ELECTRIC AND

HYBRID ELECTRIC
VEHICLES
James Halderman

Curt Ward
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Halderman, James D.

Title: Electric and hybrid electric vehicles / James D. Halderman.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Pearson Education, Inc., [2023] | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021056834 (print) | LCCN 2021056835 (ebook) | ISBN 9780137532124 (paperback) |
ISBN 0137532121 (paperback) | ISBN 9780137532193 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Electric vehicles—Maintenance and repair—Textbooks. | Hybrid electric vehicles—Maintenance and
repair—Textbooks.
Classification: LCC TL220 .H345 2023 (print) | LCC TL220 (ebook) | DDC 629.22/93—dc23/eng/20220105
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021056834
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021056835

ScoutAutomatedPrintCode

ISBN 10: 0-13-753212-1

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-753212-4
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 PREFACE
Introducing an innovative first edition in electric and hybrid ■■ Chapter 9 (Low-Voltage Batteries and Stop-Start Micro
electric vehicles! Designed to meet the needs of a third or Hybrids) includes useful information for the technician
fourth semester course in electrical systems, Electric and when dealing with currently available electric and hybrid
Hybrid Electric Vehicles is also designed for a special topic electric vehicles.
or certificate course in electric and hybrid electric vehicles ■■ Chapter 10 (High-Voltage Batteries) includes the types
or for an introductory course in connected and autonomous and designs of high-voltage batteries used in both
vehicles. It features all of the advanced technology of on- electric and hybrid electric vehicles.
board diagnosis and up-to-date electrified vehicles technol- ■■ Chapter 11 (EV and HEV Motors, Converters, and
ogy, plus the same organization, flow, and features of the
Inverters) introduces the reader to the electronics
renowned Professional Technician series by Pearson!
involved in the electrified vehicle propulsion system.
Chapters 12 (EV and PHEV Charging) and 13 (Electric
DEPTH OF CONTENT AND FORMAT
■■
Scope: Based
Vehicle Charging Equipment) include all the details that
on input and suggestions from automotive instructors, this title
are needed to know about levels 1, 2, and 3 charging.
is aligned with ASE standards and includes comprehensive
coverage as follows: ■■ Chapters 14 (Regenerative Brakes), 15 (Electric Power
Steering), 16 (EV and HEV HVAC System), 17 (EV and HEV
■■ The first four chapters are designed to introduce
Transmissions), and 18 (EV and HEV Driver Assist Systems)
electric and hybrid electric vehicles including safety
each round out the details that service technicians need to
(chapter 1), introduction (chapter 2) and background
know to understand and service electric and hybrid electric
information on the importance of the need for electrified
vehicles.
vehicles (chapter 3), and hybrid ICE information
(chapter 4). ■■ Chapter 19 (Fuel Cells and Advanced Technologies)
covers advanced systems that are currently on the
■■ Chapter 5 (Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Preventative
market and likely to be expanded in the future.
Maintenance) covers the routine maintenance required to
be performed on electric and hybrid electric vehicles. ■■ Chapter 20 (First Responder Procedures) includes
important procedures for identifying and mitigating
■■ Chapters 6 (Digital Storage Oscilloscope Testing) covers
potentially dangerous situations when working with
the uses of digital storage oscilloscopes (DSOs) with the
electric and hybrid electric vehicles.
emphasis on detailed analysis to locate the root cause of
a customer concern. ■■ The appendix provides a Sample ASE-type L3
Certification Test.
■■ Chapter 7 (Energy and Power) includes the terms and
definitions used throughout the rest of the text regarding Organization: The content includes the basics needed by all
energy and power including electrical units of measure service technicians and covers the following organization for
commonly used when discussing electric and hybrid most systems:
electric vehicles.
■■ Purpose and function of the system
■■ Chapter 8 (Advanced AC and DC Electricity) is designed
to prepare the reader for the circuits and testing of
■■ Parts involved and operational description
electric and hybrid electric vehicles. ■■ Diagnosis and service

v
 HALLMARK IN-TEXT FEATURES
The following highlights the unique core features that set the
Professional Technician Series book apart from other automo- TECH TIP
tive textbooks.
Test Motor Before Replacing the Inverter
Before replacing a failed inverter, test the electric motor
1 for any defects. It is relatively common for shorted

HYBRID AND ELECTRIC electric motor windings to cause a failure of the inverter.
The new inverter is likely to fail upon installation
VEHICLE SAFETY if the electric motor failure is not resolved first.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Acoustic vehicle alerting
system (AVAS) 10
High voltage (HV) 2 TECH TIPS feature real-world advice and “tricks of the
be able to: International
• Explain the need for caution around the high-
voltage system.
American National
Standards Institute
Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) 7
trade” from ASE-certified master technicians.
(ANSI) 4 Occupational Safety and
• Describe the differences between a CAT I, CAT American Society for Health Administration
II, CAT III, and CAT IV multimeter. Testing and Materials (OSHA) 4
• Explain the difference between yellow/blue and (ASTM) 4 System main relays

•
orange high-voltage cables.
List the types of personal protective equipment.
Category three (CAT III) 7
Digital multimeter
(SMRs) 3
PHOTO SEQUENCE
(DMM) 7
• Describe the process for testing rubber gloves
before use.
• Explain the purpose of the safety interlock
system.
• Describe the process for depowering the high-
voltage system.

1 A Mustang Mach E electric SUV is showing 66 miles

(27%) of charge remaining. 2 Using a smartphone app, Plug Share in this case, the
driver located a Level 3 charging station.

OBJECTIVES AND KEY TERMS appear at the beginning 3 After using a credit card to gain access, the driver removed
the SAE CCS charge plug from the charging station.
4 The charge post on the Mustang Mach E is located on
the left front fender.

of each chapter to help students and instructors focus on the

most important material in each chapter. The chapter objectives
are based on specific ASE tasks.

5 6
During charging, the Mach E lights a series of lights around The charging station also shows the state-of-change
the charge receptible to let the driver know the level of on the display. Most experts recommend only charg-
charge. When all lights are on, the vehicle has been fully ing to 80% unless traveling when the extra range is
charged. required to help protect the HV battery.

EV AND PHEV CHARGING 175

STEP-BY-STEP PHOTO SEQUENCES show in detail

the steps involved in performing a specific task or service
procedure.

vi HAL L MARk I N- T ExT FEA TUR ES

 Case Study

The Case of the Vibrating Tesla ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

An owner of a Tesla Model Y visited a tire shop com-

How Do You Reboot the Digital Display?
plaining of a vibration in the steering wheel at high-
For most electric vehicles, pull the first responder
way speeds. A local tire shop balanced both front
loop under the hood, then disconnect the negative
tires. The right front only needed a quarter ounce
battery terminal by the fuse box. Wait 5 minutes,
whereas the left front required over four ounces to
reconnect the battery terminal and then the first
balance. After leaving the shop, the owner imme-
responder loop.
diately noticed that the vibration was much worse.
On the Tesla Model 3, hold down both scroll
The owner returned to the shop and this time the tire
wheels on the steering wheel until the display
was removed from the rim. It became apparent that
reboots. Press and hold both scroll wheels on either
the vibration issue was caused by the foam inside
the tire. This foam that generally played the role of
the main/central screen will reboot. A soft reboot
reducing noise had separated and was loose inside
is performed by holding in both scroll wheels until
the tire. The shop removed the foam and did not try
the touchscreen turns off. A hard reboot is alleg-
to reinstall it. The wheel was balanced, which solved
edly doing the same thing, but pressing and holding
the vibration concern. The driver did not notice any
the brake pedal until the Tesla logo appears on the
increase in noise. ● 2-6.
touchscreen. Another variation of a “reboot” is to
Summary:
power off the car from the touchscreen and leave it
• Complaint—A Tesla owner complained of a vibra-
off for a few minutes (you have to stay in the car).
tion in the steering wheel at highway speeds.
On a Mustang Mach E, to reboot the SYNC 4
• Cause—The acoustical foam inside a tire that is
system, push Volume Down button and Forward seek
supposed to reduce noise had separated from the
button. Hold them both down at the same time until
inner liner of the left front tire.
the screen reboots.
• Correction—The foam was removed from the tire
and the tire/wheel assembly was balanced which
corrected the vibration concern.

CASE STUDIES present students with actual automotive FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS are based on the
scenarios and shows how these common (and sometimes author’s own experience and provide answers to many of the
uncommon) problems were diagnosed and repaired. Uses the most common questions asked by students and beginning
Three Cs approach (Complaint, Cause, Correction). service technicians.

NOTE: These numbers originally referred to the metric

CAUTION: Check the instructions for the scope being
dimensions of the graticule in centimeters. Therefore,
used before attempting to scope household AC circuits.
an 8 × 10 display would be 8 centimeters (80 millime-
Some scopes are not designed to measure high-voltage
ters or 3.14 inches) high and 10 centimeters (100 mil-
AC circuits.
limeters or 3.90 inches) wide.

NOTES provide students with additional technical CAUTIONS alert students about potential damage to
information to give them a greater understanding of a specific personal property that can occur during a specific task or
task or procedure. service procedure.

H AL L MAR k IN - TE x T FEA T U RES vii

 AFFORDABLE PURCHASE OPTIONS FOR STUDENTS
WARNING
Print: This first edition is available as an affordable, rent-to-own
option.
To avoid an electrical shock, any capacitor should
eBooks: This text is also available in multiple eBook formats.
be treated as if it were charged until it is proven to
These are a great choice for busy students that are looking to
be discharged.
save money. As an alternative to renting/purchasing the printed
textbook, students can purchase an electronic version of the
same content. Pearson eText is an easy-to-use digital text-
WARNINGS alert students to the potential dangers of book. It lets students customize how they study and learn with
personal injury during a specific task or service procedure. enhanced search and the ability to create flashcards, highlight,
add notes, and listen to the audio version all in one place. The
mobile app lets students learn wherever life takes them, offline
or online. Additionally, the Pearson eText features approximately
20 minutes of simulated, instructive animations providing stu-
dents with an enhanced visual reference for essential auto-
motive concepts and skills. For more information on Pearson
eText, visit www.pearson.com/learner.

SUPPLEMENTS
All Pearson Automotive Series textbooks are accompanied by a
full set of instructor and student supplements.
■■ Instructor’s Resource Manual
■■ PowerPoint Presentation
■■ TestGen Computerized Testbank
■■ ASE Correlated Task Sheets (Download Only by
instructors) for Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
■■ Instructor Resources can be downloaded at www.
pearsonhighered.com/irc. If you don’t already have a
username and password for access, you can request
access at www.pearsonhighered.com/irc. Within 48 hours
THE SUMMARY, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND CHAPTER of registering, you will receive a confirming email including
QUIZ at the end of each chapter help students review the an instructor access code. Once you have received your
material presented in the chapter and test themselves to see code, locate your text in the online catalog and click on
how much they have learned. the Instructor Resources button on the left side of the
catalog product page. Select a supplement and a login
page will appear. Once you have logged in, you can
access instructor material for all Pearson textbooks.

Student Supplements (for purchase):

ASE Correlated Task Sheets for Electric and Hybrid Electric
Vehicles, ISBN: 9780137532155

viii S UPPL EMEN TS

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people and organizations have cooperated in providing easy-to-read style that has made other books from the same
the reference material and technical information used in this authors so popular.
text. The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to the ■■ Jim Anderson—Greenville High School
following persons for their special contributions:
■■ Rankin E. Barnes—Guilford Technical Community College
Carl Borsani—Graphic Home Design & Marketing, LLC
■■ kevin Murphy—Stark State College of Technology
Stephen Ellis—Honda Motor Company, Ltd.
Ford Motor Company
■■ Teresa L. Noto, M.S.—Farmingdale State College
Tom Freels—Sinclair Community College ■■ Paul Pate—College of Southern Nevada
General Motors Corporation ■■ Fritz Peacock—Indiana Vocational Technical College
Tim Jones—Honda Training Center ■■ Dennis Peter—NAIT (Canada)
Chris karr—Ford Motor Company
■■ Eric Pruden—Pennsylvania College of Technology
Andy knevel—Toyota Motor Corporation
Lloyd koppes—Toyota Motor Corporation ■■ Jeff Rehkopf—Florida State College
Toyota Motor Sales—USA, Inc. ■■ kenneth Redick—Hudson Valley Community College
Dick krieger—Michigan Institute of Technology ■■ Matt Roda—Mott Community College
Jeff Rehkopf
■■ Mitchell Walker—St. Louis Community College at Forest
Dan Avery
Park
Dr. John kershaw
Steve Cartwright—Federal Mogul Training Center
Chuck Taylor—Sinclair Community College SPECIAL THANKS Special thanks to instructional designer
Tom Birch Alexis I. Skriloff James.
David Norman—San Jacinto College The authors wish to thank Mike Mills and Adam Fullam;
Joe Palazzolo—GkN Driveline The Lexus of Dayton dealership; and Chuck Taylor of Sinclair
Glen Plants Community College in Dayton, Ohio, who helped with many
of the photos. A special thanks to Ron Morris, Jeff Rehkopf,
TECHNICAL AND CONTENT REVIEWERS The follow- and Tom Birch for their detailed and thorough reviews of the
ing people reviewed the manuscript before production and manuscript before publication. Most of all, we wish to thank
checked it for technical accuracy and clarity of presentation. Michelle Halderman for her assistance in all phases of manu-
Their suggestions and recommendations were included in script preparation.
the final draft of the manuscript. Their input helped make this —Jim Halderman
textbook clear and technically accurate while maintaining the —Curt Ward

AC kN O WLED GM EN T S ix
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
JIM HALDERMAN brings a world of experience, know-
ledge, and talent to his work. His automotive service experience
includes working as a flat-rate technician, a business owner,
and a professor of automotive technology at a leading U.S.
community college.
He has a Bachelor of Science degree from Ohio Northern
University and a master’s degree from Miami University
in Oxford, Ohio. Jim also holds a U.S. patent for an elec-
tronic transmission control device. He is an ASE certified
Master Automotive Technician and is also Advanced Engine
Performance (L1) ASE certified. Jim is the author of many auto-
motive textbooks, all published by Pearson Education. Jim has
presented numerous technical seminars to national audiences,
including the California Automotive Teachers (CAT) and the
Illinois College Automotive Instructor Association (ICAIA). He is
also a member and presenter at the North American Council of
Automotive Teachers (NACAT). Jim was also named Regional
Teacher of the Year by General Motors Corporation and a mem-
ber of the advisory committee for the department of technology
at Ohio Northern University. Jim and his wife, Michelle, live in
Dayton, Ohio. They have two children. You can reach Jim at:
[email protected]

CURT WARD Prior to his years at Chrysler, Curt has worked as a technician,
shop foreman, and service manager in the retail sector of the automotive industry
for 13 years. During this time, he became a Chrysler Master Technician. Curt has
an Associates of Applied Science in Automotive Service Technology from Southern
Illinois University. He has a Bachelor of Fine Arts in Organizational Communications
from North Central College. He earned his master’s degree in Adult Education at the
University of Phoenix.
Curt is an ASE Master Automotive Technician. He has presented technical
seminars at numerous conferences around the country. He has presented for the
Illinois College Automotive Instructor Association (ICAIA), the California Automotive
Teachers (CAT), and the North American Council of Automotive Teachers (NACAT).
Curt is an active member in the ICAIA and the NACAT. He has served as the secre-
tary and president of the NACAT organization and was the conference host for the
2015 NACAT Conference. In 2015, Curt was named the NACAT MVP award win-
ner for his outstanding contribution to the NACAT organization. Curt and his wife
Tammy have five children and five grandchildren. Together they enjoy traveling and
exploring historical sites. In his spare time, Curt enjoys modeling 3-rail O-gauge
railroads. You can reach Curt at: [email protected]

x ABOUT THE AUTHO RS

BRIEF CONTENTS
chapter 1 Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Safety 1

chapter 2 Introduction to Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles 14

chapter 3 Health and Environmental Concerns 27

chapter 4 Hybrid Engine Systems 36

chapter 5 Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Preventative Maintenance 56

chapter 6 Digital Storage Oscilloscope Testing 65

chapter 7 Energy and Power 78

chapter 8 Advanced AC and DC Electricity 89

chapter 9 Low-Voltage Batteries and Stop-Start Micro Hybrids 102

chapter 10 High-Voltage Batteries 119

chapter 11 EV and HEV Motors, Converters, and Inverters 141

chapter 12 EV and PHEV Charging 163

chapter 13 Electric Vehicle Charging Equipment 178

chapter 14 Regenerative Brakes 188

chapter 15 Electric Power Steering 199

chapter 16 EV and HEV HVAC System 207

chapter 17 EV and HEV Transmissions 228

chapter 18 EV and HEV Driver Assist Systems 250

chapter 19 Fuel Cells and Advanced Technologies 268

chapter 20 First Responder Procedures 282

appendix Sample Hybrid/Electric Vehicle Specialist (L3) ASE-Type

Certification Test 291

Glossary 295

Index 303

B RIE F C ON T EN T S xi
 CONTENTS
chapter 1 chapter 3
HYBRID AND ELECTRIC VEHICLE HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL
SAFETY 1 CONCERNS 27
■■ Learning Objectives 1 ■■ Learning Objectives 27
■■ key Terms 1 ■■ key Terms 27
■■ High-Voltage Safety 2 ■■ Need for Electric Vehicles (EV) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
■■ Electric Shock Potential 3 (HEV) 28
■■ Electric Vehicles in the Service Area 3 ■■ Ozone 30
■■ Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 4 ■■ Ultraviolet Radiation absorption 31
■■ High-Voltage Tools and Equipment 7 ■■ Health Effects of Air Pollution 32
■■ Safety Interlock System 8 ■■ Acid Rain 32
■■ Depowering the High-Voltage System 9 ■■ Carbon Footprint 33
■■ Hoisting a Hybrid or Electric Vehicle 9 S ummary 35
■■ Moving a Hybrid or Electric Vehicle Around the Shop 10 r eview Q ueStionS 35
S ummary 10 C hapter Q uiz 35
■■ High-Voltage Glove Photo Sequence 11
r eview Q ueStionS 13
C hapter Q uiz 13 chapter 4
HYBRID ENGINE SYSTEMS 36
Learning Objectives 36
chapter 2 ■■

■■ key Terms 36
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC AND ■■ Hybrid Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) 37
HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES 14 ■■ Engine Fundamentals 37
■■ Atkinson Cycle 38
■■ Learning Objectives 14
■■ Hybrid Engine Design Features 40
■■ key Terms 14
■■ Variable Valve Timing 42
■■ Hybrid Electric Vehicles 15
■■
Diagnosis of Variable Valve Timing Systems 45
■■ Electric Vehicle 15
■■ HEV ICE Cooling System 46
■■ History 15
■■ Cooling System Testing 47
■■ Efficiencies of Electric Motors and ICEs 16
■■ Coolant Heat Storage System 49
■■ Driving a Hybrid or Electric Vehicle 16
■■ Hybrid Engine Run Mode 50
■■ Levels of Hybrid Vehicles 20
■■ Hybrid Engine Testing 52
■■ Classifications of Hybrid Vehicle Powertrain 20
■■ One-, Two-, and Three-Motor Hybrid System 22 S ummary 54
■■ Advantages and Disadvantages of an r eview Q ueStionS 54
Electric Vehicle 23 C hapter Q uiz 55

S ummary 25
r eview Q ueStionS 25
C hapter Q uiz 26

xii CONTENTS
chapter 5 S ummary 87
r eview Q ueStionS 87
HYBRID AND ELECTRIC C hapter Q uiz 87
VEHICLE PREVENTATIVE
MAINTENANCE 56 chapter 8
Learning Objectives 56
ADVANCED AC AND DC
■■

■■ key Terms 56
■■ Routine Service Procedures 57 ELECTRICITY 89
S ummary 63
■■ Learning Objectives 89

r eview Q ueStionS 63
■■ key Terms 89

C hapter Q uiz 64
■■ DC Electricity 90
■■ AC Electricity 91
■■ Power Output (Watts) 92

chapter 6 ■■ Capacitors 92
■■ Magnetic Force 94
DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE ■■ Motor Control 94
TESTING 65 ■■ EV and HEV Electrical Measurements 96
■■ EV and HEV Module Communications 97
■■
Learning Objectives 65
■■ Module Reprogramming 98
■■ key Terms 65
■■ Types of Oscilloscopes 66 S ummary 100
■■ Scope Setup and Adjustment 67 r eview Q ueStionS 101
■■ DC and AC Coupling 68 C hapter Q uiz 101
■■ Pulse Trains 68
■■ Number of Channels 70
■■ Triggers 70 chapter 9
■■ Using a Scope 71
LOW-VOLTAGE BATTERIES
Using DSO Accessories 71
AND STOP-START MICRO
■■

■■ Waveform Analysis 72
■■ Scope Setup Photo Sequence 74 HYBRIDS 102
S ummary 76
■■ Learning Objectives 102
r eview Q ueStionS 76
■■ key Terms 102
C hapter Q uiz 76
■■ Introduction to the 12-Volt Battery 103
■■ How a Battery Works 103
■■ Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries 104
chapter 7 ■■ 12-Volt Battery Ratings 105
Battery Service Safety Precautions 105
ENERGY AND POWER 78
■■

■■ 12-Volt Battery Voltage Test 106

■■ Learning Objectives 78 ■■ 12-Volt Battery Load Testing 107
■■ key Terms 78 ■■ 12-Volt Battery Conductance Testing 108
■■ Energy 79 ■■ 12-Volt Battery Charging 108
■■ Torque, Work, and Power 80 ■■ The 36-48-Volt Battery 109
■■ Electrical Power 81 ■■ Stop-Start Defined 110
■■ Solar Electric Generation 82 ■■ Stop-Start Systems 110
■■ Wind Energy Generation 83 ■■ Micro Hybrids 112
■■ Hydroelectric Generation 85 ■■ Diagnosis 114
■■ Geothermal Energy 85 ■■ Mild Hybrids 115

CON T EN T S xiii
S ummary 117 S ummary 162
r eview Q ueStionS 118 r eview Q ueStionS 162
C hapter Q uiz 118 C hapter Q uiz 162

chapter 12
chapter 10
HIGH-VOLTAGE EV AND PHEV CHARGING 163
Learning Objectives 163
BATTERIES 119
■■

■■ key Terms 163

■■ Learning Objectives 119 ■■ Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles 164
■■ key Terms 119 ■■ Electric Vehicles 166
■■ Hybrid and Electric Vehicle High-Voltage Batteries 120 ■■ Level 1 Charging 167
■■ Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries 120 ■■ Level 2 Charging 168
■■ Lithium-Ion High-Voltage Batteries 123 ■■ Level 3 Charging 169
■■ Designs of Lithium-Ion Cells 124 ■■ Owning and Charging an EV 172
■■ Types of Lithium-Ion Batteries 125 ■■ Photo Sequence 175
■■ HEV/EV Electronics Cooling 126
S ummary 176
■■ High-Voltage Battery Cooling and Heating 128
r eview Q ueStionS 176
■■ Battery Capacity vs Vehicle Range 129
C hapter Q uiz 176
■■ High-Voltage Battery Control Components 130
■■ Battery Management System (BMS) 131
■■ Electrical Distribution System (EDS) 131 chapter 13
HEV High-Voltage Battery Monitor 133
ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING
■■

■■ Lithium-Ion Battery Repair 134

■■ Alternative Out-of-Vehicle HV Battery Service 134 EQUIPMENT 178
■■ Battery Degradation and Balancing 136 ■■ Learning Objectives 178
■■ Photo Sequence HEV-HV Battery Inspection and Testing 137 ■■ key Terms 178
S ummary 139
■■ Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment 179
r eview Q ueStionS 139
■■ Wireless Charging 184
C hapter Q uiz 139
■■ Installing a Home Charging Station Photo Sequence 186

S ummary 187
r eview Q ueStionS 187
chapter 11 C hapter Q uiz 187

EV AND HEV MOTORS, CONVERTERS,

AND INVERTERS 141 chapter 14
■■ Learning Objectives 141 REGENERATIVE BRAKES 188
■■ key Terms 141 ■■ Learning Objective 188
■■ Electromagnetism 142 ■■ key Terms 188
■■ Electromagnetic Induction 143 ■■ Regenerative Braking in Vehicles 189
■■ Electric Motors 144 ■■ Types of Regenerative Brake Systems 191
■■ Brushless Motors 146 ■■ One-Pedal Driving 194
■■ Electric Motor Control 148 ■■ Deceleration Rates 195
■■ Capacitors in Converters 151 ■■ Servicing Regenerative Brakes 195
■■ Converters and Inverters 153
■■ Electronic System Cooling System 156 S ummary 197
■■ Motor–Converter–Inverter Diagnostics 157 r eview Q ueStionS 197
■■ Photo Sequence—Inverter/Converter Replacement 159 C hapter Q uiz 198

xiv CONTENTS
chapter 15 S ummary 248
r eview Q ueStionS 248
ELECTRIC POWER STEERING 199 C hapter Q uiz 248
■■ Learning Objectives 199
■■ key Terms 199
■■ Electric Power Steering 200 chapter 18
■■ Parts and Operation 201
Electric Power Steering Diagnosis 204
EV AND HEV DRIVER ASSIST
SYSTEMS 250
■■

S ummary 205
■■ Learning Objectives 250
r eview Q ueStionS 206
■■ key Terms 250
C hapter Q uiz 206
■■ Advanced Driver Assist Systems 251
■■ Human–Machine Interface (HMI) 251
chapter 16 ■■ Blind Spot Monitor 252
Parking-Assist Systems 253
EV AND HEV HVAC
■■

■■ Lane Departure Warning 254

SYSTEM 207 ■■ Lane keep Assist 255
■■ Learning Objectives 207
■■ Adaptive Cruise Control 255
■■ key Terms 207
■■ Rear Cross-Traffic Warning (RCTW) 257
■■ HEV ICE Cooling System 208
■■ Automatic Emergency Braking 258
■■ HEV Cabin Heating Systems 209
■■ Pre-Collision System 258
■■ Coolant Heat Storage System 212
■■ Cameras 259
■■ PTC Heaters 213
■■ Lidar Systems 260
■■ HEV Cabin Cooling 213
■■ Driver Assist Diagnosis 261
■■ HEV A/C Components 215
■■ Camera and Radar Sensor Calibration 261
■■ EV Heating 220
■■ Autonomous Vehicle Operation 263
■■ Heat Pump 222
■■ Levels of Automation 263
■■ Artificial Intelligence (AI) 265
S ummary 226 ■■ Dedicated Short-Range Communication (DSRC) 265
r eview Q ueStionS 226
C hapter Q uiz 226 S ummary 266
r eview Q ueStionS 266
C hapter Q uiz 267
chapter 17
EV AND HEV chapter 19
TRANSMISSIONS 228 FUEL CELLS AND ADVANCED
Learning Objectives 228
TECHNOLOGIES 268
■■

■■ key Terms 228

■■ Transmissions and Transaxles 229 ■■ Learning Objectives 268
■■ Principles Involved 230 ■■ key Terms 268
■■ HEV Transmissions 230 ■■ Fuel-Cell Technology 269
■■ GM Parallel Hybrid Truck (PHT) 231 ■■ Refueling with Hydrogen 272
■■ GM Two-Mode Hybrid Transmission 232 ■■ Direct Methanol Fuel Cells 272
■■ Ford/Lincoln 10R80 MHT 234 ■■ Fuel-Cell Vehicle Systems 273
■■ Toyota/Lexus Power-Split System 236 ■■ Fuel-Cell Hybrid Vehicles 275
■■ Toyota Hybrid eCVT Transmission 243 ■■ Hydrogen Storage 275
■■ Hybrid Electric Rear Axle 244 ■■ Ultracapacitors 277
■■ Hybrid Transmission Diagnosis 244 ■■ Fuel-Cell Vehicle Transaxles 277
■■ Electric Vehicle Transmissions 245 ■■ HCCI 279

CON T EN T S xv
S ummary 280 ■■ Emergency Response 287
r eview Q ueStionS 280 ■■ Fire 288
C hapter Q uiz 281 ■■ Hazmat Issues 288
■■ Submerged Vehicles 289

S ummary 289
chapter 20
r eview Q ueStionS 290
FIRST RESPONDER C hapter Q uiz 290
PROCEDURES 282 appendix
■■ Learning Objectives 282 SAMPLE HYBRID/ELECTRIC VEHICLE SPECIALIST (L3)
■■ key Terms 282 ASE-TYPE CERTIFICATION TEST 291
■■ EV and HEV First Responder Procedures 283
■■ EV and HEV Items to Check 284 GLOSSARY 295
■■ First Responder Safety 285
■■ Electric Shock Potential 287 INDEX 303

xvi CONTENTS
Chapter 1
HYBRID AND ELECTRIC
VEHICLE SAFETY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Acoustic vehicle alerting High voltage (HV) 2
be able to: system (AVAS) 10 International
• Explain the need for caution around the high- American National Electrotechnical
Standards Institute Commission (IEC) 7
voltage system.
(ANSI) 4 Occupational Safety and
• Describe the differences between a CAT I, CAT American Society for Health Administration
II, CAT III, and CAT IV multimeter. Testing and Materials (OSHA) 4
• Explain the difference between yellow/blue and (ASTM) 4 System main relays
orange high-voltage cables. Category three (CAT III) 7 (SMRs) 3

• List the types of personal protective equipment. Digital multimeter

(DMM) 7
• Describe the process for testing rubber gloves
before use.
• Explain the purpose of the safety interlock
system.
• Describe the process for depowering the high-
voltage system.

1
 ■■ Technicians who rely on cardiac pacemakers should
HIGH-VOLTAGE SAFETY not service or repair electric or hybrid electric vehicles
because of strong magnetic fields.
NEED FOR CAUTION Electrical systems have been used on ■■ Technicians who rely on implanted cardiac pacemakers
vehicles for more than a century. Technicians have been repairing or implanted cardioverter defibrillators should check with
vehicle electrical systems without fear of serious injury or electro- the manufacturer of the device before being in or around
cution. However, when working with electric or hybrid electric vehi- a charging vehicle.
cles, this is no longer true. It is now possible to be seriously injured
or electrocuted (killed) if proper safety procedures are not followed.
Electric and hybrid electric vehicles use high-voltage (HV)
IDENTIFYING HIGH-VOLTAGE CIRCUITS HV components
are identified with warning labels. HV cables are identified by
circuits that if touched with an unprotected hand could cause
color of the plastic conduit and are indicated by the following
serious burns or even death.
colors:

PRECAUTIONS FOR ELECTRONIC MEDICAL ■■ Blue or yellow—Up to 60 volts (not a shock hazard, but
DEVICES an arc will be maintained if a circuit is opened). ●■ SEE
FIGURE 1-1a and 1-1b.
■■ Electronic medical devices include cardiac pacemakers
and cardioverter defibrillators.

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

How Much Current Is Too Much?

Low voltage, such as the 12–14 volts used in conventional
vehicles, does not represent a shock hazard and it is safe
to handle. The only concern would be a possible burn
could occur if a 12-volt wire were to touch ground causing
the wiring to overheat. Voltages between 14 and 60 volts
do not present a shock hazard, but an arc can occur if a
connector carrying current is opened. High voltage, over
60 volts, does create a shock hazard and all precautions
must be adhered to prevent personal injury. Typical
current and how it affects the body are given as follows: FIGURE 1-1a When the belt starter alternator assembly is
installed, the three blue cables run between the inverter assembly
• 1 milliamp—May be noticeable as a slight tingle. and the alternator.
• 2–5 milliamps—May be noticeable as a light shock
forcing the technician to let go.
• 6–25 milliamps—Noticed by pain and the technician
cannot let go of the wires or component.
• 26–150 milliamps—Severe pain and possibly fatal.
• 1,000 milliamps—One ampere across the heart
can stop the heart (fatal).
Also, always wear HV gloves for protection
whenever working on or near a potential HV circuit or
component. To help prevent an electric current from
flowing through the body, always place one hand in
a pocket and use only one hand when measuring a
potential HV circuit or disconnecting a potential HV
circuit.
FIGURE 1-1b The yellow cable is part of the electric power
steering system on a Toyota/Lexus vehicle.

2 C HA p TER 1
 ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN THE
SERVICE AREA
For a safe working environment:

■■ Be sure the work area is clean and dry.

■■ Care should be taken that HV warnings and safety cones
are posted.
■■ Additional precautions, such as a roof cone or warning
tape, are also recommended.

They are used to establish a safety zone around the vehi-

cles so that other technicians will know that a possible shock
hazard may be present. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-3.

FIGURE 1-2 The orange cables connect to the high

power distribution module (HpDM) on the Chevrolet Bolt.

■■ Orange—Above 60 volts. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-2.

FIGURE 1-3 A clearly defined safety zone needs to be established
Follow all precautions when working on or near HV wiring
in the area where a hybrid or electric vehicle is being repaired.
or components.

TECH TIP
ELECTRIC SHOCK POTENTIAL
Silence Is NOT Golden

LOCATIONS WHERE SHOCK CAN OCCUR Accidental Never assume the vehicle is shut off just because the
and unprotected contact with any electrically charged (“hot” engine is off. When working with a hybrid electric
or “live”) HV component can cause serious injury or death. vehicle, always look for the READY indicator status
However, receiving an electric shock from a hybrid vehicle is on the dash display. The vehicle is shut off when the
highly unlikely because of the following: READY indicator is off.
The vehicle may be powered by:
1. Contact with the battery module or other components
inside the battery box can occur only if the box is dam- 1. The electric motor only.
aged and the contents are exposed, or the box is opened 2. The gasoline engine only.
without following proper precautions. 3. A combination of both the electric motor and
2. Contact with the electric motor can occur only after one or the gasoline engine.
more components are removed. The vehicle computer determines the mode in which the
3. The HV cables can be easily identified by their distinctive vehicle operates to improve fuel economy and reduce
orange color, and contact with them can be avoided. emissions. The driver cannot manually select the mode.
4. The system main relays (SMRs) or contactors disconnect ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-4.
power from the cables the moment the ignition is turned off.

H YBRI D AN D E L E C T RI C V E H IC L E S A F ET Y 3
FIGURE 1-4 The Ford Escape Hybrid instrument panel
showing the vehicle in park and the tachometer on “EV”
instead of 0 RpM. This means the gasoline engine could start
at any time depending on the state of charge of the HV battery
and other factors.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE FIGURE 1-5 Safety glasses or a full-face shield similar to the items
EQUIPMENT (PPE) depicted must be worn when testing for the presence of high voltage.

the gloves carefully before each use. High voltage and current
EYE PROTECTION Eye protection should be worn when test-
(amperes) in combination are fatal.
ing for high voltage, which is considered by many experts to be
Before using the rubber gloves, they should be tested for
over 60 volts. Eye protection should include the following features:
leaks using the following procedure:
1. plastic frames (Avoid metal frames as these are conduc-
1. Roll the glove up from the open end until the lower portion
tive and could cause a shock hazard.)
of the glove begins to balloon from the resulting air pressure.
2. Side shields Make sure to “lean” into the sealed glove to raise the internal
3. Meet the standard ANSI Z87.1

NOTE: Some vehicle manufacturers specify that

full-face shields be worn instead of safety glasses
when working with HV circuits or components.
●■ SEE FIGURE 1-5.

HIGH-VOLTAGE GLOVES Before working on the HV system

of a hybrid electric vehicle, ensure that HV lineman’s gloves
are available. Be sure that the gloves are rated at least 1,000
volts and class “0” by ANSI/ASTM. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-6. The
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a private,
nonprofit organization that administers and coordinates the U.S.
voluntary standardization and conformity assessment system.
ANSI International, originally known as the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM), was formed over a cen-
tury ago to address the need for component testing in industry.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
requirements specify that the HV gloves get inspected every
six months by a qualified glove inspection laboratory. Do not
use gloves on which the expiration date has expired. Inspect FIGURE 1-6 The gloves should be clearly marked indicating
that they are class “0” and rated for 1,000 volts.

4 C HA p TER 1
 WARNING

Do not use shop air to test HV gloves. The high air

pressure will damage the gloves and lead to a lack
of personal protection against high voltage.

FIGURE 1-7 The glove is rolled up on the open end to check

for air pressure and any air leakage.

air pressure. If the glove leaks any air, discard the gloves.
●■ SEE FIGURE 1-7.
2. An approved electric glove inflator can also be used to
test the gloves before use. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-8.
3. The gloves should not be used if they show any signs of
wear and tear.

LEATHER PROTECTORS Use an outer leather glove to

FIGURE 1-9 Clean leather gloves must be used to protect
protect the HV rubber gloves. Be sure the rubber lineman’s glove
the HV rubber gloves.
extends at least 50 mm beyond the leather protector. The leather

gloves should be clean and free of any material that might puncture
the lineman’s glove or conduct electricity. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-9.

SHOP UNIFORM Some manufacturers recommend arc flash

clothing or long sleeve, 100% cotton clothing that is tucked into the
gloves when working on HV components. Remove all jewelry, rings,
watches, and bracelets before working on the vehicle.

INSULATED SHOES OR BOOTS Some manufactures rec-

ommend the use of insulated boots or shoes to protect against
exposure to high voltage. These are particularly useful in areas
where water, oil, and other substances cannot be wiped off the
floor. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-10.

INSULATED RUBBER MATS AND BLANKETS

FIGURE 1-8 An electric glove inflator similar to this may be Insulated rubber mats are placed on the floor when there is an
used for testing. exposure to high voltage. Insulated blankets are placed over

H YBRI D AN D E L E C T RI C V E H IC L E S A F ET Y 5
FIGURE 1- 10 The sole of this shoe is designed to prevent
the transfer of electrical current.

FIGURE 1- 12 Make sure a proper fire extinguisher is

available in the work area.
FIGURE 1- 11 Some work locations require the use of
insulated rubber mats in the work area. ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

Is the Radiation from a Hybrid Dangerous?

the battery or other HV components after removal and during No. While there is a changing magnetic field surrounding any
disassembly. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-11. wire carrying an electrical current, the amount of
electromagnetic radiation is very low. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-13.
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS Use ONLY a Class C fire extinguisher
rated for electrical fires. An ABC rated fire extinguisher may be
used if a Class C is not available. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-12.

OTHER PERSONAL PROTECTION EQUIPMENT Some

manufactures recommend that a 10-foot insulated fiberglass
pole be available outside the safety zone to be used to pull
a technician away from the vehicle in the unlikely event of an
accident where the technician is shocked or electrocuted.
Other manufacturers require a second set of safety equipment
be available.

FIGURE 1-13 The radiation emitted from a hybrid electric

vehicle is very low and is being measured in units of milligauss.

6 CHApTER 1
 HIGH-VOLTAGE TOOLS
AND EQUIPMENT
CAT III RATED DIGITAL MULTIMETER Hybrid
and electric vehicles are equipped with electrical sys-
tems whose voltages can exceed 600 volts DC. A cate-
gory three (CAT III) certified digital multimeter (DMM)
is required for making measurements on these high-
voltage systems.
The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
has several categories of voltage standards for meter and
meter leads. These categories are ratings for over voltage
protection and are rated CAT I, CAT II, CAT III, and CAT IV. FIGURE 1- 14 Use only a meter that is CAT III rated when
The higher the category (CAT) rating of the meter, the greater making electrical measurements on an electric or hybrid
electric vehicle.
the level of protection to the technician when measuring
high-energy voltage. Under each category, there are various
voltage ratings.

■■ CAT I—Typically a CAT I meter is used for low-voltage

(LV) measurements, such as voltage measurements
at wall outlets in the home. Meters with a CAT I
rating are usually rated at 300–800 volts. CAT I is for
relatively low-energy levels. While the voltage level is
high enough for use when working on a hybrid electric
vehicle, the protective energy level is lower than what FIGURE 1-15 The meter leads should also be CAT III rated
when checking voltages on an electric or hybrid electric vehicle.
is needed.

■■ CAT II—A CAT II meter is a higher-rated meter that would the current. If a clamp-on meter also has meter leads
be typically used for checking voltages at the circuit- for voltage measurements, that part of the meter will be
breaker panel in the home. Meters with a CAT II rating rated as CAT III.
are usually rated at 300–600 volts. CAT II-rated meters
have similar voltage ratings as the other CAT ratings,
MEGOHMMETER (INSULATION TESTER) A
but the energy level of protection is higher with a CAT II
megohmmeteror insulation tester is used to check for continu-
compared to a CAT I.
ity between the HV cables and the vehicle chassis. It contains
■■ CAT III— CAT III is the minimum-rated meter that an internal DC-DC converter that allows for the continuity test to
should be used for hybrid and electric vehicles. occur at a much higher voltage than a conventional ohmmeter.
Meters with a CAT III rating are usually rated at ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-16.
600–1,000 volts and the highest energy level which
is needed to protect the servie technician. ●■ SEE INSULATED HAND TOOLS Although they are not required
FIGURES 1- 14 and 1- 15 . by all manufacturers, insulated tools such as a ratchets,
extensions, sockets, pliers, and screwdrivers provide
■■ CAT IV—CAT IV meters are for clamp-on meters only. A an additional margin of safety to the service technician
clamp-on meter is used to measure current (amperes) in when working around HV components and systems.
a circuit by placing the clamp around the wire carrying ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-17.

H YBRI D AN D E L E C T RI C V E H IC L E S A F ET Y 7
FIGURE 1-16 The Fluke 1587 is an example of an
insulation tester that is able to test the HV circuit insulation
to 1,000 volts. The resistance between the HV circuit and
ground should be higher than one million ohms
(1.0–22.2 MΩ).

FIGURE 1-18 The manual disconnect on this Ford battery

contains a fuse and safety interlock.

■■ On a hybrid vehicle, if the engine is running, it will

detect a fault and set a diagnostic trouble code (DTC).
It also opens the power relays, turning off the “ready”
light.
■■ If the hybrid vehicle is moving, it will allow it to continue
until a stop, and will disable the internal combustion
engine (ICE).
FIGURE 1-17 Insulated tools, such as this socket set, ■■ If the hybrid vehicle is not moving, it will disable the ICE
provide an additional margin of safety to the service technician
immediately.
when working around HV components and systems.
■■ The HV system will be depowered on an electric vehicle.

SAFETY INTERLOCK SYSTEM LOCAL INTERLOCK A local interlock is a LV circuit

that uses separate switches and contacts to detect when
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION The HV system uses contac- there has been an open in LV circuits or components that
tors or heavy-duty relays to detect opens in the HV circuits. are associated with the HV system. The local interlock
This is a safety system that keeps the power circuits from can detect the removal of items such as covers, battery
closing with an open HV circuit. The manual safety disconnect disconnects, air-conditioning compressors, or any other
switch protects the HV battery pack and it includes a safety component that is associated with a HV circuit. ●■ SEE
interlock switch that uses two small terminals. With an open FIGURE 1-19. If an open has been detected, the controller
detected, the HV controller does the following to keep the vehi- (ECM) signals the hybrid controller to open the contactors
cle safe. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-18. or power relays and discharge the HV capacitors.

8 C HA p TER 1
 FIGURE 1-20 A lock box is a safe location to keep the
ignition keys of a hybrid or electric vehicle while it is being
worked on.

the vehicle from being powered on. With the key fob out of
the vehicle, attempt to start the vehicle to confirm no other
key fobs are present in the vehicle.

STEP 2 Remove the 12-volt power source to the HV controller

and wait 10 minutes for all capacitors to discharge.
FIGURE 1-19 The small white connector is the local interlock This step could involve:
on the HV connection to the battery. ■■ Removing a fuse or a relay
■■ Disconnecting the negative battery cable from
the auxiliary 12-volt battery
STEP 3 Remove the HV fuse or service plug or switch.

DEPOWERING THE HIGH- STEP 4 Confirm there is no HV power present before begin-
ning the repair.
VOLTAGE SYSTEM
THE NEED TO DEPOWER THE HIGH-VOLTAGE SYSTEM
HOISTING A HYBRID OR
During routine vehicle service work, there is no need to go through ELECTRIC VEHICLE
any procedures needed to depower or shut off the HV circuits.
However, if work is going to be performed on any of the following When hoisting or using a floor jack, refer to the manufacturer’s
components, service information procedures must be followed to service information for proper lift points. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-21.
prevent possible electrical shock and personal injury. Orange cables run under the vehicle just inside the frame rails
on most hybrid and electric vehicles. The battery for many
■■ The HV battery pack
electric vehicles is underneath the vehicle and can be easily
■■ Any of the electronic controllers that use orange cables,
damaged by a hoist. In addition to the electrical circuits, many
such as the inverter and converters
electric vehicles use coolant or refrigerant to maintain the
■■ The air-conditioning compressor, if electrically driven, and temperature of the battery. Caution should be used to avoid
has orange cables attached damaging these lines. Some Honda hybrid vehicles use an
To safely depower the vehicle, always follow the instruc- aluminum pipe painted orange that includes three HV cables
tions found in service information for the exact vehicle being for the starter/generator and also three more cables for the HV
serviced. The steps usually include the following: air-conditioning compressor. If any damage occurs to any HV
cables, the malfunction indicator; Lamp (MIL) will light up and
STEP 1 Turn the ignition off and remove the key (if equipped)
a no-start will result if the powertrain control module (pCM)
from the ignition and store it in a lock box to prevent
senses a fault. The cables are not repairable and are expen-
accidental starting. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-20.
sive. The cables can be identified by an orange outer casing,
CAUTION: If a push-button start is used, remove the key but in some cases, the orange casing is not exposed until a
fob at least 15 feet (5 meters) from the vehicle to prevent black plastic underbelly shield is removed first.

H YBRI D AN D E L E C T RI C V E H IC L E S A F ET Y 9
 ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

What Is That Sound?

Electric vehicles and most hybrid electric vehicles
emit a sound through a speaker in the front at low
speeds to warn pedestrians that a moving vehicle
is nearby. This system is called acoustic vehicle
alerting system (AVAS). It creates the sound
whenever the vehicle is traveling at low speed. The
U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
(NHTSA) requires the device to emit warning sounds
when travelling at speeds less than 19 MpH (30 km/h)
with compliance by September, 2020. While
FIGURE 1-21 The HV wiring on this Honda hybrid is colored easily heard from outside the vehicle, it is usually
orange for easy identification. not heard inside the vehicle unless the windows are
down. Some customers ask their service technician
to disable this system, but it is a safety device and
MOVING A HYBRID OR could help prevent personal injury if someone were
ELECTRIC VEHICLE AROUND to step in front or back of a moving vehicle that is
almost silent.
THE SHOP
After a hybrid or electric vehicle has been serviced, it may be nec- possible that a HV arc could occur as the wheels turn and pro-
essary to push the vehicle to another part of the shop or outside duce voltage. Another way to prevent this is to use wheel dollies.
as parts are ordered. Make sure to tape any orange HV cable ends A sign that says “HIGH VOLTAGE—DO NOT TOUCH” could also
that were disconnected during the repair procedure. permanent be added to the roof of the vehicle or across the steering wheel.
magnets are used in all the drive motors and generators and it is Remove the keys from the vehicle and keep in a safe location.

SUMMARY
1. All high-voltage circuits are covered in orange plastic (DMM) is required for making measurements on these
conduit. high-voltage systems.
2. For a safe working environment: 6. Local interlock is a low-voltage circuit that uses sepa-
• Be sure the work area is clean and dry. rate switches and contacts to detect when there has
• Care should be taken that high-voltage warnings and been an open in low-voltage circuits or components
safety cones are posted. that are associated with the high-voltage system. The
• Additional precautions, such as a roof cone or warning local interlock can detect the removal of items such as
tape, are also recommended. covers, battery disconnects, air-conditioning compres-
3. Eye protection should include the following features: sors, or any other component that is associated with a
• plastic frames (Avoid metal frames as these are high-voltage circuit.
conductive and could cause a shock hazard.) 7. If work is going to be performed on any of the following com-
• Side shields ponents, service information procedures must be followed to
• Meet the standard ANSI Z87.1 prevent possible electrical shock and personal injury.
4. Before working on the high-voltage system of a hybrid 8. When hoisting or using a floor jack, refer to the manufac-
electric vehicle, ensure that high-voltage lineman’s gloves turer’s service information for proper lift points.
are available. Be sure that the gloves are rated at least 9. Electric vehicles and most hybrid electric vehicles emit
1,000 volts and class “0” by ANSI/ASTM. a sound through a speaker in the front at low speeds
5. Hybrid and electric vehicles are equipped with electri- to warn pedestrians that a moving vehicle is nearby.
cal systems whose voltages can exceed 600 volts DC. This system is called acoustic vehicle alerting system
A category three (CAT III) certified digital multimeter (AVAS).

10 C HA p TER 1
 HIGH-VOLTAGE GLOVE PHOTO SEQUENCE

1 The cuff of the rubber glove should extend at least

½ inch beyond the cuff of the leather protector.
2 To determine the correct glove size, use a soft tape
measure around the palm of the hand. A measurement
of 9 inches would correspond with a glove size of 9.

3 The glove rating and the date of the last test should be
stamped on the glove cuff.
4 Start a visual inspection of the glove fingertips,
making sure that no cuts or other damages are present.

5 The damage on this glove was easily detected with a

simple visual inspection. Note that the rubber glove
material can be damaged by petroleum products,
6 Manually inflate the glove to inspect for pinhole
leaks. Starting at the cuff, roll up the glove and trap
air in the finger end. Listen and carefully watch for
deflation of the glove. If a leak is detected, the glove
detergents, certain hand soaps, and talcum powder. must be discarded.
CONTINUED ➤

H YBRI D AN D E L E C T RI C V E H ICL E S A F ET Y 11
STEP BY STEP

7
Petroleum on the leather protector’s surface will damage
the rubber glove underneath.
8 Glove powder (glove dust) should be used to absorb
moisture and reduce friction.

10
Technicians MUST wear HV gloves whenever

9 Put on the gloves and tighten the straps on the back

of the leather protectors (if equipped).
working around the HV areas of a hybrid or
electric vehicle.

11 12
HV gloves should be placed in a canvas storage bag Make sure the rubber gloves are not folded when
when not in use. Note the ventilation hole at the placed in the canvas bag. Folding increases
bottom of this bag. mechanical stress on the rubber and can lead to
premature failure of the glove material.

12 CHApTER 1
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What actions are needed to disable the high-voltage (HV) 4. What precautions should be taken when hoisting a hybrid
circuit? or electric vehicle?
2. What are the personal safety precautions that service 5. When should the HV system be depowered?
technicians should adhere to when servicing hybrid or
electric vehicles?
3. What are the recommended tools and equipment that
should be used when working on the HV circuits of a
hybrid or electric vehicle?

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. Rubber gloves should be worn whenever working on or 6. When does the HV system NOT need to be depowered?
near the HV circuits or components of a hybrid electric a. Removing the HV battery pack
vehicle. Technician A says that the rubber gloves should b. performing routine service
be rated at 1,000 volts or higher. Technician B says that c. Replacing the HV cables
leather gloves should be worn over the HV rubber gloves. d. Replacing the HV air-conditioning compressor
Which technician is correct? 7. What will occur if the safety interlock system detects an
a. Technician A only open circuit on a hybrid vehicle?
b. Technician B only a. If the engine is running, it will detect a fault and set a
c. Both Technician A and Technician B DTC. It also opens the power relays, turning off the
d. Neither Technician A nor Technician B “ready” light.
2. A CAT III certified DMM should be used whenever measur- b. If the vehicle is moving, it will allow it to continue until
ing HV circuits or components. The CAT III rating relates to a stop, and will disable the ICE.
________. c. If the vehicle is not moving, it will disable the ICE
a. high voltage immediately.
b. high energy d. All of the answers are correct.
c. high electrical resistance 8. What precautions need to be taken to ensure the hybrid or
d. both high energy and high voltage electric vehicle work area is safe?
3. All of the following will shut off the high voltage to compo- a. The area should be clean and dry.
nents and circuits, except ________. b. The work area should be clearly marked.
a. opening the driver’s door c. No special precautions are needed.
b. turning off the ignition d. The area should be clean and dry and clearly marked.
c. disconnecting the auxiliary 12-volt battery 9. What is the purpose of a megohmmeter or insulation
d. removing the main fuse, relay, or HV plug tester?
4. What can occur if a hybrid electric vehicle is pushed in a. Check for continuity between the HV cables and the
the shop? vehicle chassis.
a. The HV battery pack can be damaged. b. Measure the resistance of connections in the LV
b. The tires will be locked unless the ignition is on. system.
c. Damage to the electric control will occur. c. Measure the current flow through the HV cables.
d. High voltage will be generated by the motor/generator d. None of the answers is correct.
as the wheels turn. 10. What should be done if the HV rubber gloves inspection
5. When hoisting a hybrid or electric vehicle, what precau- dates are found to be expired?
tions must the technician follow to ensure personal safety a. Use them anyway if they look ok.
and avoid damage to the vehicle? b. Use them if they pass the air test.
a. Make sure the lift points do not contact HV cables. c. Send the gloves to a qualified inspection laboratory.
b. Do not lift the vehicle by the battery case. d. Throw the gloves away.
c. Ensure the lift points are clear of battery cooling and
refrigeration lines.
d. All of the answers are correct.

H YBRI D AN D E L E C T RI C V E H ICL E S A F ET Y 13
Chapter 2
INTRODUCTION TO
ELECTRIC AND HYBRID
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Battery electric vehicles Micro hybrid 20
be able to: (BEV) 15 Mild hybrid 20
Electric vehicle (EV) 15 One-pedal driving 18
• Explain the definition of a hybrid and electric
Hybrid electric vehicle Phone as a Key (PAAK) 15
vehicle. (HEV) 15 Plug-in hybrid electric
• Describe the unique characteristics of owning Internal combustion vehicle (PHEV) 15
or driving a hybrid or electric vehicle. engine (ICE) 15 Range anxiety 18
Medium hybrid 20 Strong hybrid 20
• Explain the differences in the levels of hybrid
vehicles.
• Describe the different powertrain configurations
in a hybrid vehicle.
• Explain the differences between one-, two-, and
three-motor systems.

