PHY 310

MODERN PHYSICS

BLACKBODY RADIATION
ASSESSMENT

ASSESSMENT MARKS
TEST 1 (CHAPTER 1,2,3&4) 25
TEST 2 (CHAPTER 5,6,7&8) 25
LAB REPORT 25
PRESENTATION 25
TOTAL 100
PHY310 CHAPTER
1. 2. Early 3.
Blackbody Quantum Photoelect
radiation Theory ric Effect

4. Atomic 5. Spectral
structure and
energy levels lines of 6. X-rays
in an atom hydrogen

7. Nuclear 8. 9. Nuclear
physics Radioactiv reaction
ity
OUTLINE
•Concept of blackbody
•Stefan’s law, energy
spectrum
•Wien’s displacement law
CONCEPT OF BLACKBODY
INTRODUCTION
3 ways to transfer

𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴𝜀𝑇 4
→𝜀 = 0 𝑡𝑜 1
For blackbody 𝜀=1
BLACKBODY - DEFINITION
Definition Blackbody– An ideal
body which absorbs all the
electromagnetic radiation that
strikes it so that all incident
radiation is completely
absorbed.
Ideal blackbody absorbing and
re-emitting all the incident
radiations it receives at any
wavelength.
EXAMPLE OF BLACKBODY
There is no object that is an ideal blackbody, but many objects
(stars included) behave approximately like blackbodies. Other
common examples are the filament in an incandescent light
bulb or the burner element on an electric stove.
BLACKBODY RADIATION
Definition Blackbody Radiation - The
electromagnetic radiation that would be
radiated from an ideal black body
BLACK BODY RADIATION SOURCES
1) Cosmic microwave background (CMB) of the universe –
fluctuation electromagnetic radiation that fills the part of the
universe.
❑the radiation possesses nearly isotropic spatial-angular field
with an intensity that can be characterized by the radio
brightness temperature of 2.73K.
❑to determine accuracy, direction and velocity of
motion of the solar system.
❑as a re-reflected radiation to investigate
the emissive characteristics of terrestrial surfaces.
 BLACK BODY RADIATION SOURCES
2) The Sun
❑the presence of thermal black body radiation with a
brightness temperature of 5800K at the Sun.
❑along with a black body radiation, there exist powerful, non-
stationary quasi-noise radiation (flares, storms).
3) The Earth
❑possesses radiation close to black
body radiation with a thermodynamic
temperature of 287K.
CONCEPT OF BLACKBODY
Blackbody radiation is emitted as a broad spectrum of wavelengths.
This graph show how the intensity of emitted radiation varies with
the wavelength (or frequency) at a given temperature.

Figure : The characteristic graph of the thermal radiation

emitted by a hot object
CONCEPT OF BLACKBODY
1.Shape of the Curve: The graph is a
curve, not a straight line. This curve
represents the distribution of energy
over different wavelengths.

2.Peak of the Curve: The peak of the

curve represents the wavelength at
which the blackbody emits the most
radiation. This peak shifts to shorter
wavelengths (towards the blue end of
the spectrum) as the temperature
increases.
EXERCISE 1
1) A blackbody is an ideal system that
A) absorbs 100% of the light incident upon it, but
cannot emit light of its own
B) emits 100% of the light it generates, but
cannot absorb radiation of its own.
C) either absorbs 100% of the light incident upon
it, or emits 100% of the radiation it generates.
D) absorbs 50% of the light incident upon it, and
emits 50% of the radiation it generates.
EXERCISE 2
A perfect blackbody is a perfect
absorber of energy transferred by what
method?
A) conduction
B) convection
C) induction
D) radiation
EXERCISE 3
True or False?
1) Blackbody Radiation is the
electromagnetic radiation that would be
radiated from an ideal blackbody.
2) Many object behaves like blackbody
but there is no object that is ideal
blackbody.
EXERCISE 4
1) Define blackbody radiation.
2) What is ideal blackbody?
3) What is blackbody radiation?
4) List example of blackbody
radiation source?
STEFAN’S LAW, ENERGY
SPECTRUM
ENERGY SPECTRUM
❑EM Radiation : A kind of radiation
including visible light, radio waves,
gamma rays, and X-rays, in which
electric and magnetic fields vary
simultaneously.
❑Energy spectrum based on the EM
spectrum.
❑EM Spectrum : The distribution of
electromagnetic radiation according to
energy (or equivalently, by virtue of
the relations in the previous section,
according to frequency or wavelength).
ENERGY SPECTRUM
ENERGY SPECTRUM
Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation
Region Wavelength Wavelength Frequency Energy
(Angstroms) (centimeters) (Hz) (eV)

Radio > 109 > 10 < 3 x 109 < 10-5

Microwave 109 - 106 10 - 0.01 3 x 109 - 3 x 1012 10-5 - 0.01

Infrared 106 - 7000 0.01 - 7 x 10-5 3 x 1012 - 4.3 x 1014 0.01 - 2

Visible 7000 - 4000 7 x 10-5 - 4 x 10-5 4.3 x 1014 - 7.5 x 1014 2-3

Ultraviolet 4000 - 10 4 x 10-5 - 10-7 7.5 x 1014 - 3 x 1017 3 - 103

X-Rays 10 - 0.1 10-7 - 10-9 3 x 1017 - 3 x 1019 103 - 105

Gamma Rays < 0.1 < 10-9 > 3 x 1019 > 105
BLACKBODY RADIATION LAWS

Laws

Wien's
Stefan’s Displacement
Law Law
STEFAN’S LAW

Stefan’s Law or Stefan’s Boltzmann’s

Law

The rate at which an object radiates energy is

proportional to the fourth power of its absolute

temperature

Q
T4
t
STEFAN’S LAW FORMULA

P = eAT 4  Stefan - Boltzmann Law

where,
 = 5.6703 x 10 -8 watt / m 2 K 4

where P = Energy/ time = Power

A = Area

T = Temperature (Kelvin)
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
e = emissivity
STEFAN’S LAW
Stefan’s Law (1879, 1884)
❑Josef Stefan deduced the rule in 1879
and Ludwig Boltzmann provided a
formal derivation in 1884.

Classical physics
❑Explain the growth in the height of the curve as the temperature
increase.
❑Energy emitted increase rapidly with an increase in temperature
which is proportional to the temperature raised to the fourth power.
STEFAN’S LAW
❑For hot objects other than ideal radiators, the law is expressed in
the form:
P = AeT 4

❑where e is the emissivity of the object (e = 1 for ideal radiator).

❑e = characteristic of the surface of the radiating material ( 0 < e <
1) black surface such as charcoal, e close to 1, shinny metal surfaces
have e close to 0 (emit less radiation and absorb little radiation that
falls upon them).
❑Black and very dark object is good emitter
and good absorber.
❑Example : The light-colored clothing is
preferable to dark clothing on a hot day.
STEFAN’S LAW
If the hot object is radiating energy to its
cooler surroundings at temperature To, the
net radiation loss rate takes the form Temperature

( )
surrounding, To

Pnet = eA T − T 4
o
4

Temperature
The above equation is valid for T = T1 = Object, T
temperature of the surface area of the
object and To = T2 = Temperature of
surrounding
EXERCISE 4
EM radiation that having shortest
wavelength is_____
A) radio waves
B) Ultraviolet waves
C) Infrared radiation
D) Visible light
E) Gamma Ray
EXERCISE 5
According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law of
thermal radiation for a perfect radiator, the rate
of radiant energy per unit area is proportional
to

a. the temperature of that radiator

b. the square of the temperature of that radiator
c. the cube of the temperature of that radiator
d. the fourth power of the temperature of that
radiator
STEFAN’S LAW – EXAMPLE 1
A student is trying to decide what to wear
and the surroundings are at 20˚C. If the skin
temperature of the unclothed student is 35 ˚C,
what is the net energy loss from his body in
10 minutes by radiation if emissivity of skin
is 0.9 and surface area of student is 1.5 m² ?
WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW
WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW

Wien's
Displacement
Law, 1893
The wavelength distribution
peaks at a value that is inversely
proportional to the temperature.

