measuring small variations in angular setting i.e. determining
angular tilt. Angle dekkor is used in combination with angle gauge. First the angle gauge
combination is set up to the nearest known angle of the component. Now the angle
dekkor is set to zero reading on the illuminated scale. The angle gauge build up is then
removed and replaced by the component under test.

Usually a straight edge being used to ensure that there is no change in lateral positions.
The new position of the reflected scale with respect to the fixed scale gives the angular tilt
75
of the component from the set angle.

(ii) Checking the slope angle of a V-block

Figure shows the set up for checking the

sloping angle of V block. Initially, a polished
reflector or slip gauge is attached in close
contact with the work surface. By using angle
gauge zero reading is obtained in the angle
dekkor.

Then the angle may be calculated by comparing

the reading obtained from the angle dekkor
and angle gauge.

76
 (iii) To measure the angle of cone or Taper gauge

Initially, the angle dekkor is set for the nominal angle of cone by using angle
gauge or sine bar. The cone is then placed in position with its base resting on the
surface plate.

A slip gauge or reflector is attached on the cone since no reflection can be

obtained from the curved surface. Any deviation from the set angle will be noted
by the angle dekkor in the eyepiece and indicated by the shifting of the image of
indicated by the shifting of the image of illuminated scale.

77

COMPARATORS
 An instrument, which provides the measurement in terms of
comparison, is called a comparator.

 A comparator works on relative measurement.

 Comparators are generally used for linear

measurements.

 A comparator has to be set to a reference value

(usually zero setting) by employing a standard.

 Once it is set to this reference value, all subsequent

readings indicate the deviation from the standard.

The variation in the measured value may be in terms of

change in displacement, pressure, fluid flow, temperature,
and so on.

35 78
 79

TYPES OF COMPARATOR

1. Mechanical comparators
a. Dial Indicator
b. ReedtypeMechanical Comparator
2. Electrical Comparators (Electro-mechanicalcomparators)
3. Electronic Comparators
4. Fluid Displacement Comparators
5. Pneumatic Comparators
a. FreeFlowType/VelocityType Pneumaticcomparators
b. Back PressurePneumatic comparators
i. SolexAir Gauge
ii. DifferentialComparators
6. Multi-check Comparators
80
7. Optical Comparators
 MECHANICAL COMPARATOR

Mechanical comparator employs mechanical means for magnifying

small deviations. The method of magnifying small movement of the
indicator in all mechanical comparators are effected by means of
levers, gear trains or a combination of these elements.

Mechanical comparators are available having magnifications from

300 to 5000 to 1. These are mostly used for inspection of small
parts machined to close limits.

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A) DIAL INDICATOR
• It is primarily used to compare workpieces against a master.
• It consists of a body with a circular graduated dial, a contact point connected
to a
gear train and an indicating hand, which directly indicates the linear displacement of
the contact point.

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 MECHANISM

83

A dial indicator or dial gauge is used as a mechanical comparator. The essential parts of
the instrument are like a small clock with a plunger projecting at the bottom as shown
in fig.

Very slight upward movement on the plunger moves it upward and the movement is
indicated by the dial pointer. The dial is graduated into 100 divisions.
A full revolution of the pointer about this scale corresponds to 1 mm travel of the
plunger. Thus, a turn of the pointer one scale division represents a plunger travel of
0.01mm.

The stem has rack teeth. A set of gears engage with the rack. The pointer is connected
to a small pinion. The small pinion is independently hinged. i.e. it is not connected to
the stern. The vertical movement of the stem is transmitted to the pointer through a
set of gears. A spring gives a constant downward pressure to the stem.

84
APPLICATIONS

85

86
 B) REED TYPE MECHANICAL COMPARATOR

In this type of comparator, the linear

movement of the plunger is specified by
means of read mechanism.

The mechanism of this type is illustrated

in fig.

A spring-loaded pointer is pivoted.

Initially, the comparator is set with the
help of a known dimension eg. Set of slip
gauges as shown in fig. Then the
indicator reading is adjusted to zero.
87

When the part to be

measured is kept under
the pointer, then the
comparator displays the
deviation of this
dimension either in ( + )
orb(-) side of the set
dimension.

88
Advantages

1.It is usually robust, compact and easy to handle.

2.There is no external supply such as electricity, air required.
3.It has very simple mechanism and is cheaper when compared to other types.
4.It is suitable for ordinary workshop and also easily portable.