14
 HYBRID ELECTRIC
VEHICLES
DEFINITION OF TERMS A hybrid vehicle is one that uses
two different methods to propel the vehicle. A hybrid electric
vehicle (HEV) uses both an internal combustion engine and an
electric motor to propel the vehicle. Most hybrid vehicles use
a high-voltage battery pack and a combination electric motor
and generator to help or assist a gasoline engine. the internal
combustion engine (ICE) used in a hybrid vehicle can be either FIGURE 2- 1 the official emission sticker lists the vehicle as
gasoline or diesel, although only gasoline-powered engines are electric and producing zero emissions.
currently used in hybrid vehicles. An electric motor is used to
help propel the vehicle, and in some designs, it is capable of
propelling the vehicle alone without having to start the ICE.
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is an HEV with HISTORY
a larger capacity battery that can be recharged by the ICE or
by plugging it in to an AC power source or charging station. EARLY ELECTRIC VEHICLES Early EVs, also called bat-
A PHEV can drive in electric-only mode for up to 40 miles on tery electric vehicles (BEVs), were first used in the late 1800s,
some vehicles. and it was not until the early 1900s that EVs were practically
possible using rechargeable lead–acid batteries.

?
■■ One of the first was the 1903 Baker Electric Car, produced
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
by the Baker Motor Vehicle Company in Cleveland, Ohio.

What is meant by “Phone as a Key (PAAK)”? ■■ the Detroit Electric Car Company (1907–1939) produced
very practical fully EVs.
Many hybrid electric and electric vehicles, as well as
some regular (ICE) vehicles can be controlled using the old EV mechanical controller was able to switch all six bat-
a smart phone application (app). this control of the teries in various combinations of series and parallel configurations
vehicle, including remote start from the smart phone, to achieve lower voltage for slow speeds and higher voltages for
is referred to as Phone as a Key (PAAK). there are higher speeds. EVs did not have a long range and needed to have
apps for using a smart watch as a key which makes the batteries charged regularly, which meant that EVs could only
it very convenient to start and unlock a vehicle using be used for short distances. In fact, EVs were almost more popu-
just the smart watch. lar than steam–powered vehicles in 1900—while steam-powered
vehicles had 40% of the sales, EVs had 38% of the sales. the
gasoline-powered cars represented only 22% of the vehicles sold.

EARLY HYBRID VEHICLES In 1901, Ferdinand

ELECTRIC VEHICLE Porsche developed the Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid, the first
gasoline-electric hybrid automobile in the world. It was origi-
DEFINITION OF TERMS An electric vehicle (EV), also nally an electric-powered vehicle and then a gasoline engine
referred to as an electric drive vehicle, uses one or more was added to recharge the battery. One of the first hybrid
electric motors to propel the vehicle. Electricity is used as electric cars was produced by the Owen Magnetic Motor
the transportation fuel to power the EV. the electrical energy Car Corporation, manufactured in New York City and then in
is typically stored in an energy storage device, such as a Wilkes-Barre, PA, from 1915 until 1922. It failed because the
battery. the electrical energy is replenished by connecting fuel economy was about the same as a conventional gasoline-
to an electrical source, usually stationary. the Environmental powered vehicle, yet cost more. Another vehicle that used both
Protection Agency (EPA) and the California Air Resources a gasoline engine and an electric motor to power the vehicle
Board (CARB) define an EV as a zero-emission vehicle. was built by Woods Motor Company of Chicago, Illinois, and
●■SEE FIGURE 2-1. was called the “Woods Dual Power” (1915–1918).

I N t RO D U C t I O N t O E L E C t RI C AN D H YBRI D E L E C t RIC VEH IC L ES 15

NOTE: Due to the oil embargo of 1973 and an increased ■■ there is a maximum fuel efficiency point in the speed
demand for alternative energy sources, Congress enacted range for the ICE, and this speed is optimized by many
Public Law 94-413, the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle hybrid vehicle manufacturers by using a transmission that
Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1976, keeps the engine speed within the most efficient range.
which was designed to promote new technologies. ●■SEE FIGURE 2-2.
the hybrid electric vehicle did not become widely available Electric motors offer ideal characteristics for use in a vehi-
until the release of the toyota Prius in Japan in 1997, followed by cle because of the following factors:
the Honda Insight sold in the United States starting in 1999. In
■■ Constant power over all speed ranges
2001, the first toyota Prius was introduced in the United States.
■■ Constant torque at low speeds needed for acceleration
and hill-climbing capability
EFFICIENCIES OF ELECTRIC ■■ Constant torque below base speed

MOTORS AND ICEs ■■ Constant power above base speed

■■ Only single gear or fixed gear is needed in the electric
Electric motors are more efficient compared to any ICE and motor transmission
have just one moving part compared to hundreds of moving
parts in a typical gasoline-powered or diesel-powered ICE.

An electric motor can have efficiency (including controller)

DRIVING A HYBRID OR
■■

of over 90%, while a gasoline engine has efficiency of

only 35% or less. ELECTRIC VEHICLE
■■ An ICE does not have the overload capability of an elec-
tric motor. that is why the rated power of an ICE is usu- DRIVING A HYBRID VEHICLE Driving a hybrid electric
ally much higher than that required for highway cruising. vehicle (HEV) is the same as driving any other conventional
Operating smoothly at idle speed produces a much lower vehicle. In fact, many drivers and passengers are often not
efficiency than while operating at a higher speed. aware that they are driving or riding in a hybrid electric vehicle.
■■ Maximum torque of an ICE is reached at intermediate Some unique characteristics that the driver may or may not
speed and the torque declines as speed increases further. notice include the following:

TORQUE/POWER COMPARISON
350

300
TORQUE(FT-LBS)/POWER (HP)

250

200

150

100

50

0
8000

10000
1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

9000
0

RPM
EV TORQUE EV HP MAX EV HP MIN ICE HP ICE TORQUE
FIGURE 2-2 the graph shows a comparison of torque and power between an electric vehicle and a vehicle with an ICE.

16 C HAP tER 2
 ■■ After the ICE has achieved normal operating temperature
and other conditions are met, the engine will stop when
the vehicle slows down and stops. this condition may
cause a concern to some drivers who may think that the
engine has stalled and may try to restart it.
■■ the brake pedal may feel different, especially at slow
speeds of about 5 MPH and 15 MPH when slowing to a
stop. It is at about these speeds that the brake system
switches from regenerative braking to actually applying
brake force to the mechanical brakes. A slight surge or
pulsation may be felt at this time. this may or may not be
felt and is often not a concern to drivers.
■■ the power steering works even when the engine stops
because all HEV and PHEV use an electric power steering
system.
■■ Some HEVs and all PHEVs are able to propel the vehicle
using the electric motor alone, resulting in quiet, almost
eerie operation.
■■ If an HEV is being driven aggressively and at a high rate
of acceleration, there is often a feeling that the vehicle is
not going to slow down when the accelerator pedal is first
released. this is caused by two factors:
1. the inertia of the rotor of the electric motor attached
FIGURE 2-3 this Continental tire with acoustical foam on the
to the crankshaft of the ICE results in the engine con- inside is from a tesla Model 3.
tinuing to rotate after the throttle has been closed.
2. the slight delay that occurs when the system switches
the electric motor from powering the vehicle to gen-
erating (regenerative braking). While this delay would
? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

rarely be experienced, it is not at all dangerous. For a How Fast Does the Motor-Generator Turn the
fraction of a second, it gives a feeling that the accel- Engine When Starting?
erator pedal did not react to a closed throttle. the typical starter motor used on a conventional gas-
oline or diesel engine rotates the engine from 100 to
DRIVING AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE Driving an EV is a 300 revolutions per minute (RPM). Because the typi-
very different driving experience than a conventional vehicle. cal engine idles at about 600 to 700 RPM, the starter
Some of the unique characteristics include the following: motor is rotating the engine at a speed slower than it
■■ the startup and shutdown procedures are enough operates. this makes it very noticeable when starting
different than a conventional vehicle that many drivers because the sound is different when cranking com-
need to be retrained on the processes. pared to when the engine actually starts and runs.
However, when the motor-generator of a HEV
■■ the lack of an ICE results in a much quieter ride. In many
rotates the engine to start it, the engine is rotated
cases, the most predominate noise heard is the tires on the
about 1000 RPM, which is about the same speed
various road surfaces. Most electric vehicles come from the
as when it is running. As a result, engine cranking is
factory with tires that have acoustical foam inside of the tire
just barely heard or felt. the engine is either running
to reduce the tire noise by up to 9 db. ●■SEE FIGURE 2-3.
or not running, which is a truly unique sensation to

NOTE: The EV may be silent when in park or neutral. those not familiar with the operation of hybrid electric

When put in drive or reverse, an artificial “running vehicles.

engine” sound is generated at the front of the vehicle

I Nt RO D U C tI O N t O E L E C tRI C AN D H YBRI D E L E C t RIC VEH IC L ES 17

through a speaker behind the front bodywork. Some Plug-in hybrid and electric vehicle owners will save money
vehicles have a second speaker mounted in the rear of at the gasoline pump; however, they will experience a higher
the vehicle. Typically, the sound is present until the vehi- electric bill, depending on the amount of electricity these use. the
cle reaches approximately 20 MPH. ●■■SEE FIGURE 2-4. increase in the cost of the electricity will vary based on the elec-
trical providers’ purchase plan. Some providers offer discounted
■■ the electric motors that propel the vehicle provide
rates when the electricity is consumed during off-peak hours.
exceptional torque and responsiveness.
■■ the regenerative braking systems tend to slow the vehicle ROUTINE MAINTENANCE Most hybrid and electric vehi-
more aggressively than a conventional vehicle. Often cles have a different maintenance schedule than a conventional
the system can be set so that the brake pedal is not vehicle. In the case of an EV, most of these costs are elimi-
used during normal driving except to keep the vehicle nated. A typical EV requires just the following as part of routine
stationary when stopped. this feature is usually called maintenance:
one-pedal driving.
■■ Windshield washer fluid
■■ Seasonal temperature changes, weather, and driving
■■ Windshield wiper blades
style will affect the battery range.
■■ Cabin filter
■■ Careful mapping of charging stations will be required when
traveling a distance beyond the battery range capacity.
■■ tire rotation
■■ Range anxiety is the fear that many potential owners ●■■SEE FIGURE 2-5.
of EV have that the vehicle will have insufficient range In the case of a hybrid vehicle, certain costs may actually
to reach their destination, and therefore could get stuck increase because of materials used because a hybrid vehicle
with a dead vehicle on the road. According to owners of typically uses full-synthetic motor oil which is more expensive
EV, this fear tends to go away after about two weeks of
ownership after seeing that the range, and the charging
can be easily controlled.

FIGURE 2-4 the sound generator on this 2021 VW ID.4 is

located behind the front bumper assembly.

OWNING A HYBRID OR ELECTRIC VEHICLE A hybrid

or electric vehicle will cost and weigh more than a conventional
vehicle. the increased initial purchase price is due to the bat-
teries, electric motor(s), and controllers used plus the additional
components needed to allow operation of the heating and
air-conditioning systems during idle stop periods. the cost is
offset, in part, by improved fuel economy as well as state and FIGURE 2-5 Adding windshield washer fluid to an EV is the
national government energy credits awarded at the time of pur- item that requires most frequent maintenance depending on
chase for some new technology vehicles. driving conditions.

18 C HAP tER 2
than conventional motor oil. Additionally, the owner of a plug-
in vehicle will need to make an investment in a recharging
network for the home. See Chapter 12 for the details about
charging an EV or PHEV.

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

Can the Nissan Leaf be Taken Through a Car

Wash?
Yes, the Nissan Leaf, and all hybrid and electric
vehicles can be taken through the car wash. All the
high-voltage components, including the battery, that
are outside of the passenger compartment, are sealed
from outside water entry. If there has been no damage (a)

to protective coverings, the components will not be

damaged and there is no chance of electrical shock.

Case Study

The Case of the Vibrating Tesla

An owner of a tesla Model Y visited a tire shop com-
plaining of a vibration in the steering wheel at high-
way speeds. A local tire shop balanced both front
tires. the right front only needed a quarter ounce
whereas the left front required over four ounces to
balance. After leaving the shop, the owner imme-
diately noticed that the vibration was much worse. (b)
the owner returned to the shop and this time the tire
was removed from the rim. It became apparent that FIGURE 2-6 (a) the dismounted tire shows where the foam
had become detached. (b) the foam removed in its entirety.
the vibration issue was caused by the foam inside
the tire. this foam that generally played the role of
reducing noise had separated and was loose inside ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
the tire. the shop removed the foam and did not try
Why Are EVs and PHEVs Taxed in Some States?
to reinstall it. the wheel was balanced which solved
the vibration concern. the driver did not notice any Recently some states have added fees to the cost
increase in noise. ●■■SEE FIGURE 2-6. of the license plate on hybrid and electric vehicles
Summary: to recover loss fuel taxes. typically, these fees have
• Complaint—A tesla owner complained of a vibra- been in the $100 to $200 range. Depending on the
tion in the steering wheel at highway speeds. number of miles driven per year, these fees may have
• Cause—the acoustical foam inside a tire that is a negative impact on the cost of ownership.
supposed to reduce noise had separated from the
inner liner of the left front tire.
All of these factors must be considered when making an
• Correction—the foam was removed from the tire
informed decision to purchase a hybrid or electric vehicle. It may
and the tire/wheel assembly was balanced which
take many years of operation before the extra cost is offset by
corrected the vibration concern.
cost savings from the improved fuel economy. However, many

I N t RO D U C t I O N tO E L E C t RI C AN D H YBRI D E L E C tRIC VEH IC L ES 19

owners purchase a hybrid or electric vehicle for other reasons MEDIUM HYBRID A medium hybrid uses 144- to 158-volt
besides fuel savings, including a feeling that they are helping batteries that provide for engine stop/start, regenerative braking,
the environment and the love of the high technology involved. and power assist. Like a mild hybrid, a typical medium hybrid is
not capable of propelling the vehicle from a stop using battery
power alone. Examples of a medium-hybrid vehicle include the
Honda Insight, Civic, and Accord. the fuel economy savings are
LEVELS OF HYBRID VEHICLES about 20% to 25% for medium-hybrid systems.

MICRO HYBRID A micro hybrid will incorporate idle stop, but FULL HYBRID A strong hybrid, also called a full hybrid,

is not capable of propelling the vehicle without starting the ICE. A uses idle stop, regenerative braking, and is able to propel the

micro-hybrid system has the advantage of costing less, but saves vehicle using the electric motor(s) alone. Each vehicle manufac-

less fuel compared to a full hybrid vehicle. the micro hybrid usually turer has made its decision on which hybrid type to implement

uses a second 12-volt battery and a heavy-duty starter motor and based on its assessment of the market niche for a particular

flywheel to restart the ICE when accelerating from a stop. model. Examples of a full or strong hybrid include the General
Motors Silverado/Sierra (two-mode hybrid), Ford Escape SUV,

MILD HYBRID A mild hybrid will incorporate idle stop and toyota Highlander, Lexus RX400h, Lexus GS450h, toyota

regenerative braking, but is not capable of using the electric Prius, and toyota Camry. the fuel economy savings are about

motor to propel the vehicle on its own without help from the 30% to 50% for full-hybrid systems.

ICE. A mild-hybrid system has the advantage of costing less,

but saves less fuel compared to a full hybrid vehicle and usually
uses a 42-volt electrical motor and battery package (36-volt CLASSIFICATIONS OF HYBRID
batteries, 42-volt charging). An example of this type of hybrid
is the 2004–2007 General Motors Silverado pickup truck and
VEHICLE POWERTRAIN
the 2007 Saturn VUE. the fuel savings for a mild type of hybrid
SERIES HYBRID POWERTRAIN In a series-hybrid design,
design is about 8% to 15%.
sole propulsion is by a battery-powered electric motor, but the
electric energy for the batteries comes from another onboard
energy source, such as an ICE. In this design, the engine turns
? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
a generator and the generator can either charge the batteries or
power an electric motor that drives the transmission. the ICE
Is a Diesel-Hybrid Electric Vehicle Possible?
never powers the vehicle directly. ●■SEE FIGURES 2-7 AND 2-8.
Yes, using a diesel engine instead of a gasoline
engine in a HEV is possible. While the increased
HV BATTERY
efficiency of a diesel engine would increase fuel
economy, the extra cost of the diesel engine is the
major reason this combination is not currently in INVERTER
ENGINE
production. (ICE)

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION MOTOR

What Is an Assist Hybrid?

GENERATOR
DRIVE
An assist hybrid-electric vehicle is a term used to
WHEELS
describe a vehicle where the electric motor is not able
to start moving the vehicle on electric power alone. REDUCTION GEAR
this type of hybrid would include micro hybrids
(12 volt), all mild hybrids (36 to 42 volts), as well as the DRIVE POWER ELECTRIC POWER

medium hybrids that use 144- to 158-volt systems.

FIGURE 2-7 A drawing of the power flow in a typical
series-hybrid vehicle.

20 CHAP tER 2
 HV BATTERY

DRIVE
WHEELS
DC

DC

MOTOR MECHANICAL
ENGINE (ICE) GENERATOR RECTIFIER MOTOR
CONTROLLER TRANSMISSION

ELECTRIC CURRENT TRANSMISSION OF TORQUE

FIGURE 2-8 this diagram shows the components included in a typical series-hybrid design. the solid line arrow indicates the
transmission of the torque to the drive wheels. the dotted line arrows indicate the flow of the electrical current.

the engine is operated only to keep the batteries charged.

HV BATTERY
therefore, the vehicle could be moving with or without the ICE
running. Series-hybrid vehicles also use regeneration braking
to help keep the batteries charged. the Chevrolet Volt is an
INVERTER
example of a series-hybrid design. the engine is designed to ENGINE
(ICE)
just keep the batteries charged, and, therefore, is designed to
operate at its most efficient speed and load.
An advantage of a series-hybrid design is that no trans-
MOTOR/
mission, clutch, or torque converter is needed. GENERATOR
A disadvantage of a series-hybrid design is the added
weight of the ICE to what is basically an EV. the engine is actu- TRANSMISSION
DRIVE
ally a heavy on-board battery charger. Also, the electric motor WHEELS
and battery capacity have to be large enough to power the
vehicle under all operating conditions, including climbing hills. REDUCTION GEAR
All power needed for heating and cooling must also come
from the batteries, so using the air conditioning in hot weather DRIVE POWER ELECTRIC POWER

and the heater in cold weather reduces the range that the vehi- FIGURE 2-9 the power flow in a typical parallel-hybrid vehicle.
cle can travel on battery power alone.

PARALLEL HYBRID POWERTRAIN In a parallel- NOTE: A parallel-hybrid design could include additional
hybrid design, multiple propulsion sources can be combined, batteries to allow for plug-in capability, which could
or one of the energy sources alone can drive the vehicle. In extend the distance the vehicle can travel using battery
this design, the battery and engine are both connected to the power alone.
transmission. One disadvantage of a parallel-hybrid design is that
the vehicle using a parallel-hybrid design can be powered complex software is needed to seamlessly blend electric and
by the ICE alone, by the electric motor alone (full hybrids only), ICE power. Another concern about the parallel-hybrid design
or by a combination of engine and electric motor propulsion. In is that it has to be engineered to provide proper heating and
most cases, the electric motor is used to assist the ICE. ●■SEE air-conditioning system operation when the ICE stops at idle.
FIGURES 2-9 AND 2-10.
One of the advantages of using a parallel-hybrid design is SERIES-PARALLEL HYBRID POWERTRAIN the toyota
that by using an electric motor or motors to assist the ICE, the and Ford hybrids are classified as series-parallel hybrids
engine itself can be smaller than would normally be needed. because they can operate using electric motor power alone or

I N t RO D U C t I O N tO E L E C t RI C AN D H YBRI D E L E C tRIC VEH IC L ES 21

 DRIVE
WHEELS

ENGINE (ICE)

MECHANICAL MECHANICAL FINAL DRIVE AND

COUPLING TRANSMISSION DIFFERENTIAL

MOTOR

MOTOR
CONTROLLER HV BATTERY

TRANSMISSION OF TORQUE ELECTRICAL CURRENT

FIGURE 2-10 Diagram showing the components involved in a typical parallel-hybrid vehicle. the solid line arrows indicate the
transmission of torque to the drive wheels, and the dotted line arrows indicate the flow of electrical current.

with the assist of the ICE. Series-parallel hybrids combine the and other conditions. This can be confusing to some who
functions of both a series and a parallel design. the ICE may be are driving a HEV for the first time and sense that the
operating even though the vehicle is stopped if the electronic engine did not start when they tried to start the engine.
controller has detected that the batteries need to be charged.
●■SEE FIGURE 2-11.

NOTE: The ICE may or may not start when the driver starts
the vehicle, depending on the temperature of the engine
ONE-, TWO-, AND THREE-
MOTOR HYBRID SYSTEM
HV BATTERY ONE-MOTOR HYBRID SYSTEMS HEV that use one
GENERATOR electric motor include VW, Nissan, Honda, and General Motors.
In these units, an electric motor is attached to the ICE (engine)
INVERTER
ENGINE crankshaft which is used to perform two functions:
(ICE)
1. Start the ICE engine
2. Act as a generator to charge the high-voltage batteries

MOTOR Hybrids that use one motor are often called mild hybrids,
and usually are not able to power the vehicle using electric
POWER SPLIT power alone. ●■SEE FIGURE 2-12.
DEVICE
DRIVE
WHEELS TWO-MOTOR HYBRID SYSTEMS HEVs that use two
REDUCTION GEAR motors are the most commonly used hybrids by toyota, Ford,
and General Motors in their full-size two-mode trucks. Each

DRIVE POWER ELECTRIC POWER electric motor serves two purposes:

FIGURE 2-11 A series-parallel hybrid design allows

■■ the motor/generator attached to the engine, usually
the vehicle to operate in electric motor mode only or in labeled M/G1 or M/G A, is used to start the gasoline
combination with the ICE. engine and to charge the high-voltage batteries.

22 CHAP tER 2
 ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF
AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE
ADVANTAGES there are many advantages of an EV
compared to a vehicle powered by an ICE, which include the
following:
■■ Initial torque—Electric vehicles have high torque at the
starting from a stop and can provide a rapid acceleration
experience to the driver. ●■SEE FIGURE 2-14.
■■ Better handling and stability—the high-voltage battery
FIGURE 2-12 the exploded view of this Honda IMA motor in an EV, being the heaviest electric component, is placed
assembly is an example of a one-motor hybrid system. very low, on the body floor resulting in a very low center
of mass. this gives the vehicle more stability, resulting in
better handling for the vehicle.
■■ the motor/generator that is connected to the drive
■■ Maximum traction—Electric motors are independently
wheels, usually labeled M/G2 or M/G B, is used to propel
controlled, thereby providing precise control on each
the vehicle and to recharge the high-voltage battery
wheel for maximum traction in all wheel drive EVs.
during deceleration (regenerative braking).
■■ More efficient than gasoline vehicles—An EV is
two-motor HEVs are full (strong) hybrids and are capable more efficient than a gasoline vehicle in converting
of propelling the vehicle using electric motor power alone for stored energy into energy of motion. the efficiency of
short distances. ●■SEE FIGURE 2-13. an electric motor is around 85% to 90%, whereas that
of an ICE-powered vehicle is 35% to 40%.
THREE-MOTOR HYBRID SYSTEMS three-motor HEVs
■■ Less cost of operation—Cost of operation of an EV is
are usually two-motor hybrids that use an additional electric motor
less when compared to gasoline vehicle because the cost
to propel the rear wheels for all-wheel-drive capability. HEVs that
of electricity is less when compared to fossil fuels, as well
use three electric motors include the toyota Highlander and Lexus
as the high efficiency of the electric motor.
RX400h/450h SUVs.

TYPICAL ELECTRIC MOTOR TORQUE & POWER CURVES

450 160
400 140
350 120
TORQUE (NM)

300

POWER (NM)
100
250
80
200
60
150
100 40

50 20

0 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
RPM
FIGURE 2-13 the cutaway of a second-generation Prius
TORQUE POWER
transmission (P112) shows two electric motors (MG1 and
MG2). the vehicle can drive a short distance using just the FIGURE 2-14 the graph shows how high the initial torque is
electric motors. in an electric motor and how quickly it generates power.

I N tRO D U C t I O N t O E L E C t RI C AN D H YBRI D E L E Ct RIC VEH IC L ES 23

 ■■ Less maintenance—Fewer moving parts are included in needs to be installed or upgraded to provide a 220–240-
EVs so the maintenance required is reduced. there is no volt outlet near the vehicle to allow overnight charging.
need for oil changes and the brakes may last the life of ■■ High initial cost—Because the cost of the high-voltage
the vehicle because of the regenerative braking technol- batteries is high, the cost of an EV is higher than an ICE
ogy. Only some items require periodical maintenance, vehicle of the same type and size.
which include tire rotation, changing the cabin filter, add-
ing windshield washer fluid, and replacing the windshield
TIPS FOR RANGE INCREASE
wiper blades. ■■ Accelerate slowly.
■■ EVs are quiet and ecofriendly—EVs are very quiet and do ■■ Avoid high-speed driving because as the speed
not make any sound while operating. So EVs will be more increases, the aerodynamic drag is increased by the
suitable for big cities where noise pollution is a concern. square of the speed.
Also due to zero emission, it is considered ecofriendly. ■■ Avoid using the air-conditioning unless absolutely
■■ Charge from your house—Most of the EVs can be needed.
charged from the household itself. ■■ Check tire pressure. the door placard pressure offers the
best compromise in terms of tire rolling resistance, brak-
DISADVANTAGES there are several disadvantages of an ing distance, comfort, lateral dynamics, and wear.
EV compared to an ICE vehicle including:
■■ Pre condition the vehicle. As long as the vehicle is
■■ Limited range—While range is increasing due to attached to the charging station, it makes sense to pre
improved battery designs, range is still a concern for condition the interior and to specify the departure time
many people. Early EVs had a range of up to 80 miles, in winter, because the battery is only fully charged at the
but newer models are now reaching a range of 240 to time of departure and is already at operating temperature.
300 miles or more. ■■ Reduce weight by removing unnecessary additional
■■ Electrical needs at home—Most EVs are charged at weight and roof structures, such as bike racks unless
home and this usually means that the electric service being used.

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

Can an Electric Vehicle Be Towed? ground, many experts recommend the following
Yes, with some precautions to prevent damage to precautions:
the vehicle. Most vehicle manufacturers recom- • Disconnect the 12-volt battery to prevent the
mended towing any vehicle with all four wheels off possibility of the electric parking brake being
the ground. ●■SEE FIGURE 2-15. the manual for a applied.
Chevrolet Bolt includes the following steps: • Listen carefully to ensure that the car does not
• Place the front wheels on a dolly. automatically apply the EPB between the time
• Place the shift lever in P (Park). that the car is turned off and the time that the
battery is disconnected.
• Secure the vehicle to the dolly.
• Make sure to keep the driver’s door open until
However, under “Electric Parking Brake” the
after the battery is disconnected, otherwise the
owner’s manual says that the electric parking brake
car may automatically lock the doors requiring
(EPB) may automatically apply in some situations
the use of the physical key to unlock the door.
when the vehicle is not moving to check the cor-
rect operation of the EPB system. Some Bolt own- • Always make sure to test that the wheels are roll-
ers have reported that the EPB has engaged while ing freely before departure.
being towed with the rear wheels on the ground, Obviously, all the aforementioned precautions
which ruined the rear tires. If any front wheel drive are not necessary if the vehicle is towed with all four
vehicle is being towed with the rear wheels on the wheels off the ground.

24 CHAP tER 2
 Dinghy Towing Dolly Towing

To tow the vehicle from the frond with the

rear wheels on the ground.

FIGURE 2-15 How a front-wheel-drive EV should be towed as per the vehicle manufacture’s instructions.

SUMMARY
1. A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) uses both an internal com- is due to the batteries, electric motor(s), and controllers
bustion engine (ICE) and an electric motor to propel the used plus the additional components needed to allow
vehicle. Most hybrid vehicles use a high-voltage battery operation of the heating and air-conditioning systems dur-
pack and a combination electric motor and generator to ing idle stop periods.
help or assist a gasoline engine. 5. In a parallel-hybrid design, multiple propulsion sources
2. An electric vehicle (EV), also referred to as an electric drive can be combined, or one of the energy sources alone can
vehicle, uses one or more electric motors to propel the drive the vehicle. In this design, the battery and engine are
vehicle. Electricity is used as the transportation fuel to both connected to the transmission.
power the EV. the electrical energy is typically stored in an 6. Each electric motor serves two purposes:
energy storage device, such as a battery. • the motor/generator attached to the engine, usually
3. the EV may be silent when in park or neutral. When put labeled M/G1 or M/G A, is used to start the gasoline
in drive or reverse, an artificial “running engine” sound is engine and to charge the high-voltage batteries.
generated at the front of the vehicle through a speaker • the motor/generator that is connected to the drive
behind the front bodywork. Some vehicles have a second wheels, usually labeled M/G2 or M/G B, is used to
speaker mounted in the rear of the vehicle. typically, the propel the vehicle and to recharge the high-voltage
sound is present until the vehicle reaches approximately battery during deceleration (regenerative braking).
20 MPH. 7. there are many advantages of an electric vehicle com-
4. A hybrid or electric vehicle will cost and weigh more than a pared to a vehicle powered by an internal combustion
conventional vehicle. the increased initial purchase price engine.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a series- 4. What is the purpose of the third motor in a three-motor
hybrid design? hybrid system?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of micro, 5. What are the items that will affect the range of an electric
mild, medium, and full hybrids? vehicle?
3. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of
owning an electric vehicle (EV)?

I N tRO D U C t I O N t O E L E C t RI C AN D H YBRI D E L E Ct RIC VEH IC L ES 25

 CHAPTER QUIZ
1. What is the difference between a mild hybrid and a full c. Cabin filter replacement
hybrid? d. Windshield washer fluid
a. A mild hybrid will propel the vehicle in electric mode. 6. Range anxiety is_______.
b. A full hybrid will propel the vehicle in electric mode. a. the fear of running out of electrical battery charge and
c. there are no differences between mild and full hybrid being left stranded
vehicles. b. the fear of having to recharge on the way to work if
d. None of the answers are correct. the distance is greater than 5 miles
2. What is the difference between a hybrid electric vehicle c. normal anxiety when first owning an EV
(HEV) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)? d. Both a and c
a. Both an HEV and PHEV have to be plugged in. 7. What is the typical battery configuration in a micro hybrid?
b. Only the PHEV needs to be plugged in to achieve a. A 12-volt battery and a 144-volt battery
maximum range. b. two 12-volt batteries
c. A PHEV does not use an ICE. c. A 12-volt battery and a 42-volt battery
d. An HEV uses a high-voltage battery that has a higher d. A 12-volt battery and a 300-volt battery
capacity than a PHEV.
8. A medium hybrid uses________.
3. One-pedal driving means ________. a. a 12-volt battery and a 144-volt battery
a. the vehicle only has one pedal b. two 12-volt batteries
b. the vehicle has the ability to slow and often stop using c. a 12-volt battery and a 42-volt battery
just the accelerator pedal d. a 12-volt battery and a 300-volt battery
c. the vehicle does not use regenerative brakes but just
9. A full hybrid uses________.
friction brakes
a. a 12-volt battery and a 144-volt battery
d. the vehicle uses the accelerator pedal to accelerate
b. two 12-volt batteries
and the parking brake level to slow and stop
c. a 12-volt battery and a 42-volt battery
4. An electric vehicle (EV) is also called a ________. d. a 12-volt battery and a 300-volt battery
a. self-driving vehicle
10. What is NOt an advantage of an EV?
b. battery electric vehicle (BEV)
a. Higher cost
c. hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)
b. Lack of required oil changes and other services that
d. plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)
an ICE requires
5. Most hybrid and electric vehicles have a different mainte- c. More economical to operate on a cost per mile basis
nance schedule than a conventional vehicle. What is not d. All of the above.
commonly performed on an EV?
a. tire rotation
b. Coolant flush

26 CHAP tER 2
Chapter 3
HEALTH
AND ENVIRONMENTAL
CONCERNS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader will be Carbohydrates 28 Sequestration 34

able to: Carbon (C) 28 Smog 29
• Identify carbon-based fuels. Carbon footprint 33 Stratosphere 31
• Explain how ozone affects our environment. Greenhouse gases Ultraviolet (UV)
(GHG) 29 radiation 31
• Describe how organic materials decompose
Irradiance 31 Volatile organic
into carbon-based fuels. compounds (VOC) 30
Ozone 30
• Explain the difference between carbon-based Ozone-depleting
and non-carbon-based energy sources. substances (ODS) 30
• List alternatives to carbon-based fuels.
• List the factors that will be needed to reduce
the carbon footprint.

27
 the source of carbon-based fuels is limited to the remains
NEED FOR ELECTRIC of dead plants and animals and is therefore not a limitless
resource. ●■ SEE FIGURE 3–1.
VEHICLES (EV) AND HYBRID
ELECTRIC VEHICLES (HEV) CARBOHYDRATES all life-forms are able to collect,
store, and use energy from their environment. In carbon-
REDUCTION OF FOSSIL FUELS Electric vehicles do not based biology, the basic energy storage compounds are in
consume fossil fuels directly, but instead are powered from the carbohydrates, where the carbon atoms are linked by single
energy stored in on-board batteries. Hybrid electric vehicles bonds into a chain. For example, carbon dioxide (CO2) plus
are vehicles that have two sources of propulsion, either with water (H2O), when combined with chlorophyll in the plant and
an electric motor supplied energy from the high-voltage battery sunlight, produces glucose and oxygen (O2). a carbohydrate
or an internal combustion engine. While an HEV still uses fossil is oxidized (combined with O2) to release energy (and waste
fuels, they normally are able to achieve superior fuel economy products of H2O and CO2). the carbon atoms are attached
compared to a similar vehicle that uses just fossil fuels for pro- to hydrogen atoms to form hydrocarbons (abbreviated HC).
pulsion. the energy needed to create the electricity to charge there are literally thousands of hydrocarbons, and they differ
the batteries can be from burning fossil fuels, such as coal or not only by the number of carbon atoms, but also by the way
natural gas, or renewable solar and wind, as well as nuclear. they are attached to each other. the various bonds by which
the molecule is constructed results in a change in the physi-
CARBON-BASED FUELS throughout history, most of cal characteristics of the hydrocarbon. Molecules that have
the energy used in the world has been generated by burning a high number of carbon atoms release more energy when
organic fuel that contains carbon (C). an economy that uses burned, which translates into more power from the fuel and
only carbon-based fuels is often referred to as a carbon-based from the engine. Gasoline is composed of hundreds of dif-
society. Carbon is formed from materials that were once alive ferent hydrocarbons that are blended together to create the
on the earth, including: specified volatility and other physical characteristic for use in
an engine. SEE CHART 3–1.
■■ plants that die and eventually are turned into coal, oil,
and natural gas.
CHEMISTRY OF CARBON-BASED EMISSIONS When
■■ animal life of all types that also dies and decays to form carbon-based fuels are burned, the carbon and the hydrogen
carbon-fuels. from the fuel combine with the 21% oxygen and the 88%

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)

IN AIR COMBUSTION OF FOSSIL FUELS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS FOR VEHICLES, ELECTRICITY AND HEAT
BURNING OF FORESTS,
FUEL WOOD AND CARBON STORED
ORGANIC DEBRIS IN PLANT TISSUE TERRESTRIAL FOOD CHAINS

RESPIRATION
CARBON STORED
IN ANIMAL TISSUE

DECOMPOSERS

WASTES, DEAD ORGANISMS TIME COAL

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
(AQUATIC FOOD CHAINS)

OIL AND GAS

TIME
FORMATION OF
ORGANIC SEDIMENTS FOSSIL FUELS

TIME FORMATION OF
LIMESTONE AND
CALCAREOUS DOLOMITE
SEDIMENTS

FIGURE 3-1 Carbon-based fuels are limited to the remains of dead plants and animals and their fossil remains create the
carbon-based fuels used today.

28 CHapt E r 3
 can prevent heat from escaping the surface, leading to an
% OF increase in the temperature on earth. In a nursery greenhouse,
FUEL STATE % OF CARBON HYDROGEN
the glass panes are painted white to reflect the heat back into the
Hydrogen gas 0% 100%
greenhouse.
Methane gas 20% 80%
the ultraviolet light can penetrate through the paint and
Gasoline liquid 31% 69%
warms the interior so plants can be grown in colder peri-
Oil liquid 36% 64%
ods of the year or in colder climates. therefore, the gases
Coal solid 62% 36%
in our atmosphere that act like the white paint on the glass
Wood solid 90% 10%
panes of a greenhouse are called greenhouse gases. ●■SEE
CHART 3-1 FIGURE 3–2.
Carbon and hydrogen content of various fuels. GHG tend to absorb this infrared radiation as it is reflected
back toward space, trapping the heat in the atmosphere.
nitrogen in the air to create many new and often dangerous atmospheric concentrations of several important GHG (carbon
compounds, including: dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and most man-made gases)
■■ a colorless, odorless poisonous gas. have increased by about 25% since large-scale industrialization
began some 150 years ago. the growth in the concentration
■■ Carbon dioxide (CO2)—an inert greenhouse gas, which is
of these gases is believed to be caused by human activity.
thought to cause climate change.
Carbon dioxide that is generated as a result of human activity is
■■ Hydrocarbons (HC)—this is simply unburned fuel and is known an anthropogenic greenhouse gas. In particular, anthro-
one of the components of smog. Smog is a term used to pogenic carbon dioxide emissions have greatly increased since
describe a condition that looks like smoke and/or fog. the beginning of the industrial age, due largely to the burning
of fossil fuels and cutting down of forests for timber and other
GREENHOUSE GASES Greenhouse gases (GHG) are uses, such as paper and chemicals.
those gases in our atmosphere that, if in too great a concentration,

SUN

SOME HEAT ESCAPES

THE ATMOSPHERE

SUNLIGHT PASSES
THROUGH THE
ATMOSPHERE AND
WARMS THE
EARTH'S SURFACE
ATMOSPHERE

HEAT RADIATES FROM

THE WARM SURFACE

EARTH'S SURFACE MORE AND MORE HEAT

IS TRAPPED IN THE
ATMOSPHERE BY THE
EVER INCREASING
INDUSTRY AND VEHICLES BURN
GREENHOUSE GASES
FOSSIL FUEL RELEASING MORE AND
MORE GREENHOUSE GASES INTO
THE ATMOSPHERE

FIGURE 3-2 the atmosphere allows radiation to pass through to the earth’s surface and blocks the release of heat back into
space if there is too high a concentration of greenhouse gases.

H Ea L t H aN D E N V IrO N ME N t aL C ON C Er N S 29
 to block harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun from entering the
OZONE lower atmosphere. therefore, ozone is not a health concern
when it is located in the upper regions of the atmosphere.
DEFINITION Ozone is composed of three atoms of oxy- Depletion of the earth’s upper ozone layer due to the
gen and is abbreviated O3. Ozone occurs naturally in the atmo- release of man-made chemicals threatens human health and
sphere and can be detected by smell after a thunderstorm. damages plant life. Certain man-made chemicals used in refrig-
Ozone has a strong clean smell, and in high concentrations, it eration, air conditioning, fire and explosion prevention, and as
can be a lung and respiratory irritant. Ozone can be created by solvents can trigger reactions in the atmosphere that destroy
lightning, which breaks the molecular structure of oxygen (O2) the ozone layer. Ozone-depleting substances (ODS) include:
into atoms (O), which then combine back into oxygen or com- ■■ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
bine to create ozone. ●■ SEE FIGURE 3–3. ■■ Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)

GROUND-LEVEL OZONE Ozone that is located at ground

■■ Halons

level or in the atmosphere close to the earth is a health concern ■■ Methyl bromide
to humans because it causes health problems, including: ●■ SEE FIGURE 3–4.
■■ Eye irritation
■■ asthma ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
■■
Shortness of breath
What Are Volatile Organic Compounds?
■■ Chest tightness
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) are gases emitted
■■ Wheezing by paints, solvents, aerosol sprays, cleaners, glues, per-
manent markers, pesticides, and fuels. Health effects of
VEHICLES AND OZONE Exhaust from vehicles causes VOC emissions into the atmosphere include:
ground-level-ozone levels to increase because unburned • Eye, nose, and throat irritation
hydrocarbons (HC) and oxides of nitrogen (NOX), in the pres- • Headaches
ence of sunlight, combine to create ozone, also called smog,
• Nausea
which is a term used to describe the smoky or fog-like appear-
ance of ground-level ozone. to reduce the levels of VOC released, always
follow the manufacturer’s directions for use of house-
UPPER-LEVEL OZONE Ozone located in the upper hold and industrial products.
atmosphere (called the ozone layer) is helpful because it helps

STRATOSPHERIC OZONE

GRO LEVEL OZONE

NO + V UND - LIGHT= OZONE
X OC+ SUN

INDUSTRIAL MOBILE AREA BIOGENIC

SOURCES SOURCES SOURCES SOURCES

AIR POLLUTION = GROUND-LEVEL OZONE + CO (CARBON MONOXIDE) + SOX (SULPHUR

OXIDES) + PM (PARTICULATE MATTER + NOX (NITROGEN OXIDES)
+ VOC (VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS)

FIGURE 3-3 Ground-level ozone is created by pollutants, such as nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds reacting
together by sunlight. Ozone in the upper atmosphere is good but ozone near the earth’s surface is bad.

30 CHapt E r 3
 O3

O3
SUNLIGHT

NOx VOC NOx VOC

O3

VOC NOx NOx VOC

NOx VOC NOx VOC

NOx + VOCs + SUNLIGHT = OZONE

MAN-MADE SOURCES NATURAL SOURCES

FIGURE 3-4 NOX plus VOCs interact with sunlight to create ozone.

of solar radiation is irradiance. the solar irradiance at the

ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION earth’s surface varies greatly depending on factors such as:

ABSORPTION ■■ Latitude

■■ time of day
TYPES OF UV RADIATION Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is
■■ time of year
divided into three designations based on its impact on living
organisms. the designations include: ■■ Cloud cover
■■ Designation “a,” abbreviated UVa, is not absorbed by the ■■ Haze
ozone layer and generally is not damaging to biological
In the case of the UV irradiance, additional factors are
organisms.
ozone density and elevation above sea level.
■■ Designation “B,” abbreviated UVB, is only partially
absorbed by the ozone layer and can cause damage to
biological organisms. OZONE CONTROL OF UVB IRRADIANCE the protec-
tion of the earth’s living systems from UVB and UVC radiation is
■■ Designation “C,” abbreviated UVC, is almost completely
absorbed by the ozone layer and represents little, if any, a result of the absorption of this radiation by ozone. While there
health concerns. is some ozone in the lower atmosphere, called the troposphere,
it is small compared to the amount in the upper atmosphere,
INTENSITY OF RADIATION another consideration in
called the stratosphere.
evaluating the effects of UV radiation is the intensity at the
the most important factor is the total amount of ozone
earth’s surface—that is, how much radiation is reaching the
that solar radiation encounters before reaching the earth’s sur-
earth’s surface. For example, consider the difference in radia-
tion between a 20-watt light bulb and a 100-watt bulb. face. this is referred to as column ozone since it is the total
there is a large difference in intensity and thus in the amount of ozone in a column between the earth’s surface and
amount of light or radiation. the term used to define the amount the top of the stratosphere. ●■ SEE FIGURE 3–5.

H E aL t H a N D E N V IrO N ME N t a L CON C ErN S 31

 THE LOW ZONE
OZONE IN
HERE PROTEC
TOSP TIVE O
STRA ZON
E LA
YER

DANGEROU
ERE S GROU
OSPH ND-L
TROP EVEL
OZO
NE

POLLUTION + HEAT & SUNLIGHT

= OZONE
FIGURE 3-5 Column ozone is the total amount of ozone between the earth’s surface and the top of the
stratosphere.

■■ Shortness of breath
TECH TIP
■■ Chest pain when inhaling deeply
Watch for Sunburn When at High Altitude ■■ Wheezing and coughing
When at a location that is above 1,000 feet, and another health concern involves particulate matter (pM), also called
especially if above 5,000 feet, consider that there is soot, which is found in the exhaust of diesel engines. pM has been
much less atmosphere above to block the UV radia- linked to respiratory disease and cancer.
tion. this means that sunburn and eye damage, such
as cataracts, can more easily occur at high altitude
compared to areas that are at or near sea level. ACID RAIN
pH SCALE acid rain refers to rain that has a pH lower than
7, indicating that it is acidic. Normal rain is pure water that is
HEALTH EFFECTS OF neither acidic (a pH of less than 7) nor alkaline (a pH greater

AIR POLLUTION than 7). acid rain usually has a pH of 5.5 but can be as low as
4.3, according to the Environmental protection agency (Epa).
the rain becomes acidic due to gases in the atmosphere,
TYPICAL HEALTH ISSUES according to medical
such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NOX). SO2
experts, almost every disease has an environmental element,
combines with the rain water to form mild sulfuric acid. NOX
either minor or major. Skin cancer is largely thought to be
combine with rain water to form nitric acid. ●■ SEE FIGURE 3–6.
caused by severe sunburn, often in childhood.
Both acids are harmful to the environment and can cause
Unburned hydrocarbon (HC) emissions along with oxides
the following problems:
of nitrogen (NOX) combine in the atmosphere in the presence
of sunlight to generate ground-level ozone (O3). High levels of ■■ Damage to forests and soils
ozone, a respiratory irritant, can cause respiratory problems, ■■ Damage to fish because the acid rain makes lakes and
including inflammation of the lungs. streams more acidic
Ozone exposure may lead to the following conditions:
■■ Damage to buildings and paint on vehicles
■■ premature death (due to long-term exposure to high ■■ Damage to roads and sidewalks. ●■ SEE FIGURE 3–7.
levels of ozone)

32 CHapt E r 3
 ...continued
discovered was that the polish they were using was
RAIN CLOUD slightly acidic and this was causing the original old
paint to change color. While the product was okay to
use on modern paints, it was not suitable for use on
older original paint used before modern paint tech-
SO 2 nology. to avoid causing damage or a color change
NO X on older paint, restoration experts recommend using
a “pH balanced” product.
ACID RAIN FORMATION
the pH is measured on a scale from 1 to 14
and is used to indicate the amount of chemical activ-
ity. the term pH is from the French word pouvoir
hydrogine, meaning “hydrogen power.”
alkaline materials and acid materials neutralize
each other, such as when baking soda (a caustic)
is used to clean the outside of the battery (an acid

FIGURE 3-6 acid rain is formed when sulfur dioxide (SO2) surface). the caustic baking soda neutralizes any
and oxides of nitrogen (NOX) combine with rain, forming acids. sulfuric acid that has been spilled or splashed on the
outside of the battery. Most car shampoos are slightly
alkaline with a pH of ranging from 7.1 to 8.5. Many
car polishes are slightly acidic with a pH of 5 or 6. to
check if the polish is acidic or is pH balanced, visit a
parts store and ask that the safety data sheet (SDS)
be printed out for the product being considered. the
parts store counterperson will use the bar code to
access the product information and from there, the
SDS should be available and can be printed. Check
the listed pH, and if the pH is 7, it is usable for all
paints and finishes. However, if the pH is 4 to 6, most
experts recommend that these not be used on old
vehicles with their original paint.
Summary:
• Complaint—Using a spray wax, it was discovered
FIGURE 3-7 the sidewalk section at the top is about 20 years to be the cause of turning the blue paint to purple
old and shows the effects of acid rain, as compared to the on an old car.
lower section, which is about five years old. Notice that
• Cause—the spray wax was slightly acidic and this
the acid rain has eroded the cement, leaving the aggregate
(stones) exposed on the upper section. caused the blue paint to turn purple.
• Correction—the museum switched brands of
spray wax to ones that were “pH balanced,” mean-
Case Study ing that the pH was 7 or about 7 (neutral).

The Case of the Wrong pH

a museum was using a spray polish on an origi-
nal paint blue 1937 Ford. after a few minutes, they
noticed that the paint started to look purple. they CARBON FOOTPRINT
immediately stopped using the spray polish and
started to investigate the product they were using by DEFINITION total carbon footprint includes energy-related
checking with restoration experts. What they emissions from human activities, including heat, light, power, refrig-
...continued eration, and all transport-related emissions from vehicles, freight, and

H Ea L t H aN D E N V IrO N ME N t aL C ON C Er N S 33
distribution. the carbon footprint is a representation of the effect a 2. turn down the central heating slightly (try just 1 to 2
person or organization has on the climate in terms of the total volume degrees).
of GHG (mostly CO2) produced. 3. turn down the water heating setting (just 2 degrees will
Many actions generate carbon emissions, which contrib- make a significant saving).
ute to accelerating climate change. For example, when gasoline
4. Check the central heating timer setting—there is no point
is burned in a vehicle, it produces carbon in the form of carbon
in heating the house if everyone is at work during the day.
dioxide. Depending on the fuel efficiency of the vehicle and the
5. Fill the dishwasher and washing machine with a full load—
miles traveled, a gasoline powered vehicle can easily generate
this will save water and electricity, as well as detergent.
its own weight in carbon dioxide each year. to prevent these
conditions from occurring, GHG must be reduced by 60%, or 6. Unplug the cell phone as soon as it has finished charging.
a method must be used where CO2 can be stored below the 7. Defrost the freezer regularly; if not done automatically, con-
earth’s surface. the process of storing carbon dioxide under- sider disabling the automatic function to save electricity.
ground is called sequestration. ●■ SEE FIGURE 3–8. 8. Do shopping in a single trip.

REDUCING THE CARBON FOOTPRINT the following 9. travel less and travel more using carbon-footprint-friendly
is a list of simple things that can be done immediately that will vehicles.
start to reduce the contribution to climate change. the items 10. purchase a fuel-efficient vehicle, such an electric vehicle
in this list will cost no money at all and will in fact save money. (EV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV).
1. turn electrical devices off when not in use, such as lights,
television, and computer.

REFORMER AND
CARBON CAPTURE
OIL

CO2 NATURAL GAS

FROM NORTH SEA

PRODUCTION OIL

CO2

ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY WITH

LONG-TERM CO2 STORAGE IN
ROCK FORMATION

FIGURE 3-8 pumping carbon dioxide back into the earth not only reduces the amount released to the atmosphere, but also
helps force more crude oil to the surface, thereby increasing the efficiency of existing wells.

34 CHapt E r 3
 SUMMARY
1. today’s society is based on the use of carbon-based fuels, 5. the GHG in the atmosphere include:
which are made from the remains of living plants and animals. • Water vapor (H2O)
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
2. Carbon atoms are attached to hydrogen atoms to form • Methane (CH4)
hydrocarbons, abbreviated HC. • Nitrous oxide (N2O)
3. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is divided into three designations • Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
based on its impact on living organisms. 6. total carbon footprint includes energy-related emissions
4. Greenhouse gases (GHG) are those gases in our atmosphere from human activities, including heat, light, power, refrig-
that if in too great a concentration, can prevent heat from eration, and all transport-related emissions from vehicles,
escaping the surface, leading to an increase in the tempera- freight, and distribution.
ture on earth.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by the term “carbon-based society?” 4. What does carbon footprint mean?
2. What are hydrocarbons? 5. What are six things people can do to reduce their indi-
3. Which type of UV radiation is the most harmful to living vidual carbon footprint?
organisms on earth?

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. Which fuel contains the least amount of carbon? 6. What is ozone?
a. Methane a. O3 c. NOX
b. Hydrogen b. CO2 d. H2O
c. Coal 7. Which of the following UV radiation types is the most
d. Gasoline harmful to living organisms?
2. What does the word organic mean? a. UVa
a. any fuel b. UVB
b. anything that was once alive c. UVC
c. Stone or rock d. None of the above
d. any part of the atmosphere above the ozone layer 8. Why is sunburn more likely to occur at high altitudes as
3. the major greenhouse gas from gasoline-powered vehi- compared to sea level?
cles is _________. a. there is less ozone above to block the UV rays
a. carbon monoxide (CO) b. You are closer to the sun
b. carbon dioxide (CO2) c. there is less oxygen
c. oxides of nitrogen (NOX) d. It is colder at high altitudes and sunburn is therefore
d. unburned hydrocarbons (HCs) less likely
4. the earth’s upper ozone layer ________. 9. to reduce your carbon footprint, what action(s) can be
a. is harmful to plants and animals, including humans performed?
b. helps reduce UV radiation from reaching the earth’s a. Drive a hybrid electric vehicle instead of a conven-
surface tional gasoline-engine vehicle
c. Both a and b b. Drive fewer miles
d. Neither a nor b c. Insulate homes
5. Which of the following result in smog when exposed to d. all of the above
sunlight? 10. Carbon dioxide is _________.
a. Unburned hydrocarbon (HC) a. manufactured gas
b. Oxides of nitrogen (NOX) b. occurs in our atmosphere normally
c. Carbon dioxide (CO2) c. is produced by plants and trees
d. Both a and b d. Both a and b

H Ea L t H aN D E N V IrO N ME N t aL C ON C Er N S 35
Chapter 4
HYBRID ENGINE
SYSTEMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Active grille shutters Pumping losses 39
be able to: (AGS) 50 Variable valve timing
Atkinson cycle 38 (VVT) 42
• Explain how a four-stroke cycle gasoline engine
Internal combustion
operates. engine (ICE) 37
• Explain the Atkinson cycle and how it affects
engine efficiency.
• Describe the importance of using the specified
oil in the engine of a hybrid electric vehicle.
• Describe how the fuel injection and ignition
systems work on hybrid gasoline engines.
• Explain how variable valve timing is able to
improve engine power and reduce exhaust
emissions.