1

T
WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW
λmax peak = 2.898x10-3
Formula
T

Unit constant, : meter per Kelvin (m/K)

The ratio of the maximum wavelengths for two temperatures, T and T',

max = T '
'max T
 WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW
❑Wien’s Law tells us that objects of
different temperature emit spectra
that peak at different wavelengths.
❑Hotter objects emit most of their
radiation at shorter wavelengths,
hence they will appear to be bluer .
❑Cooler objects emit most of their
radiation at longer wavelengths,
hence they will appear to be redder.
❑Furthermore, at any wavelength, a
hotter object radiates more (is more
luminous) than a cooler one.
WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW
As the temperature increase, the
amount of energy radiated by
the increases so it appears
brighter. The apparent colour of
the bar changes because as the
temperature rises, the dominant
wavelength of emitted light
decreases. This behavior is
explained by Blackbody radiation
theory.
WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW
WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW

Temperature , T ( ), Radiated energy, E ( ), Wavelength, λ ( )

WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW

Black body thermal emission intensity as a function of wavelength

for various (absolute) temperatures.
WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW
Examples:
Light from the Sun and Moon. The surface temperature (or more
correctly, the effective temperature) of the Sun is 5778 K. Using
Wien's law, this temperature corresponds to a peak emission at
a wavelength of 2.90 × 106 nm- K / 5778 K = 502 nm = about
5000 Å. This wavelength is (not incidentally) fairly in the
middle of the most sensitive part of land animal visual spectrum
acuity.
Light from incandescent bulbs and fires. A lightbulb has a
glowing wire with a somewhat lower temperature, resulting in
yellow light, and something that is "red hot" is again a little
less hot. It is easy to calculate that a wood fire at 1500 K puts
out peak radiation at 2.90 × 106 nm-K / 1500 K = 1900 nm =
19,000 Å. This is far more energy in the infrared than in the
visible band, which ends about 7500 Å.
 WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW
Radiation from mammals and the living human body. Mammals at
roughly 300 K emit peak radiation at 2900 μm-K / 300 K ~ 10 μm,
in the far infrared. This is, therefore, the range of infrared
wavelengths that pit viper snakes and passive IR cameras must
sense.
The wavelength of radiation from the Big Bang. A typical
application of Wien's law would also be to the blackbody radiation
resulting from the Big Bang. Remembering that Wien's displacement
constant is about 3 mm-K, and the temperature of the Big Bang
background radiation is about 3 K (actually 2.7 K), it is apparent
that the microwave background of the sky peaks in power at 2.9
mm-K /2.7 K = just over 1 mm wavelength in the microwave
spectrum. This provides a convenient rule of thumb for why
microwave equipment must be sensitive on both sides of this
frequency band, in order to do effective research on the cosmic
microwave background.
EXERCISE 7
Wien's displacement law gives the relationship
between

A) the wavelength of radiation at which total

emissive power is maximum and the temperature
B) the wavelength of radiation at which total emissive
power is minimum and the temperature
C) the wavelength of radiation at which total emissive
power does not change and the temperature
D) none of the above
EXERCISE 8
The diagram above shows three Planck
(blackbody) curves (labeled 1, 2 and 3)
representing the light emitted by three
different black bodies. These three
blackbodies definitely differ in
__________.

a) volume
b) temperature
c) mass
d) chemical composition
e) Two of a), b), c) and d) are correct.
WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW - EXAMPLE
1)The temperature of the skin is approximately 35 ˚C. At what
wavelength does the radiation emitted from the skin reach its
peak?

2) Find the wavelength corresponding to the peak of radiation

curve for:
The Heating element of an electric oven at a temperature of 1.2
x 10³ K. The sun’s surface at a temperature of 5800 K.
(Ans: 2.42µm, 0.50μm)
CONCLUSION

Power
 PHY 310
MODERN PHYSICS

EARLY QUANTUM THEORY CHAPTER 2

OUTLINE
❑Electrons: properties, motion in magnetic
and electric fields
❑J.J. Thompson’s experiment, Millikan’s
experiment
❑Wave-particle duality
❑Wave nature of matter and the de Broglie
wavelength
❑Electron diffraction
❑Planck’s quantum hypothesis
PROPERTIES OF ELECTRON
Deflected when travel in an Tiny and very light
electric field and magnetic particles
field

Carry negative Wave &

charges PROPERTIES
Particles

Charge of each
electron is
-1.6 x 10-19 C. Mass : 9.11 × 10 −31 kg
ELECTRON MOTION IN ELECTRIC AND
MAGNETIC FIELD
ELECTRIC FIELD MAGNETIC FIELD
 DISCOVERY TIMELINE

Ernest
JJ Thomson Rutherford
1897- 1911 – De Broglie
Democritus Discovered Albert Discover 1923 –
400 B.C – All electron and Einstein 1905 atomic Discover
matter is plum pudding – Published nucleus and particle wave
made of atom atom E=mc2 proton duality

John Dalton Max Plank Robert Neil Bohr Clinton

1803 - 1900 - used Millikan 1909 1922 – Davisson and
Proposed an the idea of – Oil drop Proposed Lester Germer
"atomic quanta experiment outer shell 1924 –
theory" with (discrete units (determine held more Confirmed de
spherical solid of energy) to charge and than inner Broglie theory
atoms based explain hot mass shell by using
upon glowing electron) davisson-
measurable matter germer
properties of experiment
mass.
THOMSON‘S ATOMIC MODEL
Thomson believed that the electrons were like plums
embedded in a positively charged “pudding,” thus it was called
the “plum pudding” model.

J. J. Thomson
DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON
▪ In 1897, J.J Thomson devised an experiment to measure the
ratio of (charge/mass) for an electron.

▪ Used cathode-ray tube to measure ratio of (e/m)

J.J THOMSON EXPERIMENT
❑Electrons from cathode pass through a slit
in anode and then pass through a second slit.
After passing through second slit, the
electrons travel between two charged
parallel aluminum plates 5 cm long, 2 cm
broad and a distance of 1.5 cm apart. The
deflected electrons then fall on the end of
tube and produce a phosphorescent patch,
which is measured by a scale pasted on the
outside of tube.
❑The electrons were deflected up when
upper plate is charged positively and
deflected down when upper plate is charged
negatively.
J.J THOMSON EXPERIMENT - EQUATION
If a magnetic field is placed
perpendicular to original path of
electrons, electrons then move in a
circular path of radius r;

Equating magnetic force and

centripetal force acting on electrons,
J.J THOMSON EXPERIMENT
⮚Form the first measurement, determined velocity from measurements of
total charge and temperature change.

