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Chapter : Plant Kingdom

PLANT KINGDOM

Earlier → Fungi , monerans & Protists

members were included in same
Kingdom
Cyanobacteria → Blue green algae
(Not considered algae anymore)

Plant kingdom
Algae
Bryophytes
pteridophytes
Gymnosperms
Angiosperms

CLASSIFICATION WITHIN ANGIOSPERM

Earlier systems
↓
Gross morphology such as habit , colour , No. &
Shape of leaves
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ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM (By Linnaeus)

~Mainly based on Vegetative characters or on the
Androecium structure

Disadvantages
• Seprated the closely related species
• Were based on few characters
• Equal weight age to vegetative & Sexual characteristics
More affected
by environment

NATURAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

By George Betham & Joseph Dalton hooker

~Based on natural affinities

~Considered external as well as internal features
Eg: Ultra - Structure , anatomy , embryoloy &
Phytochemistry

Phylogenetic Classification
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→Based on evolutionary relations

~Acceptable Now a days
~Organisms belonging have common ancestor

1. Artificial
2. Natural
3. Phylogenetic Present→Ancestors
↓
Fossil evidence
1. Numerical
2. Cyto
3. Chemo

When there's no fossil evidence

(1) Numerical Taxonomy

~Using computer
~Based on all observable characters
~No. & Codes are assigned
~Each character → equal importance
~Hundreds of characters at 1 time
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(2) Cytotaxonomy
~Based on cytological information
~Chromosome No. Structure & behaviour

(3) Chemotaxonomy
~Uses the chemical constituents

ALGAE
~Chlorophyll - bearing
~Simple
~Thalloid
~Autotropic
~largely aquatic → Fresh
Marine

Other habitats
1. Moist stones
2. Soils & wood
3. Lichens → with fungi
4. Animals → Sloth bear

Form & Size (Highly variable)

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1. Microscopic Unicellular → Chlamydomonas

2. Colonial → Volvox
3. Filamentous → Ulothrix & Spirogyra
4. Massive plant bodies → Kelps
↱ Vegetative →fragmentation fragments -
Reproduction thallus
↳ Asexual → spores zoospores (most common)
Flagellated (motile)

Figure-3.1
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SEXUAL
ISOGAMOUS 1. Flagellated →Chlamydomonas
↓ 2. Non-flagellated→Spirogyra
Gametes
Similar in size

ANISOGAMOUS 1. Chalmydomonas
↓
Gametes dissimilar
in size

OOGAMOUS 1. Volvx
↓ 2. Fucis
Non motile (female)
Motile (male) gamete

USES OF ALGAE
~Half of total CO2 fixation
~Increase O2 concentration
~Primary producers (food cycles basis)
~marine algae used as food
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↓
Prophyria , Laminana , Sargassum

HYDROCOLLOIDS AGAR FROM

GELIDIUM & GRACILIA
(a) Algin (Brown algae) (a) Preparation of ice-
(b) Carrageen (Red algae) Cream & jellies

CHLORELLA
Unicellular algae
(a) Rich in proteins
(b) Used by space travellers

CLASSIFICATION
Chlorophyceae
Phaeophyceae
Rhodophyceae

CHLOROPHYCEAE (Green algae)

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(a) Unicellular , colonial , filamentous

(b) Grass green (Chl A ,B) (in chloroplasts)
(c) Rigid cell wall Discoid , plate-like , Reticulate
↓ ↓ Cup shaped , spiral , ribbon
Inner layer Outer layer Shaped
(CELLULOSE) (PECTOSE)

Chloroplasts → Storage bodies

↓
Pyrenoids
↓
Contain proteins

Food storage → Oil droplets

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Vegetative Reproduction
(a) Fragmentation
(b) Spore formation

ASEXUAL SEXUAL
Zoosporangium (a) Isogamous
(b) Anisogamous
Flagellated zoospores (c) oogamous

Common algae
Chlamydomonas , volvx , Ulothrix , Spirogyra , chara

PHAEOPHYCEAE (Brown algae)

1. Marine habitats
2. Posses Chlorophyll A , C (Carotenoids ,
Xanthophylls)

Olive green to various shades of brown

↳ Depending on xanthophyll & fucoxanthin

(a) Simple , Branched , filamentous

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* Ectocarpus
(b) Branched
* Kelps (may reach 100m)