36
 1. Conventional fuel injection system
HYBRID INTERNAL 2. Conventional engine layout and number of cylinders (except

COMBUSTION ENGINES (ICE) for the Honda Insight, which uses a three-cylinder engine)
3. Uses the same engine parts as conventional
HYBRID ENGINE DIFFERENCES The internal combus- 4. Same ignition system
tion engine (ICE) converts the energy contained in the fuel 5. Same or similar engine lubrication system, including the
into heat energy in a process called combustion. A portion of oil filter but with a lighter viscosity oil than that used in
this energy is lost due to the cooling and exhaust systems, but similar conventional vehicles
about a third is turned into useful power. This power is used to
move the vehicle. The ICE used in hybrid electric vehicles (HEV)
differs from those used in conventional vehicles. These differ-
ences can include:
ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS
■■ Smaller engine displacement than most similar vehicles FOUR-STROKE CYCLE OPERATION Engine cycles are
of the same size and weight. identified by the number of piston strokes required to complete
■■ Use of the Atkinson cycle to increase efficiency. the cycle. A piston stroke is a one-way piston movement between
■■ Crankshaft offset to reduce internal friction. the top and bottom of the cylinder (and vice versa). During one
stroke, the crankshaft revolves 180° (1/2 revolution). A cycle is a
■■ Often do not use a conventional starter motor.
complete series of events that continually repeat. Most automo-
■■ Some use spark plugs that are indexed so the open side tive engines use the four-stroke cycle of events, begun by the
of the spark is pointed toward the intake valve for maxi- starter motor, which rotates the engine. The four-stroke cycle is
mum efficiency. repeated for each cylinder of the engine. ●■ SEE FIGURE 4–1.
■■ Engine mounts are computer controlled to counteract
■■ Intake stroke. The intake valve is open and the piston
and eliminate undesirable engine vibration.
inside the cylinder travels downward, drawing a mixture
■■ The use of low viscosity engine oil, such as SAE 0W-20 of air and fuel into the cylinder.
or SAE 0W-16.
■■ Compression stroke. As the engine continues to rotate,
The engines used in hybrid vehicles are also similar to those the intake valve closes and the piston moves upward in
used in non-hybrid vehicles and share the following features: the cylinder, compressing the air–fuel mixture.

CAMSHAFTS EXHAUST GASES OUT

CURRENT
VALVE SPRING
SPARK
PLUG

EXHAUST VALVE

SPARK
CYLINDER HEAD MIXTURE
EXPLODING
COMPRESSED
MIXTURE
FORCES
COOLING WATER PISTON DOWN

CYLINDER BLOCK

CONNECTING
ROD

CRANKSHAFT

CRANKSHAFT WEB

INTAKE COMPRESSION POWER EXHAUST

FIGURE 4–1 The downward movement of the piston draws the air–fuel mixture into the cylinder through the open intake
valve on the intake stroke. On the compression stroke, the mixture is compressed by the upward movement of the piston
with both valves closed. Ignition occurs at the beginning of the power stroke, and combustion drives the piston downward to
produce power. On the exhaust stroke, the upward-moving piston forces the burned gases out the open exhaust valve.

H YBRI D E NGIN E S Y S T EM S 37
 ■■ Power stroke. When the piston gets near the top of the OPERATION One key feature of the Atkinson cycle that
cylinder, called top dead center (TDC), the spark at the remains in use today is that the intake valve is held open longer
spark plug ignites the air–fuel mixture, forcing the piston than normal to allow a reverse flow into the intake manifold.
downward and the crankshaft to rotate. This reduces the effective compression ratio and engine dis-
■■ Exhaust stroke. The engine continues to rotate, and the placement and allows the expansion to exceed the compres-
piston again moves upward in the cylinder. The exhaust sion ratio while retaining a normal compression pressure. This
valve opens, and the piston forces the residual burned is desirable for good fuel economy because the compression
gases past the exhaust valve and into the exhaust ratio in a spark ignition engine is limited by the octane rat-
manifold and exhaust system. ing of the fuel used, while a high expansion delivers a longer
power stroke and reduces the heat wasted in the exhaust. This
This sequence repeats as the engine rotates. To stop the
increases the efficiency of the engine because more work is
engine, power to the ignition system and fuel system is shut off.
being achieved. ●■SEE FIGURE 4–2.
The piston is attached to a crankshaft with a connecting
rod. This arrangement allows the piston to reciprocate (move up NOTE: Four-stroke engines of this type with forced induction,
and down) in the cylinder as the crankshaft rotates. The combus- such as an engine-driven supercharger, are known as Miller
tion pressure developed in the combustion chamber at the cor- cycle engines. At present, no hybrid engine uses a super-
rect time will push the piston downward to rotate the crankshaft. charger or the Miller cycle. Sometimes called a “five-stroke”
cycle, the Atkinson cycle uses a normal intake stroke, but as
the compression stroke is about to start, the intake valve is
ATKINSON CYCLE left open to reduce pumping losses. See Frequently Asked
Question, “What Is Meant by ‘Pumping Losses?’”
BACKGROUND The Atkinson cycle engine is an engine that The open intake valve allows a “backflow stroke” of air
uses a late closing intake valve to reduce compression pressures from the cylinder into the intake manifold. As the piston moves
and an extended power stroke event. In 1882, James Atkinson, up the cylinder, the intake valve closes and the compression
a British engineer, invented an engine that achieved a higher stroke begins. A 12.3:1 compression ratio ensures there is suffi-
efficiency than the Otto cycle, but produced lower power at low cient cylinder pressure for good performance. The power stroke
engine speeds. The Atkinson cycle engine was produced in limited begins as the air–fuel mixture is ignited by the spark plug, and
numbers until 1890, when sales dropped, and the company that the cycle is completed as the piston forces the exhaust gases
manufactured the engines finally went out of business in 1893. out the exhaust valve on the exhaust stroke.

SPARK OCCURS
PRESSURE

S EXPANSION

ADDITIONAL WORK
COMPRESSION
COMPRESSION
3
1 EXHAUST 3'
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
4 INTAKE 2
TDC ATKINSON CYCLE BDC
VOLUME
BASE ENGINE (BDC)
FIGURE 4–2 A pressure volume diagram showing where additional work is generated by the delayed closing of the intake valve.
Point “S” is where the spark occurs.

38 CHAPTER 4
 Ford Fusion Hybrid/Mercury Milan Hybrid/Lincoln MKZ
?
■■

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

hybrid electric
■■ Honda Accord Plug-In Hybrid
What Is Meant by “Pumping Losses?”
■■ Honda Accord Hybrid
Pumping losses refer to the energy required to over-
come the restriction in the intake system to fill the cyl-
■■ Honda Clarity Plug-In Hybrid

inders with air during the intake stroke. Pumping losses ■■ Honda Insight
are created by the throttle valve that restricts the flow ■■ Honda Fit
of air into the cylinders. Diesel engines do not have this ■■ Hyundai Sonata Hybrid
concern because they are un-throttled, meaning that ■■ Hyundai Elantra Atkinson-cycle models
there is no restriction to airflow entering a diesel engine. ■■ Hyundai hybrid
To reduce pumping losses several methods are used:
■■ Hyundai Ioniq hybrid, plug-in hybrid
1. Introduce a high percentage (over 30%) of exhaust
gas recirculation (EGR) into the intake. Because
■■ Hyundai Palisade 3.8 L

the exhaust gases do not burn, but rather occupy ■■ Infiniti M35h hybrid
space, the power of the engine is reduced. To ■■ Kia Forte
achieve the original power from the engine, the ■■ Kia Niro hybrid
throttle must be opened farther than normal, thereby ■■ Kia Optima Hybrid Kia K5 hybrid 500h
reducing pumping losses due to the closed throttle. ■■
Kia Cadenza Hybrid Kia K7 hybrid
2. The use of an electronic throttle allows the power-
■■ Kia Telluride 3.8 L
train engineer to program the powertrain control
module (PCM) to open the throttle at highway speeds
■■ Kia Seltos 2.0L

to reduce pumping losses, and at the same time ■■ Lexus CT 200h

introduce additional EGR to maintain engine speed. ■■ Lexus ES 300h
3. Reduce engine speed by using overdrive trans- ■■ Lexus GS 450h hybrid electric
missions/transaxles. The slower the engine ■■ Lexus RC F
speed, the easier it is to increase its efficiency. ■■ Lexus GS F
The most efficient engines are huge ship die-
■■ Lexus HS 250h
sel engines that operate at about 100 RPM and can
achieve an efficiency of about 50%, or twice that of a
■■ Lexus IS 200t

conventional gasoline or diesel engine. ■■ Lexus NX hybrid

■■ Lexus RX 450h hybrid
■■ Lexus LC
The Atkinson cycle is up to 10% more efficient than a conven- ■■ Mazda Mazda6
tional four-stroke gasoline engine, and produces more torque than ■■ Mercedes ML450 Hybrid
a conventional engine at high engine speeds, but it does reduce ■■ Mercedes S400 Blue Hybrid
low-end engine torque. A typical HEV can take advantage of this by
■■ Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV
using an electric motor to propel the vehicle at lower speeds. Electric
motors excel at low RPM torque, so the hybrid transaxle makes up
■■ Toyota Camry Hybrid

for the low-speed losses of the Atkinson cycle gasoline engine. ■■ Toyota Avalon Hybrid
■■ Toyota Highlander Hybrid
ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINES The Atkinson cycle is used ■■ Toyota Prius hybrid
in many conventional, as well as HEV, including but not limited ■■ Toyota Yaris Hybrid
to the following: ■■ Toyota Tacoma V6
■■ Chevrolet Volt ■■ Toyota RAV4 Hybrid
■■ Chrysler Pacifica plug-in hybrid model minivan ■■ Toyota Sienna
■■ Ford C-Max hybrid and plug-in hybrid models ■■ Toyota C-HR Hybrid
■■ Ford Escape/Mercury Mariner hybrid electric ■■ Subaru Crosstrek Hybrid

H YBRI D E N GIN E S Y S T EM S 39
 ■■ The lower portion of the major thrust surface has already
HYBRID ENGINE DESIGN been in contact with the cylinder wall. The rest of the
piston skirt slips into full contact just after the crossover
FEATURES point, thereby controlling piston slap. ●■SEE FIGURE 4–4.

PISTON PIN OFFSET The piston pin holes are usually not
centered in the piston. They are located toward the major thrust PISTON
surface, approximately 0.062 inch (1.57 millimeters) from the CENTERLINE
piston centerline. ●■ SEE FIGURE 4–3.
Pin offset is designed to reduce piston slap and noise that
can result as the large end of the connecting rod crosses over
TDC. The minor thrust side of the piston head has a greater
area than does the major side. This is caused by the pin offset. MAJOR
THRUST
The action includes the following steps:
SURFACE
■■ As the piston moves up in the cylinder on the compression
stroke, it rides against the minor thrust surface.
■■ When compression pressure becomes high enough, the
greater head area on the minor side causes the piston to
OFFSET
cock slightly in the cylinder.
PISTON PIN
■■ This keeps the top of the minor thrust surface on the CENTERLINE
cylinder.
■■ It forces the bottom of the major thrust surface to contact
the cylinder wall.
■■ As the piston approaches top center, both thrust surfaces
are in contact with the cylinder wall.
■■ When the crankshaft crosses over top center, the force
on the connecting rod moves the entire piston toward the
major thrust surface.
FIGURE 4–3 Piston pin offset toward the major thrust surface.

CROSSOVER
BTDC ATDC
AT THE START OF
COMPRESSION POWER STROKE
THE POWER STROKE
STROKE

FIGURE 4–4 Engine rotation and rod angle during the power stroke cause the piston to press harder against one side of the
cylinder, called the major thrust surface.

40 CHAPTER 4
 Offsetting the piston toward the minor thrust surface provides a
better mechanical advantage. It also causes less piston-to-cylinder ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

friction. For these reasons, the offset is often placed toward the
How Can the Motor/Generator Smooth Out ICE
minor thrust surface in racing engines. Noise and durability are not
Power Pulses?
as important in racing engines as is maximum performance.
Most HEV use a motor/generator either attached to
NOTE: All piston pins are offset. In fact, many engines the ICE crankshaft either directly or through a drive
operate without the offset to help reduce friction and belt. Every ICE creates the power by using combus-
improve power and fuel economy. tion events inside the cylinder. Every time a cylinder
fires, the crankshaft speed increases and starts to
OFFSET CRANKSHAFT The thrust side is the side of the slow until the next cylinder in the firing order fires. The
cylinder that the connecting rod points to when the piston is on resulting speeding up and slowing down causes tor-
the power stroke. To reduce side loads, some vehicle manufac- sional harmonics to be transmitted to the crankshaft
turers offset the crankshaft from center. This is called an offset and eventually to the entire drivetrain. The motor/
crankshaft. For example, if an engine rotates clockwise as viewed generator, commonly called an “electric machine,”
from the front, the crankshaft may be offset to the left to reduce supplies a counter torque to the crankshaft to cancel
the angle of the connecting rod during the power stroke. The off- out the torsional harmonics. This action results in
set usually varies from 1/16 inch to 1/2 inch, depending on make smoother operation of the entire drivetrain.
and model. Some inline gasoline engines used in hybrid gasoline/ ●■SEE FIGURE 4–6.
electric vehicles use an offset crankshaft. ●■SEE FIGURE 4–5.

CENTERLINE CENTERLINE
OF CYLINDER OF CYLINDER

PISTON
PISTON

CONNECTING CRANKSHAFT
ROD OFFSET REDUCES CONNECTING
ANGLE ROD
CENTERLINE OF
CRANKSHAFT CENTERLINE OF
MAIN BEARING CRANKSHAFT CONNECTING
MAIN BEARING ROD JOURNAL
ANGLE A 918 ANGLE B 978

MAIN
JOURNAL
CONNECTING
ROD JOURNAL
MAIN
JOURNAL OFFSET

FIGURE 4–5 The crank throw is halfway down on the power stroke. The piston on the left without an offset crankshaft has a
sharper angle than the engine on the right with an offset crankshaft.

H YBRI D E NGIN E S Y S T EM S 41
 CRANKSHAFT TORSIONAL HARMONICS
CREATED BY SPEED AND TORQUE CHANGES

INTERNAL COMBUSTION RESULTING OUTPUT

ENGINE (ICE)

ELECTRIC MACHINE(S) ADD

SPEED & TORQUE TO DRIVELINE

FIGURE 4–6 All ICE create crankshaft torsional harmonics when the cylinders fire. The attached motor/generator (electric
machine) applies a counter torque to the crankshaft to smooth out these harmonics.

emissions. The camshaft can be changed to create a

VARIABLE VALVE TIMING broad engine torque range and improved fuel economy.
■■ Both Intake and Exhaust Cams. Many double overhead
PURPOSE OF VARIABLE VALVE TIMING Conventional camshaft (DOHC) engines use VVT on both the intake and the
camshafts are permanently synchronized to the crankshaft so exhaust camshafts. By varying both camshafts, the engine
that the valves operate at a specific point in each combus- torque is increased over a wide engine speed range. This allows
tion cycle. In an engine, the intake valve opens slightly before the PCM to control the amount of exhaust gases trapped in the
the piston reaches the top of the cylinder and closes about combustion chamber to control the formation of NOx emissions.
60 degrees after the piston reaches the bottom of the stroke on This is achieved by allowing the intake valve(s) to open sooner or
every cycle, regardless of the engine speed or load. the exhaust valve(s) to stay open longer. ●■SEE CHART 4–1.

VARIABLE VALVE TIMING SYSTEMS Variable valve tim- CAMSHAFT

ing (VVT) involves the use of electric and hydraulic actuators that are PHASING CHANGED RESULTS
used to change the timing of the camshaft(s) in relation to the crank- Exhaust cam phasing Reduces NOx exhaust
emissions
shaft. VVT, also called variable cam timing (VCT), allows the valves to
Exhaust cam phasing Increases fuel economy (reduced
be operated at different points in the combustion cycle to improve
pumping losses)
performance. As a result of being able to create overlap between the
Intake cam phasing Increases low-speed torque
intake and exhaust valves, most engines equipped with VVT do not
Intake cam phasing Increases high-speed power
use an EGR valve. There are four basic types of VVT used on engines:
■■ Exhaust only. An engine that uses VVT on the exhaust only CHART 4–1
is used to create an EGR affect, thereby eliminating the need By varying the intake camshaft timing, engine performance
for an EGR valve. In this system, the exhaust valve is retarded is improved. By varying the exhaust camshaft timing, the
exhaust emissions and fuel consumption are reduced.
when the engine is operating at part throttle. This delays the
DEFAULT POSITION FULL RETARD
closing of the exhaust valves, which allows exhaust gases to
(MIN OVERLAP) (MAX OVERLAP)
be trapped in the combustion chamber. ●■SEE FIGURE 4–7. 10
9
■■ Intake only. Changing the intake camshaft timing results in 8
VALVE LIFT (MM)

improved engine performance. This is due to commanding 7

the intake valve to close earlier in the compression stroke, 6
5
resulting in less of the air/fuel charge being pushed back 4
into the intake port (reversions). The result is improved by 3
EXHAUST INTAKE
2
low speed torque that the engine can produce.
1
■■ Cam-in-block. Some overhead valve (OHV) engines that 0
23608 22708 21808 2908 08 908 1808 2708 3608
use a single camshaft to control the valves are equipped
CRANK ANGLE (DEGREES)
with a phaser that allows the cam to be rotated in rela-
FIGURE 4–7 The exhaust on only VCT systems allows the over-
tion to the crankshaft to achieve VVT. The PCM retards lap period where both valves are open to be changed. The at-rest
the camshaft to achieve exhaust gases so an EGR valve position provides little valve overlap, whereas the maximum overlap
is not needed to meet oxides of nitrogen (NOx) exhaust allows for internal EGR needed to reduce NOx exhaust emissions.

42 CHAPTER 4
 CAMSHAFT PHASERS There are two types of cam phas-
TECH TIP
ing devices used:

Always Use the Specified Oil in a HEV 1. Spline phaser is used on overhead camshaft (OHC)
engines. ●■SEE FIGURE 4–9.
Most HEV engines require a low viscosity engine oil
such as SAE 0W-16, SAE 0W-20, or SAE 5W-20. 2. Vane phaser is used on OHC and OHV cam-in-block
There are three major reasons why this low viscosity engines.
oil is used:
1. Lower viscosity oil improves fuel economy by SPLINE PHASER SYSTEM OPERATION On a typical
reducing drag inside the engine. OHC engine, the control valve is located on the front passenger
side of the cylinder head. The OCV is controlled using a pulse-
2. During starting after idle stop has occurred, the oil
width modulation (PWM) signal from the PCM. Oil pressure is
has to flow quickly to get oil to all of the moving
regulated by the control valve and directed to the ports in the
parts especially in cold weather.
cylinder head leading to the camshaft and cam phaser position.
3. Most HEV engines use a type of VVT or displace-
The cam phaser is located on the exhaust cams and is part of the
ment deactivation system that requires the rapid
exhaust cam sprocket. When the ECM commands an increase
flow of oil to function as designed.
in oil pressure, the piston is moved inside the cam phaser and
Therefore, for best overall performance and economy, rides along the helical splines, which compresses the coil spring.
always use the specified oil in all engines. This movement causes the cam phaser gear and the camshaft
to move in an opposite direction, thereby retarding the cam tim-
ing. ●■SEE FIGURE 4–10.

VANE PHASER SYSTEM ON AN OVERHEAD

PARTS AND OPERATION The camshaft position CAMSHAFT ENGINE The vane phaser system used
actuator oil control valve (OCV) directs oil from the oil feed in on OHC engines uses a camshaft piston (CMP) sensor on
the head to the appropriate camshaft position actuator oil pas- each camshaft. Each camshaft has its own actuator and its
sages. There is one OCV for each camshaft position actuator. own OCV. Instead of using a piston along a helical spline,
The OCV is sealed and mounted to the front cover. The ported the vane phaser uses a rotor with four vanes, which is con-
end of the OCV is inserted into the cylinder head with a sliding nected to the end of the camshaft. The rotor is located inside
fit. A filter screen protects each OCV oil port from any con- the stator, which is bolted to the cam sprocket. The stator
tamination in the oil supply. The camshaft position actuator is and rotor are not connected. Oil pressure is controlled on
mounted to the front end of the camshaft. The timing notch in both sides of the vanes of the rotor, which creates a hydrau-
the nose of the camshaft aligns with the dowel pin in the cam- lic link between the two parts. The OCV varies the balance
shaft position actuator to ensure proper cam timing and cam- of pressure on either side of the vanes and thereby controls
shaft position actuator oil hole alignment. ● SEE FIGURE 4–8. the position of the camshaft. A return spring is used under the

IDLE VALVE TIMING PERFORMANCE VALVE TIMING EGR FUNCTION VALVE TIMING
TDC BDC TDC BDC TDC TDC BDC TDC BDC TDC TDC BDC TDC BDC TDC
POWER EXHAUST INTAKE COMPRESSION POWER EXHAUST INTAKE COMPRESSION POWER EXHAUST INTAKE COMPRESSION

INTAKE
EXHAUST
EXHAUST INTAKE EXHAUST INTAKE

VERY LOW OVERLAP RETARDED MODERATE OVERLAP RETARDED HIGH OVERLAP

EXHAUST EXHAUST EXHAUST
IDLE QUALITY MODE PERFORMANCE EGR FUNCTION
INTAKE INTAKE INTAKE
OPERATION
(A) (B) (C)

FIGURE 4–8 (a) At engine start, the camshaft timing has little valve overlap, which improves idle quality. (b) During acceleration,
the valve overlap is increased to improve engine performance. (c) To reduce NOx emissions, the valve timing is changed to trap
some of the exhaust gases in the combustion chamber, thereby eliminating the needs for an EGR valve.

H YBRI D E N GIN E S Y S T EM S 43
 STRAIGHT-CUT EXHAUST
FLOATING SPLINES CAMSHAFT
PISTON

DRIVE SPROCKET
RELECTOR (FROM CRANKSHAFT)
HELICAL
SPLINES

OIL OIL
APPLIED APPLIED

ADVANCE RETARD
POSITION POSITION

FIGURE 4–9 Spline cam phaser assembly.

MAP SENSOR
CRANKSHAFT POSITION
(CKP) SENSOR RPM

CAMSHAFT POSITION POWERTRAIN

(CMP) SENSOR CONTROL MODULE (PCM)

PWM CONTROL
VALVE

SPRING
PISTON
VENT VENT
HELICAL SPLINE
(PART OF CAM) ENGINE OIL
PRESSURE

CAMSHAFT

SPROCKET
RELUCTOR WHEEL
TOOTH

FIGURE 4–10 A spline phaser showing the control valve and how it works internally.
The PCM uses the engine speed (RPM), crankshaft position (CKP) sensor, and the camshaft
position (CMP) sensor to monitor and command the camshaft for maximum power and lowest
possible exhaust emissions.

44 CHAPTER 4
 ENGINE OIL
PRESSURE

SPROCKET PADDLE
CAVITY OIL CONTROL
VALVE (OCV)
RETARD
ADVANCE

CAMSHAFT
PADDLE

SPROCKET

FIGURE 4–11 A vane phaser is used to move the camshaft using changes of oil
pressure from the OCV.

reluctor of the phaser to help return it to the home or 0 position. The cam phasing is continuously variable with a range
●■SEE FIGURE 4–11. from 40 for the intake camshaft to 50 for the exhaust camshaft.
The following occurs when the pulse width is changed: The PCM uses the following sensors to determine the best
position of the camshaft for maximum power and lowest pos-
■■ 0% pulse width. The oil is directed to the advance
sible exhaust emissions:
chamber of the exhaust camshaft actuator and the retard
chamber of the intake camshaft activator. ■■ Engine speed (RPM)
■■ 50% pulse width. The PCM is holding the cam in the ■■ MAP sensor
calculated position based on engine RPM and load. At ■■ Crankshaft position (CKP) sensor
50% pulse width, the oil flow through the phaser drops to ■■ Camshaft position (CMP) sensor
zero. ●■SEE FIGURE 4–12.
■■ Barometric pressure (BARO) sensor
100% pulse width. The oil is directed to the retard cham-
ber of the exhaust camshaft actuator and the advance
chamber of the intake camshaft actuator.
DIAGNOSIS OF VARIABLE
OIL FLOW VS DUTY CYCLE
VALVE TIMING SYSTEMS
OIL FLOW
6
(LITERS
PER 5
DIAGNOSTIC STEPS The diagnostic procedure as speci-
MINUTE) fied by most vehicle manufacturers usually includes the follow-
4
ing steps:
3
STEP 1 Verify the customer concern. This will usually be a
2
“check engine light” (malfunction indicator light or
1
MIL), as the engine performance effects would be
0 20 40 60 80 100 minor under most operating conditions.

DUTY CYCLE %
STEP 2 Perform a thorough visual inspection, including check-
ing the oil for proper level and condition.
DUTY CYCLE CHANGES OIL FLOW; STEP 3 Check for stored diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs).
FLOW STOPS AT 50%
Typical VVT–related DTCs include the following:
FIGURE 4–12 When the PCM commands 50% duty cycle, P0011—Intake cam position is over advanced bank 1
the oil flow through the phaser drops to zero. P0012—Intake cam position is over retarded bank 1

H YBRI D E N GIN E S Y S T EM S 45
 P0013—Exhaust camshaft position actuator
P0014—Exhaust camshaft too far advanced
P0021—Intake cam position is over advanced bank 2
P0022—Intake cam position is over retarded bank 2
STEP 4 Use a scan tool and check for duty cycle on the cam
SCREENS
phase solenoid while operating the vehicle at a steady
road speed. The commanded pulse width should be
50%. If the pulse width is not 50%, the PCM is trying
to move the phaser to its commanded position and
the phaser has not reacted properly. A PWM signal
of higher or lower than 50% usually indicates a stuck
phaser assembly.
STEP 5 Check the solenoid for proper resistance. If a scan
tool with bidirectional control is available, connect an
ammeter and measure the current as the solenoid is
FIGURE 4–13 The screen(s) protects the solenoid valve from
being commanded on by the scan tool. dirt and debris that can cause the valve to stick. This fault
STEP 6 Check for proper engine oil pressure. Low oil pressure can set a P0017 DTC (crankshaft position–camshaft position
or restricted flow to the cam phaser can be the cause correlation error).
of many DTC.
STEP 7 Determine the root cause of the problem and clear all DTCs.
STEP 8 Road test the vehicle to verify the fault has been to condense on a cold air intake manifold and cylinder walls,
corrected. requiring a richer air–fuel mixture to compensate. The cold
surfaces in the combustion chamber also uses quench, where
TECH TIP the flame along those surfaces is extinguished and the air–fuel
mixture is only partially burned. These issues diminish signifi-
Change the Engine Oil If a DTC Is Set cantly once the ICE is up to operating temperature. Coolant
temperature is maintained at an optimum temperature for a
A P000A DTC indicates that the intake camshaft tim-
number of reasons:
ing changed too slowly. A P000B DTC is set when
the exhaust camshaft timing changes too slowly. 1. The ICE is able to run at the highest efficiency and lowest
While these DTCs could be set due to a fault with emissions when it is operating between 195°F and 215°F
the solenoids or the electrical circuits controlling the (90°C and 101°C).
solenoids, the most likely cause is engine oil–related. 2. Vehicle drivability (engine performance) is enhanced.
Dirty oil, oil of the incorrect viscosity, or even a low 3. Engines that operate at normal temperatures tend to last
oil level is often the most likely cause. If the electrical longer than engines that run cold.
circuits are found to be within factory specification,
4. The optimum coolant temperature allows the passenger
changing the engine oil using the specified viscosity
compartment heating system to operate properly.
may well be the solution to either code fault. ●■SEE
FIGURE 4–13. 5. Overheating of the ICE can lead to reduced efficiency
and possible catastrophic failure of internal mechanical
components.
All automotive ICEs are liquid-cooled. The cooling sys-

HEV ICE COOLING SYSTEM tems are sealed and liquid coolant is circulated through the
water jacket (internal passages) by the water pump to absorb
excess heat. The heated coolant is sent to the radiator to
ENGINE (ICE) COOLING The purpose of the engine
dissipate the heat and lower its temperature, and the cool-
cooling system is to bring the ICE up to the optimum tem-
ant returns to the ICE internal passages to continue the cycle.
perature as quickly as possible and maintain that temperature
●■SEE FIGURE 4–14.
under all operating conditions. ICE produce increased emis-
sions during a cold start. This is because fuel has a tendency

46 CHAPTER 4
 THERMOSTAT CYLINDER
HEADS
RADIATOR
PRESSURE CAP

UPPER
RADIATOR HOSE

ENGINE
BLOCK

WATER
PUMP

LOWER
CROSS-FLOW RADIATOR HOSE
RADIATOR
COOLANT
EXPANSION TANK

FIGURE 4– 14 A series-type cooling system where the coolant first flows

through the engine block and then to the heads before returning to the radiator
after passing through the thermostat.

THERMOSTATS The thermostat is a temperature-controlled

valve placed at the engine coolant outlet on most engines. An COOLING SYSTEM TESTING
encapsulated wax-based plastic pellet heat sensor is located
on the engine side of the thermostatic valve. As the engine SCAN TOOL A scan tool can be used on many vehicles to
warms, heat swells the heat sensor. read the actual temperature of the coolant as detected by the
A mechanical link, connected to the heat sensor, opens engine coolant temperature (ECT) sensor. Although the sensor
the thermostat valve. As the thermostat begins to open, it or the wiring to and from the sensor may be defective, at least
allows some coolant to flow to the radiator, where it is cooled. the scan tool can indicate what the computer “thinks” is the
The remaining part of the coolant continues to flow through coolant temperature. ●■SEE FIGURE 4–16.
the bypass, thereby bypassing the thermostat and flowing
back through the engine. The bypass aids in uniform engine
THERMOSTAT
THERMOSTAT
warm-up. Its operation eliminates hot spots and prevents the HOUSING
building of excessive coolant pressure in the engine when the
thermostat is closed.
■■ The rated temperature of the thermostat indicates the
temperature at which the thermostat starts to open.
■■ The thermostat is fully open at about 20°F higher than
its opening temperature. If the radiator, water pump, and
coolant passages are functioning correctly, the engine
should always be operating within the opening and fully
open temperature range of the thermostat.
ELECTRICAL CONNECTOR
An electronic thermostat allows the engine temperature to FOR THERMOSTAT HEATER

be more closely controlled during cruise, city driving, or heavy FIGURE 4– 15 An electronic thermostat uses a wax pellet
load conditions to optimize fuel economy, and reduce exhaust to open and a spring to close it, but it also uses an electric
emissions. ●■SEE FIGURE 4–15. heater controlled by the PCM to accurately control ECT.

H YBRI D E NGIN E S Y S T EM S 47
 Pressure testing should be performed whenever
? Engine Data Esc
there is a leak or suspected leak. The pressure tester
Engine Speed 603 RPM
can also be used to test the radiator cap. An adapter
Desired Idle Speed 600 RPM Decrease
is used to connect the pressure tester to the radiator
ECT Sensor 194 ºF
IAT Sensor 1 143 ºF cap. Replace any cap that will not hold pressure. ●■SEE
Increase
IAT Sensor 2 158 ºF FIGURE 4–18.
Ambient Air Temperature -36 ºF
Cold Start-Up No COOLANT DYE LEAK TESTING One of the best
MAF Sensor 0.01 lb/s methods to check for a coolant leak is to use a fluores-
Engine Load 14.5 % Pg Up cent dye in the coolant, one that is specifically designed
Accelerator Pedal Position 0 %
Throttle Position 4 % Pg Dn

FIGURE 4–16 A scan tool can be used to monitor the ECT.

VISUAL INSPECTION Many cooling system faults can be

found by performing a thorough visual inspection. Items that
can be inspected visually include the following:
■■ Water pump drive belt for tension or faults
■■ Cooling fan for faults
■■ Heater and radiator hoses for condition and leaks
■■ Coolant overflow or surge tank coolant level
■■ Evidence of coolant loss
■■ Radiator condition. ●■SEE FIGURE 4–17.

FIGURE 4–17 A heavily corroded radiator from a vehicle

PRESSURE TESTING Pressure testing, using a hand that was overheating. A visual inspection discovered that
operated pressure tester, is a quick and easy cooling sys- the corrosion had eaten away many of the cooling fins, yet
tem test. The radiator cap is removed (engine cold) and the did not leak. This radiator was replaced and it solved the
tester is attached in the place of the radiator cap. By oper- overheating problem.
ating the plunger on the pump, the entire cooling system is PRESSURE
pressurized. TESTER

CAUTION: Do not exceed the pressure beyond that

specified by the vehicle manufacturer. Most systems ADAPTER
should not be pressurized beyond 14 PSI (100 kPa). If a
greater pressure is used, it may cause the water pump,
radiator, heater core, or hoses to fail.
If the cooling system is free from leaks, the pressure
should stay and not drop. If the pressure drops, look for evi-
dence of leaks anywhere in the cooling system, including:
1. Heater hoses
2. Radiator hoses
3. Radiator
CAP
4. Heater core
FIGURE 4–18 The pressure cap should be checked for
5. Cylinder head
proper operation using a pressure tester as part of the cooling
6. Core plugs in the side of the block or cylinder head system diagnosis.

48 CHAPTER 4
for coolant. Operate the vehicle with the dye in the coolant until the TO AND FROM
HEATER CORE
engine reaches normal operating temperature. Use a black light to
inspect all areas of the cooling system. When there is a leak, it will be WATER PUMP
easy to spot because the dye in the coolant will be seen as bright. (FOR HEATER)
INTERNAL
COMBUSTION
ENGINE
(ICE)
COOLANT HEAT STORAGE COOLANT HEAT
STORAGE TANK
SYSTEM
PURPOSE Some hybrids, such as the third generation ELECTRIC STORAGE
TANK PUMP
and newer Prius, use heat capture technology to help warm
WATER
engines and catalytic converters more rapidly than conven- VALVE
tional vehicles. They also store this heat so a few engine
TANK COOLANT
cycles on a short trip does not reduce the ability of the cata- TEMPERATURE
lytic converter to work efficiently. This is one reason why the SENSOR

Prius earns the same perfect 10/10 EPA smog rating as the FIGURE 4–19 Toyota’s coolant heat storage system. Note
all-electric Chevrolet Bolt. that the electric storage tank pump is located behind the
coolant storage tank.
In the RAV4 Prime PHEV, Toyota uses what they call
Warm Up Control. This system uses an electric water pump MODES OF OPERATION The coolant heat storage sys-
and electric thermostat that enables the RAV4 Prime to reduce tem has four modes of operation. These are:
emissions at an earlier stage than other vehicles. 1. Preheat
2. Engine warm-up
NEED TO RETAIN HEAT One approach is to use a cool-
ant heat storage system where heated coolant is stored during 3. Storage during driving

normal vehicle operation and is then used to warm the engine 4. Storage during ignition off
intake ports prior to a cold start. Toyota uses this system in the
second-generation Prius.
The coolant heat storage system is part of the ICE cool-
ing system, but adds the major components described below.
●■SEE FIGURE 4–19.
The coolant heat storage tank is built very similar to a
Thermos® bottle. The tank is built with an inner and outer cas-
ing, and a vacuum is formed between them. This is done to
prevent heat transfer from the inner casing. Approximately
3 liters of coolant is stored inside the inner casing, and the
coolant can be kept warm for up to three days. There is a
standpipe that extends inside of the inner casing, so coolant
must rise in order to exit the tank through the standpipe. ●■
SEE FIGURE 4–20.
The water valve is responsible for directing the coolant
flow between the coolant storage tank, the ICE, and the vehi-
cle heater core. The water valve is controlled by the ECM and
consists of an electric motor, drive gears, a rotary valve, and a
valve position sensor.
The storage tank pump is used to move coolant through
FIGURE 4–20 A vacuum exists between the inner and outer
the heat storage tank at times when the ICE is shut off. This casing of the coolant heat storage tank. The outlet tempera-
pump is located on the side of the coolant heat storage tank and ture sensor and the drain plug are located in the manifold at
is plumbed in series with the tank inlet. ● SEE FIGURE 4–21. the bottom of the tank.

H YBRI D E N GIN E S Y S T EM S 49
 TECH TIP

Check the Active Grille Shutters

Active grille shutters (AGS) are designed to remain
closed to decrease the aerodynamic drag by forcing
the air to flow underneath the vehicle when closed.
Only when there is a need for cooling, do the AGS
open to allow air to flow through heat exchangers.
They are used in all types of vehicle to help improve
fuel economy. Even electric vehicle, such as the
Mustang Mach E, uses AGS to open when addi-
tional cooling is needed to cool the high-voltage
battery, electronics, and cabin. Because they are
located at the front of the vehicle, AGS are prone to
FIGURE 4–21 The storage tank and pump as seen from
damage from road debris, as well as ice and snow
under the vehicle. This pump is energized when coolant must
during freezing weather conditions. If they are dam-
be moved through the tank, but the ICE is shut off.
aged, this can reduce fuel economy and/or cause
an overheating condition to occur.
●■SEE FIGURE 4–22.

The preheat mode is enabled prior to the starting of the

ICE. The ECM turns on the electric storage tank pump and
directs the water valve to send hot coolant from the storage HYBRID ENGINE RUN MODE
tank into the cylinder head. The heat from the coolant warms
the cylinder head ports and minimizes fuel condensation on the PURPOSE There are times when the service technician or a
port walls. This allows for easier starting and minimizes emis- vehicle inspector needs to bypass the idle-stop feature and to
sions during a cold start. keep the engine running, such as:

DRIVER ARM ACTUATOR

FRAME

VANES
LINKAGE

FIGURE 4–22 Active grille shutters(AGS) use a PCM-controlled actuator that operates movable vanes to either block off airflow
when cooling is not needed, or open them to allow air to help cool the engine and electric components.

50 CHAPTER 4
FIGURE 4–23 To enter the inspection mode, select this feature on a scan tool and follow the on-screen procedure.

■■ Checking the air-conditioning pressures on a unit that has This mode is called any of the following:
an engine-driven air-conditioning compressor ■■ Service mode
■■ Attempting to get the engine (ICE) up to operating tem- ■■ Maintenance mode
perature in order to check for proper operation of the
■■ Inspection mode
cooling system
■■ Safety inspection of the exhaust system Most vehicle manufacturers warn not to drive the vehicle
in this mode because many of the torque limiting factors are
The mode to keep the ICE running can often be done
disabled in this mode, which could cause damage to the pow-
using a scan tool, such as the Snap-on Solus Ultra, on a Lexus
ertrain components if driven aggressively.
RX 450h hybrid. ● SEE FIGURE 4–23.

ENGINE OPERATING PROCEDURE ●■SEE CHART 4–2

for the method to use to keep the ICE operating and to prevent
the idle-stop mode without using a scan tool.

VEHICLE MAKE ENGINE START PROCEDURE

Toyota/Lexus STEP 1—Turn the ignition to ON (NOT READY)
STEP 2—While in PARK, press the accelerator two times.
STEP 3—Press and hold the brake pedal, shift to NEUTRAL.
STEP 4—While in NEUTRAL, press the accelerator pedal two times.
STEP 5—Shift to PARK, while in PARK, depress the accelerator pedal two times
STEP 6—Turn READY-ON
Ford/Lincoln/Mercury STEP 1—Apply the parking brake and place the gear selector in PARK.
STEP 2—Switch the ignition switch to ON.
STEP 3—Within five seconds, fully depress the accelerator pedal and hold for 10 seconds.
STEP 4—Within five seconds, release the accelerator pedal and shift into the DRIVE position
and fully depress the accelerator pedal.
STEP 5—Hold the accelerator pedal down for 10 seconds.
STEP 6—Release the accelerator pedal and shift into the PARK position.
STEP 7—The amber “wrench” lamp will flash if the procedure was successful.
STEP 8—ICE can now be started.
STEP 9—Exit by shifting into any other gear or by turning the ignition to OFF.
...continued

H YBRI D E NGIN E S Y S T EM S 51
 ...continued

VEHICLE MAKE ENGINE START PROCEDURE

Honda/Acura STEP 1—Set the parking brake.
STEP 2—Turn the ignition OFF.
STEP 3—Turn the ignition on two times with foot off the brake pedal.
STEP 4—With the shift lever in PARK, depress the accelerator pedal two times to the floor.
STEP 5—Depress the brake pedal and move the gear selector to NEUTRAL.
STEP 6—Depress the accelerator pedal to the floor two times.
STEP 7—Move the shift lever to PARK.
STEP 8—Depress the accelerator pedal to the floor two times.
STEP 9—Depress the brake pedal and push the start button. The engine will start in the
maintenance mode. To exit the maintenance mode, turn OFF the engine.
Chevrolet/GMC Truck STEP 1—Open the hood.
(PHT or 2-Mode) STEP 2—Start the engine.
The engine will remain running until it is turned off as long as the hood is open.
Buick, Chevrolet, Saturn Allow the ICE to idle when the engine is at normal operating temperature for two minutes. Idle
(BAS system) stop is disabled.
Nissan Altima STEP 1—Press the power button twice to turn on the ignition.
STEP 2—Place Trans in “P” fully depressing the accelerator pedal twice.
STEP 3—Place Trans in “N” fully depressing the accelerator pedal twice.
STEP 4—Place Trans in “P” fully depressing the accelerator pedal twice.
STEP 5—Start the engine. Idle stop is disabled.

CHART 4–2
■■ Install the compression gauge into the cylinder being
Hybrid engine service mode chart. checked. ●■SEE FIGURE 4–24.
■■ Connect a factory or factory-level scan tool to the data
TECH TIP link connector (DLC).
■■ Select engine and follow the onscreen messages to find
Look for Positive Torque and select compression test.
Some owners of hybrid vehicles have been fooled into ■■ Command the engine to crank at 250 RPM and read the
thinking that their vehicle starts, runs for a while, and compression gauge.
then stops running. What was happening was that the ■■ Compare the reading to factory specifications. For example,
engine was being spun by the motor/generator and it
a typical Toyota Prius has a specification of compression
sounded as if the engine was running. It stopped after a
test pressure of 118 PSI with a minimum pressure of 90 PSI
time when the PCM did not detect positive torque from
and a difference between cylinders no more than 14.5 PSI.
the ICE. Using a scan tool, look for positive torque from
the ICE or negative torque from the motor/generator. NOTE: That is lower than the 13.5:1 compression ratio
specification than is anticipated. This results in an effective
compression ratio of about 9:1. Therefore, the compression
values are right for the effective compression ratio.

HYBRID ENGINE TESTING

COMPRESSION TEST Unlike a conventional engine that
uses a starter motor, most HEV do not use a starter, but rather
use the electric motor attached to the crankshaft to rotate the
ICE often at about 1000 RPM instead of the normal cranking
speed or 250 RPM. The typical procedure to perform a com-
pression test on a HEV so that it cranks at about 250 RPM
includes the following steps:
FIGURE 4-24 A two-piece compression gauge showing the
■■ Remove all of the spark plugs from the engine. This Schrader valve removed from the end that is screwed into the
ensures that the engine speed will be consistent. spark plug hole.

52 CHAPTER 4
 TECH TIP

Use a Scan Tool to Determine Engine Vacuum

Using a scan tool and monitoring the MAP sensor
value is a quick and easy way to help determine FIGURE 4–25 A whistle stop is used to find TDC. Remove the
engine condition. spark plug and install the whistle stop, then rotate the engine by
hand. When the whistle stops making a sound, the piston is at
• If the MAP values are high and steady (high engine
the top.
vacuum), the engine condition is sound.
• If the MAP sensor value fluctuates, this indicates a ■■ If air is heard coming from the throttle body or air
fault for which a further investigation is needed to inlet on fuel-injected engines, there is a defective
determine the root cause. intake valve(s).
■■ If air is heard coming from the tailpipe, there is a
defective exhaust valve(s). ●■SEE FIGURE 4–26.

CYLINDER LEAKAGE TEST One of the best tests that can be

Case Study
used to determine engine condition is the cylinder leakage test. This
test involves injecting air under pressure into the cylinders one at a
Toyota Prius Engine Oil Consumption
time. The amount and location of any escaping air helps the techni-
A customer of a Prius IV hatchback brought their vehicle
cian determine the condition of the engine. The air is injected into
into the dealership with the complaint of a yellow light
the cylinder through a cylinder leakage gauge into the spark plug
appearing on the dashboard when the vehicle makes a
hole. To perform the cylinder leakage test, take the following steps:
sharp turn. The vehicle had 112,000 miles and had been
STEP 1—For best results, the engine should be at normal operating
serviced every 5,000 miles by Toyota dealerships.
temperature (upper radiator hose hot and pressurized).
The technician confirmed the concern and found
STEP 2—The cylinder being tested must be at TDC of the
an extremely low oil level. The sharp turns caused
compression stroke. ●■SEE FIGURE 4–25.
insufficient oil for the pickup tube, and created a low
NOTE: The greatest amount of wear occurs at the top
oil pressure concern. An oil consumption test was per-
of the cylinder because of the heat generated near the
formed and the technician determined that the engine
top of the cylinders. The piston ring flex also adds to the
was burning a quart of oil every 1,200 miles. Further
wear at the top of the cylinder.
diagnosis by the service technician determined the
STEP 3—Calibrate the cylinder leakage unit as per manufactur- excessive oil consumption was a result of weak or worn
er’s instructions. piston rings. A replacement engine was recommended.
STEP 4—Inject air into the cylinders one at a time, rotating the Depending on the way the vehicle is driven, the
engine as necessitated by the firing order to test each low oil level between oil service intervals at high mile-
cylinder at TDC on the compression stroke. age is not uncommon on some hybrid vehicle engines.
STEP 5—Evaluate the results: It is recommended that the engine be allowed to reach
■■ Less than 10% leakage: good full operating temperature each time the vehicle is
■■ Less than 20% leakage: acceptable driven. This will help to minimize the possibility of this
■■ Less than 30% leakage: poor condition. The engine oil level should be checked at
■■ More than 30% leakage: definite problem each fill-up when the vehicle reaches higher miles.
NOTE: If leakage seems unacceptably high, repeat the test, Summary:
being certain that it is performed correctly and that the • Concern—Yellow light appears on the dashboard
cylinder being tested is at TDC on the compression stroke. on a sharp turn.
STEP 6—Check the source of air leakage. • Cause—Low oil level caused by an oil consump-
■■ If air is heard escaping from the oil filler cap, the tion problem.
piston rings are worn or broken. • Correction—A replacement engine was
■■ If air is observed bubbling out of the radiator, there is a recommended.
possible blown head gasket or cracked cylinder head.

H YBRI D E N GIN E S Y S T EM S 53
 VALVE OPEN; PRESSURE
DROP SHOWS PERCENT
OF LEAKAGE
PRESSURE GAUGE
READS 100 PSI
WITH VALVE CLOSED
AIR SUPPLY
HOSE

REGULATING
KNOB

ADAPTER IN
FROM AIR SPARK PLUG
COMPRESSOR HOLE

LEAKING
CRACKED VALVE
LEAKING HEAD

HEAD GASKET
LEAK

LEAKING PISTON
RINGS AT TDC

FIGURE 4–26 A cylinder leakage test is performed by inserting compressed air into the
cylinder and checking for any leakage past the piston rings, head gasket or head, and valves.

SUMMARY
1. The internal combustion engine (ICE) used in hybrid elec- 3. Variable valve timing (VVT) involves the use of electric and
tric vehicles (HEV) differs from those used in conventional hydraulic actuators that are used to change the timing of
vehicles because they usually use the Atkinson cycle to the camshaft(s) in relation to the crankshaft.
increase efficiency. 4. A factory or factory-level aftermarket scan tool is required
2. Offsetting the piston toward the minor thrust surface to command the HEV ICE to rotate the engine at 250 RPM
would provide a better mechanical advantage as well as in order to perform a compression test.
results in less piston-to-cylinder friction.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between an Atkinson cycle and a 3. What is an indexed spark plug?
conventional four-stroke cycle engine? 4. How does the changing of the valve timing or opening
2. What features are different between an engine used in affect the engine?
a hybrid vehicle and the engine used in a conventional 5. How is the ICE kept operating to prevent the idle-stop
vehicle? mode without using a scan tool?

54 CHAPTER 4
 CHAPTER QUIZ
1. Which of the following is a characteristic of many HEV 6. The screen(s) protects the VVT solenoid valve from dirt
gasoline engines? and debris that can cause the valve to stick. If this screen
a. Smaller in displacement is clogged with debris, what is the most likely cause?
b. Offset crankshaft a. P0300 DTC (random misfire)
c. Variable valve timing and/or displacement b. P0017 DTC (crankshaft position–camshaft position
d. All of the above correlation error)
2. A HEV gasoline engine usually uses what viscosity of c. Either a or b
engine oil? d. Both a and b
a. SAE 0W-20 or SAE 5W-20 7. Most engines equipped with VVT do not use a(an)
b. SAE 5W-30 ______________.
c. SAE 10W-30 a. PCV valve
d. SAE 20W-50 b. EGR valve
3. The Atkinson cycle engine design ______________. c. MAP sensor
a. requires special fuel and oil designed for this type of d. MAF sensor
engine 8. The VVT cam phasers are controlled by ______________.
b. operates differently than the normal four-stoke cycle a. oil pressure
gasoline engine b. springs
c. uses the same four-stroke cycle, but delays the clos- c. Both a and b
ing of the intake valve d. Neither a nor b
d. Both a and b are correct 9. Pumping losses are created by the throttle valve that
4. An offset crankshaft is used to ______________. ______________ the flow of air into the cylinders.
a. improve power output of the engine a. restricts
b. improve the fuel economy by reducing internal engine b. enhances
friction c. improves
c. reduce engine noise d. supercharges
d. All of the above 10. When servicing an HEV, it is often needed to keep the ICE
5. The oil flow through the phaser drops to zero when running. The mode that keeps the ICE operating is called
______________. ______________.
a. 0% pulse width of the solenoid a. service mode
b. 10% pulse width of the solenoid b. maintenance mode
c. 50% pulse width of the solenoid c. inspection mode
d. 100% pulse width of the solenoid d. Any of the above Tech Tip

H YBRI D E N GIN E S Y S T EM S 55
Chapter 5
HYBRID AND ELECTRIC
VEHICLE PREVENTATIVE
MAINTENANCE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERM

After studying this chapter, the reader should Noise-reducing tire 61

be able to:
• Describe routine service procedures for both
hybrid and electric vehicles.
• Explain how to place a hybrid vehicle in mainte-
nance mode.
• Describe the service cautions when changing
the oil and filter on a hybrid vehicle.
• Explain how to service the base brake system
on a hybrid or electric vehicle.
• List the different voltages at which hybrid and
electric steering systems operate, and explain
the safety precautions when performing service.
• Explain the purpose of noise-reducing tires.

56
 ROUTINE SERVICE HEV/PHEV MAINTENANCE ITEMS
EV MAINTENANCE
ITEMS
PROCEDURES Oil changes (once or a year or NA
when the OLM indicates)
Engine air filter (every 2–3 years) NA
CUSTOMER PERCEPTION Many customers love their
Cabin filter (every 2–3 years) Cabin filter (every 2–3
hybrid and electric vehicle; however, routine maintenance is fre-
years)
quently overlooked because it is different from a vehicle with just
Tire rotation (every 7,500 miles) Tire rotation (every
an internal combustion engine (ICE). Over time, the customer
7,500 miles)
begins to notice a decrease in the fuel economy. The perception
Windshield washer fluid (as Windshield washer
is that the decrease is a result of a failing high-voltage battery. In needed) fluid (as needed)
many cases the decrease in fuel economy or performance is a Windshield wiper blades (as Windshield wiper
result of a lack of routine maintenance. ● SEE CHART 5-1. needed) blades (as needed)

CHART 5-1
INSTRUMENT CLUSTER WARNING MESSAGES As
part of correctly diagnosing a hybrid or electric vehicle, the Routine maintenance service.
technician must understand what the indicators in the instru- PLACING THE HYBRID VEHICLE IN MAINTENANCE
ment cluster and message center mean. These indicators will MODE There are times when the service technician needs
help to confirm the customer’s concern and provide a clue as to bypass the idle-stop feature and keep the engine running.
to what may be wrong with the vehicle. The failure to under- These conditions can include the following:
stand these symbols may lead to unnecessary or incorrect ini-
tial diagnostic assumptions. ● SEE FIGURE 5-1.
■ Checking air-conditioning pressures
■ Bringing the engine to operating temperature
NON-HIGH VOLTAGE COMPONENTS THAT IMPACT ■ Safety inspection of the exhaust system
FUEL ECONOMY When performing a vehicle inspection, it
is important to notice the absence or change in any of the fol- Depending on the manufacturer, this mode is called any
lowing components as it may affect the vehicles’ fuel economy: of the following:

■ Low rolling resistance tires ■ Service mode

■ Low-mass wheels ■ Maintenance mode
■ Spoilers ■ Inspection mode
■ Underbody trays The vehicle can be placed in this mode either with a
■ Aerodynamic assist steps scan tool or through a specific sequence of steps inside

READY LIGHT MALFUNCTION INDICATOR LIGHT

FIGURE 5-1 An example
message screen from a
Generation 2 Toyota Prius
provides a wealth of information
for the driver and the service
technician.

LOW-
TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR
LIGHT

MASTER WARNING LIGHT

H YBRI D AN D E L E C T RI C V E H I C L E PRE V E N T AT I V E M A INT EN A N C E 57

the vehicle. Most vehicle manufacturers warn not to drive
the vehicle while in this mode because torque limiting fac-
tors are disabled and damage to powertrain components
could occur.