⮚If total charge Q=Ne, and temperature rise proportional to energy loss,

⮚Eliminating N and v in the above formula gives,

MODERN CATHODE RAY

Television Computer Monitor

Tubes Cathode ray tubes pass electricity through a gas that is

contain e data very low pressure
EXERCISE 1
When the beam of electrons is passed
between the plates having an electric
field, the beam deflects towards
A) negative plate
B) positive plate
C) goes straight
D) neutral plate
EXERCISE 2
What was Thomson’s model of the
atom called?
A) Plum pudding Model
B) Solar system Model
C) Spherical model
D) Model of atomic theory
EXERCISE 3
The diagram shows a cathode ray tube.
Which one of the following statements is correct?
A) A is the anode and B is the cathode
B) B is the cathode and D is a positively charged plate
C) A is the cathode and C is a positively charged plate
D) A is the cathode and C is a negatively charged plate
EXAMPLE 1
An electron has a charge of -1.6x10^-
19C and a mass of 9.11x10^-31kg. What
is the charge-to-mass ratio of an
electron? Give your answer into 3s.f.
EXAMPLE 2
An electron pass through a slit with
velocity v=6.7x10^7m/s. The electrons
then deflected when arrive at the
magnetic field. Calculate the radius of
the circular path if the magnetic field
strength is 1.55 mT.
MILLIKAN'S EXPERIMENT
1916 – Robert Millikan determines the mass of the electron:
1/1840 the mass of a hydrogen atom; has one unit of negative
charge
Discover how much charge electron have.
-Using oil drop experiment
MILLIKAN'S EXPERIMENT
Tiny drop of oil balanced it using gravity and
electricity.
An oil drop will fall through air under its own
weight. If the drop is given a charge, it can be
suspended using an electric field. At this point the
electrostatic force balances the weight of the drop.
The size of the electrostatic force depends on the
charge on the drop. So Millikan could work out the
charge as long as he knew the weight.
In order to find the weight of the drop, Millikan
allowed the drop to fall through air. It quickly
reaches its terminal velocity. At this point, the
weight is being balanced by the viscous drag of the
air. The drag can be calculated from Stokes' Law
which allowed Millikan to determine the weight.
MILLIKAN'S EXPERIMENT - EQUATION

q=1.6 x10-19 C
Mass of the electron is 9.11 x 10-28 g
EXERCISE 4
The ratio of the charge on an electron to its
mass is known as its specific charge (e/m). J J
Thomson first calculated this value in 1897.
The value for the charge (e) and the mass (m)
were later found in 1909 as a result of which
famous experiment?
A) Thomson's plum pudding
B) Millikan's oil drop
C) Rutherford's gold foil
D) Crooke's cathode rays
LOUIS DE BROGLIE
15 August 1892 – 19 March 1987) was a
French physicist who made
groundbreaking contributions
to quantum theory.
In his 1924 PhD thesis he postulated the
wave nature of electrons and suggested
that all matter has wave properties. This
concept is known as the de Broglie
hypothesis, an example of wave–particle
duality, and forms a central part of the
theory of quantum mechanics.
DE BROGLIE RELATION
From the Planck’s quantum theory, the energy of a photon is given by:

From the Einstein’s special theory of relativity, the energy of a photon is

given by:

By equating the equation (1) and (2), hence:

WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY
From the eq. (3), thus light has momentum and exhibits particle property.
This also show light is dualistic in nature, behaving is some situations like wave
and in others like particle (photon) and this phenomenon is called wave particle
duality of light.
Table below shows the experiment evidences to show wave particle duality of
light.

Wave Particle

Young’s double slit Photoelectric effect

experiment

Diffraction experiment Compton effect

 Wave Particle
Young’s double slit Photoelectric effect
experiment

Diffraction experiment Compton effect

WAVE NATURE OF MATTER AND THE DE BROGLIE
WAVELENGTH
Based on the wave particle duality of light, Louis de Broglie
suggested that matter such as electron and proton might also
have a dual nature.
He proposed that for any particle of momentum p should
have a wavelength λ given by :
WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY
Eq. (4) is known as de
Broglie relation (principle).
This wave properties of
matter is called de Broglie
waves or matter waves.
The de Broglie relation was
confirmed in 1927 when
Davisson and Germer
succeeded in diffracting
electron which shows that
electrons have wave
properties.
EXERCISE 5
Light is made up of photons, which
are...
A) waves
B) particles
C) both waves and particles
D) solid, flat beams or rays
 Example 3
In a photoelectric effect experiment, a light source of wavelength
550 nm is incident on a sodium surface. Determine the momentum
and the energy of a photon used.
(Given the speed of light in the vacuum, c =3.00 x 108 m s-1 and
Planck’s constant, h =6.63 x 10-34 J s)
 Example 4
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength for :
a. a jogger of mass 77 kg runs with at speed of 4.1 m s-1 .
b. an electron of mass 9.11x10-31 kg moving at 3.25x105 m s-1
(Given the Planck’s constant, h =6.63x10-34J s)
 Example 5
An electron and a proton have the same speed.
a. Which has the longer de Broglie wavelength? Explain.
b. Calculate the ratio of .

(Given c =3.00x108 m s-1, h =6.63 x 10-34 J s, me=9.11 x 10-31 kg, mp=1.67

x 10-27 kg and e=1.60x10-19 C)
 WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY - PRINCIPLE
Wave Particle Duality

Definition: All particle has wave properties through phenomena

like diffraction, while light demonstrates particle-like behavior
by having momentum.

Principle of Complementarity

The principle of complementarity states that the wave and particle models of either matter or
radiation complement each other.
ELECTRON DIFFRACTION
Davisson-Germer experiment

Figure below shows a tube for demonstrating electron diffraction by Davisson and
Germer.

Figure: electron diffraction tube

A beam of accelerated electrons strikes on a layer of graphite which is extremely

thin and a diffraction pattern consisting of rings is seen on the tube face.
ELECTRON DIFFRACTION
This experiment proves that the de Broglie relation
was right and the wavelength of the electron is given
by :

If the velocity of electrons is increased, the rings are

seen to become narrower showing that the
wavelength of electrons decreases with increasing
velocity as predicted by de Broglie (eq. 5).
ELECTRON DIFFRACTION
The velocity of electrons are controlled by the
applied voltage V across anode and cathode i.e.

From electron diffraction experiment, gain in

kinetic energy of electrons equals the potential
energy (eV).
ELECTRON DIFFRACTION
By substituting the eq. (6) into eq. (5), thus:

Note:

▪ Electrons are not the only particles which behave as waves.

▪ The diffraction effects are less noticeable with more massive
particles because their momenta are generally much higher and so
the wavelength is correspondingly shorter.
▪ Diffraction of the particles are observed when the wavelength is
of the same order as the spacing between plane of the atom.
PLANCK’S QUANTUM HYPOTHESIS
In 1900, Max Planck hypothesized that
blackbody radiation was produced by
oscillating charges called resonators filling
a glowing cavity.
These oscillating charges have discrete
energies,

▪ In this case, energy E is quantized and each discrete energy value represents the energy at a different
quantum state.

▪ Planck’s theory of quantized energy states leads to the birth of quantum theory.
 Example 6
a. An electron is accelerated from rest through a potential
difference of 2000 V. Determine its de Broglie wavelength.

b. An electron and a photon has the same wavelength of 0.21

nm. Calculate the momentum and energy (in eV) of the electron
and the photon.
(Given c =3.00x108 m s-1, h =6.63 x 10-34 J s, me=9.11 x 10-31 kg, mp=1.67 x 10-27 kg and e=1.60x10-19 C)
 PHY 310
MODERN PHYSICS

ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND ENERGY

LEVELS IN AN ATOM
 OUTLINE
4.1 Thomson’s model, Rutherford’s model
4.2 The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom
4.3 Bohr’s postulate
4.4 Emission and absorption line spectrum of hydrogen gas
4.5 Evidence of quantized energy level : Line spectrum of
various gases, Frank-Hertz experiment
OUTLINE

4.6 Radius of the Bohr orbit

4.7 Energy of quantum state, n of the hydrogen atom
4.8 Energy of quantum state, n of the an atom
4.9 The energy level diagram
4.10 Concept of ionization and excitation
 Frank and Hertz
Experiment
1914-
Demonstrated

DISCOVERY TIMELINE the existence of

excited states in
mercury atoms,
confirm the
JJ Thomson quantum theory
1897- of electrons
Discovered occupied only
electron and discrete,
plum pudding quantized
atom energy states.