Food
↓
Complex carbohydrates
↓ ↓
Laminaria Mannitol

Vegetarian cells
↳ Cellulosic wall (Covered on out. by algin)

Nucleus ← Protoplast → Plastids

↓
Centrally located vacuole
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Table-3.1 Divisions of algae & their main characteristics

Stipe (stalk) Holdfast (Substratum)

↑ ↑
Plant Body
↓
Frond (Leaf like)

REPRODUCTION
↓ ↓
Vegetative Asexual
↓ ↓
Fragmentation Biflagellated zoospores
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(Pear shaped , 2 unequal

laterally attached flagella)

ISOGAMOUS ANISOGAMOUS
↓ ↓
SEXUAL
↓
OOGAMOUS

↱ Pyriform (pear-shaped)
Gametes
↳ Bear 2 laterally attached flagella

Ectocarpus , Dictyota , Laminaria , Sargassum ,

Fucus

RHODOPHYACEAE (Red algae)

1. r-phycoerythrin (red pigment)
2. Marine (max. in warmer areas)
3. Penetrates great depths in ocens
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Red Thalli
↳ Multicellular ↳ Complex body organization
↱ Same as amylopectin
Food → Floridan starch
↳ Glycogen in structure

BRYOPHYTES
↓ ↓
Mosses Liverworts
~In moist shaded areas in the hills
↓
Damp , Humid & Shady localities
~Plays an important role in plant succession

Amphibians of plant kingdom → Can live in soil

~ Dependent on water for sexual reproduction.
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Figure-3.2

More differentiated than algae

1. Thallus - like
2. Prostrate or erect
3. Attached to substratum
↓
By unicellular or multicellular rhizoids
4. Leaf-like or stem-like structures

Main plant body - 1 Haploid

Gametophyte (produces gametes)
Multicellular → Sex organs
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• Male → Antheridium
• Bi flagellated →Antherozoids
• female → Archegonium (flask-shaoed)
↳ Produces single egg

Antherozoids ← ZYGOTE →Archegonium

Water ↓
Sporophyte (multicellular)

LITTLE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

(a) Some mosses provide food
(b) Spagnum (moss)
↓
Provide peat → Fuel & as packaging material
↳ Hold water

~ First to colonize along with lichens

(Decompose rocks)
# Form dense mass on soil
~ Reduce impact of falling rain
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~ Prevent soil erosion

LIVERWORTS
Moist , shady habitats (Bank of streams , marshy
ground , damp soil , bark of tree , deep in the woods)
↓
Thalloid →Eg : Marcantia

Dorsiventral
Closely appressed to substrate

Leafy members
~ Have tiny leaf like appendages in 2 rows on stem
Like structures

Asexual Reproduction
~Fragmentatiom
~Formation of Specialised structures
↓
Green , multicellular← Gemmae →On gemma cups
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↓
Asexual Buds
↓
Germinate to form new individual

Sexual reproduction
↓ ↓
Male sex organ Female sex organ
↓ ↓
Same or different thalli

SPOROPHYTE
Foot , Seta , Capsuled → Spores are produced
↓
Free living Gametophyte

MOSSES
Gametophyte (predominant) → 2 stages

~Protonema stage
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~Develops directly from the spore →Creeping ,

green , branched
& Filamentous
Leafy stage →Bears sex organs

~Develops as lateral Buds

Upright , slender axis bearing
Spirally arranged leaves
Rhizoids (to the soil) multicellular , branched

REPRODUCTION
Vegetative
~Fragmentation
~Budding in the secondary protonema

Sexual
↱ Antheridia → At the apex of
Sex organs
↳ Archegonia → Leafy shoots

More elaborate → Sporophyte → Zygote

Then liverworts ↓
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Foot , seta , capsule

↓meiosis
Spore Dispersal ← Spores

Eg: Funaria , Polytrichum & Sphagnum

PTERIDOPHYTES → Medicinal purposes

↓ ↓ soil binders as ornaments
Horsetails Ferns

First → terrestrial → to posses Vascular tissues

↓ ↓
Xylem Pholem
Lives in
↓
Damp , Shady , sandy - soil cord

Bryophyte → Gametophyte
Pteridophyte → Sporophyte
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Not true , Stem & leaves