LIFTING AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE Most electric

vehicle chassis are developed using a “skateboard design.”
In this configuration, the high-voltage battery and its cov-
ers fill a large portion of the underside of the vehicle. As a
result, some vehicles require special adapters for lifting so
that the battery and its covers are not damaged by the lift
pads. Always follow the manufacturer’s specific instructions
to ensure the vehicle is safely lifted and damage does not
occur. ● SEE FIGURE 5-2.
FIGURE 5- 2 When positioning the lift, make sure the arms
OIL AND FILTER SERVICE Performing an oil and contact points are clear of any high-voltage cables.
change in a hybrid vehicle is similar to changing oil in
any vehicle equipped with an ICE. However, there are only can cause a decrease in fuel economy, but also could
several items to know when changing oil in a hybrid cause engine damage. ● SEE FIGURE 5-3.
electric vehicle (HEV). When replacing the oil filter make sure it meets the manufac-
Always use the specified oil viscosity. Most HEVs require turer’s original equipment specifications and it is correctly installed.
either SAE 0W-20, SAE 0W-16, or SAE 5W-20. A Honda Civic hybrid service procedure requires the oil filter to be
Most hybrid vehicles use a full synthetic oil. Using the prefilled upon installation to avoid a potential P1021 DTC.
specified oil viscosity is important because the engine stops Always follow the specified procedures. Be sure that the
and starts many times and using the incorrect viscosity not ICE is off and that the “READY” lamp is off. If there is a smart

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

When Do I Need to Depower the High-Voltage

System?
During routine service work, there is no need for a
technician to depower the high-voltage system. The
only time when this process is needed is if service
repairs or testing is being performed on any circuit
that has an orange cable attached. These include:
• AC compressor if electrically powered
• High-voltage battery pack or electronic controllers
The electric power steering system usually
operates on 12 volts or 42 volts and neither is a
shock hazard. However, an arc will be maintained if
a 42-volt circuit is opened. Always refer to service
information if servicing the electric power steering
system, or any other system that may contain high
voltage.
FIGURE 5- 3 This Toyota Prius uses SAE 0W-20 as indicated
by the oil filler cap.

58 CHAPTER 5
key or the vehicle has a push-button start, be sure that the key check service information for the exact procedure to follow. The
fob is at least 15 feets (5 meters) away from the vehicle to help procedure will include the following:
prevent the engine from starting accidentally. 1. The specified coolant. Most vehicle manufacturers will rec-
ommend using premixed coolant because using tap water
ENGINE MAINTENANCE Hybrid vehicles may have spe- (half of the coolant) that has minerals could cause corrosion
cific engine maintenance requirements. These may include the issues.
following:
2. The specified coolant replacement interval. While this may
■ Honda Insight requires the indexing of spark plugs. be similar to the coolant replacement interval for a conven-
■ Some Honda engines require mechanical valve lash tional vehicle, always check to be sure that this service is
adjustments. being performed at the specified time or mileage interval.
■ Atkinson cycle engines may require more frequent throttle 3. The specified precautions. Some Toyota Prius HEVs use a
body service. coolant storage bottle that keeps the coolant hot for up to
three days. Opening a coolant hose could cause the release of
this hot coolant and can cause serious burns to the technician.
COOLING SYSTEM SERVICE Performing cooling system
4. Always read, understand, and follow all of the service
service is similar to performing this service in any vehicle equipped
information instructions when servicing the cooling sys-
with an ICE. However, there are several items to know when ser-
tem on a hybrid or electric vehicle. In many cases a vac-
vicing the cooling system on a hybrid and electric vehicle, includ-
uum lift or evacuation system will be needed in order to
ing there may be two or three systems that require service. Always
get all the air out of the system and the system completely
full of the coolant mixture. A failure to get the system com-
pletely full may result in an overheat condition and pos-
Case Study sible component failure.
5. When replacing the coolant bottle caps, make sure the cap
A No-Start Prius After a Routine Oil Change
goes back onto the correct bottle. Some hybrid vehicles use
A technician went to start a Toyota Prius after com- a different pressure cap on the engine as compared to the
pleting a routine oil and filter service. He discovered electronics cooling systems. ● SEE FIGURES 5-4 AND 5-5.
the engine would crank over briefly and then fail
to start. A visual inspection was performed and no
BRAKING SYSTEM SERVICE Performing braking sys-
components were found to be damaged or discon-
tem service is similar to performing this service in any vehi-
nected as a result of the oil service. Further diagno-
cle equipped with an ICE. However, there are several items to
sis revealed the engine crankcase was significantly
overfilled. When motor generator 1 (MG1) turned over
the crankshaft on startup, it was unable to achieve
the desired engine RPM as a result of the extra resis-
tance created by the excess oil in the crank case. The
fail-safe or limp-in operation was a no-start condition.
After the engine oil level was lowered to the correct
level the vehicle started and operated normally.
Summary:
The vehicle failed to start due to a crankcase overfill
condition which caused MG1 to go into a fail-safe or
limp-in condition.
• Concern—The vehicle would not start.
• Cause—An over-full engine crank case was
observed.
• Correction—Lowered the engine oil to the correct
level.
FIGURE 5-4 Chevrolet Volt engine cooling system with a
20 PSI rated reservoir cap.

H YBRI D AN D E L E C T RI C V E H I C L E PRE V E N T AT I V E M A INT EN A N C E 59

FIGURE 5-5 Chevrolet Volt electronic cooling system with a FIGURE 5-6 The brake rotor on this Audi Q5 hybrid is rusted
5 PSI rated reservoir cap. and has very little pad contact due to a seized brake caliper pin.

know when servicing the braking system on a hybrid or electric

vehicle. They are as follows: HIGH-VOLTAGE BATTERY AIR FILTER Many hybrid
vehicles rely on the air that is heated and cooled for the pas-
1. Check service information for any precautions that are
senger compartment to regulate the temperature of the
specified to be followed when servicing the braking sys-
high-voltage battery. To prevent the intrusion of passenger
tem on a hybrid or electric vehicle.
compartment debris from the entering the high-voltage battery
2. Before beginning any base brake service on a hybrid or
cooling system, a filter is placed in the air-intake system. These
electric vehicle, make sure to have the needed scan tools,
filters must be replaced at specific service intervals to ensure
pressure bleeders, and other required tools to properly
proper cooling. ● SEE FIGURE 5-7.
disable, bleed, and re-enable system.
3. All hybrid and electric vehicles use a regenerative braking
system, which captures the kinetic energy of the moving
vehicle and converts it to electrical energy and is sent to
the high-voltage battery pack. The amount of current pro-
duced during hard braking can exceed 100 amperes. This
current is stored in the high-voltage battery pack and is
used as needed to help power the vehicle.
4. The base brakes used on HEVs are the same as any
other conventional vehicle except for the master cyl-
inder and related control systems. There are no high-
voltage circuits associated with the braking system as
the regeneration occurs inside the electric drive (trac-
tion) motors and is controlled by the motor controller.
5. The base brakes on many hybrid and electric vehicles
are often found to be stuck or not functioning correctly
because the brakes are not doing much work and can rust.
The use of regenerative braking decreases the amount of
heat generated at the brake assembly and reduces the
amount of evaporation of moisture. This is a very common
occurrence in the part of the country that the auto manu- FIGURE 5-7 This Toyota Prius has a high-voltage battery air
facturers refer to as the “salt belt.” ● SEE FIGURE 5-6. filter that must be replaced at the documented time or mileage
to prevent the battery from overheating.

60 CHAPTER 5
AIR-CONDITIONING SERVICE Performing air-conditioning 2. All tires create less rolling resistance as they wear. Even
system service is similar to performing this service in any if the same identical tire is used as a replacement, the
vehicle equipped with an ICE. However, there are sev- owner may experience a drop in fuel economy.
eral items to know when servicing the air-conditioning 3. Tires can have a big effect on fuel economy. It is best to
system on a hybrid or electric vehicle. They are as follows: warn the owner that replacement of the tires can and often
will cause a drop in fuel economy, even if low rolling resis-
■ Many hybrid and electric vehicles use an air-conditioning
tance tires are selected.
compressor that uses high voltage from the high-voltage
battery pack to operate the compressor. 4. Try to avoid using tires that are larger than used from the fac-
tory. The larger the tire, the heavier it is, and it takes more
■ Make sure the high-voltage system has been properly
energy to rotate, resulting in a decrease in fuel economy.
depowered before removing the compressor for service.
5. Follow normal tire inspections and tire rotation intervals as
■ If the system is electrically driven, special refrigerant oil,
specified by the vehicle manufacturer.
POE oil, is used that is nonconductive and will not degrade
the insulation on the electric motor windings. This means
that a separate recovery machine should be used to avoid NOISE-REDUCING TIRES The purpose of a noise-
the possibility of mixing regular refrigerant oils with the oil reducing tire is to eliminate noise in the 130–240 Hz range that
used in hybrid and electric systems. ● SEE FIGURE 5-8. would be normally covered up by normal engine noise in a vehi-
cle with an ICE. The noise reduction is accomplished by adding
TIRE SERVICE Performing tire-related service is similar to acoustical foam to the inside of a tire. The sound is created within
performing this service in any vehicle equipped with an ICE. the structure of the tire itself and is not transmitted through the air,
However, there are several items to know when servicing tires but rather through the chassis of the vehicle. The sound is similar
on a hybrid or electric vehicle. They are as follows: to the sound heard when blowing across a partially filled glass
Coke bottle. As result, this sound is often referred to a “Coke
1. Tire pressure is very important not only to the fuel econ-
bottle resonance.” This sound is most noticeable with electric
omy but also to the life of the tire. Lower inflation pressure
vehicles (EVs) because there is no drivetrain noise to drown out
increases rolling resistance and reduces load-carrying
the resonance. ● SEE FIGURE 5-9.
capacity and tire life. Always inflate the tires to the pres-
sure indicated on the door jamb sticker or found in service
information or the owner’s manual.

MOPAR.

ND-11
A/C COMPRESSOR OIL POE TYPE

HUILE POUR COMPRESSEURS DE

CLIMATISATION TYPE POE
ACEITE DE COMPRESOR DE AIRE
ACONDICIONADO TIPO POE

250 mL (8.4 FL OZ)

AUTHENTIC PARTS & ACCESSORIES®

FIGURE 5-8 This POE refrigerant oil is specific to FCA brand FIGURE 5-9 Blowing across the top of an empty “Coke” bottle
products. creates a noise similar to a vehicle without noise-reducing tires.

H YBRI D AN D E L E C T RI C V E H I C L E PRE V E N T AT I V E M A IN T EN A N C E 61
 The tire repair process is different on many noise-reducing 3. The 12-volt auxiliary battery can be tested and serviced
tires because of the use of acoustical foam. In most instances, the same as any battery used in a conventional vehicle.
the acoustical foam must be carefully cut from the area of the 4. Some micro hybrids with the stop-start feature will have
wound and after the repair is complete it must be reattached. two 12-volt batteries. The batteries must be isolated dur-
● SEE FIGURE 5-10. ing testing to obtain accurate results.
5. Always read, understand, and follow all of the service
AUXILIARY BATTERY TESTING AND SERVICE
information instructions when servicing the auxiliary bat-
Performing auxiliary battery service is similar to performing this
tery on a hybrid or electric vehicle. ● SEE FIGURE 5-11.
service in any vehicle equipped with an ICE. However, there are
several items to know when servicing the auxiliary battery on a
HEV. They are as follows:
STEERING SYSTEM SERVICE Performing steering sys-
tem service is similar to performing this service in any vehicle
1. Auxiliary 12-volt batteries used in hybrid or electric vehi-
equipped with an ICE. However, there are several items to
cles are located in one of two general locations.
know when servicing the steering system on a hybrid or electric
■ Under the hood—If the 12-volt auxiliary battery is vehicle which include the following:
under the hood, it is generally a flooded-type lead–
1. Check service information for any precautions that are
acid battery and should be serviced the same as
specified to be followed when servicing the steering sys-
any conventional battery.
tem on a hybrid or electric vehicle.
■ In the passenger or trunk area—If the battery is
2. Most hybrid or electric vehicles use an electric power
located in the passenger or trunk area of the vehi-
steering system. These can be powered by one of two
cle, it is usually of the absorbed glass mat (AGM)
voltages:
design. This type of battery requires that a special
battery charger that limits the charging voltage be ■ 12 volts—These systems can be identified by
used. the red or black wiring conduit and often use an
inverter that increases the voltage to operate the
2. The auxiliary 12-volt battery is usually smaller than a bat-
actuator motor (usually to 42 volts). While this
tery used in a conventional vehicle because it is not used
higher voltage is contained in the controller and
to start the engine.
should not create a shock hazard, always follow
the specified safety precautions and wear protec-
tive high-voltage gloves as needed.
■ 42 volts—These systems use a yellow or blue
plastic conduit over the wires to help identify the
possible hazards from this voltage level. This volt-
age level is not a shock hazard, but can maintain
an arc if a circuit carrying 42 volts is opened.
■ Many electric power steering systems contain
capacitors that provide additional voltage to
the system under heavy operating loads. When

FIGURE 5-11 This Toyota battery is rated using the

Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) rather than cold-cranking
FIGURE 5-10 A tire off a Tesla Model 3 with acoustical foam. amperes.

62 CHAPTER 5
 depowering the power steering system to make This means following a diagnostic routine, which usually
repairs, it is important to follow the specific wait includes the following steps:
times to ensure the capacitors are completely dis- STEP 1 Verify the customer concern.
charged. ● SEE FIGURE 5-12. STEP 2 Check for diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs). An
enhanced or factory level scan tool may be needed to
DIAGNOSIS PROCEDURES Hybrid and electric vehicles get access to codes and sub codes.
should be diagnosed the same as any other type of vehicle. STEP 3 Perform a thorough visual inspection. If a DTC is
stored, carefully inspect those areas that might be the
cause of the trouble code.
STEP 4 Check for technical service bulletins (TSBs) that may
relate to the customer concern.
STEP 5 Follow service information specified steps and proce-
dures. This could include checking scan tool data for
sensors or values that are not within normal range.
STEP 6 Determine and repair the root cause of the
problem.
STEP 7 Verify the repair and clear any stored DTCs unless
in an emission testing area. If in an emission test
area, drive the vehicle until the powertrain control
module (PCM) passes the fault and turns off the
malfunction indicator lamp, thereby allowing the
vehicle to pass the inspection.
FIGURE 5-12 The capacitors in the power steering assist STEP 8 Complete the work order and record the “three Cs”
unit provide additional power when needed but must be
(complaint, cause, and correction).
allowed to discharge before service work begins.

SUMMARY
1. Routine service for hybrid electric vehicles is similar to However, a routine inspection is needed to insure proper
maintenance required for any internal combustion vehicle. operation.
2. The maintenance required of electric vehicles consists of 6. Tires used on electric vehicle usually have foam inside to
tire rotation, cabin filter, windshield washer fluid and wiper reduce tire noise called “Coke bottle resonance.”
blade replacement as needed 7. The auxiliary battery used in hybrid and electric vehicle are
3. Most HEVs require low viscosity engine oil such as SAE either flooded lead acid type if they are located under the
0W-16, 0W-20 or 5W-20. hood or AGM type if they are located in the trunk or in the
4. Hybrid and electric vehicles use separate cooling systems passenger compartment area.
for the battery and electronics that require inspection and 8. Hybrid and electric vehicles should be diagnosed the
maintenance. same as any other type of vehicle.
5. Hybrid and electric vehicles use regenerative brakes and
as a result the base brakes do not suffer much wear.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the purpose of the hybrid vehicle maintenance 4. Why does the base brake system require more frequent
mode? maintenance in the “salt belt” portion of the country?
2. Why do most manufactures of hybrid vehicles use full syn- 5. What is the purpose of the acoustical foam in the noise-
thetic engine oil? reducing tire?
3. Why do most manufacturers recommend premixed cool-
ant when servicing the hybrid or electric vehicle cooling
systems?

H YBRI D AN D E L E C T RI C V E H I C L E PRE V E N T AT I V E M A INT EN A N C E 63

 CHAPTER QUIZ
1. The purpose of the hybrid vehicle maintenance mode is 6. What special procedure must be followed when testing
to ____________. the batteries in a micro-hybrid vehicle?
a. bypass the idle stop feature a. The batteries must be electrically separated to obtain
b. service the base brake system accurate test results.
c. change the oil and filter b. The batteries must be tested together.
d. service the cooling system c. The batteries must be replaced together.
2. Why do most hybrid vehicles use a full synthetic engine d. There are no special test procedures.
oil? 7. Electric power steering systems operate at what voltage
a. The engine stops and starts more frequently. level?
b. It helps to reduce engine damage.
c. It helps to improve fuel economy. a. 12 volts c. 60 volts
d. All of the above are correct. b. 42 volts d. Both a and b are correct.

3. Why do most manufacturers recommend using a pre- 8. What cautions should be observed when servicing an
mixed replacement coolant when servicing a hybrid or electric air-conditioning compressor?
electric vehicle cooling system? a. Make sure the high-voltage system has been properly
a. The minerals in tap water can cause corrosion issues. depowered.
b. It is difficult to get the mixture ratio correct. b. Make sure the proper refrigerant oil is used in the
c. Both a and b are correct. repair.
d. Neither answer is correct. c. Use the appropriate refrigerant recovery machine.
d. All of the answers are correct.
4. Why do base brake systems require more frequent main-
tenance in the “salt belt” portion of the country? 9. What is the purpose of the high-voltage battery cabin
a. Salt causes the brake pads to separate from their filter?
backing. a. To prevent the intrusion of passenger compartment
b. The use of regenerative brakes causes less heat at the debris.
brake rotor and leads to a decrease in the evaporation b. To help regulate the temperature of the battery.
rate of moisture on the brake system. c. Both a and b are correct.
c. Corrosion causes the brake pins and sliders to d. Neither a nor b is correct.
stick. 10. Why is the eight-step diagnostic procedure used when
d. All of the answers are correct. diagnosing a hybrid or electric vehicle?
5. Why special procedures may need to be performed when a. To ensure a problem is not overlooked.
repairing a leaking tire on an electric vehicle? b. To ensure the vehicle is repaired as efficiently as
a. The tire cannot be repaired, it must be replaced. possible.
b. The acoustical foam in the area of the leak will need to c. To make sure the repair is properly documented.
be removed prior to repairing the wound. d. All of the answers are correct.
c. The acoustical foam will need to be reattached after
the repair is complete.
d. Both b and c are correct.

64 CHAPTER 5
Chapter 6
DIGITAL STORAGE
OSCILLOSCOPE
TESTING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should AC coupling 68 Graticule 66

be able to: BNC connector 71 Hertz 68
• Explain the advantages of a digital storage Cathode ray tube (CRT) 66 Oscilloscope 66
oscilloscope. Channel 70 Pressure transducer 71
• Describe the process for adjusting the Current clamp 71 Pulse train 68
oscilloscope time base and voltage scale. DC coupling 68 Pulse width 68
Digital storage pulse-width modulation
• Explain the difference between AC and DC
oscilloscope (DSO) 66 (PWM) 68
coupling.
Duty cycle 68 Time base 67
• Describe the different pulse train measurement External trigger 70 Trigger level 70
scales. Frequency 68 Trigger slope 70
• Explain the purpose of a trigger.

65
 captured by the scope. Therefore, a DSO with a high “sam-
TYPES OF OSCILLOSCOPES pling rate” is preferred. Sampling rate means that a scope is
capable of capturing voltage changes that occur over a very
TERMINOLOGY An oscilloscope (usually called a scope) short period of time. Some digital storage scopes have a
is a visual voltmeter with a timer that shows when a voltage capture rate of 25 million (25,000,000) samples per second.
changes. Following are two types of oscilloscopes. This scope can capture a glitch (fault) that lasts just 40 nano
(0.00000040) seconds.
■■ An analog scope uses a cathode ray tube (CRT) similar
to a television screen to display voltage patterns. The ■■ A scope has been called “a voltmeter with a clock.”
scope screen displays the electrical signal constantly. ■■ The voltmeter part means that a scope can capture and
■■ A digital scope commonly uses a liquid crystal display display changing voltage levels.
(LCD), but a CRT may also be used on some digital ■■ The clock part means that the scope can display these
scopes. A digital scope takes samples of the signals that changes in voltage levels within a specific time period;
can be stopped or stored and is therefore called a digital with a DSO, it can be replayed so that any faults can be
storage oscilloscope (DSO). seen and studied.
A digital scope does not capture each change in voltage, but
CAUTION: When using a DSO on high-voltage or
instead captures voltage levels over time and stores them as dots.
high-current circuits, follow the manufacturer’s rec-
Each dot is a voltage level. Then the scope displays the wave-
ommendations to protect the scope and other equip-
forms using the thousands of dots (each representing a voltage
ment from damage due to over current or over voltage
level) and electrically connects the dots to create a waveform.
conditions.
A DSO can be connected to a sensor output signal wire
and can record the voltage signals over a long period of time.
It can be replayed, and a technician can see if any faults were OSCILLOSCOPE DISPLAY GRID A typical scope face
detected. This feature makes a DSO the perfect tool to help usually has 8 or 10 grids vertically (up and down) and 10 grids
diagnose intermittent problems. horizontally (left to right). The transparent scale (grid), used for ref-
A digital storage scope, however, can sometimes erence measurements, is called a graticule. This arrangement is
miss faults called glitches that may occur between samples commonly 8 × 10 or 10 × 10 divisions. ●■■SEE FIGURE 6–1.

FIGURE 6–1 A scope display allows

technicians to take measurements of
voltage patterns. In this example, each
vertical division is 1 volt, and each
horizontal division is set to represent
50 milliseconds.
8V

1V

V / DIV SET
1V
500 ms OR (0.50 s) OR 1/2 OF 1 SECOND
TIME BASE SET TO "50 ms"

66 CHAPTER 6
NOTE: These numbers originally referred to the metric
4.72 V MAXIMUM HOLD
dimensions of the graticule in centimeters. Therefore, 680 mV MINIMUM
an 8 × 10 display would be 8 centimeters (80 millime-
5V
ters or 3.14 inches) high and 10 centimeters (100 mil-
4
limeters or 3.90 inches) wide.
3
■■ Voltage is displayed on a scope starting with 0 volts 2
at the bottom and higher voltage being displayed 1
vertically.
0
■■ The scope illustrates time left to right. The pattern starts –1 V
100 ms/DIV
on the left and sweeps across the screen from left to KEYS
right. POTENTIOMETER SWEEP TEST
RANGE

FIGURE 6–2 The DSO displays the entire waveform of a

throttle position (TP) sensor. Note that the waveform starts
SCOPE SETUP AND on the left side at about 0.5 volts when the throttle is closed.

ADJUSTMENT When the throttle is opened and then closed, the voltage
gores up to about 4.5 volts at wide open throttle and then
returns to the closed position.
SETTING THE TIME BASE Most scopes use
10 graticules from left to right on the display. Setting the the waveform are displayed. Time per division settings can vary
time base means setting how much time will be displayed in greatly in hybrid and electric use.
each block called a division. For example, if the scope is set ■■ Electric Motors: 2 ms/div (20 ms total)
to read 2 seconds per division (referred to as s/div), the total ■■ Network (CAN) communications network: 2 ms/div
time displayed would be 20 seconds (2 × 10 divisions = 20
(20 ms total)
seconds). The time base should be set to an amount of time
■■ Resolver (speed sensor): 2 ms/div (20 ms total)
that allows two to four events to be displayed. Milliseconds
(0.001 second) are commonly used in scopes when adjust-
■■ Sensor voltage measurements (hybrid engines): 5 ms/div
ing the time base. Sample time is milliseconds per division (50 ms total)
(indicated as ms/div) and total time. ● SEE CHART 6–1. The total time displayed on the screen allows com-
The horizontal scale is divided into 10 divisions (some- parisons to see if the waveform is consistent or is changing.
times called grats). If each division represents 1 second of time, Multiple waveforms shown on the display at the same time
the total time period displayed on the screen will be 10 sec- also allow for measurements to be seen more easily. ● SEE
onds. The time per division is selected so that several events of FIGURE 6–2.

VOLTS PER DIVISION The volts per division, abbreviated

V/div, should be set so that the entire anticipated waveform
MILLISECONDS PER DIVISION can be viewed. Examples include the following:
(MS/DIV) TOTAL TIME DISPLAYED
1 ms 10 ms (0.010 sec.)
■■ Electric Motor: 1 V/div (20 V total)
10 ms 100 ms (0.100 sec.) ■■ 12-volt Battery and DC–DC Converter: 2 V/div (16 V
50 ms 500 ms (0.500 sec.) total)
100 ms 1 sec. (1.000 sec.) ■■ Resolver: 500 mV/div (10 V total)
500 ms 5 sec. (5.0 sec.)
Notice from the examples that the total voltage to be
1,000 ms 10 sec. (10.0 sec.)
displayed exceeds the voltage range of the component being
CHART 6–1 tested. This ensures that all the waveforms will be displayed. It
The time base is milliseconds (ms) and total time of an event also allows for some unexpected voltage readings. For exam-
that can be displayed. ple, a resolver should read between 0 V and 2 V (2,000 mV). By
NOTE: Increasing the time base reduces the number of setting the V/div to 500 mV, up to 10 V higher voltages will be
samples per second. displayed.

D I G I T AL ST O RAG E O SC I L L O S C O P E TES T IN G 67
 DC AND AC COUPLING PULSE TRAINS
DC COUPLING DC coupling is the most used position on a
DEFINITION Scopes can show all voltage signals.
scope because it allows the scope to display both alternating current
Among the most commonly found in automotive applica-
(AC) voltage signals and direct current (DC) voltage signals present
tions is a DC voltage that varies up and down and does
in the circuit. The AC part of the signal will ride on top of the DC com-
not go below zero like an AC voltage. A DC voltage that
ponent. For example, as the electric inverters and converters man-
turns on and off in a series of pulses is called a pulse train.
age the energy flow between different powertrain subsystems and
Pulse trains differ from an AC signal in that they do not go
deliver the necessary torque and power requirements at the wheels.
below zero. An alternating voltage goes above and below
These power subsystems can generate undesired electrical har-
zero voltage. Pulse train signals can vary in several ways.
monics on the DC bus of the powertrain. The normal DC volts will be
● SEE FIGURE 6–4.
displayed as a horizontal line on the screen. Any AC ripple voltage
created as the electric machines will be displayed as an AC signal on
top of the horizontal DC voltage line. Therefore, both components of FREQUENCY Frequency is the number of cycles per
the signal can be observed at the same time. second measured in hertz. The engine revolutions per
minute (RPM) is an example of a signal that can occur
AC COUPLING When the AC coupling position is selected, at various frequencies. At low engine speed, the ignition
a capacitor is placed into the meter lead circuit, which effec- pulses occur fewer times per second (lower frequency)
tively blocks all DC voltage signals, but allows the AC portion than when the engine is operated at higher engine speeds
of the signal to pass and be displayed. AC coupling can be (RPM).
used to show output signal waveforms from sensors such as:
■■ Magnetic engine speed sensors
DUTY CYCLE Duty cycle refers to the percentage of
■■ Magnetic position sensors
on-time of the signal during one complete cycle. As on-time
■■ The AC ripple from the inverters and converters. increases, the amount of time the signal is off decreases and
● SEE FIGURE 6–3. is usually measured in percentage. Duty cycle is also called
■■ Magnetic vehicle speed sensors pulse-width modulation (PWM) and can be measured in
degrees. ●■SEE FIGURE 6–5.
NOTE: Check the instructions from the scope manufac-
turer for the recommended settings to use. Sometimes
it is necessary to switch from DC coupling to AC cou- PULSE WIDTH The pulse width is a measure of the
pling, or from AC coupling to DC coupling to properly actual on-time measured in milliseconds. Fuel injectors
see some waveforms. are usually controlled by varying the pulse width. ● SEE
FIGURE 6–6.

4
3
2
DISCHARGE

1
CURRENT (A)

0
REST CHARGE REST
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
TIME (S)

FIGURE 6–3 Ripple voltage created from the inverters and converters is
shown on the DC voltage circuit for the high-voltage batteries.

68 CHAPTER 6
 1. FREQUENCY—FREQUENCY IS THE NUMBER OF CYCLES THAT TAKE PLACE PER SECOND.
THE MORE CYCLES THAT TAKE PLACE IN ONE SECOND, THE HIGHER THE FREQUENCY READING.
FREQUENCIES ARE MEASURED IN HERTZ, WHICH IS THE NUMBER OF CYCLES PER SECOND.
AN 8 HERTZ SIGNAL CYCLES EIGHT TIMES PER SECOND.

I SECOND

THIS IS WHAT AN 8 HERTZ WOULD LOOK LIKE—8 HERTZ MEANS "8 CYCLES PER SECOND."

2. DUTY CYCLE—DUTY CYCLE IS A MEASUREMENT COMPARING THE SIGNAL ON-TIME TO THE

LENGTH OF ONE COMPLETE CYCLE. AS ON-TIME INCREASES, OFF-TIME DECREASES.
DUTY CYCLE IS MEASURED IN PERCENTAGE OF ON-TIME. A 60% DUTY CYCLE IS A SIGNAL THAT'S
ON 60% OF THE TIME, AND OFF 40% OF THE TIME. ANOTHER WAY TO MEASURE DUTY CYCLE IS
DWELL, WHICH IS MEASURED IN DEGREES INSTEAD OF PERCENT.

1 CYCLE

ON-TIME

OFF

ON
DUTY CYCLE IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ONE COMPLETE CYCLE, AND THE SIGNAL'S ON-TIME.
A SIGNAL CAN VARY IN DUTY CYCLE WITHOUT AFFECTING THE FREQUENCY.

3. PULSE WIDTH—PULSE WIDTH IS THE ACTUAL ON-TIME OF A SIGNAL, MEASURED IN MILLISECONDS.

WITH PULSE WIDTH MEASUREMENTS, OFF-TIME DOESN'T REALLY MATTER—THE ONLY REAL CONCERN
IS HOW LONG THE SIGNAL'S ON. THIS IS A USEFUL TEST FOR MEASURING CONVENTIONAL INJECTOR
ON-TIME, TO SEE THAT THE SIGNAL VARIES WITH LOAD CHANGE.

PULSE WIDTH

OFF

ON
PULSE WIDTH IS THE ACTUAL TIME A SIGNAL'S ON, MEASURED IN MILLISECONDS.
THE ONLY THING BEING MEASURED IS HOW LONG THE SIGNAL IS ON.

FIGURE 6–4 A pulse train is any electrical signal that turns on and off or goes
high and low in a series of pulses. Ignition module and fuel injector pulses are
examples of a pulse train signal.

106+/'

GROUND CONTROLLED FEED CONTROLLED

ON-TIME ON-TIME

OFF ON

ON OFF

%1/2.'6' 1 COMPLETE CYCLE 1 COMPLETE CYCLE

%;%.'
ON A GROUND-CONTROLLED CIRCUIT, THE ON-TIME ON A FEED-CONTROLLED CIRCUIT, THE ON-TIME
PULSE IS THE LOWER HORIZONTAL PULSE. PULSE IS THE UPPER HORIZONTAL PULSE.
FIGURE 6–5 A scope representation of a
complete cycle showing both on-time and FIGURE 6–6 The computer can control the device by either turning on or off
off-time. the ground or power side of the component.

DI G I T AL S T O RAG E OSC I L L O S C O P E T ES T IN G 69
 NUMBER OF CHANNELS TRIGGERS
DEFINITION Scopes are available that allow the viewing of EXTERNAL TRIGGERS An external trigger is when the
more than one sensor or event at the same time on the display. waveform that starts as a signal is received from another external
The number of events, which require leads for each, is called a source, rather than from the signal pickup lead. A common exam-
channel. A channel is an input to a scope. Commonly available ple of an external trigger comes from the probe clamp around the
scopes include the following: cylinder #1 spark plug wire to trigger the start of an ignition pattern.

■■ Single channel. A single-channel scope is capable TRIGGER LEVEL Trigger level is the voltage that must
of displaying only one sensor signal waveform at a be detected by the scope before the pattern will be displayed.
time. A scope will start displaying a voltage signal only when it is trig-
■■ Two channel. A two-channel scope can display the gered or is told to start. The trigger level must be set to start the
waveform from two separate sensors or components at display. If the pattern starts at 1 volt, the trace will begin display-
the same time. This feature is very helpful when testing ing on the left side of the screen after the trace has reached 1 volt.
the accelerator position sensor or brake switch inputs to
ensure they change at the appropriate voltage levels. TRIGGER SLOPE The trigger slope is the voltage direction
●■SEE FIGURE 6–7. that a waveform must have in order to start the display. Most often,
the trigger to start a waveform display is taken from the signal
■■ Four channel. A four-channel scope allows the technician
itself. Besides trigger voltage level, most scopes can be adjusted
to view up to four different sensors or actuators on one
to trigger only when the voltage rises past the trigger level voltage.
display.
This is called a positive slope. When the voltage falling past the
■■ Eight channel. An eight-channel scope is now available higher level activates the trigger, this is called a negative slope.
for technicians who need to view more data than can be The scope display indicates both a positive and a nega-
graphed by a four-channel scope. tive slope symbol. For example, if a waveform, such as a mag-
NOTE: Often the capture speed of the signals is slowed netic sensor used for crankshaft position or wheel speed, starts
when using more than one channel. moving upward, a positive slope should be selected. If a nega-
tive slope is selected, the waveform will not start showing until
the voltage reaches the trigger level in a downward direction.
A negative slope should be used when a fuel-injector circuit is
being analyzed. In this circuit, the computer provides the ground
and the voltage level drops when the computer commands the
injector on. Sometimes the technician needs to change from
negative to positive or positive to negative trigger if a waveform
is not being shown correctly. ●■SEE FIGURE 6–8.

(a) (b)

FIGURE 6–8 (a) A symbol for a positive trigger—a trigger

occurs at a rising (positive) edge of the waveform. (b) A
FIGURE 6–7 A two-channel scope being used to compare symbol for a negative trigger—a trigger occurs at the falling
the two inputs from an accelerator position sensor.
. (negative) edge of the waveform.

70 CHAPTER 6
 USING A SCOPE USING DSO ACCESSORIES
SCOPE LEADS Most scopes, both analog and digital, CURRENT CLAMPS A current clamp (also called an amp
normally use the same test leads. These leads usually attach clamp) is an electrical probe with jaws that open to allow the
to the scope through a BNC connector, which is a miniature clamping around an electrical conductor. The probe measures
standard coaxial cable connector. BNC is an international the magnetic field created by the current flow and converts
standard that is used in the electronics industry. If using a it into a waveform on the scope. It can be used with a scope
BNC connector, be sure to connect one lead to a good clean, to measure AC or DC current in a circuit without disconnect-
metal engine ground. The probe of the scope lead attaches to ing any wires or components. Current clamps, depending on
the circuit or component being tested. Many scopes use one their design, can measure very small current or large current
ground lead and each channel has its own signal pickup lead. flow. A current clamp can be a useful tool when diagnosing
components, such as an electrical motor. When measuring the
MEASURING AUXILIARY BATTERY VOLTAGE WITH A
current generated by an electrical motor in a hybrid or electric
SCOPE One of the easiest things to measure and observe on a
vehicle, a special high-current clamp or clamp adapter is used
scope is battery voltage. A lower voltage can be observed on the
to protect the scope from unintended spikes in current. ● SEE
scope display as the hybrid engine is started, and a higher voltage
FIGURE 6–10.
should be displayed after the engine starts. ●■SEE FIGURE 6–9.
An analog scope displays rapidly and cannot be set to
PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS A pressure transducer
show or freeze a display. Therefore, even though an analog
is an electrical device that converts pressure into an electrical
scope shows all voltage signals, it is easy to miss a momentary
signal. Pressure transducers are divided into two categories:
glitch on an analog scope.
1. Actual: An actual transducer measures the actual pressure
CAUTION: Check the instructions for the scope being of the system being tested.
used before attempting to scope household AC circuits.
2. Relative: A relative transducer measures the change in
Some scopes are not designed to measure high-voltage
system pressure.
AC circuits.
A pressure transducer can be used with a scope to mea-
sure operating pressures of various hybrid powertrain systems,
such as fuel pressure, engine vacuum, exhaust pressure, and
cylinder compression. ●■■SEE FIGURE 6–11.

12.8 V START OF SIGNAL HOLD

10.1 V MINIMUM
13.8 V END OF SIGNAL

14 V

12

10

6
KEYS
FIGURE 6–10 The high-current clamp is being used to mea-
BATTERY TEST RANGE sure the operating current of an electrical motor.

FIGURE 6–9 The battery voltage is represented by the single

scope trace. The drop in voltage occurred when the vehicle
was started.

D I G I T AL ST O RAG E O SC I L L O S C O PE TES T IN G 71
 at a later time. In a typical scenario, the technician will record
the data until a malfunction is detected. The data would be
saved and then reviewed in an effort to determine what failure
had occurred. When looking at the data, it is important to first
understand how the circuit or component is supposed to work
and look for specific failures.

CAN THE CONDITION EXIST NORMALLY? When

analyzing a waveform, first look to see if the condition can
exist under normal operating conditions. In ● FIGURE 6-12,
the coolant temperature drops from almost 200°F to below zero
and back to almost 200°F in less than the span of 45 seconds.
There is no possible way this could happen on a normal oper-
ating engine and should therefore be a clue that something is
FIGURE 6–11 The relative vacuum transducer is attached
to the intake manifold and is measuring the change in wrong electrically.
engine vacuum.
LINE CHARACTERISTICS The characteristics of the line
of data being recorded can be an indicator of a failure. The nearly
WAVEFORM ANALYSIS vertical change in the MAP sensor voltage in ● FIGURE 6–13
is an indication of an electrical failure. In this case, the voltage
DATA RECORDING Most oscilloscopes and DSOs have had increased to source voltage, indicating an open circuit. If
the ability to record and playback the data that is being moni- the voltage had dropped to near zero volts, this would have
tored. In some cases, the recording can be saved for viewing indicated a short circuit.

FIGURE 6–12 The scope pattern shows a temperature change that is not possible. This
indicates an electrical problem.

72 CHAPTER 6
FIGURE 6–13 The scope pattern shows a nearly vertical change in voltage indicating an
electrical open circuit.

D I G I T AL ST O RAG E O SC I L L O S C O P E TES T IN G 73
SCOPE SETUP PHOTO SEQUENCE

1 2
Start the program.
Plug the scope interface into the USB port on the
computer.

3 4
Select the probe for channel A. Select the voltage range for channel A.

5 6
If more than one channel is being used, select the probe
for these channels. Select the voltage range for the additional
channels.

CONTINUED ➤

74 CHAPTER 6
 STEP BY STEP

7 8
Select the sample rate. Capture the signal (for example, high-speed CAN bus).

9 10
Use the rulers to measure the high and low
Zoom in on the sample to view the data.
voltage.

11
Save the data for future analysis.

D I G I T AL ST O RAG E O SC I L L O S C O P E TES T IN G 75
 SUMMARY
1. Analog oscilloscopes use a cathode ray tube (CRT) to dis- 5. Setting the time base means establishing the amount of
play voltage patterns. time each division represents.
2. The waveforms shown on an analog oscilloscope cannot 6. Setting the volts per division allows the technician to view
be stored for later viewing. either the entire waveform or just part of it.
3. A digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) creates an image or 7. DC coupling and AC coupling are two selections that can
waveform on the display by connecting thousands of dots be made to observe different types of waveforms.
captured by the scope leads. 8. Oscilloscopes display voltage over time. A DSO can cap-
4. An oscilloscope display grid is called a graticule. Each of ture and store a waveform for viewing later.
the 8 × 10 or 10 × 10 dividing boxes is called a division.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the differences between an analog and a digital 4. What is the benefit of recording oscilloscope and DSO
oscilloscope? waveforms?
2. What is the difference between DC coupling and AC 5. What is the purpose of a trigger when capturing data on
coupling? a DSO?
3. Why is a DC signal that changes called pulse trains?

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. Technician A says an analog scope can store the wave- 5. A motor position sensor waveform is going to be observed.
form for viewing later. Technician B says that the trigger At what setting should the volts per division be set to see
level has to be set on most scopes to be able to view a the entire waveform from 0 to 5 volts?
changing waveform. Which technician is correct? a. 0.5 V/div
a. Technician A only b. 1.0 V/div
b. Technician B only c. 2.0 V/div
c. Both Technicians A and B d. 5.0 V/div
d. Neither Technician A nor B 6. Two technicians are discussing the DC coupling setting
2. An oscilloscope display is called a ________. on a DSO. Technician A says that the position allows both
a. grid the DC and AC signals of the waveform to be displayed.
b. graticule Technician B says this setting allows just the DC part of the
c. division waveform to be displayed. Which technician is correct?
d. box a. Technician A only
3. A signal showing the voltage of a battery displayed on b. Technician B only
a digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) is being discussed. c. Both Technicians A and B
Technician A says that the display will show one horizontal d. Neither Technician A nor B
line above the zero line. Technician B says that the display 7. Voltage signals (waveforms) that do not go below zero are
will show a line sloping upward from zero to the battery called ________.
voltage level. Which technician is correct? a. AC signals
a. Technician A only b. pulse trains
b. Technician B only c. pulse width
c. Both Technicians A and B d. DC coupled signals
d. Neither Technician A nor B 8. Cycles per second are expressed in ________.
4. Setting the time base to 50 milliseconds per division a. hertz
will allow the technician to view a waveform how long in b. duty cycle
duration? c. pulse width
a. 50 ms d. slope
b. 200 ms 9. A MAP sensor signal voltage on a hybrid engine is
c. 400 ms being observed using a DSO. The pattern on the scope
d. 500 ms

76 CHAPTER 6
 occasionally, and instantaneously, rises to 5 volts (source is an example of a pulse train signal. Technician B says that
voltage). What does this indicate? an ignition module pulse on a hybrid engine is an example
a. A drop in manifold vacuum of a pulse train signal. Which technician is correct?
b. A momentary short circuit a. Technician A only
c. Normal operation b. Technician B only
d. A momentary open circuit c. Both Technicians A and B
10. Two technicians are discussing pulse train signals. d. Neither Technician A nor Technician
Technician A says a fuel injector pulse on a hybrid engine

DI G I T AL S T O RAG E O SC I L L O S C O PE T ES T IN G 77
Chapter 7
ENERGY AND POWER
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Energy 79 Photovoltaics (PV) 82
be able to: Energy efficiency ratio Power 80
• Explain the difference between energy and (EER) 87 Solar cell 82
power. Geothermal energy 85 Torque 80
• Explain the units of energy and power. Geothermal heat pump Watt 82
• Describe DC current and its generation process. (GHP) 86 Watt’s law 82
• Describe AC current and its generation process. Hydroelectricity 85 Watt-hour 81

• Describe the process to calculate the formulas Joule 79 Wind power 83

for Watts and Power. Kilowatt (kW) 81 Wind farms 83
Kilowatt-hour (kWh) 81 Work 80

78
 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS Internal combustion
ENERGY engines use the theory of thermodynamics to generate power.
■■ The first law of thermodynamics is a law of energy
DEFINITION Energy is defined as the ability to do work.
conservation: energy cannot be created or destroyed.
The sun is the source of energy for life on Earth. It releases the
The amount of internal energy in a system is a direct
following:
result of the heat transferred into that system and the
■■ Thermal energy work done. Heat and work are means by which natural
■■ Heat energy systems exchange energy with each other. Basically, it is
the relationship between heat and mechanical energy.
■■ Radiant (light) energy
■■ The second law of termodynamic concerns the
Physics defines energy as a property of objects which can
thermodynamic cycle. In a perfect heat engine, all of
be transferred to other objects or converted into different forms
the heat produced would be completely converted to
including:
mechanical work. nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot, a 19th
■■ Thermal energy century French scientist, proved that this ideal cycle
■■ Electrical energy could not exist. The best engine loses heat and work
because the burned gases must be exhausted. The
■■ Magnetic energy
exhaust removes a great deal of heat.
■■ nuclear energy
■■ Chemical energy ENERGY UNITS
■■ Potential and kinetic energy ■■ In SI units (International System of Units), the modern
●■■SEE FIGURE 7–1. form of the metric system, energy is measured in joules,
Some types of energy are a varying mix of both potential and one joule is defined mechanically as being the
and kinetic energy. Thermal or heat energy is internal energy energy transferred to an object by the mechanical work of
present in a system due to its temperature. This is a thermo- moving it a distance of 1 meter with a force of 1 newton.
dynamic concept where heat is defined as a transfer of energy 1 n-m (newton-meter) = 1 joule
(just as work is another type of transfer of energy).

FORMS OF ENERGY

NUCLEAR ENERGY MAGNETIC

(NUCLEAR FUSION IN STARS) ENERGY

ELECTRIC
LIGHT ENERGY S N

POTENTIAL Y
ENERGY ER
TT
BA

CHEMICAL
KINETIC ENERGY
ENERGY

THERMAL
ENERGY

FIGURE 7–1 Energy is found in many forms and each has the potential to perform work.

E n E RG y An D P oWER 79
 ■■ In the MKS (Meter Kilogram Second) measuring system,
joule is equivalent to the dyne centimeter.
■■ In the CGS (Centimeter Gram Second) measuring system, 10 FT
joule is equivalent to the erg. 100 LBS

TORQUE, WORK,
AND POWER
TORQUE Torque is the term used to describe a rotating
FIGURE 7–3 Work is calculated by multiplying force times
force that may or may not result in motion. Torque is measured distance. If you push 100 pounds 10 feet, you have done
as the amount of force multiplied by the length of the lever 1,000 foot-pounds of work.
through which it acts. If a one-foot-long wrench is used to apply
10 pounds of force to the end of the wrench to turn a bolt, then
10 pound-feet of torque is being applied. ●■■SEE FIGURE 7–2. Another common and traditional measure is horsepower (com-
The metric unit for torque is newton-meters because new- paring to the power of a horse). As the rate of work over time,
ton is the metric unit for force and the distance is expressed in the equation for power is shown below:
meters.
Work
Power =
1 pound-foot = 1.3558 newton-meters Time
1 newton-meter = 0.7376 pound-foot The faster a given amount of work is done, the greater is
the power. In terms of the above formula, the smaller the time,
WORK Work is defined as actually accomplishing movement
the greater is the fraction or power result. The watt is a com-
when force (torque) is applied to an object. A service technician
mon unit of power used in electricity.
can apply torque to a bolt in an attempt to loosen it, yet no work
is done until the bolt actually moves. Work is calculated by mul-
tiplying the applied force (in pounds) by the distance the object
HORSEPOWER Horsepower is the unit of measurement that
expresses the power output of an internal combustion engine.
moves (in feet). If you applied 100 pounds of force to move an
one horsepower is equivalent to 33,000 ft-lb (foot-pounds) of
object 10 feet, you accomplished 1,000 foot-pounds of work (100
work done in one minute. For example, if it takes one minute to
pounds × 10 feet = 1,000 foot-pounds). ● SEE FIGURE 7–3.
lift a weight of 550 pounds a distance of 60 feet, the work done
is 550 × 60 = 33,000 lb-ft done in one minute. one horsepower
POWER Power is defined as the rate of doing work or the
is consumed, since 33,000 ft-lb per minute is equal to one horse-
rate at which work is being done. It is the amount of energy
power. In the metric system, power of an engine is expressed in
consumed per unit time. In the SI system, the unit of power
kilowatts (0.746 kilowatt = 1 horsepower, or 1.341 horsepower =
is the joule per second, also known as the watt, named after
1 kilowatt).
James Watt, the 18th century developer of the steam engine.
The horsepower of an engine as measured by a dyna-
mometer is expressed by the formula:

1 FOOT

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

10 POUNDS Who Introduced the Term “Work” in Physics?

The term work was introduced in 1826 by the French
mathematician, Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis, as “weight
lifted through a height,” which is based on the use
of early steam engines to lift buckets of water out of
FIGURE 7–2 Torque is a twisting force equal to the distance
flooded ore mines.
from the pivot point times the force applied expressed in units
called pound-feet (lb-ft) or newton-meters (n-m).

80 CHAPTER 7
 200 LBS it became charged with an unseen force that had the ability to
(91 KG) attract lightweight objects, such as feathers, in the same way that a
magnet picks up metal objects. In 1600, a scientist named William
Gilbert discovered that other materials shared the ability to attract,
165 FT such as sulfur and glass. He also used the Latin word electricus,
(50 M)
which means “amber,” and the word electrical for the effect. Sir
165 FT Thomas Browne used the word electricity during the early 1600s.
(50 M)
PER
MINUTE ELECTRICAL POWER Energy is a measure of how much
fuel is contained within something, or used by something over
a specific time period.
FIGURE 7–4 one horsepower is equal to 33,000 foot-pounds
■■ Kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a unit of energy.
(200 lbs × 165 ft) of work per minute.
■■ Kilowatt (kW) is a measure of power.
2πFRN
hp = Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is
33,000
transferred by an electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the
hp = Horsepower watt, one joule per second. It is usually produced by elec-
F = Dynamometer load, in pounds tric AC (alternating current) generators (invented by nikola
R = Radius arm of dynamometer, in feet Tesla). Direct current (DC) can be supplied by other sources,
33,000 = Conversion factor, foot-pounds per minute, such as batteries or solar cells. It is supplied to businesses
to produce one horsepower
and homes by the electric power industry through an elec-
N = Engine speed, in revolutions per minute (RPM)
tric power grid. Electric power is usually sold by the kilowatt-
π = 3.1416, a constant
hour (3.6 MJ), which is the product of power in kilowatts mul-
●■■SEE FIGURE 7–4. tiplied by running time in hours. The watt-hour is a unit of
energy equal to a power of one watt operating for one hour.

?
one watt-hour equals 3,600 joules. The kilowatt-hour is a unit
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
of energy equal to 1,000 watt-hours, or 3.6 megajoules. If the
energy is being transmitted or used at a constant rate (power)
Where Did the Term Horsepower Come From?
over a period of time, the total energy in kilowatt-hours is
The term horsepower came from the act of a horse
the product of the power in kilowatts and the time in hours.
pulling or lifting a weight of 200 pounds for a distance
Electric utilities measure power using an electricity meter,
of 165 feet; that is, 200 times 165 equal to 30,000
which keeps a running total of the electric energy delivered to
foot-pounds accomplished in 1 minute. Brake or
a customer. ●■■SEE FIGURE 7–5.
shaft horsepower is the power delivered at the shaft
of the engine. The term brake horsepower comes
from the method of testing early engines. This con-
sisted of putting a mechanical brake on the engine
and measuring the force required to hold the brake
from turning. The energy produced was dissipated as
heat. Water or air was used to cool the friction sur-
faces of the brake. Brakes, called Prony brakes, were
an early type of the absorption dynamometer.

ELECTRICAL POWER
BACKGROUND The Greeks discovered electricity. They found
that when they took amber (a translucent, yellowish resin that FIGURE 7–5 A typical power meter that measures the
comes from fossilized trees) and rubbed it against other materials, amount of electrical power supplied to a home.

E n E R Gy An D P o WER 81
 VALUE SYMBOL NAME
103 kWh kilo watt-hour PHOTONS FROM THE SUNS RAYS
5 BEAM DOWN TO EARTH
10 MWh mega watt-hour
109 GWh giga watt-hour
12
10 TWh tera watt-hour
1015 PWh peta watt-hour

CHART 7–1 SOLAR PANELS FEATURING THE

SEMI-CONDUCTIVE MATERIAL
“SILICON” COLLECT THE PHOTONS

Kilowatt-hours (kWh) are for household electrical service FREE ELECTRONS FORM

and electric vehicle power consumption. Megawatt-hours IN THE SOLAR CELLS AND
POWER IS NOW AVAILABLE

(MWh) are for city wide power generation. Terawatt-hours

(TWh) and petawatt-hours (PWh) would be for larger FIGURE 7–6 Solar panels are one of the most efficient
producers of electrical power like wind farms, large solar sources of electrical energy.
arrays, laser systems, and concentrating solar power (CSP)
systems.

one megawatt is equal to the electrical needs for 1,000

homes. ●■■SEE CHART 7–1. ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

A watt is a basic unit of power. Power is the rate at which

Who Invented Photovoltaics?
electrical energy is delivered to a circuit. Watts and horsepower
are both measures of power. The power formula, sometimes The photoelectric effect was first listed by a French
called Watt’s law, describes the relationship between power physicist, Edmond Becquerel, in 1839, who dis-
(P), voltage (E), and current (I). The relationship among power covered that certain materials would produce small
voltage and current can be expressed by the formula P = I × E amounts of electric current when exposed to sunlight.
and its derivatives P/E = I and P/I = E. For example, a 60-watt Albert Einstein described the nature of light and the
light bulb uses 0.5 amps of current at 120 volts (60/120 = 0.5). photoelectric effect on which photovoltaic technology
is based, for which he won a nobel Prize in physics
Power is the product of current multiplied by voltage. in 1905. The first photovoltaic module was developed
■■ In a circuit if voltage or current increases, power by Bell Laboratories in 1954. It was promoted as a
increases. solar battery and was too costly for common use. The
■■ When the voltage or current decreases, the power will space industry, notably nASA (national Aeronautics &
decrease. Space Administration), began first serious use of the
technology to provide power aboard spacecraft in the
one watt is equal to one ampere times one volt. one of
sixties. Through the efforts of nASA and advanced
the most common applications of a rating in watts is the light
technology, the dependability of PV was established,
bulb. The number of watts consumed classifies light bulbs.
and the costs began to go down. Photovoltaic tech-
nology has gained recognition as a source of power

SOLAR ELECTRIC during the oil embargo of the seventies.

GENERATION
THE SUN Solar energy used to generate electricity is a very prom-
ising form of renewable energy. Without the sun, the Earth would not PHOTOVOLTAIC (PHOTOELECTRIC CELL) OPERATION
exist. A basic photovoltaic cell, also called a solar cell, is made from
semiconductor materials, such as silicon, that has been used in
PHOTOVOLTAICS Photovoltaics (PV) is the direct con- the electronics industry for decades. In a solar cell, a thin semi-
version of light into electricity at the atomic level. Certain mate- conductor wafer is used to form an electric field, positive on
rials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that one side and negative on the other. When light strikes the solar
causes this material to absorb photons of light and release cell, electrons are loosened from the atoms in the semiconduc-
electrons. ●■■SEE FIGURE 7–6. tor material n-type and P-type silicon wafers. With electrical

82 CHAPTER 7
 SUNLIGHT

NEGATIVE ELECTRODE
N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

2 2 2 2 2 2 TO REGULATOR
1 1 1 1 1 1

POSITIVE ELECTRODE

CROSS SECTION OF A SOLAR CELL

ELECTRIC CURRENT

FIGURE 7–7 Sunlight striking a solar cell releases electrons causing an electric current to be generated.

conductors attached to the positive and negative sides, an

electrical circuit is formed so the electrons can develop an WIND ENERGY GENERATION
electric current. This electricity can then be used to power any-
thing that operates on electricity. ●■■SEE FIGURE 7–7. WIND POWER Wind power is the generation of electricity
The multi-junction PV cell (cascade/tandem cells) uses using air flow through wind turbines, which are mechanically
two or more different cells, with more than one bandgap powered generators driven by a large turbine blade.
and more than one junction to generate a voltage. These Wind energy, like solar energy, is used to generate elec-
devices can achieve higher total conversion efficiency tricity all around us. The two types of wind turbines used are
because they can convert more of the energy spectrum as follows:
of light to electricity. The multi-junction device is a stack 1. HAWT (horizontal axis wind turbines)
of individual single-junction cells in descending order of 2. Gorlov-type wind turbines
bandgap. ●■■SEE FIGURE 7–8.
Wind power is an alternative to burning fossil fuels and it is
renewable. It is a variable renewable energy source because it
does not generate greenhouse gas emissions during operation,
does not use water, the energy can be varied, and only has a
small footprint. Environment issues are far less with wind power
PV ARRAY than other nonrenewable power sources. ●■■SEE FIGURE 7–9.