Disadvantages

1.Accuracy of the comparator mainly depends on the accuracy of the rack and pinion
arrangement. Any slackness will reduce accuracy.
2.It has more moving parts and hence friction is more and accuracy is less.
3.The range of the instrument is limited since pointer is moving over a fixed scale. 89

90
 2. ELECTRICAL COMPARATORS

 Electricalcomparators generally depend on a Wheatstone bridge circuit

for measurement.
The plunger is the sensing element, the movement of which displaces
an armature inside a pair of coils. Movement of the armature causes
change in inductance in the two coils, resulting in a net change in inductance.
This change causes imbalance in the bridge circuit, resulting in an output.

Least count of the electrical comparator is 0.001mm

Ex: Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

91

An electrical comparator consists of the following three major part such as

1) Transducer 2) Display device as meter 3) Amplifier

Transducer
An iron armature is provided in between two coils held by a leaf spring at one end. The
other end is supported against a plunger. The two coils act as two arms of an A.C. wheat
stone bridge circuit.
Amplifier
The amplifier is nothing but a device which amplifies the given input signal frequency into
magnified output
Display device or meter
The amplified input signal is displayed on some terminal stage instruments. Here, the
terminal instrument is a meter. 92
Working Principle

If the armature is centrally located

between the coils, the inductance of both
coils will be equal but in opposite
direction with the sign change.

Due to this, the bridge circuit of A.C.

wheat stone bridge is balanced.
Therefore, the meter will read zero value.
But practically, it is not possible.

In real cases, the armature may be lifted

up or lowered down by the plunger
during the measurement.
93

This would upset the balance of the wheat stone bridge circuit. Due to this effect,
the change in current or potential will be induced correspondingly.

On that time, the meter will indicate some value as displacement. This indicated
value may be either for larger or smaller components. As this induced current is too
small, it should be suitably amplified before being displayed in the meter.

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Checking of Accuracy
To check the accuracy of a given specimen or work, first a standard specimen is placed under
the plunger. After this, the resistance of wheat stone bridge is adjusted so that the scale
reading shows zero.

Then the specimen is removed. Now, the work is introduced under the plunger. If height
variation of work presents, it will move the plunger up or down. The corresponding movement
of the plunger is first amplified by the amplifier then it is transmitted to the meter to show the
variations.

Advantages
1.Very less number of moving parts
2.High magnification
3.Pointer is very light and not sensitive to vibrations

Disadvantages
1.It is more expensive than the mechanical comparator
2.Heating of coils in the measuring unit may cause zero drift and alter the
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calibration

3. ELECTRONIC COMPARATORS

 The movement at the probe tip actuates inductance transducer which is supplied
with an a.c. source from the oscillator.

 The transducer converts this movement into an electrical signal which is then amplified
and fed via an oscillator to the demodulator.

 The current in D.C. form, then passes to the meter and the probe tip movement is
displayed as a linear measurement over a circular scale.
96
Construction details
In the electronic comparator, the following components are set as follows:
(i) Transducer
It converts the movement of the plunger into an electrical signal. It is
connected with oscillator.
(ii) Oscillator
The oscillator which receives electrical signal from the transducer and raises the amplitude
of frequency wave by adding carrier frequency called as modulation.
(iii) Amplifier
An amplifier is connected in between oscillator and demodulator. The
signal coming out of the oscillator is amplified into a required level.
(iv) Demodulator
Demodulator is nothing but a device which cuts off external carrier wave frequency. i.e. It
converts the modulated wave into original wave as electrical signal.
(v) Meter
This is nothing but a display device from which the output can be
obtained as a linear measurement. 97

Principle of operation

The work to be measured is placed under the plunger of

the electronic Comparator. Both work and comparator are
made to rest on the surface plate. The linear movement of
the plunger is converted into electrical signal by a suitable
transducer.

Then it sent to an oscillator to modulate the electrical

signal by adding carrier frequency of wave. After that the
amplified signal is sent to demodulator in which the
carrier waves are cut off. Finally, the demodulated signal
is passed to the meter to convert the probe tip movement
into linear measurement as an output signal. A separate
electrical supply of D.C. is already given to actuate the
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meter.
 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC COMPARATORS

1. High accuracy and reliability

2. High sensitivity in all ranges
3. High speed of response
4. Easy provision for multiple
amplification ranges
5. Versatility (a large number
of measurement
situations can be handled
with standard accessories)
6. Easy integration into an
automated system

99

Advantages of Electrical and Electronic comparator

1) It has less number of moving parts.

2) Magnification obtained is very high.
3) Two or more magnifications are provided in the same instrument to use
various ranges.
4) The pointer is made very light so that it is more sensitive to vibration.
5) The instrument is very compact.

Disadvantages of Electrical and Electronic comparator

1) External agency is required to meter for actuation.