Ernest Neil Bohr 1922

Rutherford – Proposed
1911 – outer shell held
Discover atomic more than inner
nucleus and shell
proton
FIRST THOUGHTS: BEGINNING HISTORY OF THE ATOM
Some of the early philosophers thought that matter was
composed of tiny particles. They reasoned that you could take
a piece of matter, cut it in half, and continue to cut again and
again. Eventually, you wouldn't be able to cut any more. You
would have only one particle left. They named these particles
atoms.
The early philosophers didn't try to prove their theories by
doing experiments as scientist now do. Their theories were the
result of reasoning, debating, and discussion—not of evidence
or proof. Today, scientists will not accept a theory that is not
supported by experimental evidence.
REVOLUTION OF ATOM DISCOVERY
 Experiment using
Cathode-Ray tube
THOMSON’S EXPERIMENT The electrons were deflected up
when upper plate is charged
positively and deflected down when
upper plate is charged negatively.
THOMSON’S MODEL
❑He knew that opposite charges attract each other.
❑He observed that these particles were attracted to
the positively charged anode, so he reasoned that
the particles must be negatively charged.
❑These negatively charged particles are called
electrons.
❑If atoms contain one or more negatively charged
particles, then all matter, which is made of atoms,
should be negatively charged as well.
❑But all matter isn't negatively charged.
THOMSON’S MODEL CONT.
❑Could it be that atoms also contain some positive
charge?
❑The negatively charged electrons and the unknown
positive charge would then neutralize each other in the
atom, so the atom is neutral.
❑Thomson revised Dalton's model of the atom.
❑Thomson pictured a sphere of positive charge.
❑The negatively charged electrons were spread evenly
among the positive charge.
❑Thomson believed that the electrons were like plums
embedded in a positively charged “pudding,” thus it was
called the “plum pudding” model.
 Thomson's atomic mo
RUTHERFORD’S MODEL del failed to explain
1) how the positive
charge holds on the
electrons inside the
atom.
2) the atom's stability.
 In 1906, Ernest Rutherford and his
coworkers began an experiment to
RUTHERFORD’S MODEL find out if Thomson's model of the
atom was correct.
Rutherford’s Experiment:
prediction
Alpha particles will pass
through like this …

12
RUTHERFORD’S EXPERIMENT: WHAT
ACTUALLY HAPPENED

13
WHAT’S GOING ON?
Most alpha particles went straight
through, and
some were deflected,
BUT
A few (1 in 20,000) reflected
straight back to the source!

“It was quite the most incredible event that has ever happened to
me. It was almost as incredible as if you had fired a fifteen inch
shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you.”
14
THE NUCLEUS REPELS ALPHA PARTICLES

15
RUTHERFORD’S MODEL CONT.
Thomson model Fail Rutherford’s new model of the
atom fits the experimental data
This nucleus that
If contained most of the
Thomson mass of the atom
was right, caused the deflections
the model that were observed in
would his experiment.
look Therefore,
like… Rutherford’s model of
the atom is mostly
empty space.
 RUTHERFORD’S MODEL CONT.
❑Rutherford hypothesized that almost all the
mass of the atom and all of its positive
charge are crammed into an incredibly small region of space at the
center of the atom called the nucleus.
❑In Rutherford's model, the only other particle in the atom was the
proton.
❑That meant that the mass of an atom should have been approximately
equal to the mass of its protons. However, it wasn't.
❑The mass of most atoms is at least twice as great as the mass of its
protons.
❑He also predict the present of another particle with unit mass but
having no charges. He name that particle as neutron.
EXAMPLE 1
In Rutherford’s planetary model of the atom, what
keeps the electrons from flying off into space?

Answer:
In Rutherford’s planetary model of the atom, the Coulomb force
keeps the electrons from flying off into space. Since the protons in
the center are positively charged, the negatively charged electrons
are attracted to the center by the Coulomb force and orbit around the
center just like the planets orbiting a sun in a solar system due to the
attractive gravitational force.
 DIFFICULTIES WITH THE
RUTHERFORD MODEL
❑Atoms emit certain discrete characteristic frequencies
of electromagnetic radiation.
❑The Rutherford model is unable to explain this
phenomena.
❑Rutherford’s electrons are undergoing a centripetal
acceleration and so should radiate electromagnetic
waves of the same frequency.
❑The radius should steadily decrease as this radiation
is given off.
❑The electron should eventually spiral into the
nucleus, but it doesn’t.
EXERCISE 1
What was the main conclusion drawn from the Rutherford
gold foil experiment?
A) Electrons are located in fixed orbits around the nucleus.
B) The nucleus is composed of positively charged protons.
C) Atoms are mostly empty space, with a small, dense
nucleus.
D) Electrons are evenly distributed throughout the atom.
EXERCISE 1
What was the main conclusion drawn from the Rutherford gold
foil experiment?
A) Electrons are located in fixed orbits around the nucleus.
B) The nucleus is composed of positively charged protons.
C) Atoms are mostly empty space, with a small, dense nucleus.
D) Electrons are evenly distributed throughout the atom.
ANSWER : c
EXERCISE 2
Which particle was used by Rutherford in the gold
foil experiment to probe the structure of the
atom?
A) Protons
B) Electrons
C) Alpha particles
D) Neutrons
 EXERCISE 3
What unexpected observation did Ernest Rutherford make
during the gold foil experiment?
A) The electrons were evenly distributed throughout the
atom.
B) Some alpha particles were deflected at large angles.
C) The nucleus was composed of negatively charged
particles.
D) The nucleus was much smaller than originally thought.
EXERCISE 3
What unexpected observation did Ernest Rutherford make during the gold foil
experiment?

A) The electrons were evenly distributed throughout the atom.

B) Some alpha particles were deflected at large angles.
C) The nucleus was composed of negatively charged particles.
D) The nucleus was much smaller than originally thought.

ANSWER : B
 THE BOHR MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM
❑Improvement of quantum interpretation of Rutherford’s
Model.
❑It introduce the energy level of electron orbit using
quantum theory.
❑He suggests that electron moves about the nucleus in
circular orbits, but only certain orbit allow.
❑He applied the idea of Plank’s quantized energy level.
❑Bohr’s model explained the hydrogen’s spectral lines,
but failed to explain any other element’s lines.
❑For this and other reasons, the Bohr model was
replaced with a more sophisticated model called the
quantum-mechanical or wave-mechanical model.
THE BOHR MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM CONT.
❑Bohr proposed that the possible energy
states for atomic electrons were quantized –
only certain values were possible. Then the
spectrum could be explained as transitions
from one level to another.
❑What does the word “quantized” mean?
Bohr said that if an electron is quantized, it
means that the electron has a specific
amount of energy.
❑The word “quantum” means an “amount of
energy”.
 THE BOHR MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM CONT.
❑Each orbit was given a number, called the
quantum number.
❑Bohr orbits are like steps of a ladder, each at
a specific distance from the nucleus and each at
a specific energy.
❑Hydrogen’s single electron is in the n = 1 orbit
when it is in the ground state.
❑When energy is added, the electron moves to
the n = 2 orbit.
❑The electron releases energy as it falls back
towards the ground state.
BOHR’S POSTULATE
Bohr started with the
assumption that electron
moves in circular orbits
around the proton under the
influence of the Coulomb
force of attraction. The
Coulomb force produces the
centripetal acceleration.
BOHR’S POSTULATE CONT.
POSTULATE 1: Electron
can only exist and move in
certain allowed orbits
without radiating energy.
The total energy in
allowed orbit is constant.
BOHR’S POSTULATE CONT.
POSTULATE 2: The angular momentum of the
electron about the nucleus in allowed orbit is
quantized. It is an integer multiple of the plank’s
constant.
The circumference of the electron’s orbit must
contain an integral number of de Broglie
wavelengths.
2 r = n n = 1, 2, 3, ...
nh
Angular momentum, L = mvrn = n = n = 1,2,3.....
2
Where m : mass of electron
v : velocity of electron
r : radius of allowed orbit
 BOHR’S POSTULATE CONT.
POSTULATE 3: Electron can move or transit to
another energy level only when there is emission
or absorption of discrete energy. The transition
can be determined from the change in energy
of the energy level using the plank’s formula.