WIND FARMS Wind farms are an array of many individual

wind turbines that are connected to the electric power transmis-
DC sion network gird. onshore and offshore wind farms are an inex-
24V DC
pensive source of electricity, competitive with coal or gas plants.
MPPT DC/DC LOW POWER
LOADS (24V) ●■■SEE FIGURE 7–10.

NON-COOLING
LOADS
METER
AC BIDIRECTIONAL 380V DC
INVERTER COOLING LOADS

CHARGE ELECTRIC
CONTROL VEHICLE

FIGURE 7–8 Solar panels are a cost-efficient way to use the

energy from the sun for household uses including charging an
electric vehicle.

E n E RG y A nD P oWER 83
 PITCH

LOW-SPEED
SHAFT

ROTOR GEAR BOX

GENERATOR

CONTROLLER
ANEMOMETER
D
W CT
IR
IN IO
E
D N

BRAKE

YAW
DRIVE

WIND VANE

YAW MOTOR HIGH-SPEED NACELLE

SHAFT

BLADES TOWER

FIGURE 7–9 A typical wind generator is a complex set of mechanical and electric components.

SPEED-UP
NACELLE
GEARBOX

GENERATOR

HUB
OPERATION AND
BLADE
MONITORING CENTER

GRID
OPERATION OPERATION
STATUS RECORD

BATTERY
STORAGE
SYSTEM
SYSTEM TRANSFORMER
PROTECTOR

CONTROLLER POWER
CONVERTER

FIGURE 7–10 Groups of wind generators are commonly located where the wind blows above 8 MPH (13 km/h) and where it is
close to the electric grid.

84 CHAPTER 7
 ■■ Aquaculture
HYDROELECTRIC ■■ Recreation (boating, fishing, etc.)

GENERATION Hydropower is used in conjunction with dams to gener-

ate electricity in a hydroelectricity plant. The hydroelectric plant
DEFINITION Hydroelectricity is defined as converting the produces no waste, and has a lower output level of greenhouse
energy of flowing water into the mechanical energy of a turbine to gases than fossil fuel powered electricity plants.
turn a hydroelectric generator to generate electricity. In 2020, hydro-
electricity generated 16.6% of the world’s total electricity and 70% of
all renewable electricity, and is expected to grow 3.1% each year for
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
the next 25 years. It is produced in 150 countries. China is the largest
DEFINITION Geothermal energy is energy derived from the
producer of hydroelectricity, producing about 920 TWh a year, which
heat of the earth. The earth’s core is approximately 4,000 miles
represents 16.9% of its electricity use. ●■ SEE FIGURE 7–11.
from the surface and is so hot that it is molten. Temperatures are
believed to be at least 9,000°F (5,000°C). A well is drilled and the
ECONOMIC IMPACT Hydroelectricity is relatively cheap to pro-
earth’s core heats water into steam that drives a turbine to drive
duce, so it is a very competitive source of renewable electricity. The
an AC generator to produce electricity. ●■■SEE FIGURE 7–12.
hydroelectric plant does not consume or use any fuel, unlike coal or
Geothermal power is cost-effective, reliable, sustainable,
gas plants that consume fossil fuels. The average cost of electricity
and environmentally friendly, but has historically been limited
from a hydro station larger than 10 MW is 3–5 cents per kilowatt-
hour. Using a dam and reservoir is a very flexible source of electricity
since what is produced can be increased or decreased quickly to
? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

adjust to changing demands. A dam is a barrier that impounds water Where Does Geothermal Energy Come From?
or underground streams. Reservoirs created by dams not only sup- The geothermal energy of the earth’s crust originates from
press floods, but also provide a water supply for the following: the original formation of the planet and from radioactive
■■ Hydroelectricity decay of materials. The geothermal gradient, which is the
difference in temperature between the core of the planet
■■ Irrigation
and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal
■■ Human consumption (drinking and bathing water)
energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface.
■■ Industrial use

DAM POWERHOUSE
RESERVOIR
TRANSFORMER POWER LINES

GENERATOR

INTAKE CONTROL PENSTOCK TURBINE OUTFLOW

GATE

FIGURE 7–11 A conventional hydroelectric dam showing the cross section of the inner components involved with the generation
of electrical power using the flow of water.

E n E RG y A nD P oWER 85
 RECHARGE AREA

HOT
SPRING
OR
GEOTHERMAL STEAM VENT
WELL

IMPERMEABLE
CAPROCK HOT
(THERMAL FLUIDSI
CONDUCTION)
RESERVOIR
(THERMAL
CONVECTION)
FLOW OF HEAT
(CONDUCTION)
ROCK
IMPERMEABLE
NDUCTION)
(THERMAL CO
HOT GRANITE
ROCKS

FIGURE 7–12 Geothermal energy is energy derived from the heat of the earth’s core.

to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent technological

Geothermal use will not endanger the capability of future gen-
advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of
erations to use energy sources that are presently used.
viable resources, especially for applications, such as home heat-
ing, opening a potential for widespread exploitation. Geothermal GHP SYSTEM Geothermal can be used in cold weather
energy costs between $0.02 and $0.10 cents per kilowatt-hour. to warm the interior of a building and can be used in warm
Geothermal power is renewable because any projected weather to cool the inside of a building using a geothermal
heat extraction is small compared to the earth’s heat content. heat pump (GHP) system. ●■■SEE FIGURE 7–13.

SUMMER WINTER

AQUIFER AQUIFER
WARM COLD WARM WELL COLD
WELL WELL WELL

FIGURE 7–13 Geothermal energy is energy that can be used to heat or cool.

86 CHAPTER 7
 During warm weather, a GHP is used to lower the indoor EER Energy efficiency ratio (EER) is a value representing the
temperature by transferring heat from inside a building into relative electrical efficiency of cooling equipment in the cooling
the ground that is usually at a constant temperature ranging from season. EER is calculated by dividing cooling capacity (in British
45°F (7°C) to 75°F (23°C). Like a cave, this ground temperature is thermal units per hour [Btu/h]) by the power input (in watts or W).
warmer than the air above it during the winter and cooler than the The higher the EER, the less electricity the equipment uses to
air in the summer. The GHP takes advantage of this by exchang- cool the same amount of air. A unit with an EER of 7 costs about
ing heat with the earth through a ground heat exchanger. Piping twice as much to operate as one with an EER of 14.
may be arranged as coils buried horizontally, as a single well, or
as a series of vertical wells. In the winter, a GHP draws heat from
the ground and transfers it to inside the building.

SUMMARY
1. Energy is defined as the ability to do work. The sun is the 4. Hydroelectricity is defined as converting the energy of
source of energy for life on Earth. It releases the following: flowing water into mechanical energy to turn an AC hydro-
thermal energy, heat energy, and radiant (light) energy. electric generator to generate electricity.
2. Physics defines energy as a property of objects which can 5. Geothermal energy is energy derived from the heat of the
be transferred to other objects or converted into different earth’s core.
forms. 6. A well is drilled to the core and heat from the earth’s core
3. A watt is a unit of electrical power represented by a cur- heats water into steam that drives a turbine to drive an AC
rent of 1 ampere through a circuit with a potential differ- generator to produce electricity.
ence of 1 volt.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is electrical power? 4. What is the most common component used to generate a
2. What is the difference between work and power? DC current?
3. What is a kWh? 5. How can geothermal energy be used to heat or cool?

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. What is defined as the ability to do work? 4. ______________ is defined as the production of electric
a. Energy current at the interface of two semiconductor materials.
b. Power a. Photovoltaics
c. Horsepower b. ohm’s law
d. Wattage c. Watt’s law
2. Thermal or heat energy is internal energy present in a sys- d. Any of the above
tem due to its ______________. 5. Which of these energies is energy of motion?
a. weight a. Potential
b. temperature b. Kinetic
c. mass c. Static
d. density d. Work
3. In SI units (International System of Units) energy is mea- 6. Which of these is defined as the product of a force and the
sured in which of these units? distance through which the force acts?
a. ohms a. Kinetic energy
b. Joules b. Potential energy
c. Volts c. Torque
d. newtons d. Work

E n E RG y An D P oWER 87
7. Which of these is defined as the rate of doing work or the 9. A watt-hour is a unit of ______________?
rate at which work is being done? a. energy
a. Kinetic energy b. power
b. Power c. torque
c. Torque d. heat
d. Work 10. Which of these is the SI unit of power?
8. Which of these is defined as the product of a force and the a. Joule
perpendicular distance between the line of action of the b. Ampere
force and the axis of rotation? c. Watt
a. Kinetic energy d. Volt
b. Potential energy
c. Torque
d. Work

88 CHAPTER 7
Chapter 8
ADVANCED AC AND DC
ELECTRICITY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Alternating current (AC) 91 Locksmith ID 99
be able to: Controller Area Network Loss of isolation 97
• Describe DC current and its generation process. (CAN) 97 Megohm 96
Direct current (DC) 90 Milliohm 96
• Describe AC current and its generation process.
Electromagnetic National Automotive
• Describe the process to calculate the formulas induction 94 Service Task Force
for watts and power. Insulated-gate bipolar (NASTF) 99
• Explain the purpose of a capacitor. transistor (IGBT) 95 SAE J2534 98
• Describe the differences between a milliohm, Kilowatt 92 Watt 92
ohm, and megohm.
• Explain how to perform a loss of isolation test.
• Explain electromagnetism and the electric
motor principle.
• Describe the operation of CAN bus
communication.
• Explain the process of programming a module.

89
 DC ELECTRICITY
2

DEFINITION In direct current (DC), the electric charge

DC OUTPUT
(current) only flows in one direction. ● SEE FIGURE 8-1.
DC is used in batteries and the charging of all batteries 1
including smartphones and electric vehicles. hybrid electric
and electric vehicles use an auxiliary 12-volt battery for most
lighting and accessories. DC voltage can be viewed flowing STATOR 6-DIODE BATTERY
in a single line from battery through an electrical load and RECTIFIER

back to the battery. ● SEE FIGURE 8-2. FIGURE 8-3 As the magnetic field, created in the rotor,
cuts across the windings of the stator, a current is induced.
DC GENERATION An alternator generates alter- Notice that the current path includes passing through
nating current within itself, but the output is DC. The one positive (+) diode on the way to the battery and one
negative (−) diode as a complete circuit is completed
induced current in the stator windings is an alternating
through the rectifier and stator. It is the flow of current
current because of the alternating magnetic field of the
through the diodes that converts the AC voltage produced
rotor. The current induced in the stator windings con- in the stator windings to DC voltage available at the output
nects to diodes (one-way electrical check valves) that terminal of the alternator.
permit the alternator output current to flow in only one

direction, thereby changing AC voltage to DC voltage. All

alternators contain six diodes, one pair (a positive and a
negative diode) for each of the three stator windings.
Some alternators contain eight diodes with another pair
connected to the center connection of a wye-type stator.
● SEE FIGURE 8-3.
FIGURE 8-1 Electrons flow in only one direction in DC
circuits. DC WAVEFORM DC has only one waveform consisting of
a straight horizontal line. This line represents the change (or the
lack of change) of voltage over time. In practice, the intensity
of the voltage and the current may change, but the direction of
the flow stays the same. Over time, for example, batteries lose
CURRENT
their power and the voltage will start dropping at some point,
producing a horizontal line that drops down slightly over time.
● SEE FIGURE 8-4.

1
LOAD
DC SOURCE

2
V
0 t

CURRENT
DIRECT CURRENT
FIGURE 8-2 A DC source is often a battery and a simple
circuit that allows current to flow in one direction through the FIGURE 8-4 The waveform of a DC current flow is a flat line
circuit. representing the voltage over time.

90 ChAp TE r 8
 of wire which rotates in the magnetic field of the magnet. The
AC ELECTRICITY rotor generates a moving magnetic field around the stator,
which induces a voltage difference between the windings of
DEFINITION Electric charge in alternating current (AC) the stator. This produces the AC output of the generator. To
changes direction periodically. The voltage in AC circuits also produce AC current, this wire needs to have some kind of rota-
periodically reverses because the current changes direction. tion, which can be produced by flowing water, steam turbine,
AC is supplied to households and office buildings and can be or wind turbine. During the spinning process, the wire periodi-
converted to DC if needed. ● SEE FIGURE 8-5. cally changes its magnetic polarity which makes both current
and the voltage alternate. ● SEE FIGURE 8-6.
AC GENERATION An AC is produced by an electric gen-
erator. An electric generator consists of a magnet and a loop

SUBSTATION
STEP DOWN
SUBTRANSMISSION
TRANSFORMER
CUSTOMER
26 KV AND 69 KV
TRANSMISSION LINES
765, 500, 345, 230, AND 138 KV

GENERATING STATION
PRIMARY CUSTOMER
13 KV AND 4 KV

TRANSMISSION CUSTOMER SECONDARY CUSTOMER

GENERATING 138 KV OR 230 KV 120 V AND 240 V
STEP UP
TRANSFORMER

FIGURE 8-5 Electrical AC power is generated and delivered by transmission lines where the voltage is stepped up and down as needed.

N
N

ALTERNATOR LOAD
S

FIGURE 8-6 AC is the flow of electrons from one atom to another and performs work when the movement is applied to an
electrical load.

AD V AN C E D AC AN D D C E LEC Tr IC IT Y 91
 TYPES OF ELECTRICITY
10

6
P
(watts)
4 DC

2
VOLTAGE

−0
I E
−2
(amperes) (volts)
−4
AC
−6

−8

−10
FIGURE 8-8 To calculate one unit when the other two are
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 known, simply cover the unknown unit to see what unit needs
TIME to be divided or multiplied to arrive at the solution. The power
FIGURE 8-7 Compared to DC that is shown to be a flat of electric motors, such as starter motors and propulsion
horizontal line on a scope, the AC waveform is continuously (traction) motors used in electric and hybrid electric vehicles,
changing. are rated in watts.

Engine power is commonly rated in watts or kilowatts

AC WAVEFORMS AC waveforms are different from a DC (1,000 watts equal 1 kilowatt), because 1 horsepower is equal
waveform. Most AC waveforms are a sine wave. This can be to 746 watts. For example, a 200-horsepower engine can be
seen easily if an oscilloscope is connected to an AC circuit. For rated as having the power equal to 149,200 watts or 149.2 kilo-
example, the AC used in homes and offices have a sine wave watts (kW).
when viewed on a scope, indicating that the amplitude of the
current flow changes over time. ● SEE FIGURE 8-7. To calculate watts, both the current in amperes and the
voltage in the circuit must be known. If any two of these factors
are known, the other remaining factor can be determined by the

POWER OUTPUT following equations:

P = I × E ( watts equal amperes times voltage )
(WATTS) I = P / E ( amperes equal watts divided by voltage )
E = P / I ( voltage equals watts divided by amperes )
BACKGROUND James Watt (1736–1819), a Scottish inven-
For example, the amperage required to operate a 55-watt
tor, first determined the power of a typical horse while measur-
low-beam headlight bulb can be calculated using Watt’s law.
ing the amount of coal being lifted out of a mine. The power of
The vehicle’s 12-volt battery supplies the voltage to oper-
one horse was determined to be 33,000 foot-pounds per min-
ate the lamp. Using the formula, I = p/E, the calculation is
ute. Electricity can also be expressed in a unit of power called a
55 / 12 = 4.6 amperes.
watt and the relationship is known as Watt’s law, which states:
A Watt’s circle can be drawn and used like the Ohm’s law
A watt is a unit of electrical power represented by a cur-
circle diagram. ● SEE FIGURE 8-8.
rent of 1 ampere through a circuit with a potential difference of
1 volt.

FORMULAS The symbol for a watt is the capital letter W.

CAPACITORS
The formula for watts is: W = I × E
CONSTRUCTION A capacitor (also called a condenser)
Another way to express this formula is to use the letter P
consists of two conductive plates with an insulating material
to represent the unit of power. The formula then becomes:
between them. The insulating material is commonly called
P = I×E
a dielectric. This substance is a poor conductor of electricity
NOTE: An easy way to remember this equation is that it and can include air, mica, ceramic, glass, paper, plastic, or
spells “pie.” any similar nonconductive material. The dielectric constant is

92 ChAp TE r 8
the relative strength of a material against the flow of electrical
2
current. The higher the number is, the better are the insulating
2
properties. 12 V
1
1
OPERATION When a capacitor is placed in a closed cir- ELECTROSTATIC
cuit, the voltage source (battery) forces electrons around the FIELD BETWEEN
CAPACITOR PLATES
circuit. Because electrons cannot flow through the dielectric
of the capacitor, excess electrons collect on what becomes FIGURE 8-10 When the capacitor is charged, there is equal
the negatively charged plate. At the same time, the other plate voltage across the capacitor and the battery. An electrostatic
field exists between the capacitor plates. No current flows in
loses electrons, and therefore becomes positively charged.
the circuit.
● SEE FIGURE 8-9.
Current continues until the voltage charge across the
capacitor plates becomes the same as the source voltage. At
that time, the negative plate of the capacitor and the nega- SWITCH 1 RESISTOR

tive terminal of the battery are at the same negative potential. CAPACITOR
●
BATTERY CHARGING
SEE FIGURE 8-10. 2 2
The positive plate of the capacitor and the positive termi- SWITCH ELECTRON
2 FLOW 1
nal of the battery are also at equal positive potentials. There 1
is a voltage charge across the battery terminals and an equal
voltage charge across the capacitor plates. The circuit is in
SWITCH 1 RESISTOR
balance, and there is no current. An electrostatic field now
exists between the capacitor plates because of their opposite CAPACITOR
BATTERY DISCHARGING
charges. It is this field that stores energy. In other words, a 2 2
SWITCH ELECTRON
charged capacitor is similar to a charged battery. 2 FLOW 1
If the circuit is opened, the capacitor holds its charge 1

until it is connected into an external circuit through which it

can discharge. When the charged capacitor is connected to an
FIGURE 8-11 The capacitor is charged through one circuit
external circuit, it discharges. After discharging, both plates of (top) and discharged through another (bottom).
the capacitor are neutral because all the energy from a circuit
stored in a capacitor is returned when it is discharged. ● SEE
FIGURE 8-11.
discharged. To safely discharge a capacitor, follow the manu-
Theoretically, a capacitor holds its charge indefinitely.
facturer’s procedure. In most cases the technician must wait a
Actually, the charge slowly leaks off the capacitor through the
specific amount of time (typically 5–10 minutes) for the capaci-
dielectric. The better the dielectric, the longer the capacitor
tors to self-discharge before continuing with the task. ● SEE
holds its charge. To avoid an electrical shock, any capacitor
FIGURE 8-12 for the symbol for capacitors as used in electrical
should be treated as if it were charged until it is proven to be
schematics.

NEGATIVE PLATE—
EXCESS ELECTRONS

BATTERY FIXED CAPACITORS

ELECTRON CAPACITOR
FLOW
1

POSITIVE PLATE—
DEFICIENCY OF ELECTRONS VARIABLE CAPACITORS

FIGURE 8-9 As the capacitor is charging, the battery forces FIGURE 8-12 Capacitor symbols as shown in electrical
electrons through the circuit. diagrams. The negative plate is often shown curved.

AD V AN C E D AC AN D D C E L EC TrIC IT Y 93
 AC INTERFERENCE AMPLIFIER
OR RADIO
112 V FROM THE BATTERY
OR ALTERNATOR

CAPACITOR

FIGURE 8-14 Conductors with opposing magnetic fields

move apart into weaker fields.
FIGURE 8-13 A capacitor blocks DC, but passes AC.
A capacitor makes a very good noise suppressor because
most of the interference is AC, and the capacitor conducts this ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION Electricity can be
AC to ground before it can reach the radio or amplifier. produced by using the relative movement of an electrical con-
ductor and a magnetic field. The following three items are nec-
essary to produce electricity (voltage) from magnetism.
SPIKE SUPPRESSION A capacitor can be used in paral-
1. An electrical conductor (usually a coil of wire)
lel to a coil to reduce the resulting voltage spike that occurs
when the circuit is opened. The energy stored to the magnetic 2. A magnetic field
field of the coil is rapidly released at this time. The capacitor 3. Movement of either the conductor or the magnetic field
acts to absorb the high voltage produced and stop it from inter- Therefore:
fering with other electronic devices, such as automotive radio
and video equipment. ● SEE FIGURE 8-13.
■ Electricity creates magnetism.
■ Magnetism can create electricity.

Magnetic flux lines create an electromotive force, or

MAGNETIC FORCE voltage, in a conductor if either the flux lines or the conduc-
tor is moving. This movement is called relative motion. This
MAGNETISM Magnetism is a form of energy that is caused process is called induction, and the resulting electromotive
by the motion of electrons in some materials. It is recognized force is called induced voltage. This creation of a voltage
by the attraction it exerts on other materials. Like electricity, (electricity) in a conductor by a moving magnetic field is
magnetism cannot be seen. It can be explained in theory, called electromagnetic induction. ● SEE FIGURE 8-14.
however, because it is possible to see the results of magne-
tism and recognize the actions that it causes. Magnetite is the
most naturally occurring magnet. Naturally magnetized pieces MOTOR CONTROL
of magnetite, called lodestone, attract and hold small pieces
of iron. Many other materials can be artificially magnetized to PRINCIPLES Most hybrid electric vehicles use an AC syn-
some degree, depending on their atomic structure. Soft iron is chronous motor that is controlled as follows:
very easy to magnetize, whereas some materials, such as alu-
1. To change the speed of the motor, the frequency of the
minum, glass, wood, and plastic, cannot be magnetized at all.
applied current is changed. The speed is synchronized
to the frequency so when the frequency is changed, the
ELECTROMAGNETISM Scientists did not discover that current-
speed changes.
carrying conductors also are surrounded by a magnetic field until
1820. These fields may be made many times stronger than those 2. The pulse-width and voltage is adjusted to change the

surrounding conventional magnets. Also, the magnetic field strength power output to match the demands of the vehicle for

around a conductor may be controlled by changing the current. electric assist or propulsion.

■ As current increases, more flux lines are created and the

EXAMPLES An example of traction motor control is the
magnetic field expands.
motor control module (MCM) used on hybrid electric vehicles.
■ As current decreases, the magnetic field contracts. The The MCM has three inputs from three rotor position sensors,
magnetic field collapses when the current is shut off. A, B, and C. They send digital information to the MCM to indi-
■ The interaction and relationship between magnetism and cate rotor angular position. The MCM is programmed to use
electricity is known as electromagnetism. this information to determine which driver circuits in the power

94 ChAp TE r 8
drive unit (pDU) are turned on. The pDU controls all functions
of the motor, whether it is producing torque to drive the vehicle
or is being used as a generator to charge the batteries during
regenerative braking.
The MCM has three outputs: U, V, and W. Each winding
sends control information (digital high-low) to the pDU. These
three inputs tell the pDU which of the power transistors to turn
on to drive current through the stator windings and continue
rotation of the rotor. ● SEE FIGURE 8-15.

MOTOR CONTROL IGBTs The arrangement of transis-

tors and diodes results in three-phase control of the electric
motor for both moving the vehicle (assist) and recharging the
battery pack. The current flow through the pDU is controlled FIGURE 8-15 The power cables for a motor-generator in a
Toyota hybrid transaxle.
by six insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs). Three of
these transistors control the voltage side of the circuit and are
batteries when the DC electric drive motor becomes a gen-
called positive or high-side IGBTs. The other three transistors
erator during regenerative braking. At that time, the IGBTs are
are negative or low-side IGBTs because they are on the nega-
instantly shut off by the MCM to stop powering the DC elec-
tive (ground) side of the stators coils. The base of each IGBT
tric drive motor. Because the hEV is still moving forward, the
connects to an input terminal in the connector to the pDU. The
crankshaft is rotating, which rotates the permanent magnet
IGBTs are current drivers that send current from the battery
rotor (armature) in the DC electric drive motor. The rotation of
pack through the stator windings to energize the stator coils and
the rotor causes the lines of flux from the powerful permanent
move the rotor to power the drive wheels. Most motor control-
magnets to induce an AC current in the stator coils. The six
lers include hall-effect current sensors. ● SEE FIGURE 8-16.
Each IGBT has a diode connected in parallel between the diodes are forward biased and turn on to rectify the AC current

collector and the emitter. These six diodes work together to induced in the stator coils to pulsating DC to recharge the bat-

rectify stator AC to pulsating DC to charge the high-voltage tery pack.

ROTOR POSITION
SENSING

MOTOR A
CONTROL B ROTOR
MODULE C

UL UH VL VH WL WH
DC ELECTRIC
HV DRIVE MOTOR
BATTERY
144 V

U
WYE
V STATOR
IGBTs (INSULATED
GATE BIPOLAR W
TRANSISTORS)

POWER DRIVE
UNIT (PDU)

FIGURE 8-16 The drive control unit on a hybrid electric vehicle controls the current and voltage through the stator windings of
the motor.

AD V AN C E D AC AN D D C E L EC TrIC IT Y 95
 POWER CONTROL UNIT

BOOST
CONVERTER

INVERTER FOR
GEN.
GENERATOR
650 V INDUCTOR
123 (kW)
INVERTER FOR MAIN
MOTOR
MOTOR CAPACITOR
FILTER 288 V HV
50 (kW) BATTERY
REAR CAPACITOR
INVERTER FOR
MOTOR REAR MOTOR

FIGURE 8-17 A schematic showing the motor controls for a Lexus rX 450h. Note the use of the rear motor to provide 4WD
capability.

rotor position information is sent to the MCM, which is

programmed to turn on the correct IGBTs to keep the rotor
turning. It is critical that the controller know the exact position
of the rotor.
The IGBTs process drive current to the electric drive motor.
The diodes form a rectifier bridge to change the AC generated
in the electric drive motor to pulsating DC to charge the battery
pack. ● SEE FIGURE 8-17.

EV AND HEV ELECTRICAL

MEASUREMENTS
FIGURE 8-18 A typical milliohm meter that is able to
MILLIOHMS Milliohm (plural milliohms) is defined as
measure resistance less than 1 ohm.
one thousandth of an ohm, abbreviated as mΩ with a low-
ercase m. In other words, this is a resistance value that is
less than 1 ohm. This is not a resistance valve that would
be measured in the course of routine automotive repair. and the component being tested must be at a specified tem-
however, when testing the stator windings of an electrical perature. Many milliohm meters must be plugged into house-
motor in a hybrid or electric vehicle this level of accuracy is hold current to ensure a minimum operating voltage during
required. testing. ● SEE FIGURE 8-18.

MILLIOHMS MEASUREMENT A typical multimeter is MEGOHMS A megohm is defined as a unit of resistance,

not suitable for accurately measuring milliohms. Most multime- equal to one million ohms MΩ using an uppercase M and an
ters are not accurate below 1 ohm of resistance. A milliohm abbreviation meg. This is not a resistance valve that would be
meter must be used when making this measurement. The mil- measured in the course of routine automotive repair. however,
liohm meter has unique test leads and a specific calibration when testing the integrity of the high-voltage system, this type
procedure. Before making the measurement, both the meter of measurement is required.

96 ChAp TE r 8
 ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
EV AND HEV MODULE
What Is a Loss of Isolation Test? COMMUNICATIONS
The loss of isolation test is performed to detect
unwanted continuity between the high-voltage sys- CAN BUS COMMUNICATION robert Bosch Corporation
tem and the chassis ground. The test is performed to developed the Controller Area Network (CAN) protocol, which
detect a high-voltage leakage problem and to verify was called CAN 1.2, in 1993. The CAN protocol was approved by
that a defect has been repaired. The loss of isola- the Environmental protection Agency (EpA) for 2003 and newer
tion test is performed with a digital megohm meter vehicle diagnostics, and became a legal requirement for all vehi-
that has an insulation resistance tester. For use on a cles by 2008. The CAN diagnostic systems use pins 6 and 14 in
hybrid or electric vehicle, the meter must be CAT III the standard 16 pin OBD-II (J-1962) connector. Before CAN, the
rated and capable of providing 1,000 volts. Follow scan tool protocol had been largely manufacturer specific.
the specific safety protocols and the manufacturer’s
procedure: CAN FEATURES The CAN protocol offers the following
• The positive lead of the meter is connected to the features.
high-voltage system. ■ Faster than other bus communication protocols
• The negative lead of the meter is connected to ■ Cost-effective because it is an easier system than others to use
chassis ground. ■ Less affected by electromagnetic interference (Data is
• The megohm meter is set to the appropriate volt- transferred on two wires that are twisted together, called
age (typically 1,000 volts). twisted pair, to help reduce EMI interference.)
• The test button is depressed and the value is ■ Message-based rather than address-based, which makes
recorded. it easier to expand
• A reading of near 2.2 MΩ indicates a normal sys- ■ No wake-up needed because it is a two-wire system
tem without loss of isolation. ■ Supports up to 15 modules plus a scan tool
• A reading of less than 1 MΩ requires further ■ Uses a 120-ohm resistor at the ends of each pair to
diagnosis.
reduce electrical noise
● SEE FIGURE 8-19. ■ Applies 2.5 volts on both wires:
h (high) goes to 3.5 volts when active
L (low) goes to 1.5 volts when active

● SEE FIGURE 8-20.

CAN CLASS A, B, AND C There are three classes of CAN

and they operate at different speeds. The CAN A, B, and C net-
works can all be linked using a gateway within the same vehicle.
The gateway is usually one of the many modules in the vehicle.

CAN A. This class operates on only one wire at slow

speeds and is therefore less expensive to build. CAN A
operates a data transfer rate of 33.33 Kbs in normal mode
and up to 83.33 Kbs during reprogramming mode. CAN A
uses the vehicle ground as the signal return circuit.

CAN B. This class operates on a two-wire network and

does not use the vehicle ground as the signal return
FIGURE 8-19 A loss of isolation test being performed on a circuit. CAN B uses a data transfer rate of 95.2 Kbs. CAN
Lexus NX 300h hybrid electric vehicle. The results indicate a B (and CAN C) uses two network wires for differential
resistance of 2.8 million ohms. signaling. This means that the two data signal voltages

AD V AN C E D AC AN D DC E L EC T rIC IT Y 97
 VOLTAGE
CAN H
3.5 V
(3.5 V)

2.5 V

CAN L
1.5 V
(1.5 V)

INACTIVE ACTIVE
TIME
(RECESSIVE) (DOMINANT)

FIGURE 8-20 CAN uses a differential type of module communication where the voltage on one wire is the equal, but opposite
voltage on the other wire. When no communication is occurring, both wires have 2.5 volts applied. When communication is
occurring, CAN h goes up 1 to 3.5 volts and CAN L goes down 1 to 1.5 volts.

are opposite to each other and used for error detection SAE J2534 STANDARD SAE J2534 is a standard for
by constantly being compared. In this case, when the communications between a computer and a vehicle. The origi-
signal voltage at one of the CAN data wires goes high nal standard was introduced in February 2002, and was identi-
(CAN h), the other one goes low (CAN L), hence the name fied as version 02.02. The EpA and CArB regulations require all
differential signaling. Differential signaling is also used for automakers to provide a J2534 service to everyone in the United
redundancy, in case one of the signal wires shorts out. States for reflashing emission-related controllers. If the technician
CAN C. This class is the highest speed CAN protocol with has a SAE J2534 pass-through device, they can reflash and, in
speeds up to 500 Kbs. Beginning with 2008 models, all some cases, diagnose vehicles with factory functionality.
vehicles sold in the United States must use CAN bus for The current standard is referred to as SAE J2534 version
scan tool communications. Most vehicle manufacturers 5.00. The newest standard includes all the changes required in
started using CAN in older models, and it is easy to deter- the previous updates and serves to improve the communica-
mine if a vehicle is equipped with CAN. The CAN bus com- tion through the J1962 connector. It is important to have the
municates to the scan tool through terminals 6 and 14 of most current equipment to ensure that the flash reprogramming
the DLC indicating that the vehicle is equipped with CAN. process will be completed without any malfunctions.

The total voltage remains constant at all times and the

PROGRAMMING HARDWARE Each manufacturer has
electromagnetic field effects of the two data bus lines cancel
developed their own J2534 pass-through device or application
each other out. The data bus line is protected against received
programming interface (ApI) that is specific to the brands the man-
radiation and is virtually neutral in sending radiation.
ufacturer sells. A pass-through device or ApI serves as a connec-
tion point that makes all the hardware look the same, and allows
MODULE REPROGRAMMING the computer with the reprogramming software to communicate
with the vehicles control module through the data link connector
PURPOSE Designing a program that allows a vehicle to (DLC). Generally, these tools are not designed with the function-
meet strict air quality and fuel economy standards while provid- ality to support competitive brands. In many cases, these pass-
ing excellent performance is no small feat. however, this is only through devices are designed to support the manufacturer scan
part of the challenge faced by engineers assigned with the task of tool in addition to providing reprogramming capabilities. The GM
developing OBD-II software. The reason for this is the countless MDI and Ford VCI are both examples of this type of technology. ●
variables involved with running diagnostic monitors. Although SEE FIGURE 8-21.
programmers do their best to factor in any and all operating con- The generic J2534 pass-through device is designed to sup-
ditions when writing this complex code, periodic revisions are port multiple manufacturers. These tools typically do not have the
often required. reprogramming consists of downloading new same level of scan tool diagnostics as a manufacturer-specific
calibrations from the manufacturer into the pCM’s electronically tool. These tools are more often found outside of the dealer-
erasable programmable read only memory (EEprOM). ship environment in the independent repair facilities. The Drew

98 ChAp TE r 8
FIGURE 8- 21 The GM MDI and Ford VCI are examples of
manufacturer-specific pass-through devices.

FIGURE 8- 23 The screenshot of the NASTF website

provides an access point for the aftermarket automotive
professional to obtain the needed reprogramming information.

order to obtain this information, the shop or service technician

must be a registered vehicle security professional and have a
locksmith ID number. The NASTF, in conjunction with automo-
tive manufacturers, insurance industry, independent repair, and
law enforcement communities, has developed this system to
allow the aftermarket repair industry to access to this sensitive
data. The forms and instructions needed to apply for this identi-
FIGURE 8- 22 The CarDAQ plus is a generic pass-through
fication number can be found on the NASTF website (www.nasft
device.
.org) under Locksmith/Vehicle Security. ● SEE FIGURE 8-24.
Technologies CarDAQ-plus series of J2534 pass-through devices
is an example of a generic tool. ● SEE FIGURE 8-22.

PROGRAMMING SOFTWARE The National Automotive

Service Task Force (NASTF) is a cooperative effort of the
automotive service industry, the tool industry, and the original
equipment manufacturers to ensure that automotive profes-
sionals employed outside of the OEMs have all the information,
training, and tools they need to diagnose and repair modern
automobiles. The NASTF has created a portal for all automotive
service professionals to access manufacturer-specific repro-
gramming information. This includes where to access the infor-
mation, the tools needed, and in many cases a short video on
how to complete the task. ● SEE FIGURE 8-23.

VEHICLE SECURITY PROFESSIONAL—LOCKSMITH

ID Many times, when a module must be reprogrammed
or programmed upon replacement, the security codes or key FIGURE 8-24 The screenshot from the NASTF website provides
specific information must be reentered during the process. In the resources for the technician to apply for a locksmith ID.

AD V AN C E D AC AN D D C E L EC T rIC IT Y 99
 DLC

SAE J2534
VEHICLE PASS THROUGH
CABLE DEVICE

INTERNET

FIGURE 8-26 The control module is being programmed at

an off-board location.
PC CABLE
MODULE
PROGRAMMING manufacturer subscription for the software. This option has
FIGURE 8-25 The J2534 device is being used to program become increasingly popular for shops that perform very few
the engine control module through the DLC. reprogramming events or lack the technical expertise to com-
plete the task. ● SEE FIGURE 8-27.

ON-BOARD On-board reprogramming of the controller is

defined as having the module connected to the vehicle during
the process. The module uses its normal connection points to
provide the power, ground, communication links, and any other
needed support. This is the type of programming that occurs in
a service facility. ● SEE FIGURE 8-25.

OFF-BOARD Off-board programming of the controller is

defined as having the module programmed someplace other
than in the vehicle. This could be done at an place where there
is a computer and the needed power, ground, and communi-
cation links. The purchase and programming of a module at
a local parts store is an example of off-board programming.
● SEE FIGURE 8-26.

REMOTE remote programming is a relatively new process.

The servicing facility does not perform the reprogramming of
the vehicle. Instead, the shop simply plugs in the equipment
and follows the instructions of someone who is at a distant FIGURE 8-27 The Drew Technologies remote programming
location. This process still requires an Internet connection tool is an example of a tool that is connected to the vehicle
and equipment. however, it relies on a third party who has the and used remotely.

SUMMARY
1. Direct current (DC), the electric charge (current), only flows 2. A watt is a unit of electrical power represented by a current
in one direction. The most common form of generation is of 1 ampere through a circuit with a potential difference of
through a rectifier. 1 volt.

100 ChAp TE r 8
3. A capacitor (also called a condenser) consists of two con- 6. An insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a
ductive plates with an insulating material between them. three-terminal power semiconductor device primarily
4. Milliohm (plural milliohms) is defined as one thousandth used as an electronic switch.
(10-3) of an ohm, abbreviated as mΩ. 7. The CAN diagnostic systems use pins 6 and 14 in the
5. A megohm is defined as a unit of resistance, equal to one standard 16 pin OBD-II (J-1962) connector.
million ohms. 8. reprogramming consists of downloading new calibrations
from the manufacturer into the pCM’s electronically eras-
able programmable read only memory (EEprOM).

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the most common component used to generate a 4. What are the advantages of CAN bus compared to other
DC current? communication protocols?
2. What is the purpose of a capacitor? 5. What are the three methods described to reprogram the
3. What is the purpose of the loss of isolation test? EEprOM?

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. Direct current (DC) is being discussed. Technician A say d. if the cable between the battery and the starter is
that DC only flows in one direction. Technician B says defective
that a common way to generate DC is with a rectifier 6. CAN bus features which of the following benefits?
bridge. Which technician is correct? a. Faster than other communication protocols
a. Technician A only b. Less effected by electromagnetic interference
b. Technician B only c. Message-based rather than address-based, which
c. Both Technicians A and B makes it easier to expand
d. Neither Technician A nor Technician B d. All the answers are correct
2. A capacitor is being discussed. Technician A says that 7. An AC synchronous motor is controlled by changing the
a capacitor is used for electrical spike suppression. _________.
Technician B says that a capacitor is used as a supple- a. voltage
mental power source. Which technician is correct? b. amperage
a. Technician A only c. frequency
b. Technician B only d. All of the above
c. Both Technicians A and B
8. Milliohm is defined as __________.
d. Neither Technician A nor Technician B
a. one thousandth of an ohm
3. The purpose of an insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) b. one millionth of an ohm
is to __________. c. 100 ohms
a. provide an additional power source d. 1,000 ohms
b. switch power or ground on and off very quickly
9. A megohm is defined as a unit of resistance, equal to
c. suppress electrical spikes
__________.
d. None of these answers are correct
a. one millionth of an ohm
4. The EEprOM in a module can be reprogrammed using b. one million ohms
which of the following methods? c. 1,000 ohms
a. On-board d. 10,000 ohms
b. Off-board
10. The security codes or key specific information must
c. remote
be reentered during the process. In order to obtain
d. Any of these methods can be used
this information, the shop or service technician must
5. The loss of isolation test is used to determine be a registered vehicle security professional and have
__________. __________.
a. if the vehicle has a bad chassis ground a. a factory-level scan tool
b. if a high-voltage circuit has an unintended path to the b. an aftermarket enhanced scan tool
vehicle chassis c. a J2534 device
c. if the ignition-off draw on the battery is to high d. a locksmith ID number

AD V AN C E D AC AN D D C E L EC Tr IC IT Y 101
Chapter 9
LOW-VOLTAGE
BATTERIES AND STOP-
START MICRO HYBRIDS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Belt alternator starter Internal combustion
be able to: (BAS) 110 engine (ICE) 110
• Describe the purpose of the 12-volt battery. Body control module Load test 107
(BCM) 112 SLI battery 103
• Explain the 12-volt battery rating systems.
Engine control module Transmission control
• Describe the 12-volt battery test procedures. (ECM) 112 module (TCM) 112
• Describe the function of the 36-48-volt battery. Hybrid control module 116 Ultracapacitor 113
• Explain the 36-48-volt battery test procedure.
• Describe the main advantages of a stop-start
system.
• Explain the difference between a micro and
mild hybrid.
• Explain how a disable condition prevents the
operation of a stop-start system.

102
 INTRODUCTION TO THE ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

12-VOLT BATTERY What Is a SLI Battery?

Sometimes the term SLI is used to describe a type of
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION Many may not realize that an battery. An SLI battery means starting, lighting, and
electric or hybrid electric vehicle uses a 12-volt battery. Every ignition, and describes the use of a typical automo-
vehicle, hybrid or electrical, has a 12-volt battery that is used tive battery. The auxiliary battery used in hybrid and
to supply electrical current to the low-voltage components in electric vehicles is an SLI-type battery compared to
the vehicle. The battery is one of the most important parts of the high-voltage battery used to help propel the vehi-
a vehicle because it is the heart or foundation of the electri- cle, which is sometimes called a traction battery.
cal system. The primary purpose of an automotive battery is to
provide a source of electrical power for all of the vehicle electri-
cal needs. In a hybrid or electric vehicle, the 12-volt auxiliary
battery is used for the following purposes: A fully charged lead-acid battery has a positive plate of
lead dioxide (peroxide) and a negative plate of lead surrounded
■ Power all of the 12-volt accessories
by a sulfuric acid solution (electrolyte). The difference in poten-
■ Power the electronic controller for the high-voltage
tial (voltage) between lead peroxide and lead in acid is approxi-
system
mately 2.1 volts.

WHY BATTERIES ARE IMPORTANT The battery also DURING DISCHARGING The positive plate lead dioxide
acts as a stabilizer to the voltage for the entire electrical sys- (PbO2) combines with the SO4, forming PbSO4 from the elec-
tem. The battery must be in good (serviceable) condition to trolyte and releases its O2 into the electrolyte, forming H2O. The
assure correct hybrid or electric vehicle operation. The battery negative plate also combines with the SO4 from the electrolyte
must be confirmed to be in serviceable condition before per- and becomes lead sulfate (PbSO4). ● SEE FIGURE 9–1.
forming any electrical system testing.
FULLY DISCHARGED STATE When the battery is fully
THE HYBRID OR ELECTRIC VEHICLE WILL NOT START discharged, both the positive and the negative plates are PbSO4
IF THE AUXILIARY BATTERY IS DISCHARGED If the (lead sulfate) and the electrolyte has become water (H2O). As the
12-volt auxiliary battery is discharged or defective, it cannot battery is being discharged, the plates and electrolyte approach
power the electronic controller used to start the vehicle. The
gasoline engine will not start and the vehicle will not move under
ELECTRICAL
high-voltage battery power. If “nothing happens” when the vehi-
LOAD
cle is attempted to be started, always start the diagnosis with the
state of charge and condition of the auxiliary 12-volt battery.

+ –

HOW A BATTERY WORKS ELECTROLYTE

PRINCIPLE INVOLVED How a battery works is based on Pb O2 H2 SO4 Pb

a scientific principle discovered years ago that states:
■ When two dissimilar metals are placed in an acid, H2 SO4
electrons flow between the metals if a circuit is
connected between them.
■ This can be demonstrated by pushing a steel nail and POSITIVE NEGATIVE
a piece of solid copper wire into a lemon. Connect a PLATE (PbO2) PLATE (Pb)

voltmeter to the ends of the copper wire and nail, and FIGURE 9–1 Chemical reaction for a lead-acid battery that is
voltage will be displayed. fully charged being discharged by the attached electrical load.

L O W -V O L T AG E BAT T E RI E S AN D ST O P-ST ART MI C RO HY BRID S 103

 CHARGING ■ Absorbed glass mat. The acid used in an absorbed
SYSTEM
glass mat (AGM) battery is totally absorbed into the
separator, making the battery leak-proof and spill-
+ – proof. The battery is assembled by compressing the
cell about 20%, then inserting it into the container.
The compressed cell helps reduce damage caused
by vibration and helps keep the acid tightly against
Pb SO4 H2 O Pb SO4 the plates. The sealed maintenance-free design
uses a pressure release valve in each cell. Unlike
conventional batteries that use a liquid electrolyte,
H2 O
called flooded cell batteries, most of the hydrogen
and oxygen given off during charging remains inside
the battery. The separator or mat is only 90% to 95%
POSITIVE NEGATIVE saturated with electrolyte, thereby allowing a portion
PLATE PLATE
of the mat to be filled with gas. The gas spaces
FIGURE 9–2 Chemical reaction for a lead-acid battery that is provide channels to allow the hydrogen and oxygen
fully discharged being charged by the attached alternator.
gases to recombine rapidly and safely. Because the
acid is totally absorbed into the glass mat separator,
the completely discharged state. When a battery is completely an AGM battery can be mounted in any direction. AGM
discharged, there are no longer dissimilar metals submerged in batteries also have a longer service life, often lasting
an acid. The plates have become the same material (PbSO4) and 7–10 years. AGM batteries are used as standard
the electrolyte becomes water (H2O). This is a chemical reaction equipment in vehicles where the battery is located
that can be reversed during charging. inside the passenger compartment or trunk.
● SEE FIGURE 9–3.
CAUTION: Never charge or jump start a frozen bat- ■ A recombinant-type battery means that the oxygen
tery because the hydrogen gas can get trapped in the
gas generated at the positive plate travels through the
ice and ignite if a spark is caused during the charging
dense electrolyte to the negative plate. When the oxygen
process. The result can be an explosion.
reaches the negative plate, it reacts with the lead, which
consumes the oxygen gas and prevents the formation of
DURING CHARGING During charging, the sulfate that was
hydrogen gas. It is because of this oxygen recombination
deposited on the positive and negative plates returns to the
that VRLA batteries do not use water.
electrolyte, where it becomes a normal-strength sulfuric acid
solution. The positive plate returns to lead dioxide (PbO2),
the negative plate is again pure lead (Pb), and the electrolyte VALVE
becomes H2SO4. ● SEE FIGURE 9–2. RETAINER COVER

VALVE-REGULATED
LEAD-ACID BATTERIES RUBBER
ONE-WAY
TERMINOLOGY There are two basic types of valve-regulated CASE VALVE

lead-acid (VRLA), also called sealed valve-regulated (SVR) ABSORBENT

MAT
or sealed lead-acid (SLA), batteries. These batteries use a low-
pressure venting system that releases excess gas and automat- FIGURE 9–3 Pressure relief valve from a VRLA battery. This
ically reseals if a buildup of gas is created due to overcharging. stays closed during normal operating conditions and prevents
The two types include the following: gases from entering or leaving the battery case.

104 CHAPTER 9
 12-VOLT BATTERY RATINGS
COLD-CRANKING AMPERES Every automotive battery
must be able to supply electrical power to crank the engine in cold
weather and still provide battery voltage high enough to operate
the ignition system for starting. The cold-cranking ampere rating
of a battery is the number of amperes that can be supplied by a
battery at 0°F (−18°C) for 30 seconds while the battery still main-
tains a voltage of 1.2 volts per cell or higher. This means that
the battery voltage would be 7.2 volts for a 12-volt battery and
3.6 volts for a 6-volt battery. The cold-cranking performance
rating is called cold-cranking amperes (CCA). Try to purchase
a battery with the highest CCA for the money. See the vehicle
manufacturer’s specifications for recommended battery capacity.

CRANKING AMPERES The designation CA refers to the

number of amperes that can be supplied by a battery at 32°F
(0°C). This rating results in a higher amperage rating than the
more stringent CCA rating. ● SEE FIGURE 9–4. FIGURE 9–5 The JIS battery rating is stamped into the top of
the battery.
RESERVE CAPACITY The reserve capacity rating for bat-
teries is the number of minutes for which the battery can pro-
JIS JIS stands for Japanese Industrial Standard. This rating
duce 25 amperes and still have a battery voltage of 1.75 volts
standard can be found on AGM batteries found in Toyota and
per cell (10.5 volts for a 12-volt battery). This rating is actually
Nissan vehicles. It is important to use battery test equipment
a measurement of the time for which a vehicle can be driven in
that includes this rating system when determining the function-
the event of a charging system failure.
ality of the battery. ● SEE FIGURE 9–5.
AMPERE HOUR Ampere hour is an older battery rating sys-
tem that measures how many amperes of current the battery can
produce over a period of time. For example, a battery that has a
50 amp-hour (A-H) rating can deliver 50 amperes for 1 hour or 1
BATTERY SERVICE
ampere for 50 hours or any combination that equals 50 amp-hours. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
HAZARDS Batteries contain acid and release explosive
gases (hydrogen and oxygen) during normal charging and dis-
charging cycles.

SAFETY PROCEDURES To help prevent physical injury or

damage to the vehicle, always adhere to the following safety
procedures.
1. When working on any electrical component on a vehicle,
disconnect the negative battery cable from the battery.
When the negative cable is disconnected, all electrical
circuits in the vehicle will be disabled, which will prevent
accidental electrical contact between an electrical com-
ponent and ground. Any electrical spark has the potential
to cause explosion and personal injury.
FIGURE 9–4 This battery has a rating of 1,000 cranking
amperes (CA) and 900 amperes using the cold crank amperes 2. Wear eye protection (goggles preferred) when working
(CCA) rating system. around any battery.

L O W -V O L T AG E BAT T E RI E S AN D ST O P-ST ART MI C RO HY BRID S 105

 ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

What Does “EN” and “DIN” Mean?

Many students trying to find the specifications for load
testing a 12-volt battery on a European vehicle often run
into two classifications:
• EN—EN is short for European Norm. The European
Norm is an agreement between the countries in
Europe to consolidate the specification of stan-
dards to enhance the efficiency of commerce. In
Europe, EN standards are gradually being adopted
as a more uniform alternative to many different
national standards. This EN standard has been
applied to automotive batteries.
• DIN—DIN stands for the Deutsches Institut für
Normung. Recognized by the German Federal
Government as Germany’s national standards
body, DIN has been a member of the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) since 1951.
While these standards were developed for Germany, (a)
many of their automotive standards have been used
to develop EN standards, but they are not always the
same. It is important to remember that EN standards
are for all of Europe and not just for one country. It is
also important to note that there are some DIN battery
part numbers, originally for German manufactured cars,
that do not have a corresponding EN part number.

3. Wear protective clothing to avoid skin contact with battery acid.

4. Always adhere to all safety precautions as stated in the
service procedures for the equipment used for battery ser-
vice and testing.
5. Never smoke or use an open flame around any battery.
6. Never stand near a battery that is being jump started, espe-
cially in cold weather because the battery could explode.

12-VOLT BATTERY
VOLTAGE TEST (b)

FIGURE 9–6 (a) A voltage reading of 12.28 volts indicates

STATE OF CHARGE Testing the battery voltage with that the battery is not fully charged and should be charged
a voltmeter is a simple method for determining the state of before testing. (b) A battery that measures 12.6 volts or higher
charge (SOC) of any battery. ● SEE FIGURE 9–6. after the surface charge has been removed is 100% charged.

106 CHAPTER 9
 load on the battery. The amount of the load is determined by
STATE OF CHARGE (SOC) BATTERY VOLTAGE the original CCA rating of the battery, which should be at least
Fully charged 12.6 volts or higher 75% charged before performing a load test.
75% charged 12.4 volts
50% 12.2 volts TEST PROCEDURE To perform a battery load test, take
25% 12.0 volts the following steps:
Discharged 11.9 volts or lower
STEP 1 Determine the CCA rating of the battery. The proper
CHART 9–1 electrical load used to test a battery is one-half of the
A comparison showing the relationship between battery CCA rating or three times the ampere-hour rating, with
voltage and SOC. a minimum 150-ampere load.

STEP 2 Connect the load tester to the battery. Follow the

The voltage of a battery does not necessarily indicate
instructions for the tester being used.
whether the battery can perform satisfactorily, but it does indi-
STEP 3 Apply the load for a full 15 seconds. Observe the volt-
cate to the technician more about the battery’s condition than
meter during the load testing and check the voltage at
a simple visual inspection. A battery that “looks good” may not
the end of the 15-second period while the battery is
be good. This test is commonly called a terminal voltage test
still under load. A good battery should indicate above
or an open circuit battery voltage test because it is conducted
9.6 volts.
with an open circuit, no current flowing, and no load applied to
the battery. STEP 4 Repeat the test. Many battery manufacturers rec-

1. If the battery has just been charged or the vehicle has ommend performing the load tests twice, using the

recently been driven, it is necessary to remove the surface first load period to remove the surface charge on the

charge from the battery before testing. A surface charge is battery and the second test to provide a truer indi-

a charge of higher-than-normal voltage that is just on the cation of the condition of the battery. Wait 30 sec-

surface of the battery plates. The surface charge is quickly onds between tests to allow time for the battery to

removed when the battery is loaded, and therefore, does recover.

not accurately represent the true SOC of the battery. RESULTS: If the battery fails the load test, recharge the
2. To remove the surface charge, turn the headlights on high battery and retest. If the load test is failed again, the
beam for 1 minute, then turn the headlights off and wait battery needs to be replaced. ● SEE FIGURE 9–7.
for 2 minutes. With the engine and all electrical accesso-
ries off, and the doors shut (to turn off the interior lights),
connect a voltmeter to the battery posts. Connect the red
positive lead to the positive post and the black negative
lead to the negative post.
3. Read the voltmeter and compare the results with SOC shown
in ● CHART 9–1. The voltages shown are for a battery at or
near room temperature (70°F to 80°F, or 21°C to 27°C).