2) Variation of voltage or frequency may affect the accuracy of output. 3) Due
to heating coils, the accuracy decreases.
4) It is more expensive than mechanical comparator. 100
 4. FLUID DISPLACEMENT COMPARATOR
 A capillary tube is used along with a graduated
scale attached to it and it is filled with the low viscosity
fluid.
 At the bottom of the fluid chamber, there is a
diaphragm is arranged.
 A plunger is attached at the bottom of the
diaphragm.
 This plunger captures the deflection and transmits
to the diaphragm.
 When the workpiece is contacted with the plunger
the deflection will be transmitted to the diaphragm.
 The diaphragm will get deflected and a small rise in
liquid level in the capillary tube occurs.
 This will be measured with the help of the scale
attached to the capillary tube.
 When the workpiece removed from contact with the
plunger the diaphragm will get its orginal shape
101

5. PNEUMATIC COMPARATORS (Pneumatic Gauge)

1. FLOW / VELOCITY TYPE

102
 103

2. PRESSURE TYPE
a. SOLEX AIR GAUGE

104
 Characteristics
(a) Very high amplifications are possible.
(b) As no physical contact is made either with the setting gauge or the part being
measured, there is no loss of accuracy because of gauge wear.
(c) Internal dimensions can be readily measured not only with respect to tolerance
boundaries but also geometric form.
(d) It is independent of operator skill.
(e) High pressure air gauging can be done with cleansing of the parts which helps to
eliminate errors due to dirt and foreign matter.

105

f) Gauging pressures can be kept sufficiently low to prevent part deflection.

g) Dimensional variations throughout the length of shaft or cylinder bore can be explored
h) Not only it measures the actual size, but it can also be used to salvage oversized pieces
i)The total life cost of the gauging heads in much less.
(j) It is accurate, flexible, reliable, universal and speedy device for inspecting parts in mass
production.
(k) It is best suited for checking multiple dimensions and conditions on a part simultaneously
in least possible time.

106
Advantages of Pneumatic Comparators:
i. The gauging member does not come into contact with the part to be measured and hence
practically no wear takes place on the gauging member.
ii. It has usually very small number of moving parts and in some cases none. Thus the accuracy
is more due to less friction and less inertia.
iii. Measuring pressure is very small and the jet of air helps in cleaning the dust, if any, from
the part to be measured.
iv. It is possible to have very high magnification.
v. The indicating instrument can be remote from the measuring unit.
vi. It is very suitable device for measuring diameter of holes where the diameter is small
compared with the length.
vii. It is probably the best method for determining the ovality and taperness of the circular
bores. 107

Disadvantages of Pneumatic Comparators:

i. It requires elaborate auxiliary equipment such as accurate pressure regulator.

ii. The scale is generally not uniform.
iii. When indicating device is the glass tube, then high magnification is necessary
in order to avoid the meniscus errors.
iv. The apparatus is not easily portable and is rather elaborate for many industrial
applications.
v. Different gauging heads are required for different dimensions.

108
7. OPTICAL COMPARATORS

53 109

110
In mechanical optical comparators small displacements of the measuring
plunger are amplified first by a mechanical system consisting of pivoted
levers.

The amplified mechanical move-ment is further amplified by a simple

optical system involving the projection of an image.

The usual arrangement employed is such that the mechanical system causes
a plane reflector to tilt about an axis and the image of an index is projected
on a scale on the inner surface of a ground-glass screen.

Optical magnification pro-vides high degree of measuring precision due to

reduction of moving members and better wear resistance qualities.
Optical magnification is also free from friction, bending, wear etc.

111

The whole system could be explained diagrammatically by Fig. below, which

gives very simple arrangement and explains the principle of above
comparator.

In this system,

Mechanical amplification= l2/l1

and Optical amplification = l4/l3 * 2.

It is multiplied by 2, because if mirror is tilted by an angle δθ , then image will

be tilted by 2 * δθ .

Thus overall magnification of this system=2*l2/l1 * l4/l3.

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Advantages of optical comparators
1. It has small number of moving parts and hence a higher accuracy.
2. In the optical comparators, the scale can be made to move past a datum line and
thus have high range and no parallax errors.
3. It has very high magnification.
4. Optical lever is weightless
Disadvantages
1. As the instrument has high magnification, heat from the lamp, transformer etc.
may cause the setting to drift.
2. An electrical supply is necessary.
3. The apparatus is usually large and expensive.
4. When the scale is projected on a screen, then it is essential to use the instrument
to a dark room in order to take the readings easily.
5. The instruments in which the scale is viewed through the eyepiece of a
microscope are not convenient for continuous use.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GAUGES AND MEASURING

INSTRUMENTS

2
 FEELER GAUGES

32

PLATE GAUGES & WIRE GAUGES

116
THANK YOU

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