hc
Where E = E f − Ei = hf =

Ef : Energy of final stationary state
Ei : energy of initial stationary state
f : frequency of radiation
Ef<Ei corresponds to emission of energy
Ef>Ei corresponds to absorption of energy
EMISSION AND ABSORPTION LINE SPECTRUM
OF HYDROGEN GAS
WHY HYDROGEN?
❑Hydrogen is the simplest atom.
❑It has one electron in it’s structure.
❑It has a simple line spectrum.

❑The lines of different colours suggested that electrons travel at

orbits of fixed energy.
❑In other words, electrons orbit at a constant distance from the
nucleus, and they don’t move from that energy level unless they are
forced to move.
 EMISSION SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN
When an electric current is passed
through a glass tube that contains
hydrogen gas at low pressure the
tube gives off blue light.
This light is passed through a prism
(as shown in the figure below), four
narrow bands of bright light are
observed against a black
background. We called this as
emission spectrum of hydrogen.
EMISSION SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN CONT.
ABSORPTION LINE SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN
GAS
EMISSION AND ABSORPTION LINE
SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN GAS CONT.
Emission Absorption
The lines corresponds to The lines correspond to photons of
photons of discrete energies discrete energies that are absorbed
that are emitted when excited by the gases at the same
frequencies at which they emit
atomic states in the gas make light/photons.
a transition back to lower
energy levels. Dark line are observed. (missing
line)
EVIDENCE OF QUANTIZED ENERGY LEVEL: If an electron is excited to a
new energy level, it jumps to

LINE SPECTRUM OF VARIOUS GASES, that level instantaneously.

When it returns to a lower
level, it releases energy in a
quantized packet.
This release occurs in the
form of light of a specific
wavelength (colour).
Hence, atomic emission
spectra represent the
electrons returning to lower
energy levels.
Each packet of energy
corresponds to a line in the
atomic spectrum. There is
nothing between each line,
so the spectrum is
discontinuous.
QUALITATIVE STUDY OF FRANK AND HERTZ
EXPERIMENT
James Franck and Gustav Hertz performed an experiment which demonstrated
the existence of excited states in mercury atoms, helping to confirm the quantum
theory which predicted that electrons occupied only discrete, quantized energy
states.
 A contemporary Franck–Hertz tube is shown
Franck and Hertz's original experiment used in the photograph. It is fitted with three
a heated vacuum tube containing a drop of electrodes: an electron-emitting, hot cathode;
mercury; they reported a tube temperature a metal mesh grid; and an anode.
of 115 °C, at which the vapor pressure of
mercury is about 100 pascals (and far below The grid's voltage is positive relative to the
atmospheric pressure). cathode, so that electrons emitted from the
hot cathode are drawn to it.

The electric current measured in the

experiment is due to electrons that
pass through the grid and reach the
anode. The anode's electric potential
is slightly negative relative to the
grid, so that electrons that reach the
anode have at least a corresponding
amount of kinetic energy after
passing the grid.
QUALITATIVE STUDY OF FRANK AND HERTZ
EXPERIMENT
They discovered that, when an electron collided with a
mercury atom, it could lose only a specific quantity (4.9
electron volts) of its kinetic energy before flying away.
This energy loss corresponds to decelerating the
electron from a speed of about 1.3 million meters per
second to zero.
A faster electron does not decelerate completely after
a collision, but loses precisely the same amount of its
kinetic energy. Slower electrons merely bounce off
mercury atoms without losing any significant speed or
kinetic energy.
QUALITATIVE STUDY OF FRANK AND HERTZ
EXPERIMENT
EXERCISE 4
According to Bohr's postulates of the atomic model, which of the
following statements is true?
A) Electrons in an atom can occupy any energy level without restriction.
B) Electrons emit or absorb energy only when they transition between
different energy levels.
C) Electrons continuously spiral into the nucleus due to electromagnetic
radiation.
D) The position and momentum of an electron can be simultaneously
known with certainty.
EXERCISE 5
According to Bohr's atomic model, which of the following statements is
NOT a postulate?
A) Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits without emitting
radiation.
B) Energy is emitted or absorbed by electrons only when they change from
one allowed orbit to another.
C) The angular momentum of an electron in an allowed orbit is quantized
and is given by L=nh/2π where n is an integer.
D) Electrons can exist in any orbit around the nucleus regardless of their
energy.
EXERCISE 6
In Bohr's atomic model, which of the following
quantities is quantized for an electron in a stable orbit?
A) Mass
B) Charge
C) Angular Momentum
D) Kinetic Energy
EXERCISE 7
In the Frank-Hertz experiment, when an electron
collides with a gas atom, what happens to the energy of
the electron?
A) The energy of the electron remains constant.
B) The energy of the electron decreases continuously.
C) The energy of the electron increases continuously.
D) The energy of the electron increases/decrease in
discrete steps.
RADIUS OF THE BOHR ORBIT
Mathematics of Bohr’s postulate and Results
Electron’s orbital angular momentum (From 2nd Postulate)
h
me vr = n n = 1, 2, 3, 
2
The total energy of the atom
E = KE + EPE
2
kZe
= 12 mv 2 −
r kZe 2
The energy of the atom can also be expressed as E=−
2r
RADIUS OF THE BOHR ORBIT

h
me vr = n n = 1, 2, 3, 
2

kZe 2
E=−
2r
DERIVATION OF BOHR RADIUS

Subs (1) in eq. (2)

 h2  n2
rn =  2 
2 
n = 1, 2, 3, 
 4 mke  Z
RADIUS OF THE BOHR ORBIT CONT.
The radii of the Bohr orbits are quantized.
 h2  n2
rn =  2 
2 
n = 1, 2, 3, 
 4 mke  Z
 This is based on the assumption that the electron can only exist in
certain allowed orbits determined by the integer n.
 Radii for Bohr orbits
(
rn = 5.29 10 m )
−11 n2
Z
n = 1, 2, 3, 

 When n = 1 and Z = 1, the orbit has the smallest radius, called the
Bohr radius, ao
 ao = 0.0529 nm
EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the Bohr radius for hydrogen atom
when electron at ground state, first excited state
and second excited state.
EXAMPLE 3
Which state in the hydrogen atom corresponds to
a radius of 0.8496 nm ?
EXAMPLE 4
An electron is in the second excited orbit of hydrogen,
corresponding to n = 3. Find
(a)radius of the orbit.
(b)the wavelength of electron in this orbit.
ENERGY OF QUANTUM STATE, N
OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM CONT.
QUANTUM STATE
-The quantum state is sometimes described
by a set of quantum numbers, n that pick out
the appropriate values for describing the
state.
-The integer n corresponding to the discrete
or quantized
-Different quantum states for a physical
system show discrete differences in the value
of the variables used to define the state.
ENERGY OF QUANTUM STATE, N OF THE
HYDROGEN ATOM CONT.