12-VOLT BATTERY
LOAD TESTING
TERMINOLOGY One test to determine the condition of
any 12-volt battery is the load test. Most automotive starting FIGURE 9–7 The carbon pile tester can be used to test a
and charging testers use a carbon pile to create an electrical flooded battery.

L O W -V O L T AG E BAT T E RI E S AN D ST O P-ST ART MIC RO H Y BRID S 107

 TEST PROCEDURE To test a battery using an electronic
12-VOLT BATTERY conductance tester, perform the following steps.

CONDUCTANCE TESTING STEP 1 Connect the unit to the positive and negative terminals of
the battery. If testing a side post battery, always use the lead
adapters and never use steel bolts as these can cause an
TERMINOLOGY General Motors, Chrysler, Honda,
incorrect reading.
and Ford specify that an electronic conductance tester be
used to test batteries in vehicles still under factory warranty. NOTE: Test results can be incorrectly reported on the
Conductance is a measure of how well a battery can create display if proper, clean connections to the battery are
current. This tester sends a small signal through the battery and not made. Also be sure that all accessories and the igni-
measures a part of the AC response. As a battery ages, the tion switch are in the off position.
plates can become sulfated and shed active materials from the STEP 2 Enter the CCA rating (if known).
grids, reducing the battery capacity. Conductance testers can STEP 3 The tester determines and displays the measured
be used to test flooded or AGM-type batteries. The unit can CCA of the battery as well as SOC and the voltage,
determine the following information about a battery: plus one of the following:
■ Tested CCA ■ Good battery. The battery can return to service.
■ Charge and retest. Fully recharge the battery
■ State of charge
and return it to service.
■ Voltage of the battery ■ Replace the battery. The battery is not service-
■ Defects such as shorts and opens able and should be replaced.
■ Most conductance testers also display an internal ■ Bad cell—replace. The battery is not service-
resistance value able and should be replaced.
However, a conductance tester is not designed to accu- Some conductance testers can check the charging and
rately determine the SOC or CCA rating of a new battery. cranking circuits, too.
Unlike a battery load test, a conductance tester can be used
on a battery that is discharged. This type of tester should only
be used to test batteries that have been in service. ● SEE
12-VOLT BATTERY
FIGURE 9–8. CHARGING
CHARGING PROCEDURE If the SOC of a battery is low,
it must be recharged. It is best to slow charge any battery to
prevent possible overheating damage to the battery. Perform
the following steps.
STEP 1 Determine the charge rate. The charge rate is based on
the current SOC and charging rate. ● SEE CHART 9–2
for the recommended charging rate.
STEP 2 Connect a battery charger to the battery. Be sure the char-
ger is not plugged in when connecting to a battery. Always
follow the battery charger’s instructions for proper use.
STEP 3 Set the charging rate. The initial charge rate should be
about 35 amperes for 30 minutes to help start the charg-
ing process. Fast charging a battery increases the tem-
perature of the battery and can cause warping of the
plates inside the battery. Fast charging also increases
the amount of gassing (release of hydrogen and oxygen),
FIGURE 9–8 A conductance tester is very easy to use and which can create a health and fire hazard. The battery
has proved to accurately determine battery condition if the temperature should not exceed 125°F (hot to the touch).
connections are properly made. Follow the instructions on the ■ Fast charge: 15 A maximum
display for best results. ■ Slow charge: 5 A maximum

108 CHAPTER 9
 OPEN CIRCUIT STATE OF CHARGE
VOLTAGE (SOC) (%) @60 A (MIN.) @50 A (MIN.) @40 A (MIN.) @30 A (MIN) @20 A (MIN.) @20 A (MIN.)
12.6 100 N.A. (Fully N.A. (Fully N.A. (Fully N.A. (Fully N.A. (Fully N.A. (Fully
charged) charged) charged) charged) charged) charged)
12.4 75 15 20 27 35 48 90
12.2 50 35 45 55 75 95 180
12.0 25 50 65 85 115 145 260
11.8 0 65 85 110 150 195 370

CHART 9–2
Battery charging guidelines are based on the SOC of the battery and the charging rate.

CHARGING AGM BATTERIES Charging an AGM battery For example, if a 10-ampere charge rate is applied to a
requires a different charger than is used to recharge a flooded- discharged battery that has a 90-minute reserve capacity, the
type battery. ● SEE FIGURE 9–9. The differences include the time needed to charge the battery will be 9 hours.
following: 90 minutes/10 amperes = 9 hours
■ The AGM can be charged with high current, up to 75% of
the ampere-hour rating due to lower internal resistance.
THE 36-48-VOLT BATTERY
■ The charging voltage has to be kept at or below 14.4 volts
to prevent damage.
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION The 36-48-volt battery is used
Because most conventional battery chargers use a charg- to drive the integrated starter generator (ISG) unit. The ISG unit is
ing voltage of 16 volts or higher, a charger specifically designed used on vehicles where the starter and alternator are integrated
to charge AGM batteries must be used. AGM batteries are into a single unit. The 36-48-volt battery system uses a DC-DC
often used as auxiliary batteries in hybrid electric vehicles when converter to charge the 12-volt battery.
the battery is located inside the vehicle.
CONSTRUCTION AND DESIGN Typically 36-48-volt bat-
BATTERY CHARGE TIME The time needed to charge a com- teries are of lithium-ion design. In many cases the battery is
pletely discharged battery can be estimated by using the reserve integrated into a single module with other components. For
capacity rating of the battery in minutes divided by the charging rate. example, the Chrysler/Ram eTorque 48-volt battery is incorpo-
Hours needed to charge the battery = Reserve capacity/ rated into a power pack unit that contains the battery, contac-
Charge current tors, the DC-DC converter, and the power pack control module.
These modules are generally located within the passenger
compartment. A few manufacturers, such as Mercedes, locate
the 48-volt battery under the hood. ● SEE FIGURE 9–10.

FIGURE 9–10 The 48-volt battery for the Ram eTorque

FIGURE 9–9 This battery charger has settings for both a system is incorporated into a power pack module that is located
flooded battery and an AGM battery. under the rear seat.

L O W -V O L T AG E BAT T E RI E S AN D ST O P-ST ART MI C RO HY BRID S 109

 Early designs, such as the Chevrolet/GMC hybrid pickup
truck used three VRLA connected in series to achieve a nominal STOP-START SYSTEMS
voltage of 36 volts and a charging voltage of 42 volts.
BAS SYSTEM The belt alternator starter (BAS) sys-
DIAGNOSIS AND TESTING The diagnosis of the tem was the most common early stop-start system. The BAS
36-48-volt battery is dependent on the design. Early designs system was the least expensive system that can be used
that use multiple 12-volt lead-acid batteries simply separate and still claim that the vehicle is a hybrid. For many buyers,
the batteries and test them individually like any other lead- cost was a major concern and the BAS system allows certain
acid battery. Vehicles that utilize 36-48-volt batteries that hybrid features without the cost associated with an entire
are lithium-ion rely on the hybrid or battery control module redesign of the engine and powertrain. Consumers were be
to continuously monitor the condition of the battery. When able to upgrade from conventional models to BAS hybrids at
the control module detects a battery that is outside of nor- a reasonable cost and will get slightly better fuel economy.
mal operating range, a code is set and a warning indicator The system was available on the Saturn VUE Hybrid, and the
is illuminated. A scan tool and the manufacturers diagnostic Chevrolet Malibu Hybrid.
procedure is used to determine the correct course of repair. The BAS concept is to replace the belt-driven alternator
with an electric motor that serves as a generator and a motor.
When the engine is running the motor, acting as a generator, it
STOP-START DEFINED will charge a separate 36-volt battery (42-volt charging voltage).
When the engine needs to be started again after the engine has
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION Stop-start systems can be
been stopped at idle to save fuel (idle stop), the BAS motor is
categorized as either mild or micro hybrids based on their
used to crank the engine by taking electrical power from the
design and operating voltage. The main feature of either
36-volt battery pack and applies its torque via the accessory
design is the idle-stop mode, in which the internal com-
belt, and cranks the engine instead of using the starter motor.
bustion engine (ICE) is stopped, rather than idling while
stopped in traffic. The idle-stop mode improves the fuel NOTE: A BAS system uses a conventional starter motor
economy slightly and reduces tailpipe emissions allowing for starting the ICE the first time, and only uses the
manufacturers to meet emission standards. Other features, high-voltage motor-generator to start the ICE when
such as power assist and regenerative braking, can be part leaving idle-stop mode.
of the system based on the design.
The motor-generator is larger than a standard starter
motor so more torque can be generated in the cranking
TERM USED Depending on the manufacturer, the term
mode, also referred to as the motoring mode. The fast
stop-start and start-stop are used to describe the technologies.
rotation of the BAS allows for quicker starts of the engine
A stop-start system may be called different names depending
and makes the start/stop operation possible. Having
on the vehicle manufacturer. Those names are as follows:
the engine shut off when the vehicle is at a stop saves
■ Stop-Start—GM and many others fuel. Of course, the stopping of the engine does create
■ Idle-Stop—Honda a sense that the engine has stalled, which is a common
■ Start-Stop—Audi/VW concern to drivers unfamiliar with the operation of hybrid
vehicles.
■ Smart Stop—Toyota
A typical BAS system would achieve an 8% to 15%
■ Intelligent Stop & Go—Kia
increase in fuel economy, mostly affecting the city mileage with
■ Auto Start/Stop—BMW little, if any, effect on the highway mileage. ● SEE FIGURES
■ Engine Stop-Start—FCA/Stellantis 9–11 AND 9–12.

110 C HAPTER 9
 ELECTRIC
POWER
ASSIST
REGENERATIVE
ELECTRIC BRAKING
POWER
ASSIST

ENGINE OFF
VEHICLE SPEED

WHEN VEHICLE
IS STOPPED

BRIEF ELECTRIC
BRIEF ELECTRIC
OPERATION ONLY
OPERATION ONLY

FUEL
FUEL CUT-OFF DURING DECEL
ON
WITH TORQUE SMOOTHING

AUTO-START INTELLIGENT CHARGING OF

WITH TORQUE ADVANCED HYBRID BATTERY
SMOOTHING

TIME

FIGURE 9–11 This figure shows what is occurring during various driving conditions in a BAS-type hybrid.

NICKEL METAL HYDRIDE

HYBRID BATTERY PACK,
(LOCATED UNDER THE REAR SEAT)
ENGINE CONTROL MODULE

POWER ELECTRONICS WITH

INVERTER AND DC/DC CONVERTER

MODIFIED 4T45E AUTOMATIC

TRANSMISSION WITH AUXILIARY PUMP
DUAL TENSIONER
ASSEMBLIES
MOTOR/GENERATOR WITH
3-PHASE CABLES

FIGURE 9–12 The components of a typical BAS system.

L O W -V O L T AG E BAT T E RI E S AN D ST O P-ST ART MIC RO H Y BRID S 111

 MICRO HYBRIDS
START
PARTS INVOLVED A micro hybrid utilizes a stop-start
system that operates on a 12-volt system and does not contain
A
any high-voltage components. When the enabling conditions STOP
are met at a stop, the engine will shut off. During the engine
off period, the 12-volt system will maintain vehicle opera-
tion including climate control, power steering, and brakes to FIGURE 9–14 The indicator on the instrument cluster
keep the occupants comfortable and safe. The system will indicates the stop-start feature has been disabled.
engage the starter motor to restart the engine when the driver
releases the brake pedal. The system will automatically restart
sensor, brake booster vacuum, brake pedal position, hood ajar
the engine if the system voltage or monitored conditions fall
switch, and engine coolant temperature.
below minimum thresholds.

OPERATION A micro-hybrid system relies on a number of TRANSMISSION CONTROL MODULE The trans-
modules and enhanced components, depending on the make mission control module (TCM) monitors the range selec-
and model to operate. The heart of the system is an enhanced tor switch to determine what gear the driver has selected.
starter and heavy-duty flywheel as well as a second 12-volt This information is shared with the ECM. The TCM
battery. The micro-hybrid system also has a system disable controls an additional electric transmission oil pump (if
button that allows the driver to turn off the feature when it is equipped) during the engine off mode of operation. The trans-
not desired. ● SEE FIGURE 9–13. The instrument cluster has mission also monitors the transmission output speed sensor if
an indicator that will illuminate when the system is disabled. this input is used to determine vehicle speed.
● SEE FIGURE 9–14. The default operation of the system is
enabled on a restart. INTELLIGENT BATTERY SENSOR MODULE If equipped,
the intelligent battery sensor is used to measure battery volt-
ENGINE CONTROL MODULE The engine control mod- age, current, and SOC. This information may be shared with
ule (ECM) is responsible for all engine control systems when the body control module, the intelligent power module or sent
the engine is running. When the engine is off, the ECM moni- directly to the ECM, depending on the system design.
tors the accelerator pedal position sensor, crankshaft position
BODY CONTROL MODULE The body control module
(BCM) monitors the operation of the climate control system as
well as the driver’s door switch and driver’s seat belt. If the AC is
on “MAX” or the driver’s door is open the start-stop feature will be
disabled.

MANUAL TRANSMISSION EQUIPPED VEHICLES

When the vehicle comes to a complete stop and the transmis-
sion is placed in neutral with the clutch pedal released, and all
other criteria are met, the engine will shut off. The engine will
restart when the clutch pedal is depressed.

NOTE: If the vehicle comes to a stop and the driver keeps

the clutch pedal depressed, the engine will not shut off.

HEAVY-DUTY STARTER A conventional starter is

FIGURE 9–13 The button on the left allows the driver to designed with a life cycle of less than 50,000 start cycles.
disable the stop-start feature for the drive cycle. A heavy-duty starter designed for a stop-start system is

112 C HAPTER 9
 FIGURE 9–16 This Jeep Compass has two batteries under
the hood. The smaller battery is used to maintain voltage
during starting.

ULTRACAPACITORS An ultracapacitor delivers a quick

FIGURE 9–15 The starter on this Jeep Compass is designed burst of energy during peak power demands. Some mod-
to last longer than a standard starter motor. els use an ultracapacitor to help restart the engine. ● SEE
FIGURE 9–17. Ultracapacitors store energy in an electrical field
and can be rapidly charged and discharged many times. The
ultracapacitors are switched on in series with the battery during
designed with a life cycle of over 300,000 start cycles. The
the cranking event. This keeps the system voltage above 10
design typically includes the following upgrades.
volts, which allows all systems to maintain normal operation
■ Long life brushes and prevents modules from resetting.
■ Long life bearings
■ Hardened gears AUXILIARY COMPONENTS Some models are equipped
with auxiliary electric coolant pumps to help maintain engine
■ Upgraded armatures and commutators

The starter system also includes a flywheel with stronger

teeth and higher quality battery cables between the battery and
the starter. ● SEE FIGURE 9–15.

BATTERIES Most 12-volt stop-start systems have two

batteries. The main, or primary, battery supplies power to
the starter during all cranking events. The secondary, or
auxiliary, battery powers vehicle electrical loads except the
starter during cranking. The secondary battery is smaller
and may be an AGM battery based on the location. ● SEE
FIGURE 9–16. Both batteries have more of a deep cycle FIGURE 9–17 This ultracapacitor manufactured by
capacity that can endure the frequent draws from the Continental is an example of a system used in stop-start
starter motor and the systems operating during the engine systems by General Motors.
off periods. Ensure the batteries are electrically separated
before testing to ensure that one battery does not affect the
test results of the other.

L O W -V O L T AG E BAT T E RI E S AN D ST O P-ST ART M IC RO H Y BRID S 113

cooling and aid in keeping the passenger compartment warm Step 1 Ignition On
in colder temperatures. Some engines may be equipped with
Test battery for greater than If 12v or less – test
special engine mounts that help dampen the vibrations created 12v battery
during the cranking events. The alternator may have a higher Step 2 If greater than 12 volts
amperage output than a vehicle without a stop-start system to Verify no DTCs in modules DTCs present –
ensure both the primary and secondary battery stay charged. refer to DTC list
The climate control system may have additional humidity and Step 3 If no DTCs
temperature sensors to monitor passenger compartment tem- Verify proper operation of
perature during the shutdown period. stop-start system. Drive
vehicle under conditions for
stop-start
Step 4 If vehicle does not auto stop
DIAGNOSIS Observe scan tool auto stop Observe scan tool
Disable Reason for auto stop Inhibit
Reason
FIRST STEPS FIRST There are many key safety con-
ditions that will cause the stop-start system to become dis- Diagnostic trouble codes that are associated with the 12-volt
abled. Before beginning diagnosis ensure one or more of stop–start systems can refer to issues with the starter relay, the
these conditions do not exist. On many vehicles, an open intelligent battery sensor module, network communications, and
door, an unlatched hood, or unbuckled driver’s seat belt various switch inputs. Examples on these DTCs include:
latch will disable the system. When the climate control sys- ■ P0615: Starter Relay Control Circuit
tem is placed in MAX AC mode or the transmission is taken
■ P058A: Battery Monitor Module Performance
out of drive, the system is disabled. When a 4 × 4 truck is
placed in low range or is placed in towing mode, the system
■ U135C: Lost Communication with the Stop-Start Control
is disabled. These are not system failures but rather driver Module
education concerns. The technician may be able to view the ■ B3006: Hood Ajar Circuit Open
start-stop disable reason on a scan tool to confirm the con- ■ P0556: Brake Booster Pressure Sensor Performance
dition. ● SEE FIGURE 9–18.
The codes associated with the stop-start system are not all
going to be found in a single module. It is important to perform
DIAGNOSIS PROCEDURE To begin stop-start system
a complete module scan when looking for DTCs to ensure that
diagnosis refer to the flowchart. Not all faults may illuminate a
nothing is overlooked. Before beginning diagnostics for codes
warning lamp on the instrument panel.
associated with the stop-start system, review the
technical service bulletins for updated information.
Many conditions may have been addressed with
revised parts and updated programming. Scan tool
data PIDs may help identify these conditions.
The replacement of some parts will require
a reset or relearn process before the system will
operate normally. A battery replacement is a com-
mon example of this condition. After the battery is
replaced, a vehicle with a battery sensor module will
need to be reset. Failure to reset the module may
cause unwanted over charging results.
Stop-start systems may require special test
procedures when performing other routine tests.
For example: In order to perform a compression
test or a relative compression test on some mod-
els, the vehicle must be placed in a special bi
FIGURE 9–18 The PIDs displayed on the scan tool may directional control mode with a scan tool. ● SEE
indicate why the start-stop system is disabled. FIGURE 9–19.

114 C HAPTER 9
FIGURE 9– 19 The scan tool is used to place the vehicle in
the required mode to perform specific service procedures. FIGURE 9– 21 The electric motor on a Honda IMA system is
mounted between the engine and transmission.

electric motor can provide supplemental torque to the engine

MILD HYBRIDS on acceleration to improve performance. The system will auto-
matically restart the engine if the system voltage or monitored
TERMINOLOGY A mild hybrid utilizes a stop-start system conditions fall beyond minimum thresholds.
that operates on a voltage that is greater than normal system
voltage. The voltage can vary from 36 to 144 volts, depend- PARTS AND OPERATION
ing on the model. When the enabling conditions are met, the ■ Battery. The high-voltage battery will be either nickel
engine will shut off. During the engine off period, the 12-volt
metal hydride or lithium-ion construction. The location
system will maintain vehicle operation including climate control,
of the battery will vary based on vehicle design. In
power steering, and brakes to keep the occupants comfortable
many cases, because of the relatively small size, the
and safe. The system will engage an electric motor to restart
battery is mounted under or behind a seat in passenger
the engine when the driver releases the brake pedal. The elec-
compartment of the vehicle. ● SEE FIGURE 9–22.
tric motor can be located between the engine and transmission
■ Electric motor. Typically this is a permanent magnet
or mounted on the engine and connected with a belt and ten-
motor. On start or auto start, it is used in motor mode to
sioner. ● SEE FIGURES 9–20 AND 9–21. On some models the
start the ICE. In generator mode it is used to recharge

FIGURE 9– 20 The eTorque system on the Ram truck is FIGURE 9– 22 The battery in this Honda is located behind
mounted on the engine. the back seat.

L O W -V O L T AG E BAT T E RI E S AN D ST O P-ST ART M IC RO H Y BRID S 115

 the high-voltage battery. On some models it can be used ■ Transmission control module. The TCM monitors the
to supplement the ICE to supply additional torque to the range selector switch to determine what gear the driver
powertrain. has selected. This information is shared with the ECM.
■ Inverter/converter. The inverter is used to convert AC The TCM controls an additional electric transmission
voltage generated by the motor to DC voltage so that it oil pump (if equipped) during the engine off mode of
can be stored in the high-voltage battery. The converter operation. The TCM also monitors the transmission
is used to step the high voltage down to system voltage output speed sensor if this input is used to determine
to power all the systems on the vehicle. The inverter and vehicle speed. In a 4 × 4 model the TCM also may
converter may be housed together or mounted separately monitor for low range operation of the transfer case.
in the vehicle. ● SEE FIGURE 9–23.
■ High-voltage cables. Blue or yellow cables are used on
vehicles when the system voltage is below 60 volts. Orange Case Study
cables are used on vehicles where the system voltage is
above 60 volts. These cables are isolated from the vehicle Not All High-Voltage Problems Are a High-
chassis. Follow the service safety precautions outlined by Voltage System Failure
the vehicle manufacturer when servicing these cables.
A 2010 Honda Insight with a 1.3L hybrid engine was
■ Engine control module. The ECM is responsible for towed into the shop. The customer complained that
all engine control systems when the engine is running. the vehicle battery would not stay charged, and that
When the engine is off, the ECM monitors the accelerator the IMA and check engine lights were both illuminated.
pedal position sensor, crankshaft position sensor, brake The customer also stated that the 12-volt battery had
booster vacuum, brake pedal position, hood ajar switch, recently been replaced. A visual inspection of the vehi-
and engine coolant temperature. cle confirmed that the IMA and Check Engine lights
■ Hybrid control module. The hybrid control module is were both illuminated. ● SEE FIGURE 9-24. A scan
responsible for controlling the electric portion of the pow- tool was plugged into the data link connector (DLC) to
ertrain. This includes functions related to the high-voltage check for codes. The scan tool was not able to com-
battery, the inverter, and converter. It communicates with municate with any vehicle module. Further diagnosis
the powertrain control module to send and receive critical indicated that there was no battery (B+) at pin 16 in the
information needed for the high-voltage operation. Some DLC and the fuse that provided power to that circuit
system designs include a dedicated high-speed data was good. A review of the wiring diagrams revealed
BUS between these modules. that the same fuse also provided power to the dome
lights, cargo lights, and the motor control module
(MCM). An additional visual inspection revealed that
the dome lights and cargo lights were inoperative.
After carefully jumping fused battery voltage (B+) to
the back side of pin 16 at the DLC, the scan tool was
able to communicate, the dome and cargo lights illu-
minated, and the IMA light went out. Additional testing
revealed that the charging system was now operating.
It was determined that the problem was internal to the
fuse block. After the fuse block was replaced and the
keys were relearned, all systems were verified to be
operating as designed.
Summary:
• Complaint–The battery would not stay charged.
• Cause–An internal open in the fuse block.
• Correction–The fuse block was replaced and the
FIGURE 9–23 The inverter/converter assembly is located
keys were relearned which restored proper operation.
above the transmission with the orange cables connecting
it to the transmission.

116 C HAPTER 9
 FIGURE 9–25 The PIDs displayed on the scan tool may help
FIGURE 9–24 The Check IMA and Check Engine lights are to identify the failed component or abnormal condition.
both illuminated in the instrument cluster.

If the diagnosis reveals a failed high-voltage compo-

nent, such as the battery, electric motor, inverter or converter,
DIAGNOSIS AND TESTING Like a micro-hybrid
check the manufacturer recommended service procedures.
stop-start system, there are many key safety conditions that
These components are typically replaced and not repaired.
will cause the mild-hybrid stop-start system to become dis-
High-voltage safety precautions must be followed when servic-
abled. Begin diagnosis by checking the battery and charg-
ing these parts. This includes properly depowering the system,
ing system for proper operation. A low-battery charge level
and the use of personal protective equipment, such as class
is the number one reason for a stop-start system to become
“0” gloves and safety glasses.
disabled.
The second step in the diagnostic process is to complete
a module scan and check for codes in any of the modules TECH TIP
associated with the stop-start system. If a code is present,
Test Motor Before Replacing the Inverter
the diagnostics should be followed. A review of the data PIDs
in the modules associated with the stop-start system may Before replacing a failed inverter, test the electric motor
also help identify an abnormal condition or failed component. for any defects. It is relatively common for shorted
● SEE FIGURE 9–25. Review the service information for electric motor windings to cause a failure of the inverter.
technical service bulletins, and recalls. Software updates are The new inverter is likely to fail upon installation
often associated with component replacements. if the electric motor failure is not resolved first.

SUMMARY
1. The 12-volt battery may be either a flooded or absorbed 3. Stop-start systems can be categorized as either mild or
glass mat (AGM) design based on location and manufac- micro hybrids based on their design and operating voltage.
turer design. 4. A micro hybrid stop-start system operates on 12 volts and
2. The 12-volt battery capacity is rated in either cold-cranking a mild hybrid operates on 36–144 volts.
amps, cranking amps, reserve capacity, or ampere hours.

L O W -V O L T AG E BAT T E RI E S AN D ST O P-ST ART MIC RO H Y BRID S 117

5. The main feature of either design is the idle-stop mode, 7. A micro- or mild-hybrid powertrain will not move the vehi-
in which the internal combustion engine (ICE) is stopped, cle in electric only mode.
rather than idling while in traffic. 8. Other features, such as power assist and regenerative
6. The idle-stop mode improves the fuel economy slightly braking, can be part of the system based on the manu-
and reduces tailpipe emissions, allowing manufacturers to facturer design.
meet government regulatory targets.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the differences between a flooded and an 4. Explain how a disable condition will prevent the stop-start
absorbed glass mat (AGM) style battery? system from operating.
2. What are the differences when testing an AGM battery 5. What is the difference between a mild- and micro-hybrid
when compared to a flooded battery? vehicle?
3. What are the main advantages of a micro- or mild-hybrid
system?

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. A micro stop-start system operates on what voltage one 12-volt battery and an ultracapacitor. Which techni-
system? cian is correct?
a. 12 volts a. Technician A only
b. 36 volts b. Technician B only
c. 144 volts c. Both Technician A and B
d. 330 volts d. Neither Technicians A nor Technician B
2. A 12-volt battery can be rated for ________. 7. What color are the covers on high-voltage cables when
a. cold-cranking amperes the voltage is above 12 volts and less than 60 volts?
b. reserve capacity a. Yellow
c. cranking amperes b. Blue
d. All the answers are correct c. Orange
3. Load testing of an absorbed glass mat (AGM) battery is d. Yellow or Blue
being discussed. Technician A says that a carbon pile tes- 8. The heavy-duty starter in a micro-hybrid vehicle is being
ter can be used. Technician B says that a conductance discussed. Technician A says that the starter contains
tester must be used. Which technician is correct? long-life bearings. Technician B says that the starter has
a. Technician A only hardened gears. Which technicians is correct?
b. Technician B only a. Technician A only
c. Both Technicians A and B b. Technician B only
d. Neither Technician A nor Technician B c. Both Technicians A and B
4. Which of the following conditions may disable a start-stop d. Neither Technician A nor Technician B
system? 9. What high-voltage components are typically found in a
a. An open driver’s door mild-hybrid vehicle?
b. An air-conditioning system that is placed in the “Max a. Electric motors
Cold” position b. Inverters and converters
c. A transfer case that has been placed in the 4 × 4 low c. High-voltage battery
range d. All of the above
d. All the answers are correct
10. Diagnosis of a micro-hybrid stop-start system is being dis-
5. Which module is responsible for the operation of a mild- cussed. Technician A says that it is important to verify the
hybrid operating system? concern because there are many conditions that will pre-
a. Engine control module vent the system from operating. Technician B states that
b. Transmission control module the two batteries must be electrically separated before
c. Hybrid control module testing. Which technician is correct?
d. All the answers are correct a. Technician A only
6. Micro-hybrid vehicles are being discussed. Technician A b. Technician B only
says that micro-hybrid vehicles have two 12-volt batteries. c. Both Technicians A and B
Technician B says that some micro-hybrid vehicles have d. Neither Technician A nor Technician B

118 C HAPTER 9
Chapter 10
HIGH-VOLTAGE
BATTERIES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Active balancing 136 Nickel, manganese, and
be able to: Battery density 126 cobalt (NMC) 125
• Prepare for ASE L3 certification test section “A” Battery control module Nickel-metal hydride
(BCM) 130 (NiMH) 120
(Battery Systems).
Battery management MPGe 129
• Discuss hybrid and electric vehicle high-voltage
system (BMS) 131 Passive balancing 136
batteries.
Electrical Distribution Pouch cell 125
• Describe nickel-metal hydride batteries and System (EDS) 131 System Main Relays
designs used in hybrid electric vehicles. Guess-O-Meter (SMRs) 130
• Explain the operation of lithium-ion high-voltage (GOM) 129 Worldwide harmonized
batteries including the various types and Lithium iron phosphate Light vehicles Test
designs. (LiFePO4) 125 Procedure (WLTP) 129
Nickel, cobalt, and
• Discuss battery capacity versus vehicle range.
aluminum (NCA) 125
• Explain the need for high-voltage battery cool-
ing and heating.
• Discuss battery capacity versus vehicle range.
• Discuss the high-voltage battery control
components.
• Describe the purpose and function of the bat-
tery management system (BMS).
• Discuss the Electrical Distribution System (EDS).
• Explain the HEV high-voltage battery monitor.
• Discuss the factory authorized lithium-ion bat-
tery repair procedure.
• Describe battery degradation and balancing.

119
 HYBRID AND ELECTRIC
VEHICLE HIGH-VOLTAGE
BATTERIES
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION Hybrid electric vehicles
(HEVs) use a dual-voltage electrical system.
■■ The high-voltage (HV) system is used to power the
electric drive (traction) motor.
■■ A conventional 12-volt system is used to power all other
aspects of vehicle operation.

One advantage to using this system is that the vehi- FIGURE 10-1 The high-voltage battery and motor controls
cle can use any conventional electrical accessories in its are located behind the rear passenger’s seat in a Honda.
design.

NOTE: It is possible for an HEV to have three separate

voltage systems. The Toyota Highlander HEV, for exam-
ple, has a 12-volt auxiliary system, a 42-volt system for NICKEL-METAL HYDRIDE
the electric power assist steering, and a 288-volt sys- BATTERIES
tem for the hybrid drive.
USES Most current production HEVs use nickel-metal
ELECTRIC MOTOR REQUIREMENTS EVs and HEVs hydride (NiMH) battery technology for the high-voltage bat-
use high-output electric motors to drive and assist vehicle tery. NiMH batteries are being used for these applications
movement. These motors are rated anywhere from 10 to 50 kW because of their performance characteristics, such as specific
for HEVs and as much as 450 kW for some EVs, so they con- energy, cycle life, and safety. From a manufacturing perspec-
sume large amounts of electrical power during operation. If tive, the NiMH battery is attractive because the materials used
a conventional 12-volt electrical system was used to power in its construction are plentiful and recyclable.
these motors, the amount of current flow required would be
extremely large and the cables used to transmit this energy DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION NiMH batteries have
would also be so large as to be impractical. Also, the motors a positive electrode made of nickel hydroxide. The negative
used in these systems would have large gauge windings electrode is unique, in that it is a hydrogen-absorbing alloy,
and would be big and heavy relative to their power output. also known as a metal hydride. The electrolyte is an alkaline,
Automotive engineers overcome this problem by increas- usually potassium hydroxide. The nominal voltage of an NiMH
ing the voltage provided to the motors, thus decreasing the battery cell is 1.2 volts.
amount of current that must flow to meet the motor’s watt-
age requirements. (see Frequently Asked Question, “Why ELECTROLYTE NiMH batteries are known as alkaline
Do Higher Voltage Motors Draw Less Current?”). Smaller batteries due to the alkaline (pH greater than 7) nature of the
amounts of current flowing in the cables mean that the electrolyte. The electrolyte is aqueous potassium hydroxide.
cables can be sized smaller, making it much more practical Potassium hydroxide works well for this application because
to place a battery in the rear of the vehicle and run cables it does not corrode the other parts of the battery and can be
from there to the drive motor in the engine compartment. housed in a sealed steel container. Also, potassium hydroxide
●■ SEE FIGURE 10-1. does not take part in the chemical reaction of the battery, so the
The motors can also be made much smaller and more electrolyte concentration stays constant at any given state-of-
powerful when they are designed to operate on higher charge. These factors help the NiMH battery achieve high-power
voltages. performance and excellent cycle life. ●■SEE FIGURE 10-2.

120 CHAPTER 10
 LOAD ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
e- e-
Why Do Higher Voltage Motors Draw Less
NIMH CELL Current?

NEGATIVE (METAL HYDRIDE)

POSITIVE (N(OH)2)
Keep in mind that an electric motor is powered by
wattage. Every electric motor is rated according to
the amount of power (in watts) it consumes. Power is
calculated using the following formula:
KOH SOLUTION
P = I×E
H22O OH- or
Power (in watts) = Current ( in amperes ) ×
FIGURE 10-2 An NiMH cell. The unique element in a Voltage ( in volts )
nickel metal hydride cell is the negative electrode which is
An electric motor rated at 144 watts will
a hydrogen-absorbing alloy. The positive electrode is nickel
hydroxide. The electrolyte does not enter into the chemical consume 12 amperes at 12 volts of applied volt-
reaction and is able to maintain a constant conductivity age ( 12 volts × 12 amperes = 144 watts ). If this
regardless of the state-of-charge of the cell. same motor was powered with 6 volts, it would draw
24 amperes to achieve the same power output. This
increase in current draw would require a much
OPERATION DURING CHARGING During battery charg-
bigger cable to efficiently transmit the electric
ing, hydrogen ions (protons) travel from the positive electrode
current and minimize voltage drop. The motor
to the negative electrode, where they are absorbed into the
windings would also have to be much heavier to handle
metal hydride material. The electrolyte does not participate in
this increased current. Imagine that we power this
the reaction and acts only as a medium for the hydrogen ions
same motor with a 144-volt battery. Now we require
to travel through.
only 1 ampere of electrical current to operate the motor
( 144 volts × 1 ampere = 144 watts ). The cable
OPERATION DURING DISCHARGING When the battery
required to transmit this current could be sized much
is discharged, this process reverses, with the hydrogen ions
smaller and it will now be much easier to run the cables
(protons) traveling from the negative electrode back to the posi-
over the length of the car without significant power loss.
tive electrode. The density of the electrodes changes some-
Also, the electric motor can be made much smaller and
what during the charge/discharge process, but this is kept to a
more efficient when less current is needed to power it.
minimum as only protons are exchanged during battery cycling.
Some hybrid systems have motors that operate at up to
Electrode stability due to minimal density changes is one of
650 volts in an effort to increase system efficiency.
the reasons why the NiMH battery has a very good cycle life.
●■SEE FIGURE 10-3.

CHARGE O OH
MH X H H+ H+

NI

O OH
M H H+ H+

DISCHARGE NI

(NEGATIVE ELECTRODE = (POSITIVE ELECTRODE =

HYDROGEN-ABSORBING ALLOY) NICKEL HYDROXIDE)

FIGURE 10-3 Chemical reactions inside an NiMH cell. Charging and discharging both involve an exchange of hydrogen ions
(protons) between the two electrodes

H I G H -V O L T AGE BAT T ERIES 121

ADVANTAGES Nickel-based alkaline batteries have a NiMH BATTERY DESIGNS There are two primary
number of advantages over other battery designs. These designs for an NiMH battery cell. These are:
include the following: 1. Cylindrical type. The cylindrical type has the active materials
■■ High specific energy. made in long ribbons and arranged in a spiral fashion inside a
steel cylinder (case). The negative electrode is wound along-
■■ The nickel electrode can be manufactured with large
side the positive electrode, and the separator material holding
surface areas, which increase the overall battery
the electrolyte is placed between them. The negative elec-
capacity.
trode is attached to the steel battery case, while the positive
■■ The electrolyte does not react with steel, so NiMH batter-
electrode attached to the (−) terminal at the top of the bat-
ies can be housed in sealed steel containers that transfer
tery. There is a self-resealing safety vent located at the top of
heat reasonably well.
the battery case, which will relieve internal pressure in case of
■■ The materials used in NiMH batteries are environmentally overcharge, short circuiting, reverse charge, or other abuse.
friendly and can be recycled. Cylindrical cells are often constructed very similar to a con-
■■ Excellent cycle life. ventional “D” cell. Cylindrical cells are most often incorporated
■■ Durable and safe. into modules with a group of six cells connected in series. This
creates a single battery module with a 7.2-volt output. Groups
of these modules can then be connected in series to create
DISADVANTAGES Disadvantages of the NiMH battery higher voltage battery packs. ●■SEE FIGURE 10-4.
include the following:
2. Prismatic type. The prismatic type is a rectangular or boxlike
■■ High rate of self-discharge, especially at elevated design with the active materials formed into flat plates, much
temperatures. like a conventional lead–acid battery. The positive and nega-
■■ Moderate levels of memory effect, although this seems to tive plates are placed alternately in the battery case, with tabs
be less prominent in newer designs. used to connect the plate groups. Separator material is placed
between the plates to prevent them from touching, but still
■■ Moderate to high cost.
allow electrolyte to circulate freely. ●■SEE FIGURE 10-5.

BATTERY CELLS ARE CONNECTED IN SERIES Battery

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
designers are limited by the nominal cell voltage of the battery
technology. In the case of NiMH batteries, each cell is capable of
How Is an Alkaline Battery Different from a
producing only 1.2 volts. A high-voltage battery based on NiMH
Lead–Acid Battery?
technology must be built using multiples of 1.2 volts. In order
Lead–acid batteries use sulfuric acid as the elec-
trolyte, which acts as the medium between the CAP (+)
SEALING PLATE
battery’s positive and negative electrodes. Acids
have a pH that is below 7, and pure water has
a pH of exactly 7. If electrolyte from a lead–acid
battery is spilled, it can be neutralized using a
solution of baking soda and water (an alkaline solu-
tion). Alkaline batteries use an electrolyte such
as potassium hydroxide, which has a pH greater
than 7. This means that the electrolyte solution is NEGATIVE
basic, which is the opposite of acidic. If an alkaline ELECTRODE CASE (–)
battery electrolyte is spilled, it can be neutral-
ized using a solution of vinegar and water (vin- SEPARATOR
egar is acidic). Both nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) and
nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries are alkaline POSITIVE INSULATOR
ELECTRODE
battery designs.
FIGURE 10-4 Cylindrical-type NiMH batteries are made with
a stainless-steel housing.

122 CHAPTER 10
 SAFETY
NEGATIVE VENT
TERMINAL
POSITIVE
TERMINAL

POSITIVE FIGURE 10- 8 A Toyota Camry Hybrid HV battery pack.

ELECTRODE

SEPARATOR
CELL CASE
LITHIUM-ION HIGH-VOLTAGE
NEGATIVE BATTERIES
ELECTRODE
USES A battery design that shows a great deal of prom-
ise for electric vehicles (EV) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEV)
FIGURE 10- 5 A prismatic NiMH cell. Prismatic cells are built applications is lithium-ion (Li-ion) technology. Lithium-ion bat-
with flat plates and separators similar to conventional lead– teries have been used extensively in consumer electronics
acid batteries. since the early 1990s and are currently used in most electric
to build a 144-volt battery, 114 individual NiMH cells must be and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs).
connected together in series ( 144 × 1.2 volts ). Obviously, the
higher the voltage output of the battery, the greater the number DESCRIPTION A lithium-ion cell is named because dur-
of individual battery cells that must be used to achieve the neces- ing battery cycling, lithium ions move back and forth between
sary voltage. ●■ SEE FIGURES 10-6, 10-7, AND 10-8. the positive and negative electrodes. Lithium-ion has approxi-
mately twice the specific energy of nickel-metal hydride.

D CELL D CELL D CELL D CELL D CELL D CELL

CONSTRUCTION The positive electrode in a conventional
lithium-ion battery has lithium cobalt oxide as its main ingredi-
ent, with the negative electrode being made from a specialty
carbon. The electrolyte is an organic solvent, and this is held in
TEMPERATURE SENSOR a separator layer between the two electrode plates. To prevent

FIGURE 10- 6 Each cell has 1.25 volts and a group of six as battery rupture and ensure safety, a pressure release valve is
shown has 7.5 volts. These sections are connected to other built into the battery housing that will release gas if the internal
sections to create the HV battery pack. pressure rises above a preset point. ●■SEE FIGURE 10-9.

MODULE CONNECTOR OPERATION The lithium-ion cell is designed so that lithium

TERMINALS
ions can pass back and forth between the electrodes when the
battery is in operation.
1. During battery discharge, lithium ions leave the anode
(negative electrode) and enter the cathode (positive elec-
1 2 3 4 5 6 trode) through the electrolyte and across the separator.
2. During charging, lithium ions leave the cathode and move
through the electrolyte into the anode.
1.2
VOLTS
ADVANTAGES Lithium-ion batteries have the following
FIGURE 10- 7 A prismatic NiMH module from a Toyota Prius advantages:
HV battery pack. The battery posts are located on the left and
right sides of the module. A self-resealing vent is located on
■■ High specific energy
the top right for venting hydrogen gas if the module overheats. ■■ Good high temperature performance

H I G H -V O L T AG E BAT T ERIES 123

 ?
CATHODE CATHODE LEAD
COVER SAFETY VENT FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
PTC
SEPARATOR CATHODE How Much Lithium Is There in a Typical
GASKET
• POSITIVE ELECTRODE Li-Ion High-Voltage EV Battery?
INSULATOR
Anode
• NEGATIVE ELECTRODE In a typical electric vehicle, such as the Tesla
SEPARATOR Model S,
ELECTROLYTE it is estimated that there is a total of about
CAN AND TERMINALS 15 pounds (7 kg) of lithium used in all of the cells.
SAFETY VENTS This is about the weight of a bowling ball.

INSULATOR ANODE
CENTER PIN ANODE LEAD
CATHODE
ANODE CONTAINER

FIGURE 10- 9 Construction of a cylindrical lithium-ion cell. Note

DESIGNS OF LITHIUM-ION
the pressure relief valve and exhaust gas hole that will relieve
internal battery pressure if it gets too hot.
CELLS
CYLINDRICAL A cylindrical cell has high specific
■■ Low self-discharge
energy, good mechanical stability, and lends itself to auto-
■■ Minimal memory effect mated manufacturing. Cylindrical cell design cycles well,
■■ High nominal cell voltage. The nominal voltage of a offers a long life and is low cost, but it has less than ideal
lithium-ion cell is 3.6 volts, which is three times that of packaging density. The cylindrical cell design is used by
nickel-based alkaline batteries. This allows for fewer many electric vehicle manufacturers such as Tesla.
battery cells being required to produce high voltage from Tesla, for example, uses several sizes of cylindrical
an HV battery. cells including:
■■ 18650 cells manufactured by Panasonic in the Models
DISADVANTAGES Disadvantages of the lithium-ion bat-
S and X cars since 2012. These are small battery
tery include:
cells, slightly larger than the standard AA cells. The
■■ High cost Tesla cylindrical cells are 18 mm in diameter and 65
■■ Issues related to battery overheating mm tall.
●■SEE FIGURE 10-10.
NOTE: Early lithium-ion battery designs have experienced ■■ Tesla Model 3 and Y use 2170 batteries, which are
problems with thermal runaway, which has led to fire and
21 mm in diameter and 70 mm tall.
even explosions. Lithium-ion battery packs in automotive
■■ Tesla Cyber Truck uses 4680 cells which are 46 mm in
applications are designed with cooling and safety systems
diameter and 80 mm tall.
that prevent overheating and isolate cell failures.

18650 AA BATTERY
LITHIUM ION PACK
BATTERY

16 BATTERY MODULES OR
MODULE OF 7,104 BATTERIES MAKE
444 BATTERIES UP THE TOTAL TESLA S
“BATTERY PACK.”

FIGURE 10- 10 A Tesla Model S uses 7,104 18650 batteries located under the floor of the vehicle
and weighs 1,200 pounds (544 kg).

124 CHAPTER 10
 POSITIVE TERMINAL
POSITIVE
TOP PLATE TAB NEGATIVE TAB
ANODE
PRESSURE VENT ALUMINUM LAMINATED FILM
ANODE TAB

SEPARATOR

SEPARATOR

NEGATIVE
POSITIVE ELECTRODE
CAN CASE CATHODE ELECTRODE
FIGURE 10-11 The prismatic type is a rectangular or boxlike FIGURE 10-12 The pouch design uses a flexible outer
design that allows them to be stacked close together to create container that is able to expand when being charged without
a HV battery pack. damaging the battery.

PRISMATIC—HARD CASE The prismatic type is a rect- between the various designs is the materials used for the positive
angular or boxlike design with the active materials formed into electrode or cathode. The original Li-ion cell design used lithium
flat plates, much like a conventional lead–acid battery. The posi- cobalt oxide for its cathode, which has good energy storage char-
tive and negative plates are placed alternately in the battery case, acteristics, but suffers chemical breakdown at relatively low tem-
with tabs used to connect the plate groups. Separator material peratures. This failure results in the release of heat and oxygen,
is placed between the plates to prevent them from touching, but which often leads to a fire or explosion as the electrolyte ignites.
still allow electrolyte to circulate freely. ●■SEE FIGURE 10-11. In order to make lithium-ion batteries safer and more durable, a
number of alternative cathode materials have been formulated.
PRISMATIC—POUCH TYPE Pouch design HV bat-
tery uses laminated architecture in a bag referred to as CATHODE MATERIAL Vehicle manufacturers use several
pouch cell. It is light and cost-effective, but exposure to different cathode materials:
humidity and high temperature can shorten its life. The
■■ A combination of nickel, manganese, and cobalt (NMC)
pouch cell offers a simple, flexible, and lightweight battery
for the cathode material. This cathode material results
design. The pouch cell makes most efficient use of space
in slightly lower energy, but is less volatile and can
and achieves 90–95% packaging efficiency, the highest
withstand variation in temperature.
among battery packs.
Eliminating the metal enclosure reduces weight, but the NOTE: This design of battery is used in the 48-volt
cell needs support and allowance to expand in the battery com- mild-hybrid Ram truck.
partment. The pouch packs are used in consumer, military and
■■ Tesla uses nickel, cobalt, and aluminum (NCA) cathode
automotive applications, and are used in the Jaguar I-Pace,
material, which results in a long battery life and faster
Mustang Mach E, and the GMC Hummer EV electric vehicles. The
charging capability.
General Motor’s Ultium batteries are unique because of their large-
format, pouch-style cells, which can be stacked vertically or hori-
■■ Another cathode design for automotive applications

zontally inside the battery pack. No standardized pouch cells exist includes lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), which is

as each manufacturer designs its own. ●■SEE FIGURE 10-12. stable at higher temperatures and does not contain
cobalt, which is in limited supply worldwide.

TYPES OF LITHIUM-ION The lithium iron phosphate battery is the most promising
future battery and is constructed using lithium iron phosphate
BATTERIES as the cathode, and a graphitic carbon electrode with a metal-
lic backing as the anode. The lithium iron phosphate battery
NUMEROUS MATERIALS There are numerous types of offers a longer life cycle, low cost, low toxicity, well-defined
lithium-ion batteries, and the list is growing. While every compo- performance, and long-term stability making it a likely battery
nent of the battery is under development, the primary difference for use in future electric vehicles. ●■■SEE CHART 10-1.

H I G H -V O L T AG E BAT T ERIES 125

 CHEMICAL NAME MATERIAL ABBREVIATION lithium-nickel-manganese-cobalt cathode and a flexible
Lithium Cobalt Oxide LiCoO2 LCO ceramic separator. The lithium ions from the cathode create
Lithium Nickel Cobalt LiNixCOyAlzO2 LNCO a metal film on the collector when charging. The advan-
Oxide tages of a solid-state battery include a faster charging
Lithium Nickel LiNiMnCoO2 NMC rate, lower weight, and higher capacity.
Manganese Cobalt
Oxide
Lithium Manganese LiMn2O4 LMO
Oxide
Lithium Iron
Phosphate
LiFePO4 LFP HEV/EV ELECTRONICS
Lithium Nickel Cobalt LiNiCoAlO2 NCA COOLING
Aluminum Oxide
NEED FOR COOLING Hybrid electric vehicles are
CHART 10-1
unique in that they have electric motors and electronic con-
Chart of the most commonly used Li-ion batteries.
trols that are not found in vehicles with conventional drive-
trains. These components are designed to operate under
? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION heavy load with high current and voltage demands, so
they tend to generate excessive heat during vehicle opera-
What Is “Battery Density?”
tion. Special auxiliary cooling systems are incorporated
Battery density refers to the amount of energy in into hybrid electric vehicles to prevent overheating of these
kilowatt-hours (kWh) that a battery can store per kilo- critical components and keep those components at efficient
gram of mass (kWh per kilograms) or volume (kWh per operating temperatures.
liter) of volume. The higher the number, the higher the
energy density of the battery. ●■SEE CHART 10-2. EFFECTS OF HEAT ON THE ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC
SYSTEM Electronic components operate more efficiently as
their temperature decreases, but can suffer permanent damage if
ENERGY
DENSITY ENERGY DENSITY they overheat. All hybrid electric vehicles have cooling systems for
BATTERY
TYPE (KWH/KG) (KWH/L) their motors and motor controls, and some use air-cooling to remove
Lead–Acid 0.11–0.14 0.22–0.27 excess heat from these components. ●■SEE FIGURE 10-13.
Nickel-Metal 0.36 1.44 For example, a Chevrolet Bolt electric vehicle has two
Hydride expansion valves in the A/C system. One is used to cool the
Lithium Cobalt 0.70 2.0
Oxide

CHART 10-2
The higher the number, the higher the energy density of the
battery. Notice that the lithium-ion battery has the highest
energy density compared to lead–acid and nickel-metal
hydride batteries.

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

What Is a “Solid State” Battery?

Many manufacturers including Toyota are working on a
solid-state battery that does not use a liquid or gel elec-
trolyte. A prototype solid-state battery is said to use a FIGURE 10-13 The underside of the Toyota Prius controller showing
the coolant passages used to cool the electronic control unit.

126 CHAPTER 10
 ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

Why Isn’t the ICE Cooling System Used to Cool

HEV Motors and Motor Controls?
Most ICE cooling systems operate at over 200°F
(93°C). For maximum efficiency, it is important that
the ICE operate at close to this temperature at all
times. Electric motors and the motor controls, how-
ever, tend to operate more efficiently at lower temper-
atures. The ICE cooling system runs too hot to allow
these components to operate at peak efficiency, so a
separate low-temperature system is often used.

passenger compartment and the other is used to cool the elec-

AIR INTAKE
tronics and the high-voltage battery. VENTS BATTERY PACK
Many hybrid electric vehicles use a liquid cooling system COVER

for their motors and motor controls. These systems are often
separate from the ICE’s cooling system and typically operate at
COOLING FAN
lower temperatures.

SYSTEM CONSTRUCTION The liquid cooling systems

used for the motors and motor controls on hybrid electric
BATTERY
vehicles have much in common with conventional ICE cool- SMART UNIT
ing systems. There is a separate expansion tank that acts as HV BATTERY
MODULE
a coolant reservoir for the system, and the coolant is often
the same type that is used for the ICE cooling system. A
radiator is used to dissipate excess heat, and is located at
the front of the vehicle. Some designs may have the radiator FIGURE 10-14 The motor and HV battery electronics on
Toyota hybrid SUV.
incorporated into the ICE radiator, or it may be separate. ●■
SEE FIGURE 10-14. PLIABLE FINGERS
A low-voltage electric water pump is used to circulate
the coolant, and it is often configured to run whenever the METALLIC INNER TUBE
vehicle is in operation. The coolant is circulated through the
various components in the system, which could include the
following: COOLANT FLOW
BATTERY CELL

(GLYCOL)
■■ Electric motor-generator(s)
■■ DC–DC converter
■■ Inverter
■■ Transmission oil cooler
■■ Other high-load control modules

NOTE: The first- and second-generation Ford Escape

Hybrid also uses a cabin filter in the auxiliary climate
FIGURE 10-15 The electric motors and the motor controls
control (battery zone) system to prevent particulate are cooled using a separate cooling system. This Toyota
matter from collecting on the traction battery cooling Hybrid Synergy Drive (HSD) system uses a radiator that is
passages. ●■SEE FIGURE 10-15. integral with the ICE cooling system radiator.

H I G H -V O L T AGE BAT T ERIES 127

 HIGH-VOLTAGE BATTERY
COOLING AND HEATING
THE NEED TO HEAT/COOL HV BATTERIES High
operating temperatures can lower performance and cause
damage to a NiMH or lithium battery pack. The cooling sys-
tems can be categorized as either air or liquid cooling systems.
Most current production HEVs use air cooling to control HV
battery pack temperature. Cabin air is circulated over the bat-
tery cells using an electric fan and ducting inside the vehicle.
●■SEE FIGURE 10-16.
In some cases, the air-conditioning system has an
extra zone that cools the air being circulated over the
FIGURE 10-17 The HV battery cooling system from a Ford
HV battery pack. The first- and second-generation Ford Escape Hybrid. Ford uses outside air to cool the battery pack,
Escape Hybrid is an example of this type of system. ●■SEE then increases cooling with a separate zone in the A/C system
FIGURE 10-17. when necessary. The battery zone filter was only used on a
Most current electric vehicles use a liquid cooling system. first generation Ford Escape Hybrid.
Coolant is circulated through a dedicated system that transfers
battery heat to the outside air through a dedicated radiator. In a HIGH-VOLTAGE BATTERY COOLING SYSTEM
battery using prismatic cells, there is an aluminum cooling plate SERVICE The service of high-voltage battery cooling sys-
inserted between each pair of cells. A battery using cylindrical tems falls into two main categories:
cells uses a ribbon-type tube between the cells.
1. Service of the air distribution system
Temperature sensors (thermistors) are mounted in vari-
ous locations in the battery pack housing to send data to the 2. Service of the liquid system

module responsible for controlling battery temperature. These The service of the air distribution system is similar to HVAC
inputs are used to help determine battery charge rate and cool- systems. The blower motor must be operational and the fan
ing system operation must be free of debris. The air intake inlets must be inspected

A/C EVAPORATOR FOR CABIN

REAR MOTOR AND INVERTER FRONT MOTOR AND INVERTER

DISTRIBUTION VALVE

HV HEATER?