Well differentiated vascular tissue

Leaves -
~Microphyllus (small) → Saleginella
~Macrophyllus (large) → Aeons

Sporophyte → Sporangium
Meiosis ⏎ ↓
↓ Subtended by sporophylls
Spores (leaf like)
(In spore mother cells) ↓
↓ Distinct Structures
Inconspicuous , small Strobila or Cones
But multicellular , ↓
free living to Selaginella , Equisetum
Synthetic thalloid
Gametophyte
↳ Prothallus
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Figure-3.3

Gametophytes
require cool , damp , shady places

Limited area
Specific req.
Water for fertilization

Gametophyte
↓ ↓
Male sex organs Female sex organs
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↓ ↓
Antheridia Archegonia
↓ ↑
Antherozoids → water→ to the mouth
req.

Male gamete ← ZYGOTE → Egg

↓
Multicellular ,
Well differentiated
Sporophyte

↱ Same kind (Homospores)

Spores
↳ Heterospores (two kind) Selaginella , Sal-
-viana , megaspores
& microspores
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Female gametophyte ↴
↓ Zygote
Retains on parent sporophyte ↓
young embryo
precursor of seed habit

Psilopsidac (psilotum)
Lycopsida (selagenella , Lycopodium)
Sphenopsida (equisetum)
Pteropsida (Dryopteris , p ten's Adiantum)

GYMNOSPERMS
↓ ↓
Naked Seeds

Ovules → exposed (No ovary walls)

Seeds → Are naked

Include medium sized trees , tall trees & shrubs

Giant redwood tree → Sequoia (One of the tallest)
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Roots → Tap roots

Mycorrhiza → Pinus (with fungus)
Coralloid tools → Cycas (N2 fixing)
(Cyanobacteria)

Strems
Unbranched → Cycas
Branched → Pinus , cedrus

Leaves
Simple , compound
Cycas → pinnate leaves → few years
Withstand extreme temp. , Humidity & wind

All conifers → Needle like leaves

(Reduces the surface area)
Thick cuticle & sunken stomata
↳ Reduce water loss

Micro
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↑
Mega ← Sporophylls → Sporangia
↓
Arranged spirally
↓
lax or compact Strobili → Cones

Haploid ← Heterospores → Megaspores

↓
Microspores

Microsporophylls or Microsporangia
↓
Microsporangiate (male strobili)
↓
Microspores highly reduced
↓
Male gametophyte pollen grains

Cluster ← megasporophylls → (mega sporangia)

↓ ↓
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Female cones Megasporangiate or female strobili

↓
Protected by envelopes c/a Ovules
↓ meiosis
4 megaspores retained
↓ megaspore
Multicellular female gametophyte ⤴
↓
Bean 2 or more archegonia or female sex organs

Male or female
↓ ↓
Same tree pinus Diff. Cycas

Male & female gametophyte

↓
Not independent
↓
Retained with sporangia
↓
On sporophytes
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Microsporangium → Pollen grains megasporophyll

air currents ↓ ↓
Pollen tube Opening
↓ ↓
Discharge Ovules
↳ ↓
↳ Archegonia
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Figure-3.4 Gymnosperms : (a) Cycas (b) Pinus (c) Ginkgo

Fertilizations
↓
Zygote
↓
Embryo

Ovules → Seeds not covered

Plant life cycles

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Both haploid & diploid

Cell can divide by mitosis
↓
Haploid & Diploid body

# Haploid → Gametophyte
# Diploid → Zygote →Sporophyte
Haploid Spores
↓
By meiosis
↓
Haploid plant
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Figure-3.7

Sporophyte → Zygote
↓
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Not free living ↴ meiosis

Haploid spores
↓ mitosis
Gametophyte
↓
Dominant , photosynthetic

Volvox , Spirogyra , some species of

Chlamydomonas

Bryophytes & pteridophytes

↓
haplo-diplontic Both phases are multicellular

Bryophytes
Dominant , independent
Thalloid or erect
↓
Haploid → Gametophyte
↓
Along with sporophyte
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(Dependent)

Pteridophytes

Diploid , sporophyte
↓
Dominant , independent
Photosynthetic , vascular
plant body
↓
Alters with gametophyte

Algae → Haplontic

1. Ectocarpus , polysiphonia , kelps

Haplo-diplontic
2. Fucus-Diplontic