kZe 2
E=−
2r
DERIVATION OF BOHR ENERGY LEVEL

Subs (1) in eq. (2)

Subs radius,r in eq. (3)

 2 2 mk 2 e 4  Z 2
En = − 2
 2 n = 1, 2, 3, 
 h n
ENERGY OF QUANTUM STATE, N OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM
 2 2 mk 2 e 4  Z 2
En = − 2
 2 n = 1, 2, 3, 
 h n

( )
2
Z
En = − 2.18 10 −18 J 2 n = 1, 2, 3, 
n
Z2
En = −(13.6 eV ) 2 n = 1, 2, 3, 
n
Z: number of proton, For Hydrogen, Z =1

(1) 2
En = −(13.6 eV ) 2 n = 1, 2, 3, 
n
ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM FOR HYDROGEN
E3 = - (13.6 eV) 12 = - 1.51 eV Second excited state
32 energy

E2 = - (13.6 eV) 12 = - 3.40 eV First excited state

22 energy

E1 = lowest energy
E1 = - (13.6 eV) 12 = - 13.6 eV level ; n=1 ground
12 state
ELECTRON TRANSITION IN HYDROGEN
The Bohr model for an electron transition in hydrogen
between quantized energy levels with different
quantum numbers, n.

hf

hf
ENERGY OF QUANTUM STATE, N OF THE AN
ATOM
For different atoms, its has a different Z. By using the same
equation, subs the value of Z to get the Energy level at specific
quantum state.
Z2
En = −(13.6 eV ) 2 n = 1, 2, 3, 
n
The electron transition in an atom between quantized energy levels
with different quantum numbers, n. The equation is as below:
 1 1
E = E f − Ei = −(13.6 eV)Z  − 
2
n n 
 f i 
EXAMPLE 5
Show how to get the energy level as shown in figure. If Doubly-
ionized atom with Z = 3.
EXAMPLE 6
Calculate the energy of photon that emitted from hydrogen
atom if the transition of electron is from
a) n=4 to n =3
b) n = 5 to n =2
Which photon has the largest energy.
EXAMPLE 7
Calculate the changes in energy and determine if the
emission or absorption of light occur during the transition
of electron from :
A) n = 6 to n= 1
B) n= 1 to n = 4
C) n =3 to n = 5
Consider it’s a hydrogen atom.
EXAMPLE 8
Singly ionized helium, He+, a hydrogen-like system, has one
electron in the orbit corresponding to n = 1 when the atom
is in its ground state. Find
A)the energy of the system in the ground state in electron
volts, and
B) the radius of the ground-state orbit.
CONCEPT OF IONIZATION
Ionization is the process by which an atom or a molecule
acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or losing
electrons.
The resulting electrically charged atom or molecule is called an
ion.
Ionization can result from the loss of an electron after
collisions with subatomic particles, collisions with other
atoms, molecules and ions, or through the interaction with
electromagnetic radiation.
CONCEPT OF IONIZATION CONT.
Notation for Degrees of Ionization

Chemist's
Suffix Ionization Examples
Notation

Not ionized
I H I, He I H, He
(neutral)
Singly
II H II, He II H+, He+
ionized
Doubly
III He III, O III He++, O++
ionized
IONIZATION ENERGY

Definition : The minimum energy needed to

remove an electron completely from an atom.
Formula for Ionization Energy, E
E = E∞ – Eground state/excited state
where E∞ = 0J
IONIZATION ENERGY - FACTORS AFFECTING THE
SIZE OF IONIZATION ENERGY

The more protons there The number of

The charge are in the nucleus, the The distance Attraction falls off very
more positively of the
rapidly with distance. electrons
on the charged the nucleus is,
and the more strongly electron from
An electron close to the
nucleus will be much between the
nucleus. electrons are attracted more strongly attracted outer electrons
to it. the nucleus. than one further away. and the nucleus.
CONCEPT OF EXCITATION
Definition : Transitions between the
orbits allowed by quantum
mechanics which is any quantum
state of the system that has a
higher energy than the ground state
cause by absorption of a photon
Excitation by absorption of light
(photon) and de-excitation by
emission of light (photon)
EXAMPLE 9
Li2+ is a lithium atom (Z=3) with only one electron.
Obtain the ionization energy of Li2+.
 PHY 310
MODERN PHYSICS

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
OUTLINE
3.0 Photoelectric Effect
3.1 Effect of intensity and frequency of a light wave on the
photoelectrons produced
3.2 Photoelectric current against potential graph
3.3 Quantitative study of the equations, work function and
threshold frequency
3.4 Photon theory of light
3.5 Failure of wave optics in explaining the photo electric
effect
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Einstein won the Nobel Prize for Physics not for his
work on E=mc2 but for explaining the photoelectric
effect. He proposed that light is made up of packets
of energy called photons.
Electromagnetic waves carry discrete energy packets
The energy per packet depends on wavelength,
explaining Lenard’s threshold frequency.
More intense light corresponds to more photons, not
higher energy photons.
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
➢is defined as the emission of electron from the surface of a metal when the EM
radiation (light) of higher frequency strikes its surface.

➢Figure 1 shows the emission of the electron from the surface of the metal after
shining by the light.

➢Photoelectron is defined as an electron emitted from the surface of the metal

when the EM radiation (light) strikes its surface.
QUESTION 1
Which of the following statements accurately describes the
photoelectric effect?
A) Electrons are emitted from a metal surface when it is
illuminated with light of a certain minimum frequency.
B) Electrons are emitted from a metal surface when it is
illuminated with any intensity of light.
C) Electrons are emitted from a metal surface only when it is
heated to a certain temperature.
D) Electrons are emitted from a metal surface only when it is
exposed to a magnetic field.
QUESTION 1
Which of the following statements accurately describes the
photoelectric effect?
A) Electrons are emitted from a metal surface when it is
illuminated with light of a certain minimum frequency.
B) Electrons are emitted from a metal surface when it is
illuminated with any intensity of light.
C) Electrons are emitted from a metal surface only when it is
heated to a certain temperature.
D) Electrons are emitted from a metal surface only when it is
exposed to a magnetic field.
Answer : A
PHOTOELECTRIC EXPERIMENT
➢The photoelectric effect can be studied through the
experiment made by Franck Hertz in 1887.

➢Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram of an

experimental arrangement for studying the
photoelectric effect.

The set-up apparatus as follows:

Two conducting electrodes, the anode (positive electric potential) and the cathode
(negative electric potential) are encased in an evacuated tube (vacuum).

The monochromatic light of known frequency and intensity is incident on the cathode.
 EXPLANATION OF THE EXPERIMENT
➢When a monochromatic light of suitable frequency (or wavelength) shines on the cathode,
photoelectrons are emitted.

➢These photoelectrons are attracted to the anode and give rise to the photoelectric current
or photocurrent I which is measured by the galvanometer.

➢When the positive voltage (potential difference) across the cathode and anode is increased,
more photoelectrons reach the anode , thus the photoelectric current increases.

➢As positive voltage becomes sufficiently large, the photoelectric current reaches a maximum
constant value Im , called saturation current.
EXPLANATION OF THE EXPERIMENT CONT.
➢Saturation current is defined as the maximum constant value of photocurrent when
all the photoelectrons have reached the anode.