RADIATOR FOR
BATTERY COOLING PLATES
MOTORS/INVERTERS

A/C COMPRESSOR

A/C CONDENSER

FIGURE 10-16 The battery and electronics are included as part of the temperature control system.

128 CHAPTER 10
and found to be free of anything that would restrict airflow. If approximate EPA range estimates by dividing the WLTP value
the system has a dedicated cabin filter, it must be replaced at by 1.12. However, the EPA range is in fact just an estimate and
the specified interval. real-world range can be different.
The service of the liquid cooling system is similar to a
conventional cooling system. On a regular basis the cooling EV EQUIVALENT ECONOMY A kilowatt (kW) is a rate of
system level must be checked to ensure there are no leaks and energy flow similar to the gallons per minute that a water hose
the freeze protection and pH level should be checked with a or pump can deliver. A kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a quantity of elec-
refractometer or test strip. The coolant should be replaced at tricity, similar to what a gallon is with water. A bigger battery
the specified service interval using the recommended replace- pack with a higher number of kWh will hold more electricity,
ment coolant. The electric water pump must be inspected for just as a bigger bucket will hold more gallons of water.
proper operation. This is verified by actuating the pump with With an electric vehicle, how far it can travel is measured
a factory-level scan tool. The dedicated radiator needs to be in miles per kilowatt-hours. A typical electric vehicle can travel
checked for airflow obstructions and for proper cooling fan about 3 to 4 miles per kilowatt-hour of battery capacity. The
operation. larger the battery in kwh, the greater the range, like an ICE vehi-
cle that has a larger fuel tank capacity.
EV BATTERY HEATER The electric vehicle battery heat- To help consumers compare the energy consumption
ing methods include heater pads that are typically 0.011 inch of electric vehicles with those that run on fossil fuel, the EPA
(0.28 mm) thick and can be applied between cells, wrapped created a miles-per-gallon measurement, called MPGe.
around cells, or modules bonded to the surface of a cold plate This is calculated based on a conversion factor of 33.705
directly under a module. The pads ensure quicker time to tem- kilowatt-hours of electricity equaling one gallon of gasoline.
perature while achieving better uniformity from cell to cell, and Therefore, a battery that has a capacity of 100 kWh is equal to
function as a dielectric barrier between cells/modules/plates the energy of about three gallons of gasoline.
with minimal impact on cooling performance.

NOTE: A water-cooling system for Hyundai and Kia’s EV ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
battery packs, rather than air cooling, have yielded fur-
’What Is a “Guess-O-Meter?”
ther increases in range because water-cooling channels
take up less space than air-cooling channels, increas- The dash display that shows the miles per kWh is
ing battery density by up to 35%. often called a Guess-O-Meter (GOM) because it is
often not accurate. Good numbers for miles per kWh
are 4.3 to 4.9 miles of travel for each kWh consumed.
It can be used to help plan a trip. For example, if the
BATTERY CAPACITY VS GOM indicates the battery capacity is 60 kWh in the
battery, this usually means the vehicle can travel
VEHICLE RANGE about 235 miles, so plan on charging at about
200 miles. ●■SEE FIGURE 10-18.
ICE VEHICLE MILEAGE In the United States, fuel
economy for an internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle is
expressed in miles per gallon (MPG). Outside of the United
States, fuel economy is measured in the number of liters of
TECH TIP
fuel needed to travel 100 kilometers (62 miles), abbreviated
L/100 km. This means that as the number increases, the fuel
The Rule of Thumb Is 3
economy decreases. In the metric system, the fuel is mea-
sured; in the United States, the miles are measured. To help estimate the range of an electric vehicle (EV),
multiply the battery capacity in kilowatt-hours (kWh)
EPA VS WLTP In the United States the Environmental by three to get a good idea as to the range of the
Protection Agency (EPA) estimates electric vehicle range, while vehicle. For example, a Tesla Model 3 has a battery
in Europe electric vehicle range uses the Worldwide harmo- capacity of 75 kWh and when multiplied by 3 equals
nized Light vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP). When the range 225 miles ( 75 × 3 = 225 ).
is expressed using the WLTP standard, drivers can convert it to

H I G H -V O L T AG E BAT T ERIES 129

 ■■ The BCM will then close the second SMR on the ground
cable and open the SMR in-series with the resistor. This
will allow for full current flow.

CURRENT SENSORS The current sensor is used to mea-

sure the current flowing into the battery during charging and is
used to measure current flowing out of the battery when it is
discharging. The sensor may be mounted on the positive or the
negative cable based on design. This data is combined with indi-
vidual cell temperature and voltage to provide an overall state-
of-charge (SOC) of the battery. The sensor will be either a Hall-
effect design or a shunt, depending on the manufacturer and the
design of the system. The BCM will set a fault code if the senor
FIGURE 10-18 The dash display on a Chevrolet Bolt becomes open, shorted, or if the current running through the
indicates the miles per kWh, which may or may not be sensor becomes abnormally high or low. ●■SEE FIGURE 10-19.
accurate. Because the displayed estimated range varies, it is
often referred to as “Guess-O-Meter”.
VOLTAGE BLOCK MONITORING CIRCUITS Each cell
block, which consists of multiple battery cells, is monitored by

HIGH-VOLTAGE BATTERY the BCM for voltage level. These are low-voltage circuits that
allow the BCM to flag a group of cells that are out of range when
CONTROL COMPONENTS compared to the cell groups in the battery. A variance of .3 volts
between cell groups is allowed. Any variance of measured volt-
BATTERY CONTROL MODULE The battery control mod- age that is greater than .3 volts will set a fault code. This condi-
ule (BCM) is responsible for controlling the operation of the high- tion could be as a result of a bad cell or an imbalance condition.
voltage battery based on the requests from the hybrid control
module. The BCM monitors the voltage blocks, the current sen- TEMPERATURE SENSORS Temperature sensors are used
sor, and temperature sensors to determine the need for charging. to measure the temperature of the battery cells and temperature of
The BCM communicates with the other vehicle modules on the the air entering the pack if a forced air system is used to cool the
CAN BUS network and its data is accessible with a scan tool. battery. The primary use of this data is to control the fan speed of
the blower used to cool the battery. The data is also used in the
SYSTEM MAIN RELAYS (SMRs) System Main Relays
(SMRs) are heavy duty relays that control the high-voltage circuit
between the battery and the other components of the high-volt-
age system. SMRs are often referred to as contactors. Depending
on the design of the battery control system, the battery will con-
tain one to three SMRs. The battery control module controls the
low-voltage side of the SMR. When the load side of the SMR
closes, high-voltage current is allowed to flow from the battery.
In a three SMR system design, one SMR controls the positive
circuit and two SMRs control the negative circuit. On the negative
side, one SMR is in-series with a high-wattage resistor that pre-
charges the system capacitors. To allow current to flow:
■■ The BCM will first close the SMR for the positive
cable. CURRENT-CARRYING HALL-EFFECT
CONDUCTORS CURRENT SENSORS
■■ The BCM will close the SMR with the resistor on the
FIGURE 10-19 The three legs of the brushless motor run
negative cable. This will reduce the initial current flow
through three Hall-effect-type current sensors. The conductors
to the system capacitors and also reduce the possibil- used in the Honda unit are flat aluminum and attach to the
ity of arcing across the high-current SMR contacts. motor controller terminals.

130 CHAPTER 10
 MODULE 4

MODULE 3

MODULE 1 MODULE 2

BATTERY TEMPERATURE SENSOR #4

BATTERY TEMPERATURE SENSOR #3

BATTERY TEMPERATURE SENSOR #2

BATTERY TEMPERATURE SENSOR #1

FIGURE 10-20 Temperature sensors are located throughout a HV battery pack.

calculation of the battery state-of-charge (SOC). The sensors are

PTC thermistors so the higher the battery temperature, the lower BATTERY MANAGEMENT
the resistance of the sensor. ●■SEE FIGURE 10-20.
SYSTEM (BMS)
NOTE: The General Motors electric vehicles using the Ultium
batteries incorporate a wireless transmitter connected to PURPOSE The battery cells or modules need to be monitored
the battery cells. Instead of running wires from each battery and controlled for temperature and voltage. The battery man-
cell to the battery control module, the wireless system is agement system (BMS) is an electronic system that manages
able to reduce the number of wires and connections. cells in a battery pack. The BMS monitors and controls:
■■ State-of-charge (SOC)
HV DISCONNECT The purpose of the HV battery discon-
■■ State of health (SOH)
nect switch is to remove power from the high-voltage system
prior to repairs. When removing the HV disconnect switch,
■■ State of function (SOF)

personal protective equipment (PPE) must be worn to protect ■■ Safety and critical safeguards
against electrocution. Many HV disconnect switches contain a ■■ Temperature
high-voltage fuse. Most HV disconnect switches also contain ■■ Load balancing/individual cell efficiency
a low-voltage monitoring circuit. Failure to properly install and
latch the HV disconnect switch will result in a no-start or failure The BMS receives inputs from voltage and temperature
to power-up condition. ●■SEE FIGURE 10-21. sensors in the modules. In some packs, the BMS may also pro-
vide outputs to drive other components, such as fans, pumps,
or valves for the battery cooling system. External connectors
enable robust and safe connection between the battery pack
and other vehicle systems.

ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM (EDS)
PURPOSE The primary function of the Electrical Distribution
System (EDS) is to provide the electrical conduction path through
the battery pack and includes the following features:
■■ Isolates the conduction path
FIGURE 10-21 The battery disconnect on a Chevrolet Volt is
located under the center console. ■■ Measures current and voltage in the high-voltage (HV) line

H I G H -V O L T AGE BAT T ERIES 131

 ■■ Provides pre-charge function when energizing the HV line
■■ Fuses the HV line in case of over-current
■■ Provides manual disconnect of the HV line for vehicle
servicing
■■ Monitors effectiveness of the electrical insulation

The low-voltage (LV) wiring provides power for the battery

control functions and allows communication between the battery
and vehicle (CAN protocol). The LV wiring is also used to confirm
all external connectors are correctly in place, and to ensure that HV
conductors cannot be contacted externally. ●■SEE FIGURE 10-22.

ISOLATION TESTING The high-voltage system is com-

pletely isolated from the vehicle. A loss of isolation in the
high-voltage system will result in a vehicle that will not power-up INTER LOCK
TERMINALS
to the ready mode and set a series of diagnostic trouble codes.
Some vehicles will set additional information codes that will help FIGURE 10-22 The HV disconnect plug has two small
to identify the area where the loss of isolation has occurred. terminals used to signal the HV controller that the safety/
service plug has been removed.
To verify the loss of isolation has occurred, a meg ohm
meter will be used to perform the isolation test. The use of
class 0 high-voltage safety gloves is required when performing ■■ The battery is placed under a load when its SOC is below
this test. With the high-voltage battery disconnected, the meg 20%. In order to prevent overheating and maximize
ohm meter is connected between the high-voltage system and service life, the battery SOC must be carefully managed.
chassis ground. During the test, the meter will charge its inter- In most hybrid-electric vehicle applications, a target SOC
nal capacitor to up to 1,000 volts and measure the resistance of 60% is used, and the battery is then cycled so its SOC
between the high-voltage system and chassis ground. If conti- varies no more than 20% higher or lower than the target.
nuity is detected, the loss of isolation needs to be identified and ●■SEE FIGURE 10-23.
repaired. The system should be tested again after the repair is
complete to verify the repair was successful. NOTE: The Chevrolet Volt is designed to allow the
state-of-charge to drop to 25–35% before the gaso-
STATE-OF-CHARGE MANAGEMENT The HV battery in line engine is started to maintain that level of state-of-
a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is subjected to constant charg- charge. The cooling system and software are designed
ing and discharging during normal operation. The battery can to allow this reduced SOC so that the vehicle can be
overheat under the following conditions: driven for an extended distance without having to
■■ The battery state-of-charge rises above 80%. start the engine.

EXAMPLE OF CHARGE IN SOC

UPPER SOC
OVERCHARGE REGION CONTROL LIMIT

SOC CONTROL
REGION

UNDERCHARGE REGION LOWER SOC

CONTROL LIMIT
TARGET SOC
TIME REGION

FIGURE 10-23 The HV battery pack SOC is maintained in a relatively narrow range to prevent overheating and maximize service life.

132 CHAPTER 10
 will be on and the system will set and store multiple
HEV HIGH-VOLTAGE BATTERY diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs) if this happens.

MONITOR
SCAN DATA TEST PROCEDURE Connect the scan tool
STATE-OF-CHARGE The HV battery pack controller mon- and select the vehicle, and then select the following parameter
itors the state-of-charge. identification (PID) items:

■■ During acceleration, the battery pack state-of-charge

■■ State-of-charge
(SOC) may drop slightly, and rise when the vehicle ■■ Battery temperature
decelerates as a result of regenerative braking which ■■ Battery voltage
charges the HV battery. ■■ Battery current draw
■■ Scan data displays charge and discharge levels. Normal ■■ Check the battery block internal resistance as displayed
operating HV battery SOC range for most hybrid electric
on a scan tool for Toyota/Lexus HEVs. Normal internal
vehicles is within 52–68%.
resistance is 15 to 40 milliohms (0.015 to 0.040 ohms).
■■ When the SOC drops to 50%, the ICE starts to recharge
●■SEE FIGURE 10-25.
the HV batteries. This means that the idle stop (start-stop)
function is disabled if the SOC is at or below 50%, and
will resume after it reaches 52% or higher in most cases.
●■SEE FIGURE 10-24. TECH TIP
■■ If the SOC reaches 80% or higher, the regenerative brak-
Check State-of-Charge First
ing stops. This means that during vehicle braking when
the SOC is high, a harder than normal brake pedal effort If a hybrid vehicle owner complains of a lack of power
is often noticed. on acceleration, check the state-of-charge (SOC)
first. There may be nothing wrong with the traction
■■ Reduction of electric traction motor power occurs when
motor or its controller. It may be simply that the HV
the state-of-charge falls to 40%. If the ICE does start,
battery pack is not within a normal state-of-charge,
there will be little or no electric assist from the electric
usually due to a fault with the battery pack or related
traction motor. This will likely only occur if the vehicle
electrical connections.
runs out of fuel for the ICE and the vehicle operates on
electric power alone. However, the main warning light

FIGURE 10-24 A Snap-on Solus scan tool displays the state-of-change of the high-voltage battery under the heading of “HV ECM”.

H I G H -V O L T AG E BAT T ERIES 133

FIGURE 10-25 The internal resistances of the battery blocks are available on the data stream as shown using an aftermarket
scan tool. The internal resistance should be between 15 and 40 milliohms (0.015 to 0.040 ohms).

STEP 3 Remove the battery covers, the controller, and other compo-
LITHIUM-ION BATTERY nents needed to access the battery modules as described
in the service procedures. ●■SEE FIGURE 10-27.
REPAIR STEP 4 Prior to completing the final disassembly of the
battery, all module voltages must be measured using a
PURPOSE Some original equipment manufacturers (OEMs)
digital multimeter to determine the module charge bal-
are replacing defective high-voltage battery components rather
ance of the battery. This data will be used to determine
than replacing the entire battery. This reduces the amount of
the adjustment voltage for the replacement module.
time the vehicle is in a non-drivable condition and it reduces
STEP 5 The new replacement battery module must be installed
the cost of the repair. Included in the list of replaceable compo-
in the module charge balancer, and the adjustment volt-
nents is the high-voltage battery module.
age must be entered into the charger. This will allow the
charge to be adjusted to match the rest of the battery.
PROCEDURE A typical example of a factory-authorized
STEP 6 The defective module can now be removed and the
procedure that addresses failed high-voltage battery modules
new module installed.
used by Nissan/Infinity on specific hybrid and electric vehicles
STEP 7 Reinstall all parts that have been removed during the
includes a battery cell replacement as determined by a diag-
disassembly process and make the battery ready for
nostic trouble code. A P3374 DTC indicates that a cell is more
reinstallation.
than 100 mV lower than other cells. The scan tool data indi-
cates that cell #27 was more than 100 mV lower than the rest of
the cells. ●■SEE FIGURE 10-26.
ALTERNATIVE OUT-OF-
Before the battery is removed, it is essential that all the VEHICLE HV BATTERY
required tools are available. The specified tools include the
required PPE, insulated tools, and the module balance adjuster
SERVICE
tool. The procedure includes the following steps:
PROCEDURE Start HV battery pack service by performing
STEP 1 Following the service procedures and observing all
the following steps:
high-voltage cautions, the battery should be removed
STEP 1 Remove the safety disconnect switch. When the
from the vehicle and made ready for repair.
safety disconnect switch is removed, the high
STEP 2 Using the service information, identify the location of
voltage is isolated within the battery pack itself.
the defective module within the pack.
●■SEE FIGURE 10-28.

134 CHAPTER 10
 STEP 2 Wait 15 minutes for the capacitors to discharge.
23 3.560 V
STEP 3 Wear class zero gloves.
24 3.576 V
STEP 4 Place HV battery pack on wood or a rubber mat,
25 3.519 V
and use insulated tools. After disassembling the HV
26 3.558 V battery pack, work will involve individual battery mod-
27 3.277 V ules. As long as there is contact with just one block of
28 3.547 V batteries at a time, there is no danger as the voltage level
is about the same as with a conventional 12-volt battery.
29 3.556 V
■■ Check the voltage of each module.
30 3.529 V
Do not use battery modules that are below 5.4 volts
FIGURE 10-26 The scan tool data indicates that cell #27 (10.8 V for a block), which is the lower limit on cell
was a lot lower than the rest of the cells, which indicates a voltage. Even if the modules can be recharged, they
problem and the reason for the diagnostic trouble code to
will have a short service life.
be set.
If batteries are below 7.5 volts, charge at a maximum
of 16 volts at 2- to 6-ampere rate.
Monitor battery temperature and do not allow the
battery to overheat and do not allow the temperature
to exceed 120°F (50°C).
■■ Allow the voltage to stabilize after being
charged and record the no load voltage to be
used for the internal resistance calculation. In
this example, assume a voltage of 15.21 volts.
■■ Use a high-wattage resistor to apply a load to
the batteries. A 1.5-ohm resistor rated at
25 watts is often used to provide a load.
■■ Apply the load resistor and measure the new
FIGURE 10-27 Whenever working on any potential high- voltage and current values.
voltage components, always follow the recommended
safety procedures including using insulated tools and rubber DETERMINE INTERNAL RESISTANCE To determine
gloves.
the internal resistance of a battery block (two modules), com-
pare the unloaded voltage to the voltage of the block under the
load that was applied by the resistor. This is called the delta (∆)
or the change in the voltage. This difference is then divided
by the measured current (amperes) that was measured dur-
ing the load test using the 1.5-ohm resistor. For example, if the
current is 9.6 amperes with voltage at 15.50 volts, the internal
resistance is. 0.29 ∆ volts ( 15.50 − 15.21) ÷ 9.6 amperes
= 0.0302 or 30 milliohms . A tested salvage battery can be
used to replace a defective battery module in a vehicle that has
battery block resistance of 25 to 35 milliohms. Always try to
match the internal resistance as close as possible.

MATCH STATE-OF-CHARGE Connecting batteries in

series requires the batteries to be close to the same voltage.
Series connected batteries receive the same charge/discharge
FIGURE 10-28 Removing the service plug on a Toyota current, and an undercharged battery will never catch up with
Highlander Hybrid. This service plug is located behind a the rest of the battery pack. A diagnostic trouble code (DTC), if
plastic panel on the left side of the rear passenger seat. there is a 0.30-volt difference in battery, blocks voltages.

H I G H -V O L T AG E BAT T ERIES 135

 current, and voltage to calculate SOC and determine at what
BATTERY DEGRADATION rate the battery should be charged. While dealerships some-
times have a special high-voltage battery charger for recharg-
AND BALANCING ing HEV battery packs, the best charger is the vehicle itself. If
the HV battery in an HEV becomes discharged, the first step
RATE OF DEGRADATION Most HV batteries will out- should be getting the vehicle started to recharge the battery
last the usable life of the vehicle. However, some factors that pack. The procedure will vary depending on the model in ques-
affect battery life and the rate of degradation include the tion. Always follow the manufacturer’s specified procedures
following: when starting a disabled hybrid vehicle.
■■ The average decline in energy storage is 2.3% per year.
■■ EV batteries decline in a non linear fashion, which means
that at the beginning of the battery life, there is an early Case Study
drop, but the rate of decline slows down in subsequent
years. The Case of the Broken Prius
■■ Liquid-cooled batteries decline slower than air-cooled The owner of a Prius complained that “the engine
packs. For example, a liquid-cooled EV has an average never shuts off” and fuel economy has dropped to
annual degradation rate of 2.3%, compared to an air- as low as 25 MPG instead of the normal 40+ MPG.
cooled EV rate of 4.2%. By “never shuts off,” the customer means that the
■■ Higher vehicle use does not necessarily equal higher bat- idle stop (auto start/stop function) is suspended. The
tery degradation. master warning light was also on, indicating a seri-
ous problem has been detected. The technician used
■■ Vehicles driven in hot temperatures show a faster decline
a scan tool and retrieved the following diagnostic
in battery health.
trouble codes (DTCs).
■■ The use of DC fast-chargers speeds up the process of
• P0A80—The difference in voltage between two of
degradation, but there is not much difference in battery
the blocks in the battery pack is too high.
health based on frequent use of Level 1 versus Level 2
• P3006—Uneven state-of-charge.
charging. Losses that happen with frequent DC charging
Scan tool data showed battery block voltages
are made worse in hot climate conditions.
reading ranging from 4.65 to 15.01 volts. Generally,
if a battery block is under 7.5 volts, it cannot be
PASSIVE AND ACTIVE CELL BALANCING Long bat- restored to useful service. Even if it can be charged,
tery life requires that the electronics in the vehicle perform the module will have a short service life. The shop
passive and active battery cell balancing. recommended, and the customer approved, a
■■ Passive balancing is achieved by having energy drawn replacement reconditioned battery pack supplied
from the most charged cell and dissipated as heat, usually by a nationally known company. The battery pack
through resistors. Passive balancing allows the stack to act was replaced and the vehicle was restored to normal
as if every cell has the same capacity as the weakest cell. operation and fuel economy.
Using a relatively low current, it drains a small amount of Summary:
energy from high SOC cells during the charging cycle so that • Complaint—The owner of a Prius complained of
all cells charge to their maximum state-of-charge (SOC). reduced fuel economy.
■■ Active balancing is achieved when energy is drawn • Cause—The difference in voltage between two of

from the most charged cell and transferred to the least the blocks in the battery pack is too high.

charged cells, usually through DC–DC converters. • Correction—The battery pack was replaced and
the vehicle was restored to normal operation and
fuel economy.
NORMAL OPERATION During normal vehicle operation,
the charge and discharge cycles of the high-voltage battery in
an HEV are monitored and controlled by the battery manage-
ment system (BMS). This module monitors battery temperature,

136 CHAPTER 10
PHOTO SEQUENCE HEV-HV BATTERY INSPECTION AND TESTING

2
After checking that the voltage level is safe, the rear

1
To depower the high-voltage system, the ignition was seat and HV battery cover were removed. Always fol-
off and the negative battery cable was disconnected low the safety procedures specified by the manufac-
from the 12-volt auxiliary battery, then the HV battery turer for the vehicle being serviced and adhere to all
safety plug was removed. safety warning and precautions.

3 4
The high-voltage wires were removed from the
The HV battery pack is being removed through the
battery pack while wearing HV gloves.
rear of the vehicle.

5 6
The HV battery pack is placed on a workbench that A visual inspection shows that many electrical
is covered with a thick rubber (insulating) mat. A connections between battery modules are corroded.
wood top bench can also be used.

H I G H -V O L T AGE BAT T ERIES 137

 STEP BY STEP

7 8
The HV battery vent tubes are removed from the
The HV battery pack temperature sensors are removed.
battery pack.

9 The end caps are removed from the battery pack.

10 The fasteners that hold the battery modules to the

base of the battery pack are removed.

12
The individual modules were measured using a

11
voltmeter and most modules were found to be about
The end module is being removed from the battery pack.
3.6 volts which is far below the minimum of 5.4 volts
that most experts think can be restored by charging.

138 CHAPTER 10
 SUMMARY
1. Most current production HEVs use nickel-metal hydride 6. To help consumers compare the energy consumption of
(NiMH) battery technology for the high-voltage battery. electric vehicles with those that run on fossil fuel, the EPA
2. The cylindrical type has the active materials made in long created a miles-per-gallon measurement, called MPGe.
ribbons and arranged in a spiral fashion inside a steel cyl- 7. System Main Relays (SMRs) are heavy-duty relays that
inder (case). control the high-voltage circuit between the battery and
3. The prismatic type is a rectangular or boxlike design with the other components of the high-voltage system.
the active materials formed into flat plates, much like a 8. The low-voltage (LV) wiring provides power for the battery
conventional lead–acid battery. control functions and allows communication between the
4. All current production HEVs use air cooling to control HV battery and vehicle (CAN protocol).
battery pack temperature. 9. Most HV batteries will outlast the usable life of the vehicle.
5. A lithium-ion cell is named because during battery cycling, 10. Long battery life requires that the electronics in the vehicle
lithium ions move back and forth between the positive and perform passive and active battery cell balancing.
negative electrodes.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Why do high-voltage batteries need to be heated if cold or 4. What are the steps involved to address failed high-voltage
cooled if hot? battery modules?
2. What advantages do lithium-ion batteries have comparted 5. What occurs if the state-of-charge exceeds 80%?
to NiMH batteries?
3. What is the primary function of the Electrical Distribution
System (EDS)?

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. A 12-volt system is used in both HEV and EV vehicles to 5. Lithium-ion cells can be ________.
________. a. cylindrical cell
a. provide a source for the high voltage through a b. prismatic—hard case
DC-to-DC converter c. prismatic—pouch type
b. power all accessories and other aspects of vehicle d. Any of the above
operation except propulsion 6. ________ is responsible for controlling the operation of
c. Both a and b the high-voltage battery based on the requests from the
d. Neither a nor b hybrid control module.
2. The nominal voltage of an NiMH battery cell is ________. a. Battery control module (BCM)
a. 1.2 volts b. System Main Relays (SMRs)
b. 3.2 volts c. Battery management system (BMS)
c. 3.6 volts d. Electrical Distribution System (EDS)
d. 4.8 volts 7. In most hybrid electric vehicle applications, a target SOC
3. A lithium-ion cell produces ________ per cell. of ________ is used, and the battery is then cycled so its
a. 1.2 volts SOC varies no more than ________ higher or lower than
b. 3.2 volts the target.
c. 3.6 volts a. 100%; 50%
d. 4.8 volts b. 80%; 20%
4. Vehicle manufacturers use several different cathode mate- c. 70%; 50%
rials including ________. d. 80%; 40%
a. nickel, manganese, and cobalt (NMC)
b. nickel, cobalt, and aluminum (NCA)
c. lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4)
d. Any of the above

H I G H -V O L T AG E BAT T ERIES 139

8. In a three SMR system design, one SMR controls the pos- c. battery management system (BMS)
itive circuit and two SMRs control the negative circuit. On d. Electrical Distribution System (EDS)
the negative side an SMR is in-series with a ________. 10. The primary function of the ________ is to provide the
a. capacitor electrical conduction path through the battery pack.
b. resistor a. battery control module (BCM)
c. diode b. System Main Relays (SMRs)
d. inductor (coil) c. battery management system (BMS)
9. During normal vehicle operation, the charge and discharge d. Electrical Distribution System (EDS)
cycles of the high-voltage battery in an HEV are monitored
and controlled by the ________.
a. battery control module (BCM)
b. System Main Relays (SMRs)

140 CHAPTER 10
Chapter 11
EV AND HEV MOTORS,
CONVERTERS, AND
INVERTERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should AC induction motor Interior permanent
be able to: (ACIM) 146 magnets (IPMs) 147
• Describe the operation of DC and AC electric Armature 145 Inverters 155
motors. Boost converters 155 Lenz’s law 144
Brushless motors 147 Resolver 150
• Explain how a brushless DC motor works.
Commutator 146 Right-hand rule 142
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
DC-to-DC converters 153 Rotor 145
using electric motors in hybrid electric vehicles.
Electromagnetic Snubbers 153
• Describe how a DC-to-DC converter works. induction 143 Squirrel-cage rotor 146
• Discuss how a DC-to-AC inverter works. Electromagnetism 142 Stator 145
• Prepare for the ASE L3 certification text area Flux lines 142 Surface permanent
“D” (Power Electronics). Insulated-gate bipolar magnets (SPMs) 147
transistors (IGBTs) 149

141
 CURRENT FLOW
ELECTROMAGNETISM 1

PRINCIPLES Scientists discovered around 1820 that cur-

rent-carrying conductors are also surrounded by a magnetic
2
field. The creation of a magnetic field by the use of an electrical MAGNETIC FIELD
current is called electromagnetism. These fields may be made FIGURE 11-2 The right-hand rule for magnetic field direction
many times stronger than those surrounding conventional mag- is used with the conventional theory of electron flow.
nets. Also, the magnetic field strength around a conductor may
be controlled by changing the current. These magnetic lines
of force are called flux lines. As current increases, more flux
FIELD INTERACTION The area of flux surrounding cur-
lines are created, and the magnetic field expands and becomes
rent-carrying conductors interacts with other magnetic fields.
stronger. As current decreases, the magnetic field contracts,
In the following illustrations, the cross symbol (+) indicates
or collapses. These discoveries greatly broadened the practi-
current moving inward, or away from you. It represents the tail
cal uses of magnetism and opened an area of study known as
of an arrow. The dot symbol (•) represents an arrowhead and
electromagnetics.
indicates current moving outward. If two conductors carry cur-
rent in opposite directions, their magnetic fields also rotate in
CREATING AN ELECTROMAGNET A magnet can be
opposite directions. If they are placed side-by-side, the oppos-
created by magnetizing a piece of iron or steel or by using
ing flux lines between the conductors create a strong magnetic
electricity to make an electromagnet. An easy way to create
field. Current-carrying conductors tend to move out of a strong
an electromagnet is to wrap a nail with 20 turns of insulated
field into a weak field, so the conductors move away from each
wire and connect the ends to the terminals of a 1.5-volt dry-cell
other. ● SEE FIGURE 11-3.
battery. When energized, the nail will become a magnet and will
If the two conductors carry current in the same direction,
be able to pick up tacks or other small steel objects.
their fields are in the same direction. The flux lines between the
two conductors cancel each other out, leaving a very weak field
STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR The magnetic field surrounding a
between them. The conductors are drawn into this weak field,
straight, current-carrying conductor consists of several cylinders of
and they tend to move toward each other.
flux lines that exist along the entire length of the wire. The strength of
the current determines how many flux lines there will be and how far
MOTOR PRINCIPLE Electric motors, such as automobile
out they extend from the surface of the wire. ● SEE FIGURE 11-1.
starter motors, use this field interaction to change electrical
energy into mechanical energy. If two conductors carrying cur-
RIGHT-HAND RULE Magnetic flux cylinders have direction,
rent in opposite directions are placed between strong north and
just as the flux lines surrounding a bar magnet have direction. Most
south poles, the magnetic field of the conductor interacts with
automotive circuits use the conventional theory of current flow (+
the magnetic fields of the poles. The clockwise field of the top
to −), and therefore the right-hand rule is used to determine the
conductor adds to the fields of the poles and creates a strong
direction of the magnetic flux lines. ● SEE FIGURE 11-2.
field beneath the conductor. The conductor tries to move up
to get out of this strong field. The counterclockwise field of the
2
lower conductor adds to the field of the poles and creates a
strong field above the conductor. The conductor tries to move

1
FIGURE 11-1 A magnetic field surrounds a current-carrying FIGURE 11-3 Conductors with opposing magnetic fields will
conductor. move apart into weaker fields.

142 ChAPTER 11
 N S

FIGURE 11-4 Electric motors use the interaction of magnetic

fields to produce mechanical energy.
N S

down to get out of this strong field. These forces cause the
center of the motor, where the conductors are mounted, to turn
clockwise. ● SEE FIGURE 11-4.
FIGURE 11-6 An iron core concentrates the magnetic lines
of force surrounding a coil.
COIL CONDUCTOR If several loops of wire are made
into a coil, the magnetic flux density is strengthened. Flux
lines around a coil are the same as the flux lines around a
bar magnet.
They exit from the north pole and enter at the south pole. ELECTROMAGNETIC
The magnetic field of a coil can be strengthened by increas-
ing the number of turns in the wire, by increasing the current
INDUCTION
through the coil, or both. ● SEE FIGURE 11-5.
PRINCIPLES INVOLVED Magnetic flux lines can cre-
ate an electromotive force, or voltage, in a conductor if either
ELECTROMAGNETS The magnetic field surrounding a
the flux lines or the conductor is moving. This movement is
current-carrying coil of wire can be strengthened by using a
called relative motion. In other words, there is relative motion
soft iron core. Because soft iron is very permeable, magnetic
between the flux lines and the conductor. This process is
flux lines pass through it easily. If a piece of soft iron is placed
called induction, and the resulting electromotive force is
inside a coiled conductor, the flux lines concentrate in the iron
called induced voltage. This creation of a voltage in a con-
core, rather than pass through the air, which is less permeable.
ductor by a moving magnetic field is called electromagnetic
The concentration of force greatly increases the strength of the
induction. If the conductor is in a complete circuit, current
magnetic field inside the coil. Coils with an iron core are called
flows. Voltage is induced when magnetic flux lines are broken
electromagnets. ● SEE FIGURE 11-6.
by a conductor. This relative motion can be a conductor mov-
ing across a magnetic field or a magnetic field moving across
a stationary conductor (as in alternators and ignition coils).
In both cases, the induced voltage is generated by relative
motion between the conductor and the magnetic flux lines.
The highest voltage is generated when the motion is at right
angles. ● SEE FIGURE 11-7.
N
S
VOLTAGE STRENGTH Induced voltage depends upon
magnetic flux lines being broken by a conductor. The strength
of the voltage depends upon the rate at which the flux lines are
FIGURE 11-5 The magnetic lines of flux surrounding a coil broken. The more flux lines broken per unit of time, the greater
look similar to those surrounding bar magnets. the induced voltage. If a single conductor breaks one million

E V AN D hE V MO T O RS, C O N V E RT E RS, AND IN VERT ERS 143

 MAGNETIC CONDUCTOR
FLUX LINES MOVEMENT
FLUX
LINES

VOLTAGE
INDUCED

CONDUCTOR

FIGURE 11-9 Maximum voltage is induced when conductors

cut across the magnetic lines of force (flux lines) at a
CONDUCTOR
90-degree angle.

FIGURE 11-7 Voltage can be induced by the relative motion

between a conductor and magnetic lines of force. Voltage can be electromagnetically induced and can
be measured. Induced voltage creates current. The direc-
flux lines per second, one volt is induced. There are four ways tion of induced voltage (and the direction in which current
to increase induced voltage: moves) is called polarity and depends upon the direction of
the flux lines, as well as the direction of relative motion. An
■ Increase the strength of the magnetic field, so there are
induced current moves so that its magnetic field opposes
more flux lines.
the motion that induced the current. This principle is called
■ Increase the number of conductors that are breaking the Lenz’s law. The relative motion between a conductor and a
flux lines. magnetic field is opposed by the magnetic field of the cur-
■ Increase the speed of the relative motion between the rent it has induced.
conductor and the flux lines so that more lines are broken
per time unit.
■ Increase the angle between the flux lines and the
conductor to a maximum of 90 degrees. There is no
voltage induced if the conductors move parallel to, and
ELECTRIC MOTORS
do not break any, flux lines. ● SEE FIGURE 11-8.
ELECTRIC MOTOR POWER Electric motor power is
Maximum voltage is induced if the conductors break expressed in kilowatts (kW). This is the preferred international
flux lines at 90 degrees and the voltage decreases when the standard for rating mechanical and electrical power. A 100%
flux lines are cut at angles between 0 and 90 degrees. ● SEE efficient motor would produce one kilowatt of mechanical
FIGURE 11-9. power with an input of one kilowatt of electrical power. A kilo-
watt is equal to 1,000 watts. A watt is the amount of power
that would lift an object weighing 3.6 ounces (102 grams) a dis-
CONDUCTOR tance of 39 inches (one meter) in one second. The watt scale
FLUX MOVEMENT of power measurement is named after the Scottish engineer,
LINES
James Watt. One horsepower (hp) is equal to 746 watts. The
hp rating was developed by Watt in the late 1700s when horses
were the main source of power. Watt wanted a way to express
the amount of power available from steam engines in terms
NO
VOLTAGE that could be easily understood. By doing some simple experi-
INDUCED ments, he determined that 550 foot-pounds per second was
CONDUCTOR
the power produced by an average horse. This means that the

FIGURE 11-8 No voltage is induced if the conductor is horse could lift a weight of 550 pounds one foot in one second.
● SEE CHART 11-1 for a conversion between horsepower and
moved in the same direction as the magnetic lines of force
(flux lines). kilowatts.

144 ChAPTER 11
 the conductor (armature) to move from the area of strong magnetic
HORSEPOWER (HP) KILOWATT (KW)
field strength toward the area of weak magnetic field strength.
25 19
This causes the armature to rotate. This rotation force
50 37
(torque) is increased as the current flowing through the starter
75 56
motor increases. The torque of a starter is determined by the
100 75
strength of the magnetic fields. Magnetic field strength is mea-
125 93
sured in ampere-turns. If the current or the number of turns
150 112
of wire is increased, the magnetic field strength is increased.
175 131
● SEE FIGURE 11-10.
200 149

CHART 11-1
horsepower to kilowatt conversion chart. N

CONDUCTOR

?
MOTION
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
S
Why Don’t the Horsepower Ratings Add Up?
When looking at the specifications for an all-wheel-drive
electric vehicle, a potential buyer noticed the rear motor
had a 250-horsepower rating and the front motor had a
N NT
RE CONDUCTOR
200-horsepower rating. however, the customer noticed FC
UR
NO MOTION
TIO
that the “combined” horsepower was just 380 horse- DIR
EC

power whereas both combined should be 450 hp.

The reason the horsepower does not add up is S
not due to the rating of the motors, but rather is due
to the total energy the high-voltage battery can sup-
ply. The battery management system is only capable
of supplying 380 horsepower worth of energy even
though the electric motors themselves are capable of
S N
producing more power individually.

ROTATION
ELECTRIC MOTOR OPERATION Most electric motors work
by electromagnetism and the fundamental principle that there is
a mechanical force on any wire when it is conducting electricity
while contained within a magnetic field. The force is described by
the Lorentz force law and is perpendicular to both the wire and the
magnetic field. In an electric motor, the rotating part (usually on
S N
the inside) is called the rotor, and the stationary part is called the
stator. The motor contains electromagnets that are wound on a
frame. One basic principle of electromagnetism is that a magnetic
ROTATION
field surrounds every conductor carrying a current. The strength of
the magnetic field is increased as the current flow (in amperes) is
increased. Inside the starter housing is a strong magnetic field cre-
ated by the field coil magnets. The armature, made up of many
conductors, is installed inside this strong magnetic field, with very
little clearance between the armature and the field coils.
FIGURE 11-10 The armature loops rotate due to the
The two magnetic fields act together, and their lines of force difference in the strength of the magnetic field. The loops
“bunch up” or are strong on one side of the armature loop wire move from a strong magnetic field strength toward a weaker
and become weak on the other side of the conductor. This causes magnetic field strength.

E V AN D hE V MO T O RS, C O N V E RT E RS, AND IN VERT ERS 145

 One of the first electromagnetic rotary motors was an AC asynchronous motor, or AC induction motor (ACIM),
invented by Michael Faraday in 1821. The classic DC motor because it allows a certain amount of slip between the rotor and
uses a rotating armature in the form of an electromagnet with the changing magnetic field in the stator. The term asynchronous
two poles. A rotary switch called a commutator reverses the means that the speed of the motor is not necessarily related to
direction of the electric current, twice every cycle, to flow the frequency of the current flowing through the stator windings.
through the armature so that the poles of the electromagnet ACIMs include squirrel-cage and wound-rotor induction designs.
push and pull against the permanent magnets on the outside ■ A squirrel-cage rotor is composed of parallel thick
of the motor. As the poles of the armature electromagnet pass copper or aluminum conductors connected to a ring of
the poles of the permanent magnets, the commutator reverses the same material at the ends. As the stator magnetic
the polarity of the armature electromagnet. During that instant field rotates, the field interacts with the magnetic field
of switching polarity, inertia keeps the motor going in the established by the magnetic poles of the rotor, causing
proper direction. A typical DC motor today uses four poles. the rotor to turn at nearly the speed of the rotating stator
DC motor speed generally depends on a combination of magnetic field. ● SEE FIGURE 11-11.
the voltage and current flowing in the motor coils and the motor
■ An alternate design is called the wound rotor. In this case,
load or braking torque. The following are the basic principles of
the rotor has the same number of poles as the stator, and
a typical DC motor:
the windings are made of wire. When the stator magnetic
■ The speed of the motor is proportional to the applied field rotates and the rotor windings are shorted, the stator
voltage. magnetic field motion induces a field into the wound rotor,
■ The torque is proportional to the applied current. causing the rotor to turn at nearly the speed of the rotating
stator magnetic field. ● SEE FIGURE 11-12.
■ The speed is typically controlled by altering the voltage
or current flow by using taps in the motor windings or by
using a variable voltage supply. AC SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR The AC synchronous
motor rotates exactly at the supply frequency or a submulti-
The speed can also be controlled by using an electronic
ple of the supply frequency. The speed is controlled by vary-
circuit that switches the supply voltage on and off very rapidly.
ing the frequency of the AC supply and the number of poles
As the “on” to “off” time is varied to alter the average applied
in the stator winding according to the following relation:
voltage, the speed of the motor varies. This type of DC motor
uses carbon brushes to make the connection with the commu- RPM = 120 F ÷ p
tator. The use of brushes in an electric motor has many disad- where
vantages. Some of them include the following: RPM = Synchronous speed
1. Any arcing of the brushes also causes electrical noise, which F = AC power frequency
can cause serious problems with the electronics in the vehicle.
p = Number of poles, usually an even number, but always a
2. The brushes eventually wear out and require replacement. multiple of the number of phases
This adds to the maintenance cost of the vehicle and
BARS
could result in customer dissatisfaction due to motor failure
and/or the cost involved in brush replacement.

BRUSHLESS MOTORS
TYPES There are two types of electric brushless motors:
1. AC induction motor
2. AC synchronous motor.

AC INDUCTION MOTOR An AC induction motor (ACIM) SHORTING

uses electromagnetic induction from the stator to induce a cur- RING
rent, and therefore creates a magnetic field in the rotor without FIGURE 11-11 A squirrel-cage-type rotor used in an AC
the need for brushes. An AC induction motor is also known as induction motor.

146 ChAPTER 11
 STATOR ROTOR
A
STATOR SLOT STATOR
AND WINDINGS ROTOR BAR

B
C

120˚ PERMANENT
MAGNETS

ROTOR
B
C

FIGURE 11- 13 The rotor for the integrated motor assist

A (IMA) used on the honda Civic is a surface permanent magnet
FIGURE 11- 12 Typical AC induction motor design. (SPM) design. The magnets are made from neodymium.

An electronic switching circuit produces commutating Induction motors at rest draw a very high current, known
currents in the stator windings based on the position of the as the locked rotor current. They also produce torque, which is
magnetic poles on the rotor. The rotor of the motor rotates known as the locked rotor torque (LRT). As the motor acceler-
at the same speed as the stator commutation. The speed of ates, both the torque and the current will tend to change with
the motor is controlled by the frequency of the AC current rotor speed if the voltage is maintained at a constant level. The
being used. starting current of a motor, with a fixed voltage, will drop very
slowly as the motor accelerates and will only begin to fall when
PERMANENT MAGNET MOTORS Brushless motors, the motor has reached at least 80% full speed. Typically, the
which use permanent magnet rotors, produce high starting
torque and are typically over 90% efficient. Brushless perma-
nent magnet motors use two designs of rotors:
NG MAGNETIC F
1. In one type, the permanent magnets are mounted on the TATI IEL
RO D
outside surface of the rotor. These are called surface B2
permanent magnets (SPMs). ● SEE FIGURE 11-13.
2. In the other type, the permanent magnets are housed
inside the outer shell of the rotor and are called C1 A1
interior permanent magnets (IPMs). The honda Accord,
Ford hybrids, and Toyota hybrids use an IPM-type rotor
assembly.
N

OPERATION In both types of motors, the stator coils are sta-

tionary and the permanent magnet assembly rotates. Alternating A2 C2
current (AC) is fed to the various phases in the stator in order to
get the permanent magnets in the rotor to “chase” the changing
magnetic field. ● SEE FIGURES 11-14 AND 11-15. B1
PERMANENT
The current is fed into one of the three stator phases and MAGNET
flows out of a second phase. This current flows through the
FIGURE 11- 14 The rotor in most electric motors used to
phases, acts as a position sensor, and helps the controller to propel hybrid electric vehicles uses a permanent magnet
determine when to energize which phase of the stator. This is design. The coils surrounding the rotor in the stator are pulsed
sometimes called a senseless DC motor design. on and off to control the speed and torque of the motor.

E V AN D h E V MO T O RS, C O N V E RT E RS, AND IN VERT ERS 147

I S
N
I S CONSTANT TORQUE
T (Nm) P (kW)
C1 C1 C1
I

S
N N

TN
S S
N TORQUE

N
S
N
POWER
N
S S
I

C2 C2 C2 TN RPM
I I
N N
S
CONSTANT POWER
A B C
FIGURE 11-16 Notice on the graph that at lower motor
FIGURE 11-15 The rotor is forced to rotate by changing the speeds the torque produced by the motor is constant and at
polarity and the frequency of the coils surrounding the rotor. higher motor speeds the power is constant. Power is equal
to torque times RPM; therefore, as the torque decreases the
speed increases, keeping the power constant.

efficiency of an induction motor is greater than 92% for high-

speed motors. ELECTRIC MOTOR CONTROL
Most electric vehicles use permanent magnet traction motors
except for Tesla. A PM motor has to be continuously driven, PRINCIPLES Most hybrid and electric vehicles use one or
whereas an induction motor can freewheel making it more efficient. more AC synchronous motors. They are controlled as follows:
1. To change the speed of the motor, the frequency of the applied
ELECTRIC MOTOR TORQUE A gasoline or diesel current is changed. The speed is synchronized to the frequency
engine produces very little torque and power at low speeds so when the frequency is changed, the speed changes.
and must use a transmission to multiply torque to get the
2. The pulse-width and voltage is adjusted to change the
vehicle moving. An electric motor, such as an AC induction
power output to match the demands of the vehicle for
motor, produces maximum torque at low speeds, making
electric assist or propulsion.
it the perfect power source to get a vehicle moving from a
stop. When the torque of an electric motor starts to drop off,
EXAMPLES An example of traction motor control is the motor-
the torque multiplied by the speed (RPM) results in power.
generator (MG) ECU used on Toyota hybrid electric vehicles, which
Therefore, a typical electric motor used on a hybrid vehicle
is typical of the controller used in most hybrid electric vehicles.
has the following characteristics:
Motor Mode:
■ Delivers constant torque at low speed, typically from 0 to
1500 RPM. ■ Low-Speed–Low-Load Condition: MG ECU applies low
■ Delivers constant power above 1500 RPM. current at low frequency for low output.
● SEE FIGURE 11-16. ■ Low-Speed–High-Load Condition: MG ECU applies
high current at low frequency to produce high motor
For example, the rear electric motor used in a Toyota
torque and power output at low speeds.
highlander has the following specifications:
■ High-Speed–Low-Load Condition: MG ECU applies low
■ Power output: 123 kW at 4500 RPM (167 hp) current at a high frequency when low motor torque and
■ Maximum torque: 247 lb ft at 0 to 1500 RPM power at a high speed is required.

148 ChAPTER 11
 ■ High-Speed–High-Load Condition: MG ECU applies
high current at a high frequency to produce high motor
power output.

Generator Mode:
■ Low-Speed Voltage Output: Voltage output is low at low
speeds. The diodes in the inverter rectify the AC voltage
into DC voltage.
■ High-Speed Voltage Output: Voltage output is higher at
high speeds because the magnetic fields created by the rotor
magnets move through the stator windings at high speed.

The MG ECU relies on feedback from the resolver to main-

tain the highest possible efficiency during the electrochemical FIGURE 11-17 The power cables for a motor-generator in a
conversion of energy. The MG ECU controls all functions of the Toyota hybrid transaxle.
motor, whether it is producing torque to drive the vehicle or is
being used as a generator to charge the batteries during regen- ■ The other three transistors are negative or low-side IGBTs
erative braking. ● SEE FIGURE 11-17. because they are on the negative (ground) side of the
stator’s coils.
MOTOR CONTROL IGBTs The arrangement of tran-
The base of each IGBT connects to an input terminal in the
sistors and diodes results in three-phase control of the
connector to the MG ECU. The IGBTs are current drivers that
electric motor for both moving the vehicle (assist) and
send current from the battery pack through the stator windings
recharging the battery pack. The current flow through the
to energize the stator coils and move the rotor to power the
MG ECU is controlled by six insulated-gate bipolar tran-
drive wheels. Most motor controllers include hall-effect current
sistors (IGBTs).
sensors. ● SEE FIGURE 11-18.
■ Three of these transistors control the voltage side of the Each IGBT has a diode connected in parallel between the
circuit and are called positive or high-side IGBTs. collector and the emitter. These six diodes work together to rectify

ROTOR POSITION
SENSING

MOTOR A
CONTROL B ROTOR
MODULE C

UL UH VL VH WL WH
DC ELECTRIC
HV DRIVE MOTOR
BATTERY
144 V

U
WYE
V STATOR
IGBTs (INSULATED-
GATE BIPOLAR W
TRANSISTORS)

POWER DRIVE
UNIT (PDU)

FIGURE 11-18 The drive control unit on a honda hybrid electric vehicle controls the current and
voltage through the stator windings of the motor.

E V AN D hE V MO T O RS, C O N V E RT E RS, AND IN VERT ERS 149

stator AC to pulsating DC to charge the high-voltage batteries when coils. Based on the fixed frequency signal and the signal
the DC electric drive motor becomes a generator during regener- strength of the detection coils, the controller or ECU is able
ative braking. At that time, the IGBTs are instantly shut off by the to determine rotor position, rotational direction, and speed.
motor control module to stop powering the DC electric drive motor. The position can be determined without turning the rotor. The
Because the hEV is still moving forward, the crankshaft is rotating, ECU compares the height of the waveforms generated by the
which rotates the permanent magnet rotor (armature) in the DC elec- detection coils and the frequency of signal change to make
tric drive motor. The rotation of the rotor causes the lines of flux from the determination. ● SEE FIGURES 11-20 AND 11-21.
the powerful permanent magnets to induce an AC current in the sta-
tor coils. The six diodes are forward biased and turn on to rectify the
AC current induced in the stator coils to pulsating DC to recharge the
battery pack. Rotor position information is sent to the MCM, which is
EXCITATION
programmed to turn on the correct IGBTs to keep the rotor turning.
COIL A
It is critical that the controller knows the exact position of the rotor.
The IGBTs process drives current to the electric drive
motor. The diodes form a rectifier bridge to change the AC gen- VIRTUAL WAVEFORM
erated in the electric drive motor to pulsating DC to charge the
battery pack. ● SEE FIGURE 11-19. DETECTION
COIL B
RESOLVER Most electric motors use an internal sensor to
detect rotor position, speed, and direction that is called a resolver or
VIRTUAL WAVEFORM
encoder. The resolver consists of an AC generator or excitation coil
and two AC pickup coils or detection coils. The resolver is triggered
by a rotating iron egg-shaped wheel that is attached to the rotor. DETECTION
COIL C
The controller or ECU responsible for motor operation
sends a fixed frequency signal to the excitation coil. This
signal generates a magnetic field around the excitation coil
which expands and contracts with the signal frequency. As FIGURE 11-20 Each coil in the speed sensor (resolver)
generates a unique waveform, allowing the motor controller
the rotor turns the signal strength varies at the two detection
to determine the position of the rotor in the motor. The top
waveform is coil A, the middle waveform is coil B, and the
bottom waveform is coil C. The controller uses the three
waveforms to determine the position of the rotor.

SPEED SENSOR
RESOLVER

COIL A
MAGNETIZED
SIDE

COIL B

OUTPUT
SIDE
COIL C
FIGURE 11-21 The underside of the Toyota Prius controller
FIGURE 11-19 A Toyota motor speed sensor called a showing the coolant passages used to cool the electronic
resolver. control unit.