➢If the positive voltage is gradually decreased, the photoelectric current I also decreases
slowly. Even at zero voltage there are still some photoelectrons with sufficient energy
reach the anode and the photoelectric current flows is Io

➢Finally, when the voltage is made negative by reversing the power supply terminal as
shown in Figure 3, the photoelectric current decreases even further to very low values
since most photoelectrons are repelled by anode which is now negative electric
potential.
EXPLANATION OF THE EXPERIMENT CONT.
➢As the potential of the anode becomes
more negative, less photoelectrons reach
the anode thus the photoelectric current
drops until its value equals zero which
the electric potential at this moment is
called stopping potential (voltage) Vs

➢Stopping potential is defined as the

minimum value of negative voltage
when there are no photoelectrons
reaching the anode.
STOPPING POTENTIAL, V S
➢The potential energy U due to this retarding voltage Vs now equals the maximum kinetic
energy Kmax of the photoelectron.

U = K max
1
eVs = mvmax
2
..........
.....(1)
2

➢The variation of photoelectric current

I as a function of the voltage V can be
shown through the graph in Figure 4
below.
QUESTION 2
Which instrument is commonly used to measure the
current produced by emitted photoelectrons in the
photoelectric effect experiment?
A) Ammeter/Galvanometer
B) Voltmeter
C) Spectrometer
D) Microscope
QUESTION 2
Which instrument is commonly used to measure the
current produced by emitted photoelectrons in the
photoelectric effect experiment?
A) Ammeter/Galvanometer
B) Voltmeter
C) Spectrometer
D) Microscope
Ans : Ammeter
QUESTION 3
In the photoelectric effect experiment setup, what role
does the stopping potential play?
A) It determines the intensity of the incident light.
B) It measures the maximum kinetic energy of emitted
photoelectrons.
C) It controls the wavelength of the incident light.
D) It regulates the temperature of the photoelectric
material.
QUESTION 3
In the photoelectric effect experiment setup, what role
does the stopping potential play?
A) It determines the intensity of the incident light.
B) It measures the maximum kinetic energy of emitted
photoelectrons.
C) It controls the wavelength of the incident light.
D) It regulates the temperature of the photoelectric
material.
Answer: B
INTENSITY OF LIGHT
Classical Physics: Power Energy
Intensity = =
Area time  Area

Quantum Physics: Intensity = Power = Total Energy Photon

Area time  Area

Total Energy Photon = N  hf

Light Intensity  Number of Photon

WHICH HAVE HIGH INTENSITY OF LIGHT?
Photon
Photon

Metal Metal

(a) (b)
EFFECT OF INTENSITY OF A LIGHT WAVE ON THE
PHOTOELECTRONS PRODUCED
As long as Light above the cutoff frequency, even if it's not very intense, will always
cause electrons to be emitted. High intensity of light will produces more electrons but
does not change the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons.

Photon
Photon
-
- -

- - - - - -
Metal Metal

(a) (b)
PHOTOELECTRIC CURRENT AGAINST POTENTIAL
GRAPH (DIFFERENT INTENSITY)
The intensity of light increase will cause more production of electron. Large production
of electron means large current flow.
QUESTION 4
How does the intensity of incident light affect the number of
photons incident on a photoelectric material?
A) The intensity of light determines the energy of individual
photons, thereby affecting their emission.
B) The intensity of light determines the frequency of individual
photons, thus influencing their emission.
C) The intensity of light affects the number of photons incident
on the material, but not their energy.
D) The intensity of light has no effect on the number of photons
incident on the material.
QUESTION 4
How does the intensity of incident light affect the number of
photons incident on a photoelectric material?
A) The intensity of light determines the energy of individual
photons, thereby affecting their emission.
B) The intensity of light determines the frequency of individual
photons, thus influencing their emission.
C) The intensity of light affects the number of photons incident
on the material, but not their energy.
D) The intensity of light has no effect on the number of photons
incident on the material.
Answer : C
EFFECT OF FREQUENCY OF A LIGHT WAVE ON THE
PHOTOELECTRONS PRODUCED
Consider all the three metal made from same material, so it have the same work
function. Different colour of visible light will result different wavelength and
frequency.
Color Wavelength Frequency
Violet 380–450 nm 668–789 THz
Blue 450–495 nm 606–668 THz
Green 495–570 nm 526–606 THz
Yellow 570–590 nm 508–526 THz
a) Red b) Green c) Blue – Orange 590–620 nm 484–508 THz
-no electron - Electron electron Red 620–750 nm 400–484 THz
emitted emitted emitted with
larger
electron
speed
GRAPH OF KINETIC ENERGY VS FREQUENCY
There is a minimum frequency below which The two factors affecting
maximum kinetic energy of
the light cannot kick out electrons…
photoelectrons are
Even if wait a long time the frequency of the incident
As the frequency of light radiation and the material on
increases (shorter λ) the surface.
Kinetic Energy

→ KE of electrons being
popped off increases. As shown in the graph below,
(it is a linear relationship) electron energy increases with
frequency in a simple linear
manner above the threshold.
0 Frequency of light
PHOTOELECTRIC CURRENT AGAINST POTENTIAL
GRAPH (DIFFERENT FREQUENCY)
Having the same intensity will result the same current flow
However, the stopping Voltage, Vs will be different because of the kinetic energy of
electron at different frequency are different.

U = K max
1
eVs = mvmax
2

2
QUESTION 5
How does the frequency of incident light affect the kinetic
energy of emitted photoelectrons in the photoelectric effect?
A) The kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons is directly
proportional to the frequency of incident light.
B) The kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons is inversely
proportional to the frequency of incident light.
C) The kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons is unaffected by
the frequency of incident light.
D) The kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons is determined
solely by the intensity of incident light.
QUESTION 5
How does the frequency of incident light affect the kinetic
energy of emitted photoelectrons in the photoelectric effect?
A) The kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons is directly
proportional to the frequency of incident light.
B) The kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons is inversely
proportional to the frequency of incident light.
C) The kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons is unaffected by
the frequency of incident light.
D) The kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons is determined
solely by the intensity of incident light.
Answer :A
QUANTITATIVE STUDY OF THE EQUATIONS, WORK
FUNCTION AND THRESHOLD FREQUENCY
Energy supply to electron (Energy of Photon): E = hf
Energy needed for the electron to emitted out from the surface, (Work function, Wo)

Wo = hf o f o = threshold frequency
Using conservation of Energy:
E in =  E out
E photon = Wo + KE max
1 2
hf = hf o + mvmax
2
Photoelectron will take the remaining energy to moves (after it release from the metal surface)
 E in =  E out
E photon = Wo + KE max
E = hf
1 2
hf = hf o + mvmax
2

KEmax

Wo = hf o
GRAPH OF ENERGY VS FREQUENCY FOR
DIFFERENT METAL

The three curves have the same slope (equal to

Planck's constant) which shows that the energy–
frequency relation is constant for all materials.
Below the threshold frequency photoelectron
does not occur. Each curve has a different
intercept on the energy axis, which shows that
threshold frequency is a function of the material.
 1st case : hf  Wo OR f  fo
Photon’s Energy
Larger than Work
function

2nd case : hf = Wo OR f = fo
Photon’s Energy
equal to Work
function

Photon’s Energy 3rd case : hf  Wo OR f  fo

Lower than Work
function
 EXAMPLE 1
Cadmium has a work function of 4.22 eV.
Calculate :
a. its threshold frequency,
b. the maximum speed of the photoelectrons
when the cadmium is shined by UV radiation of
wavelength 275 nm,
c. the stopping potential.
(Given c =3.00x108 m s-1, h =6.63 x 10-34 J s, me=9.11 x 10-31 kg, mp=1.67 x 10-27 kg and e=1.60x10-19 C)
 EXAMPLE 1: Solution

Cadmium has a work function of 4.22 eV. Calculate

a. its threshold frequency,
b. the maximum speed of the photoelectrons when the cadmium is shined by UV radiation of
wavelength 275 nm,
c. the stopping potential.
(Given c =3.00x108 m s-1, h =6.63 x 10-34 J s, me=9.11 x 10-31 kg, mp=1.67 x 10-27 kg and e=1.60x10-19 C)
 EXAMPLE 1: Solution

b. the maximum speed of the photoelectrons when the cadmium is

shined by UV radiation of wavelength 275 nm,
(Given c =3.00x108 m s-1, h =6.63 x 10-34 J s, me=9.11 x 10-31 kg, mp=1.67 x 10-27 kg and e=1.60x10-19 C)
 EXAMPLE 1: Solution

c. the stopping potential.

(Given c =3.00x108 m s-1, h =6.63 x 10-34 J s, me=9.11 x 10-31 kg, mp=1.67 x 10-27 kg and e=1.60x10-19 C)

Vs =
 EXAMPLE 2
A beam of white light containing frequencies between 4.00 x
1014 Hz and 7.90 x 1014 Hz is incident on a sodium surface,
which has a work function of 2.28 eV.
a. Calculate the threshold frequency of the sodium
surface.
b. What is the range of frequencies in this beam of light for
which electrons are ejected from the sodium surface?
c. Determine the highest maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons that are ejected from this surface.
(Given c =3.00x108 m s-1, h =6.63 x 10-34 J s, me=9.11 x 10-31 kg, mp=1.67 x 10-27 kg and e=1.60x10-19 C)
PHOTON THEORY OF LIGHT
A photon is a discrete bundle (or quantum) of electromagnetic (or light) energy. Photons are
always in motion and, in a vacuum, have a constant speed of light to all observers.
According to the photon theory of light, photons .
-move at a constant velocity, c = 2.9979 x 10^8 m/s (i.e. "the speed of light"), in free space
-have zero mass and rest energy.
-carry energy and momentum, which are also related to the frequency nu and wavelength lamdba
of the electromagnetic wave by E = hf and p = h / lambda.
-can be destroyed/created when radiation is absorbed/emitted.
-can have particle-like interactions (i.e. collisions) with electrons and other particles, such as in the
Compton effect.
 What is Photon?
1)Discrete
bundle of
EM energy

2)Always
in motion

3)Moves in
constant
speed
 Zero rest Carry
energy energy &
momentum
Can be
destroyed/created
Zero mass when radiation is
absorbed/emitted.

Moves Photon Particle-

speed of Theory like
light interaction
of light
FAILURE OF WAVE OPTICS IN EXPLAINING THE
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

frequency intensity

time energy
interval
FAILURE OF WAVE OPTICS IN EXPLAINING THE
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Classical predictions Experimental Modern theory
observation
➢Emission of ➢Emission of ➢When the light frequency is
greater than threshold frequency, a
photoelectrons occur photoelectrons occur higher rate of photons striking the
for all frequencies of only when frequency of metal surface results in a higher
light. Energy of light is the light exceeds the rate of photoelectrons emitted. If it
is less than threshold frequency no
independent of certain frequency which photoelectrons are emitted.
frequency. value is characteristic of Hence the emission of
the material being photoelectrons depend on the light
frequency
illuminated.
 Classical predictions Experimental Modern theory
observation
➢The higher the ➢Very low intensity but ➢The intensity of light is the number of
photons radiated per unit time on a unit
intensity, the greater high frequency radiation surface area.
the energy imparted to could emit Based on the Einstein’s photoelectric
the metal surface for photoelectrons. The equation:
emission of maximum kinetic energy K max = hf − Wo

photoelectrons. When of photoelectrons is

the intensity is low, the independent of light The maximum kinetic energy of
photoelectron depends only on the light
energy of the radiation intensity. frequency and the work function. If the
is too small for light intensity is doubled, the number of
emission of electrons. electrons emitted also doubled but the
maximum kinetic energy remains
unchanged.
 Classical predictions Experimental Modern theory
observation
➢Light energy is spread ➢Photoelectrons ➢The transfer of photon’s
over the wavefront, the
amount of energy
are emitted from energy to an electron is
incident on any one the surface of the instantaneous as its energy
electron is small. An metal almost is absorbed in its entirely,
electron must gather instantaneously much like a particle to
sufficient energy before
emission, hence there is
after the surface is particle collision. The
time interval between illuminated, even at emission of photoelectron
absorption of light very low light is immediate and no time
energy and emission. intensities. interval between
Time interval increases
if the light intensity is absorption of light energy
low. and emission.
 Classical predictions Experimental observation Modern theory

➢Energy of light depends ➢Energy of light depends on ➢According to Planck’s quantum theory
only on amplitude ( or frequency. which is
intensity) and not on E=hf
frequency. Energy of light depends on its frequency.

Note:
➢Experimental observations deviate from classical predictions based on wave theory of
light. Hence the classical physics cannot explain the phenomenon of photoelectric effect.

➢The modern theory based on Einstein’s photon theory of light can explain the
phenomenon of photoelectric effect.

➢It is because Einstein postulated that light is quantized and light is emitted, transmitted
and reabsorbed as photons.
 EXAMPLE 3

a. Why does the existence of a threshold frequency in the

photoelectric effect favor a particle theory for light
over a wave theory?

a. In the photoelectric effect, explains why the stopping

potential depends on the frequency of light but not on
the intensity.
 EXAMPLE 3:

a. Why does the existence of a threshold frequency in the photoelectric effect favor a particle theory for
light over a wave theory?

b. In the photoelectric effect, explains why the stopping potential depends on the frequency of light but
not on the intensity.

Solution :

a. Wave theory predicts that the photoelectric effect should occur at any frequency, provided the light
intensity is high enough. However, as seen in the photoelectric experiments, the light must have a
sufficiently high frequency (greater than the threshold frequency) for the effect to occur.

b. The stopping voltage measures the kinetic energy of the most energetic photoelectrons. Each of
them has gotten its energy from a single photon. According to Planck’s quantum theory , the photon
energy depends on the frequency of the light. The intensity controls only the number of photons
reaching a unit area in a unit time.
 EXAMPLE 4
In a photoelectric experiments, a graph of the light frequency f is plotted against the
maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the photoelectron as shown in Figure below

Based on the graph, for the light of frequency 7.14 x1014 Hz,
calculate
a. the threshold wavelength,
b. the maximum speed of the photoelectron.
(Given c =3.00x108 m s-1, h =6.63 x 10-34 J s, me=9.11 x 10-31 kg, mp=1.67 x 10-27 kg and e=1.60x10-19 C)
 EXAMPLE 5
(a)Choose the material from Table Table 1: Work functions
1 for the light-sensitive surface
Element (Symbol) W0 (eV)
in the photomultiplier that will Silver (Ag) 4.26
respond to visible light at Aluminum (Al) 4.28
wavelengths up to 575 nm. Cesium (Cs) 2.14
Copper (Cu) 4.65
(b)Find the maximum kinetic Potassium (K) 2.30
energy of the electrons ejected Sodium (Na) 2.75
Nickel (Ni) 5.15
with the shortest-wavelength
Silicon (Si) 4.85
visible light, which is around
400 nm.
EXAMPLE 6
A sodium surface is illuminated with light of
wavelength 0.300 µm. The work function for sodium is
2.46 eV.
Calculate
(a)the energy of each photon in electron volts,
(b)the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected
photoelectrons, and
(c)the cutoff wavelength for sodium.
EXAMPLE 7

The work function for a silver surface is 4.73

eV. Find the minimum frequency that light
must have to eject electrons from the surface.
EXAMPLE 8
While conducting a photoelectric-effect experiment
with light of a certain frequency, you find that a
reverse potential difference of 1.25 V is required
to reduce the current to zero. Find
a) the maximum kinetic energy;
b) the maximum speed of the emitted photo-
electrons.