150 ChAPTER 11
 PLATES A capacitor consists of two conductive plates with an
insulating material between them. The insulating material is
commonly called a dielectric. It may be air, mica, ceramic,
glass, paper, plastic, or any similar nonconductive material. The
higher the dielectric constant number of a material, the better it
is as an insulator. Capacitors are also called condensers. This
term developed because electric charges collect, or condense,
on the plates of a capacitor much like water vapor collects and
DIELECTRIC condenses on a cold bottle or glass. ● SEE FIGURE 11-23
AND CHART 11-2.
FIGURE 11-22 A capacitor is made using two plates
separated by an insulating material called a dielectric.
OPERATION When a capacitor is placed in a closed circuit,
the voltage source, such as a battery, forces electrons around
the circuit. Because electrons cannot flow through the dielec-
historically, resolvers or encoders were not service-
tric of the capacitor, excess electrons collect on what becomes
able because of the inability to properly install and calibrate
the negatively charged plate. At the same time the other plate
the replacement sensor. As a result, a failed resolver would
loses electrons, and therefore becomes positively charged.
require motor replacement. however, more recently resolvers
Current continues until the voltage charge across the capaci-
have become a serviceable component within the motor. The
tor plates becomes the same as the source voltage. At that time,
resolver in the motor of the Chevrolet Bolt is an example of a
the negative plate of the capacitor and the negative terminal of the
serviceable sensor. When servicing a resolver, it is important
battery are at the same negative potential. ● SEE FIGURE 11-24.
to remember that it is a low-voltage and low-current compo-
nent and that the connections need to be properly torqued for
proper operation. NEGATIVE PLATE —
EXCESS ELECTRONS
TEMPERATURE SENSORS Temperature sensors are
needed to help protect the motors from overheating. The con-
troller responsible for motor operation reads the thermistor BATTERY
ELECTRON CAPACITOR
resistance much like an engine coolant sensor operates and FLOW
they convert this reading to a temperature. An overheating
electric motor will result in fail-safe or limp-in operation.
POSITIVE PLATE —
COOLING THE ELECTRONICS The current flow and the DEFICIENCY OF ELECTRONS

electronic devices in hybrid electric control units generate a lot FIGURE 11-23 As the capacitor is charging, the battery
of heat. Many hybrid and electric vehicles use a dedicated liq- forces electrons through the circuit.
uid cooling system to control the temperature of the electron-
ics, including the motors. Others use a wet cooling method to
cool the motors that utilizes the transmission fluid to remove MATERIAL DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
the heat. ● SEE FIGURE 11-22. Vacuum 1.0
Air 1.00059
Polystyrene 2.5

CAPACITORS IN CONVERTERS Paper

Mica
3.5
5.4
Flint Glass 9.9
PRINCIPLES Capacitance is the ability of an object or sur-
Methyl Alcohol (Methanol) 35
face to store an electrical charge. In 1745, Ewald Christian von
Glycerin 56
Kleist and Pieter van Musschenbroek independently discov-
Pure Water 81
ered capacitance in an electric circuit. While engaged in sepa-
rate studies of electrostatics, they discovered that an electric CHART 11-2
charge could be stored for a period of time. The dielectric constant for selected materials.

E V AN D hE V MO T O RS, C O N V E RT E RS, AND INVERT ERS 151

 2
2
12 VOLTS
1
1
ELECTROSTATIC
FIELD BETWEEN
CAPACITOR PLATES

FIGURE 11-24 When the capacitor is charged, there is equal

voltage across the capacitor and the battery. An electrostatic
field exists between the capacitor plates. No current flows in
the circuit.

The positive plate of the capacitor and the positive ter-

minal of the battery are also at equal positive potentials.
There is then a voltage charge across the battery terminals
FIGURE 11-26 The dark cylinders are capacitors that are
and an equal voltage charge across the capacitor plates. part of the electronic control unit of this Toyota hybrid.
The circuit is in balance, and there is no current. An electro-
static field now exists between the capacitor plates because
of their opposite charges. It is this field that stores energy.
● SEE FIGURE 11-25.

PRECAUTIONS If the circuit is opened, the capacitor will

hold its charge until it is connected into an external circuit
through which it can discharge. When the charged capacitor
is connected to an external circuit, it discharges. After dis-
charging, both plates of the capacitor are neutral because
all the energy from a circuit stored in a capacitor is returned
when it is discharged. ● SEE FIGURES 11-26 AND 11-27.
Theoretically, a capacitor can hold its charge indefinitely.
Actually, the charge slowly leaks off the capacitor through the
dielectric. The better the dielectric, the longer the capacitor

FIGURE 11-27 Using a CAT III-rated digital meter and

wearing rubber lineman’s gloves, this technician is checking
for voltage at the inverter to verify that the capacitors have
discharged.

holds its charge. When the ignition of an hEV is turned off,

vehicle manufacturers warn that you must wait 5 to 10 minutes
for the capacitors to discharge before servicing the high-volt-
age system. While these capacitors often discharge in less than
five minutes, it is wise to wait the amount of time specified by
the vehicle manufacturer. ● SEE FIGURE 11-28.

WARNING

To avoid an electrical shock, any capacitor should

be treated as if it were charged until it is proven to
FIGURE 11-25 The three large capacitors absorb voltage
spikes that occur when the voltage level is changed in the be discharged.
DC-DC converters.

152 ChAPTER 11
 CAPACITOR

RESISTOR

FIGURE 11-28 A typical snubber circuit showing a capacitor

and a resistor in series and connected to ground.

FARAD RATING Capacitance is measured in farads,

which is named after Michael Faraday (1791–1867). The sym- FIGURE 11-29 The snubber circuit from a hybrid showing
bol for farads is F. If a charge of 1 coulomb is placed on the the six capacitors used to control voltage spikes in the
plates of a capacitor and the potential difference between switching circuits.
them is 1 volt, the capacitance is defined to be 1 farad. One
coulomb is equal to the charge of 6.25 × 1018 electrons. One the reference voltage, abbreviated V-ref, and is used to power many
farad is an extremely large quantity of capacitance. Microfarads sensors in a computer-controlled engine management system.
(0.000001 farad), abbreviated μF, are more commonly used. The PCM uses a DC–DC converter that is a small semi-
The capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the conductor device called a voltage regulator and is designed
quantity of charge that can be stored in it for each volt differ- to convert battery voltage to a constant 5 volts regardless of
ence in potential between its plates: changes in the charging voltage.
C = Q ÷ V hybrid and electric vehicles use DC–DC converters to provide
Where C is capacitance in farads, Q is the quantity of system operating voltage (approximately 14.4 volts) that would
stored electrical charge in coulombs, and V is the difference normally be provided by an alternator. ● SEE FIGURE 11-30.
in potential in volts. Therefore, stored electric charge can be This provides power for items such as lights, radios, and any other
calculated using the formula: components that operate on the 12-volt system. The power tran-
sistor within the control module pulses the high-voltage coil of
Q = CV
the center-tap transformer; the resulting changing magnetic field
SNUBBERS Snubbers are capacitors and resistors arranged induces a voltage in the coil windings of the lower-voltage side of
in a circuit to control the high-voltage surges that can occur when the transformer. The diodes and capacitors help control and limit
circuits containing coils are switched on and off. Snubbers are the voltage and frequency of the circuit. Most DC–DC converters
also called flyback, freewheeling, suppressor, or catch diodes. used on hybrid and electric vehicles are capable of maintaining 14
Because the switch is being protected, this results in volts and 100 amperes of current flow under maximum load. The
higher reliability, higher efficiency, higher switching frequency, DC–DC converter may be air cooled or liquid cooled and integrated
smaller size, lower weight, and lower electromagnetic interfer- into the same housing as the inverter or it may be in a separate
ence (EMI). ● SEE FIGURE 11-29. location depending on the vehicle design. ● SEE FIGURE 11-31.

CONVERTERS AND INVERTERS 12V (14.5V)

TO POWER INVERTER
HIGH VOLTAGE BUS

OUTPUT
CONVERTERS DC-to-DC converters (usually written DC– L3
D1
Q1 Q2

DC converter) are electronic devices used to transform DC volt- C1

L2 L1
age from one level of DC voltage to another higher or lower-level
Q3 Q4
voltage. They are used to distribute various levels of DC voltage
throughout a vehicle from a single power bus (or voltage source). D2

A more familiar example of a DC–DC converter circuit is the FIGURE 11-30 A DC to DC converter that changes the high
circuit the PCM uses to convert 14 to 5 volts. The 5 volts is called voltage from the high-voltage battery (right) to 12 volts on the left.

E V AN D hE V MO T O RS, C O N V E RT E RS, AND IN VERT ERS 153

 PRIMARY-SIDE FULL-BRIDGE CONVERTER

SECONDARY-SIDE
SYNCHRONOUS RECTIFIER
LOW
ISOLATION ISOLATION VOLTAGE
HIGH
DRIVER DRIVER BATTERY
VOLTAGE
BATTERY

ISOLATION ISOLATION
DRIVER DRIVER

POWER ISOLATED
SUPPLY CONTROL CIRCUIT FEEDBACK CIRCUIT

VD

VS

Ve

IL

Ie

FIGURE 11-31 A DC-to-DC converter. The schematic at the top shows the high voltage battery on the left and the low
voltage battery on the right. The circuits are able to change the pulsing DC into a pulse train and finally into an almost flat
direct current.

154 ChAPTER 11
INVERTERS Inverters are electronic devices that can turn DC affects how rapidly the vehicle slows and how much energy is
(direct current) to AC (alternating current). It is also responsible for generated to recharge the battery.
controlling speed and torque for electric motors. The inverter can
provide a pulsed signal to the motor to move the vehicle or it can PRE-CHARGE RELAY A pre-charge resistor is used to slowly
process the AC signal generated by the motors during a regen- charge the capacitors inside an electronic speed controller before it is
eration event. The inverter uses insulated-gate bipolar transistor powered up. Without this resistor, closing the contactor would gener-
(IGBTs) to control the motor. They are turned on alternately for short ate a large amount of inrush current causing the contacts to arc.
pulses. By changing the power and ground, as well as the polarity, Normal operation of a pre-charge circuit is to terminate
the inverter is able to use DC current to drive an AC motor. pre-charge mode when the circuit voltage is 90% or 95% of
As a result, the transformer produces a modified sine wave the operating voltage. After pre-charging, the pre-charge resis-
output, rather than a true sine wave. The waveform produced tor is switched out of the power supply circuit and returns to a
by an inverter is not the perfect sine wave of household AC normal mode.
current, but is rather more like a pulsing DC current that reacts
similar to sine wave AC in transformers and in induction motors. BOOST CONVERTERS Integrated into some inverters is a
● SEE FIGURE 11-32. boost converter. Boost converters are used to enhance high-
The inverter contains up to three smoothing capacitors. voltage systems that operate on a lower high-voltage battery. The
The purpose of these capacitors is to smooth the DC ripple. A boost converter boosts the nominal voltage output by the bat-
resistor is wired in parallel to the capacitors that allows for them tery to as much as 500 volts to meet increased electrical demand
to be discharged after the vehicle is shut off. based on the load. The boost converter consists of the boost inte-
IGBTs allow current to flow in two directions. As a result, grated power module (IPM) with a built-in insulated-gate bipolar
the ECU is able to pulse the IGBTs as the vehicle decelerates. transistor (IGBT), which performs the switching controls and a
This controls the strength of the magnetic field in the motors as reactor which stores the energy. By using these components, the
they are driven by the wheels. The strength of the magnetic field converter boosts the voltage. ● SEE FIGURE 11-33.

INVERTER

HV ECU

PRE-CHARGE HV MAIN RELAY CONTROL

RESISTER

HV MAIN RELAY HV BATTERY

HV
MAIN PRE-CHARGER RELAY
RELAY

SERVICE PLUG

FIGURE 11-32 A typical hV battery and hV main relay schematic showing the pre-charge resistor
and relay as well as the hV main relay.

E V AN D hE V MO T O RS, C O N V E RT E RS, AND IN VERT ERS 155

 DC HIGH SPEED CIRCUIT-BREAKER

K1 FUSE T1
BATTERIES
T11

Vb
M
L
Cu1
T12
Cun
T4
ULTRACAPACITORS
BUCK-BOOST MOTOR
DC/DC CONVERTER CONTROLLER

FIGURE 11-33 A boost converter is used to increase the voltage supplied to the drive motor to
improve power output.

ELECTRONIC SYSTEM ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

COOLING SYSTEM Why Isn’t the ICE Cooling System Used to Cool
HEV Motors and Electronic Components?
NEED FOR COOLING The high-voltage electrical sys- Most ICE cooling systems operate at over 200°F
tem on a hEV will have its own dedicated cooling system. (93°C). For maximum efficiency, it is important that
The purpose of this system is to absorb the heat generated the ICE operates as close to this temperature at all
by the operation of the high-voltage components and dissipate times. Electric motors and controllers, however, tend
it through a dedicated radiator. The coolant is circulated by a to operate more efficiently at lower temperatures. The
dedicated low-voltage electric pump. ICE cooling system runs too hot to allow these com-
ponents to operate at peak efficiency. Therefore, a
Example: On some vehicles, like the second-generation Chevrolet
separate low-temperature system is needed.
Volt, the high-voltage cooling system is divided into two systems.
One system is responsible for cooling the battery and the second
system is responsible for the balance of the high-voltage system.

The liquid cooling system for the motors and high-voltage

components consists of an expansion tank with a pressure cap,
a radiator with an electric cooling fan, a low-voltage electric water
pump, and hoses between the components. The components the
coolant is circulated through could include the following:
■ Electric motor-generators
■ DC–DC converter
■ Inverter
■ Battery
■ Control modules

A thermostat is not used in these systems. In some sys-

tems the electric pump runs any time the key is on. In other FIGURE 11-34 The reservoir and cap of the inverter/
systems the pump speed and time vary with the temperature of converter (orange cable) on a Toyota highlander hybrid
the coolant. ● SEE FIGURE 11-34. electric hybrid vehicle.

156 ChAPTER 11
NOTE: The system will run when charging the batteries on
EVs and PHEVs. This is to warm the batteries in cold weather DIAGNOSTIC TROUBLE
CODE (DTC) MEANING
or to cool the batteries/charging system during hot weather.
P0A00 Motor electronics coolant temperature
sensor circuit
DIAGNOSTIC STEPS The coolant in these systems is the
P0A01 Motor electronics coolant temperature
same as the internal combustion engine (ICE). Servicing the sensor circuit range/performance
electronic cooling system includes the following steps: P0A02 Motor electronics coolant temperature
STEP 1 The coolant should be tested, serviced, and replaced sensor circuit low
according to the specific manufacturer’s recommen- P0A03 Motor electronics coolant temperature
dations. In many cases, a vacuum lift system will be sensor circuit high
required to remove and replace the coolant in the P0A04 Motor electronics coolant temperature
sensor circuit intermittent
electronic cooling system.
P0A05 Motor electronics coolant pump
STEP 2 A scan tool with the capability of actuating the electric
control circuit /open
water pump will be needed to ensure all air pockets
P0A06 Motor electronics coolant pump
are removed from the cooling system during service. control circuit low
P0A07 Motor electronics coolant pump control
circuit high
MOTOR–CONVERTER– P0A08 DC–DC converter status circuit /open
P0A09 DC–DC converter status circuit low
INVERTER DIAGNOSTICS P0A10 DC–DC converter enable circuit /high
P0A11 DC–DC converter enable circuit /open
GLOBAL (GENERIC) DIAGNOSTIC TROUBLE CODES P0A12 DC–DC converter enable circuit low
Whenever diagnosing a motor or control fault, use a scan tool
P0A13 DC–DC converter enable circuit high
and check for any stored diagnostic trouble codes and follow
the vehicle manufacturer’s recommended pinpoint tests to CHART 11-3
determine the root cause. ● SEE CHART 11-3. Sample global (generic) motor/controller-related diagnostic
trouble codes (DTCs).
TESTING THE ELECTRIC MOTOR STATOR A stator
can be tested for shorts to ground and for shorts to copper
operational. If the voltage drops below a specific threshold, a
within the windings. A failed stator is likely to cause an imbal-
diagnostic trouble code (DTC) P3125 will be set indicating a
ance between the windings. This is the equivalent of having
malfunction. To test the DC–DC converter three CAT III multi-
uneven compression in the cylinders of an internal combus-
meters and two amp clamps will be needed.
tion engine. The MG ECU will typically set a DTC P3120 if
the energy balance becomes too great. The stator can be ■ Test the 12-volt (auxiliary) battery to ensure it is good. If
tested by measuring the current flow through each leg or by not, charge and retest.
measuring the resistance of each leg. The resistance through ■ Connect the first multimeter across the 12-volt battery to
each leg of the windings is too small to be measured with a measure the DC voltage.
conventional multimeter. The resistance should be checked ■ Connect the first amp clamp around the cable between
with a milliohm meter. The resistance of each leg should be
the DC–DC converter and the 12-volt battery. This will
approximately the same. Any significant variance indicates a
measure the amount of current the DC–DC converter is
failed stator.
providing.
The current flow through the stator can be measured on
■ Connect the second amp clamp around the battery
the bench using a stator tester or when the vehicle is operating
negative cable. This will measure how much current the
using a scope. Using either method, all three legs of the wind-
vehicle systems are drawing from the battery.
ings must be balanced.
With the vehicle in the ready mode the DC–DC converter
DC–DC CONVERTER TESTING If a vehicle is being should be able to maintain a system voltage of 14.0 volts and
driven with a DC–DC converter malfunction, the voltage to provide up to approximately 100 amperes of current flow as
the auxiliary battery will drop and the vehicle will no longer be needed to maintain the electrical load.

E V AN D h E V MO T O RS, C O N V E RT E RS, AN D IN VERT ERS 157

INVERTER TESTING In most cases, when the inverter
fails, the vehicle will not move. Begin inverter testing by
checking for trouble codes. Typically the presence of a
P0A08 or P0A09 trouble code is an indicator of a failed
inverter. The two most common causes of these codes are
an inverter that is overheating due to a failed coolant pump
or a customer has hooked up the battery cables backwards
trying to jump start a second vehicle. Before replacing a
failed inverter, check the electric motors. A failed stator
winding in a motor may cause the inverter to fail. Failure
to first replace the failed motor may result in failure of the
replacement inverter.

LOSS OF ISOLATION TESTING One of the tests that

can be performed using an isolation tester is to check for the
resistance between the inverter and the engine block (chassis
ground). ● SEE FIGURE 11-35.

FIGURE 11-35 Testing at the inverter for a loss of isolation.

The reading of 1.4 million ohms indicates that there is not
continuity between the inverter and chassis ground.

158 ChAPTER 11
PHOTO SEQUENCE—INVERTER/CONVERTER REPLACEMENT

1 2
The first step when dealing with the high-voltage system
Before gaining access to the inverter/converter assem-
on any hybrid electric vehicle is to remove the HV service
bly, the windshield wiper module and many other parts
plug while wearing high-voltage gloves for protection. The
were removed.
technician placed the orange plug in the cup holder in the
center console to make sure it is out of the way.

3 4
The coolant reservoir bottle for the hV After removing the protective cover plate, the
electronics was moved out of the way and terminals were checked to make sure that volt-
secured using a rubber stretch cable. age was not present.

5 6
The meter was set to read DC volts and the A plastic cover was included with the replace-
meter displayed zero volts meaning that the ment inverter/converter and was to be used
system had been successfully depowered to protect the upper part of the circuit board
and was safe to work on the system. during the removal process.

E V AN D hE V MO T O RS, C O N V E RT E RS, AND IN VERT ERS 159

 STEP BY STEP

7 8
The retaining fasteners being removed that
The technician was careful to keep the fas-
were used to attach the main relays to the
teners separated and yet together by using
base of the inverter/converter housing.
several magnetic trays.

10
The replacement inverter is shipped to the

9
To help retrieve fasteners so they did not get lost dealer with a steel plate that is to be used
or drop down into the electronic circuit board, as a template when applying heat-con-
this technician used a magnetic finger glove. ductive grease to the base of the unit.

11 12
The instructions specified that rows Then the grease is spread over the surface
of the conductive grease be applied using the supplied metal straight edge.
across the surface.
CONTINUED ➤

160 ChAPTER 11
PHOTO SEQUENCE-INVERTER/CONVERTER REPLACEMENT
CONTINUED ➤

13
After the grease has been spread out, the steel
template is removed which shows a perfectly

14
flat layer of grease applied to the specified All of the original grease is being care-
thickness to allow the heat from the inverter/ fully removed in preparation for the
converter to be transferred to the aluminum installation of the replacement inverter/
housing and then to the hV cooling system. converter.

15
The instructions are checked at each

16
step to make sure that all fasteners are The upper electronic board with its protec-
tightened in the correct order and in the tive cover is reinstalled and the fasteners
proper sequence. tightened to factory specifications.

17 18
The windshield wiper module and all
The outside cover is then installed.
other items removed are then reinstalled,
completing the replacement.

E V AN D hE V MO T O RS, C O N V E RT E RS, AND INVERT ERS 161

 SUMMARY
1. The creation of a magnetic field by the use of an electrical 7. To change the speed of the motor, the frequency of the
current is called electromagnetism. applied current is changed. The speed is synchronized
2. Electric motor power is expressed in kilowatts (kW). to the frequency so when the frequency is changed, the
speed changes.
3. DC motor speed generally depends on a combination of
the voltage and current flowing in the motor coils and the 8. The current flow through the MG ECU is controlled by six
motor load or braking torque. insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs).
4. There are two types of electric brushless motors. 9. DC-to-DC converters (usually written DC–DC converter)
are electronic devices used to transform DC voltage from
5. The AC synchronous motor rotates exactly at the supply
one level of DC voltage to another higher or lower level
frequency or a submultiple of the supply frequency.
voltage.
6. A PM motor has to be continuously driven, whereas an
10. The purpose of the inverter is to control the electric motors
induction motor can freewheel making it more efficient.
in the transmission.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. how is magnetism created using electricity? 3. What do insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) do?
2. What are two types of electric brushless motors? 4. how does a DC-to-DC converter work?
5. What is the purpose of the inverter?

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. The creation of a magnetic field by the use of an electrical 6. Most electric motors use an internal sensor to detect rotor
current is called ________. position, speed, and direction that is called a/an ________.
a. electromagnetism a. resolver
b. electricity b. encoder
c. permanent magnet c. position sensor
d. electrostatic field d. Either a or b
2. Electric motor power is expressed in ________. 7. Snubbers are also called ________ diodes.
a. horsepower a. flyback
b. kilowatts b. freewheeling
c. kilowatt-hours c. suppressor, or catch
d. amperes d. Any of the above
3. The two types of electric brushless motors include 8. What supplies the 12 volts needed to operate the acces-
________. sories in a hybrid electric or an electric vehicle?
a. Faraday and Tesla a. An alternator driven by an electric motor
b. Ohms and Faraday b. A DC–DC converter
c. AC induction and AC synchronous c. An inverter
d. pulse-width and voltage d. Either a or c depending on the vehicle
4. The speed of the motor is proportional to the ________ 9. With the vehicle in the ready mode, the ________ should
and the torque is proportional to the ________. be able to maintain a system voltage of 14.0 volts to the
a. voltage and current 12-volt auxiliary battery.
b. current and voltage a. inverter
c. resistance and amperage b. alternator
d. current and frequency c. DC-to-DC converter
5. An AC induction motor is also known as a/an ________. d. Any of the above
a. DC motor 10. A P0A04 DTC is what type of trouble code?
b. magnetic motor a. Global (generic)
c. AC asynchronous motor b. Vehicle manufacturer specific
d. AC synchronous motor c. Enhanced scan tool
d. Any of the above

162 ChAPTER 11
Chapter 12
EV AND PHEV
CHARGING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Always Be Charging Public Charging Stations
be able to: (ABC) 169 (PCS) 173
• Identify a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV). Battery electric vehicle Range 166
(BEV) 166 Range anxiety 167
• Explain how the high-voltage batteries are
DCFC (DC Fast Charge) Range per hour (RPH)
recharged in a PHEV and EV vehicle. 169 169
• Discuss range anxiety, battery capacity, and Destination charging 173 SAE Combo Charging
range correlation of an EV. Electric vehicle (EV) 166 System (CCS) 169
• Explain the safety precautions using Level 1, EV Range 164 State-of-charge (SOC)
Level 2, and Level 3 charging. Guobiao standard (GB or 164
GB/T) 170 Time-of-use (TOU) 172
kilowatt-hour (kWh) 164 Work place charging
kWh/100 mi 167 (WPC) 173
Miles per hour (MPH) 169 Zero-emission vehicles
Plug-in hybrid electric (ZEVs) 166
vehicle (PHEV) 164

163
 PLUG-IN HYBRID
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
TERMINOLOGY A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)
is a vehicle that is designed to be plugged into an electrical out-
let at home, at work, or when traveling to charge the batteries.
By charging the batteries in the vehicle, it can operate using
electric power alone (stealth mode) for a longer time, thereby
reducing the use of the internal combustion engine (ICE). The
less the ICE is operating, the less fuel is consumed, which low-
ers the emissions of the vehicle. Some PHEVs offer the driver
an option to use the ICE first and switch to EV mode (elec-
tric only) later in the trip. This option is commonly used where
the driver is first traveling on the highway and uses the ICE to
propel the vehicle, saving the energy in the battery to be used
when arriving in the city.

IDENTIFYING A PHEV Many PHEV are built using a con-

ventional or a hybrid-electric vehicle (HEV) configuration with
just added battery capacity. As a result, some PHEVs may be
difficult to pick out, such as the plug-in version of the Toyota
Prius. Features that identify a plug-in version of a HEV include
the following:
■■ Different badges (usually stating that it is a PHEV,
sometimes including PHEV on the badge).
■■ An access door for the charging cable in addition to the
normal ICE fueling door.
■■ A different instrument panel cluster. FIGURE 12-1 (a) About the only way to tell a plug-in Prius
from a regular Prius is from the badge on the sides or (b) by
●■■SEE FIGURE 12-1.
the charge port door on the passenger side at the rear.
The operation of the plug-in version is the same as the
HEV version of the same vehicle, so from a service or main-
tenance point of view, it does not really matter whether it is a
■■ A higher kWh rating battery means that the battery is
PHEV or a HEV. capable of propelling the vehicle for a greater distance
before the ICE is used. This reduces the fuel used, but
PHEV BATTERY CAPACITY The size or capacity of the the larger battery weighs and costs more.
battery pack used determines how far that the vehicle can ■■ The high-voltage battery is continuously checked for
travel without using the ICE, commonly called the EV range. state-of-charge. The state-of-charge (SOC) is the
Battery capacity is measured in kilowatt-hour (kWh). percentage of the available capacity that can be stored in
A kilowatt is 1,000 watts and a watt is a volt times an a battery. A battery that has a state-of-charge of 100% is
ampere, which is a measurement of electrical power. The fully charged.
higher the kWh rating of the battery, the more electrical
Therefore, a plug-in vehicle is a compromise between cost
energy it can store.
and weight of the battery.
■■ A lower kilowatt-hour (kWh) rated battery weighs less and
is less expensive, but the range that the vehicle can travel PHEV EXAMPLES A standard Toyota Prius has a 1.3 kWh
on battery power alone is limited. battery pack, whereas the plug-in version has a larger 4.4 kWh
battery, allowing electric-only travel of about 10 miles before

164 CHAPTER 12
the ICE is used. When the battery pack state-of-charge has
been depleted, the vehicle operates as a standard HEV with the
ICE and electric motor both used to propel the vehicle.
A Chevrolet Volt has a larger 16 kWh battery pack and,
as a result, can travel about 40 miles on electric power alone,
without using the ICE until the battery has been discharged to
about 25% to 35%. At this stage, the ICE is operated to keep
the battery pack at a level high enough to keep propelling the
vehicle. ●■■SEE FIGURE 12-2.
●■■SEE CHART 12-1 A comparison of many of the current
PHEVs.

FIGURE 12-3 Charging stations that are equipped with SAE

standard J1772 chargers are often found at large companies,
colleges, universities, and shopping malls in many parts of the
country.

CHARGING A PHEV After the battery pack has been dis-

charged propelling the vehicle, the ICE is used to keep the
battery charged enough to propel the vehicle, but it does not
fully recharge the battery pack. To fully charge the high-volt-
age battery pack in a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, it should
be plugged into either a 110/120-volt or a 220/240-volt outlet.
●■SEE FIGURE 12-3.
FIGURE 12-2 Chevrolet Volt extended range electric vehicle
(EREV), also called a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV),
being charged at a row of charging stations at the Corvette
assembly plant in Blowing Green, KY. TECH TIP

VEHICLE MAKE AND MODEL BATTERY CAPACITY Turn on Heat or A/C While Still Connected
BMW i8 11 kWh If charging a plug-in hybrid or an electric vehicle,
Chevrolet Volt 16 kWh use a smartphone app to access the vehicle to turn
Ford C-Max Energi 7.6 kWh on the air conditioning (A/C) or heat 15 minutes
Ford Fusion Energi 7.6 kWh before leaving from work. For example, an owner of
Honda Accord PHEV 6.7 kWh a Nissan Leaf, who works in Phoenix, AZ, uses the
Porsche Cayenne PHEV 9.4 kWh phone app to start the A/C while it is still connected
Porsche Panamera S PHEV 9.4 kWh to the charging station at work. The interior is nice
Toyota Prius PHEV 4.4 kWh and cool when the owner is ready to leave work, even
Toyota RAV4 8.1kWh though the vehicle has been sitting in the hot sun on
Volvo XC60/XC90 11.6kWh a 100-degree day. Because the operation of the A/C
VW Golf PHEV 8.8 kWh is occurring while still plugged into the charging sta-
tion, the range of the Leaf is not affected, and the ride
CHART 12-1
home is done in comfort. The same can be done to
The higher the capacity of the HV battery, the further the
heat the interior in cold weather, too.
vehicle can travel using electric power only; it takes longer to
be fully charged when plugged into a charger.

E V AN D PH E V C HA RGIN G 165
 must be added to the vehicle to allow for maximum battery per-
ELECTRIC VEHICLES formance. This results in a reduction of vehicle range due to the
use of battery power needed just to keep the batteries working
EV BATTERY CAPACITY An electric vehicle (EV), also properly. Besides battery concerns, the batteries also have to sup-
called a battery electric vehicle (BEV), uses a high-voltage ply the power needed to keep the interior cool, as well as all of
battery pack to supply electrical energy to an electric motor(s) to the other accessories. These combined electrical loads represent
propel the vehicle under all driving conditions. Electric vehicles additional battery drain and reduce the range of the vehicle.
that use battery power alone to propel the vehicle are called
zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs). The capacity of the battery RANGE How far an electric vehicle can travel on a full bat-
pack, in kilowatt-hours, determines the range of the vehicle. It tery charge is called range. The range of an electric vehicle
has to be plugged in to recharge the battery before it can be depends on many factors, including:
driven further. The time it takes to charge an electric vehicle can ■■ Battery energy storage capacity
be as little as 30 minutes or more than 12 hours, depending on
■■ Vehicle weight
the size of the battery and the speed of the charging station.
■■ Outside temperature
COLD-WEATHER CONCERNS Past models of electric ■■ Terrain (driving in hilly or mountainous areas requires
vehicles, such as the General Motors electric vehicle (EV1), were more energy from the battery)
restricted to locations, such as Arizona and southern California ■■ Use of heating or air-conditioning systems and other
that had a warm climate. Cold weather is a major disadvantage to electrical devices
the use of electric vehicles for the following reasons:
■■ Driving style or habits
■■ Cold temperatures reduce battery efficiency.
EVs have a shorter driving range than most conventional
■■ Additional electrical power from the batteries is needed to vehicles although EV driving ranges are improving. Many early
heat the batteries themselves to be able to achieve rea- EVs could travel less than 100 miles on a charge, but now typical
sonable performance. range for an electric vehicle is in excess of 200 miles, depending
■■ Passenger compartment heating is a concern for an electric on the make and model. A typical electric vehicle will consume
vehicle because it requires the use of resistance units or about 30 kW per 100 miles (62 km). ●■■SEE FIGURE 12-4.
other technology that reduces the range of the vehicle.

HOT-WEATHER CONCERNS Batteries do not function well

at high temperatures, and therefore, some type of battery cooling

TECH TIP

Batteries Like the Same Temperature Range as

Humans
Batteries work best when they are kept within a tem-
perature range that is also the most comfortable for
humans. Most people are comfortable when the tem-
perature is between 68°F and 78°F (20°C and 26°C).
• Below 68°F (20°C), most people want heat.
• Above 78°F (26°C), most people want cooling.
Batteries perform best when they are exposed
to the same temperature range. Therefore, a proper
heating and cooling system must be used to keep the FIGURE 12-4 The “gas gauge” on an electric vehicle is the
batteries within this fairly narrow temperature range miles remaining and the state-of-charge. According to those
who have owned an electric vehicle, range anxiety lasts only
for best performance.
about 10 days after they see that their travel distance can be
easily achieved after being charged.

166 CHAPTER 12
 TECH TIP
LEVEL 1 CHARGING
Use Phone App to Turn on Seat and Steering
Wheel Heaters
20-AMPERE CIRCUIT Level 1 charging uses 110/120-volt
standard electric outlet (20-ampere circuit). The maximum power with
If not plugged into a charging station on a cold
a Level 1 charging is 1.9 kW. This low rate of charging means that it is
day, most experts recommend that just the steer-
best to charge the vehicle overnight, so it is ready to go the next morn-
ing wheel and seat warmers be turned on to help
ing. The advantage is that there is little, if any, installation cost because
conserve electrical power. Heating the seats
many houses are equipped with 110/120-volt outlets and can supply
and steering wheel will give the driver a sense
up to 16 amperes protected by a 20-ampere circuit breaker.
of warmth without draining the HV batteries in
●■■SEE FIGURE 12-5.
an effort to heat the air in the entire passenger
compartment.

COST OF CHARGING The national average for electricity

is about $0.11 per kilowatt-hour. Charging an all-electric vehicle
with a 250-mile range (assuming a fully depleted 96 kWh bat-
tery) will cost about $10.56 to reach a full charge. This cost is
about the same as operating an average central air conditioner
for about 6 hours. General Motors estimates the annual energy
use of the Chevy Volt is about 2,520 kilowatt-hours, which is
less energy than is required to power a typical water heater or
central air conditioning.

KILOWATTS PER 100 MILES The EPA also expresses

an EV’s energy consumption in terms of the number of
kilowatts per hour needed to run the vehicle for 100 miles
shortened to kWh/100 mi. For example, a Tesla Model 3 uses
about 28 kW per 100 miles.

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

What Is Range Anxiety?

Range anxiety is a feeling that many drivers expe-
rience when driving an electric vehicle because
they fear running out of electric battery energy
before they reach their destination. This condition
is very common, but according to studies, this
feeling lasts about two weeks after first getting an
electric vehicle. Within those first two weeks, the
driver develops experience regarding how far the FIGURE 12-5 (a) A Chevrolet Volt being charged using the
vehicle can travel on a full charge and knows that supplied 120-volt charger. (b) Always lay out the entire length of
their regular trip can be completed without any the charging cord before plugging the vehicle into the outlet. If
issues. the cord is not kept straight, the current flow can not only create
a coil, but the flow of current can overheat the wires and, in
some cases, can actually cause the insulation to melt.

E V AN D PHE V C HA RGIN G 167

 Level 1 charging results in 2 to 5 miles of range for each
Case Study
hour of charging. Before plugging an EV into any outlet, be sure
that the circuit does not supply other appliances, such as refrig-
The Case of the Older House
erators or lights. For the connector, nearly all EVs come with
The owner of a Chevrolet Bolt was visiting a relative
a portable Level 1 cord set, which has a standard three-prong
who lives in an older home. When visiting, the owner
household plug on one end for the outlet and a standard J1772
thought that they might as well charge their car even
connector for the vehicle. For Level 1 charging when plugged
though it was at Level 1 (110/120-volt outlet). At least
into regular 120-VAC outlet, a lot of vehicles will limit the rate 12 A
this could add some range added during the visit.
which is 1.4 kW, while the peak allowed by the standard (and
Unfortunately, the house was so old that the electri-
typical household wiring) is 16 A (1.9 kW). ●■■SEE FIGURE 12-6.
cal outlets did not have a separate ground wire and
NEUTRAL HOT instead used just a neutral and power (hot) wire. The
(WHITE WIRE) (BLACK WIRE) car knew that the connection did not have a proper
ground and the connection was not completed. In
this case, the car was smarter than the house.
Summary:
• Complaint—A Chevrolet Bolt would not charge
GROUND
(GREEN OR when connected to a 110-volt outlet.
COPPER WIRE) • Cause—The outlet did not have a ground terminal.
• Correction—The vehicle did not allow charging
because of the missing ground terminal. This is
normal operation and a safety feature of electric
vehicles and no correction was needed.

FIGURE 12-6 The electrical outlet must be wired correctly to PRECAUTIONS USING A LEVEL 1 CHARGING When
the house wiring to avoid the possibility of an electrical shock using the 110/120-volt plug of the charging cord that comes
and for proper charging of the vehicle. with the vehicle, the following safety precautions should be
adhered to preventing personal injury or property damage:
TECH TIP ■■ Uncoil the cord before connecting the plug to an
electrical outlet. If the cord is kept on the charger reel,
Tip on Using Some Generators
heat can build up during charging that can cause the
If trying to use a gasoline-powered generator to charge
insulation to melt. Always unroll the entire length of the
an electric vehicle, the neutral and ground have to be
charge cord before charging.
tied together or the charger errors out. For example, an
■■ Plug the charging cord directly into a dedicated 110/120-
owner of a Honda EU 2000i generator got a plug with
volt, 20-ampere outlet. Do not use an extension cord.
the two lead (neutral and ground) tied together that it can
be plugged into the other socket if needed to charge the
vehicle. The electric vehicle needs to see 120 volts on the
hot lead and 0 volt on neutral when referenced to ground. LEVEL 2 CHARGING
Some generators will show 60 volts and 60 volts, and
then the vehicle may display a ground fault error. HIGHER VOLTAGE EQUALS FASTER CHARGING
NOTE—The neutral and ground must be electrically isolated. Level 2 chargers uses 208/240 volts to charge the same
This is also true for any remote panel and all receptacles. The vehicle in about 4 hours. Level 2 chargers can be added to
only place they can be connected together is in the main most houses, making recharging faster (up to 80 amperes)
panel where the service ground (ground rod) is located. Some when at home, and are the most commonly used charging
early generators combined them, which led to a whole host of stations available at stores and colleges. A 208/240-volt
problems, especially with household electronic equipment. Level 2 charger rated at 30 amperes will deliver 7.2 kW (240
× 30/1000). In one hour, that will send 7.2 kWh of electricity

168 CHAPTER 12
to a plug-in vehicle, so it will be fine to service vehicles
with on-board chargers rated at 7.2 kW or less. Adding a ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

Level 2 charging outlet to the garage or parking location can

What Is That Sound?
cost from $500 to $2,000 or more, depending on the loca-
tion and the wiring of the house or condo. Level 2 charging Many electric vehicle owners say that they hear their

adds about 25 miles of range per hour (RPH), labeled as vehicle making humming sounds while parked in the

miles per hour (MPH) on the dash display of a Nissan Leaf. garage like the climate control fans running. Checking

For Level 2 (220/240VAC) charging, vehicles have between the smartphone app indicated that the climate control

a 3 kW and 10 kW on-board chargers, which is usually the was off. While this can cause some concerns to first

limiting factors as to how many kWh of charging is actually time owner of electric vehicle, the noise is usually

achieved. ●■■SEE FIGURE 12-7. caused by one of the following:

• The fan, which keeps the battery cool, will run
especially if charging or having just finished driving.
• A Chevrolet Volt, for example, often makes gur-
gling noises due to the A/C running to help cool
the battery down in the garage on a hot sunny day.
Because these systems are working when the
vehicle is stopped and not operating, many experts
recommend that the vehicle is plugged in all the time
when it is at home. This is what is often referred to as
Always Be Charging (ABC).

LEVEL 3 CHARGING
DC FAST CHARGING Level 3 charging stations use
440/480 volts AC input and outputs DC to charge most
electric vehicles to 80% charge in less than 30 minutes. This
high-charge rate may be harmful to battery life. Always follow
the charging instructions and recommendations as stated in the
FIGURE 12-7 Nissan Leaf plugged into a Level 2 charging owner’s manual of the vehicle being charged. Level 3 chargers
station at a college. charge the vehicle using direct current (DC) at a rate up to 125
amperes. Level 3 chargers are often called a DCFC (DC Fast
Charge) or DC Quick Charge (DCQC). ●■■SEE FIGURE 12-8.
A Level 3 charger station can cost $50,000 or more, mak-
ON-BOARD CHARGERS The Level 1 and 2 AC charg-
ing this type of charger most suitable where facilities will be
ing is done by the on-board charger. The charging station
selling the service of rapidly charging the vehicle. For example,
tells the vehicle the voltage and the maximum current avail-
DCFC can provide 60 to 80 miles of range in as little as 20 min-
able, and the vehicle will limit itself to no more than that cur-
utes of charging time. ●■■SEE FIGURE 12-9.
rent. Following that handshake (communications between the
charging station and the vehicle), the charging station just LEVEL 3 ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS There are four
switches on the power. different DCFC connectors currently being used by electric
vehicle manufacturers all over the world.

NOTE: For Level 3, the vehicle tells the charger how ■■ CHAdeMO—Nissan and other Japanese companies
much voltage it can handle, and the external charger such as Mitsubishi. ●■■SEE FIGURE 12-10.
will limit the voltage and then the vehicle will take as ■■ SAE Combo Charging System (CCS)—(BMW,
much current as it can, up to the max the charger can Ford, GM, VW, and other vehicle makers). ●■■SEE
provide. FIGURE 12-11.

E V AN D PH E V C HA RGIN G 169
 AC VERSUS DC CHARGING

ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) DIRECT CURRENT (DC)

ON-BOARD DC RAPID
CHARGER CHARGING
STATION
BMS
LI-ION
BATTERY

WHILE EVERY EV NEEDS AN ONBOARD CHARGER, HIGH VOLTAGE DC CHARGERS CAN TAKE A LOT OF
SIZE CONSTRAINTS REDUCE CHARGE. POWER AND FEED IT DIRECTLY TO THE BATTERY.

FIGURE 12-8 The difference between Levels 1, 2, and 3 charging is that by using AC (Levels 1 and 2) the onboard charger has
to convert the alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) in order to charge the high-voltage battery; using direct current (Level
3) this conversion is not needed so that the DC can be used directly to charge the battery.

DC CHARGING POWER PER % SOC

50
45 BOLT EV (125 A)
40
35
POWER (kW)

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
STATE-OF-CHARGE

FIGURE 12-9 A chart showing a typical charging rate which is decreased once the state-of-charge reaches about 70%.

■■ Tesla Supercharger—Tesla standard connector. The Tesla ■■ Guobiao standard (GB or GB/T)—The Chinese national
“superchargers” are Level 3 chargers and are free to use standard. BYD and other Chinese companies use this
by some Tesla owners. Tesla electric vehicles use their own standard connector, as well as Mahindra and Tata electric
unique plug and supply adaptors if the vehicle is going to be vehicles. ●■■SEE FIGURE 12-13.
connected to a standard SAE J1772 charging station plug ●■■SEE CHART 12-2.
or a 110/120-volt electrical outlet. ●■■SEE FIGURE 12-12.

170 CHAPTER 12
 FIGURE 12-10 A close-up view of CHAdeMO
Level 3 charging plug.

AC-LINE 1 AC-LINE 2

CONTROL
PILOT

PROXIMITY
DETECTION

GROUND

DC-
DC+ FIGURE 12-11 The SAE Combo Charging System (CCS) is a
DCFC connector standard used by BMW, Ford, GM, VW, and
other vehicle makers.

FIGURE 12-12 Tesla vehicles use a unique changing

connector that is only used by Tesla.

E V AN D PH E V CH A RGIN G 171
 FIGURE 12-13 Connectors used for AC
(left) and DC fast charging (right) using the
GB/T standard.

TECH TIP
SUMMARY CHARGING CHART
Miles per Hour
Speak the Language of Electricity
(MPH)
Most people understand units like inches and feet,
Level Time to Fully Range per Hour
(voltage) Rate Charge (RPH) meters and kilometers, cups and gallons, milliliters
and liters, kilobytes and megabytes and gigabytes,
Level 1 16 16 hours for 32 5 miles per hour
(110/120 amperes kWh battery but never learned the basic units of electricity. Many
volts) (1.4 to 1.7 home appliances, such as hair dryers and micro-
40 hours for 80
kW) kWh battery wave ovens, have the wattage printed right on the
Level 2 32-48 3.5 hours for 32 12 miles per hour front. There are some people who think electricity
(208/210/220 amperes kWh battery with 3.7 kW is just too complicated. So, when it comes to EVs,
volts) (7 to 13 8 hours for 80 on-board charger. manufacturers and charging station operators try
kW) kWh battery 25 miles per hour to help by stating the miles of range you can get
with 6.6 kW per minute or hour of charging instead of the actual
on-board charger power rating of a charging station. Also, vehicle
Level 3 24 kW to Depends, but Up to 200 miles per manufacturers tend to mention just the range that
440/480 volts 250 kW generally 80% hour
the vehicle can achieve instead of the kWh capac-
DC) charge in 30
ity of the battery. The first battery electric vehicles
minutes
were equipped with chargers rated at 3.3 kW. They
CHART 12-2 could only accept a maximum of 3.3 kW of electric-
The charge time and range per mile depend upon the voltage ity each hour they were connected to a 240-volt,
and current available during charging. or Level 2, power supply. A watt is the basic unit of
electricity, and a kilowatt is 1,000 watts. A charging
station that could send only 1 kilowatt of electricity
to the battery pack in an hour would be a 1 kilowatt-
OWNING AND hour (kWh) device. The basic charging capacity of a
CHARGING AN EV Tesla, for instance, is 10 kWh, and buyers can order
a second on-board charger that doubles the charg-
TIME-OF-USE For almost all EV owners, choosing a ing speed to 20 kWh. To compute how much electri-
time-of-use (TOU) electric rate plan is needed to achieve the cal current will be delivered to a plugged-in vehicle
largest savings for charging. A TOU plan offers lower electric through any properly installed EVSE, multiply the
rates during off-peak periods (usually 11 PM until 5 AM), with amperes by the volts and divide by 1,000. Typically,
higher rates for using electricity during high-demand times. most EVs on a Level 2 charging station can achieve
Because most EVs are parked at home overnight, TOU rates about 25 miles per charging hour.
are a wise choice for most EV owners.

172 CHAPTER 12
PUBLIC CHARGING STATIONS (PCS) Public Charging Other charging locations include the following:
Stations (PCS) are available at many locations and most com- ■■ Large factories
mercial Level 2 charging stations come with added features,
■■ Small businesses
which include the following:
■■ Museums
■■ Authentication
■■ Colleges and universities
■■ Integrated payment gateways
■■ Shopping centers
■■ Software for remote monitoring
The usual charging station at these locations is a Level 2
The electric power consumed needs to be billed and (220/240 volt).
payment needs to be collected. The power utilities may also
want to manage power drawn by these chargers over time. TECH TIP

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

Charge to 80% Unless Traveling
Batteries do not have a long service life if the
What Is Plug & Charge? state-of-charge (SOC) is above 80% or below
“Plug & Charge” uses the ISO 15118 international stan- 20%. To help protect the high-voltage battery and
dard, which specifies the secured communication pro- extend its life, use the menu in the vehicle dis-
tocol that an EV and the charging stations should use. play main screen to charge to 80% and input the
Plug & charge improves the public charging experience charging stations at work or a free charger used
for electric vehicle owners. Until now, networked public frequently. Usually at 80% SOC, the charging rate
EV charging stations required the use of: drops and then holds steady until 95% where it
tapers again. Even when charged to 80%, the dis-
• an RFID card,
play may say fully charged and needs to be manu-
• a smartphone app, and ally changed to indicate charge capacity closer
• a credit card. to 100%. The only difference will be the number
Some owners of EV find using a public charging of miles to zero. The two ways that batteries can
station a frustrating experience. This is because the degrade are as follows:
station often fails to communicate properly and the 1. Over discharging starts eating copper once no
session either takes a couple of attempts to initiate. more lithium is left to move and this action will de-
Using the plug & charge will simplify public charging stroy the battery.
and is available for use by many EV makes and mod- 2. Heat created by a high-charge level can cause
els, except Tesla that have their own network. acid to eat the battery more rapidly.
3. Once the charging station has been inputted,
the vehicle will start to precondition the battery
in preparation to being charged. Try to charge to
NOTE: Some commercial charging stations will stop
100% only for trips and charge to 80% for daily
charging at 80%, whereas others may stop after 30, 45,
runs to help protect the battery life.
or 1 hour while others have no limits. Use the website
for the charging system being used to check for loca-
tions and the charging limits.
LOCATING A CHARGING STATION Most electric vehicles
WORK PLACE AND DESTINATION CHARGING Work will display where to charge if a trip is entered into the navigation
place charging (WPC) is very popular because the vehicle system. Plus, there are numerous smartphone apps that can be
owner can charge their vehicle while at work and usually for used to locate charging stations. Some of them are as follows:
free. Hotels and motels often provide charging stations known ■■ Charge Point
as destination charging. Hotels are adding chargers to their
■■ Charge Way
properties to help attract EV drivers traveling on long trips.
■■ Electrify America

E V AN D PHE V C HA RGIN G 173

 ■■ Drive the Arc
■■ EV Match
■■ Plug Share
■■ Pod Point

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

Why Doesn’t My EV Charge at the Rated Output

of the Charging Station?
The Bolt owner’s manual states to use at least 80 kW
to get a full charge in 30 minutes. However, trying to
locate a DCFC unit that does in fact supply 80 kW may
be a challenge. For example, one Chevrolet Bolt owner
was able to locate a DCFC rated at 50 kW, but when
using it, the charger was only supplying 35 kW. Other
EV owners report the same situation where the rated
charger output is not what is actually being supplied
to the vehicle. The reasons for this apparent reduced
charger include that the vehicle battery may be limit-
ing the amount of current that is be used to charge
the battery. This could be the result of the state-of-
charge, the battery temperature, or other parameters.
As a result of the many factors involved, it is difficult
FIGURE 12-14 Commercial charging stations are often
to know what the charging rate will be. Best to use the
located in shopping areas and while most charge a fee, either
smartphone app for the vehicle which will provide the by the minute of the kWh, some, such as some businesses
information on the charging statues. and schools, are free to use.

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

COST TO CHARGE Some businesses provide chargers at
Can a Solar Panel on the Roof Charge My EV?
no cost to their customers as a way to add value to the service
they provide and to help alleviate range anxiety, while others While this sounds like a neat idea, it is not practical. If
charge a fee. This can either be on a pay-as-you-go basis using a vehicle’s surface was covered with solar panels, they
a credit card, or via an account with a charging network like might be able to produce 50-watt hours of electricity. A
ChargePoint or Blink. Blink charges between $0.04 and $0.06 standard 110/120-volt electrical outlet that takes 8 hours
per minute or from $0.39 to $0.79 per kWh, in states where to charge a Chevrolet Volt by supplying about 1,400
permitted. ●■■SEE FIGURE 12-14. watts per hour. A full solar charge would roughly take
350 hours. To answer the question . . ., probably not.

174 CHAPTER 12
 PHOTO SEQUENCE

1 A Mustang Mach E electric SUV is showing 66 miles

(27%) of charge remaining. 2 Using a smartphone app, Plug Share in this case, the
driver located a Level 3 charging station.

3 After using a credit card to gain access, the driver removed

the SAE CCS charge plug from the charging station.
4 The charge post on the Mustang Mach E is located on
the left front fender.

5 6
During charging, the Mach E lights a series of lights around The charging station also shows the state-of-change
the charge receptible to let the driver know the level of on the display. Most experts recommend only charg-
charge. When all lights are on, the vehicle has been fully ing to 80% unless traveling when the extra range is
charged. required to help protect the HV battery.

E V AN D PHE V C HA RGIN G 175

 SUMMARY
1. A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a vehicle that is 7. Work place charging (WPC) is very popular because the
designed to be plugged into an electrical outlet at home, vehicle owner can charge their vehicle while at work and
at work, or when traveling to charge the batteries. usually for free. Hotels and motels often provide charging
2. How far an electric vehicle can travel on a full battery stations known as destination charging.
charge is called range. 8. The standards established by the National Electrical
3. The national average for electricity is about $0.11 per Manufacturers Association (NEMA) define a product, pro-
kilowatt-hour. Charging an all-electric vehicle with a cess, or procedure with terminology, construction, dimen-
250-mile range (assuming a fully depleted 96 kWh battery) sions, and performance ratings.
will cost about $10.56 to reach a full charge. 9. According to the National Highway Safety Administration
4. Level 1 charging uses 110/120-volt standard electric out- (NHTSA), the average American travels about 13,500
let (20-ampere circuit). The maximum power with a Level vehicle miles per year. At that level of driving, most EVs
1 charging is 1.9 kW. will require around 4,000 kWh of electricity per year to
operate.
5. A 208/240-volt Level 2 charger rated at 30 amperes will
deliver 7.2 kW. 10. Wireless power transfer (WPT) uses electromagnetic
induction between the transmitting pad on the ground
6. Level 3 charging stations use 440/480 volts AC input
and a receiving pad attached for the underside of the
and outputs DC to charge most electric vehicles to 80%
vehicle.
charge in less than 30 minutes.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between a hybrid electric vehicle 4. What are the typical charging rates for Level 3 (DCFC)
(HEV) and a plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV)? chargers?
2. What precautions are needed when charging a vehi- 5. What are some of the smartphone apps that can be used
cle using a Level 1 charging cable that comes with the to locate charging stations?
vehicle?
3. What are the types of electrical outlets that can be used to
power a Level 2 charger at home?

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. What identifies a plug-in version of a hybrid electric 4. Level 3 charging __________.
vehicle? a. charges the high-voltage battery using DC
a. Different badges b. uses 110/120-volt outlet
b. An access door for the charging cable in addition to c. uses the SAE J1772 connector
the normal ICE fueling door d. Both a and c
c. Different instrument panel cluster 5. A typical electric vehicle will consume about __________
d. Any of the above per 100 miles (62 km).
2. What is true about Level 1 charging? a. 10 kWh
a. Uses 110/120 volts b. 20 kWh
b. Can supply 2–5 miles per hour of range per hour of c. 30 kWh
charging d. 50 kWh
c. Can supply 1.4 to 1.9 kW 6. Level 3 chargers use what type of connector?
d. All of the above a. SAE J1772
3. Level 2 charging __________. b. SAE Combo Charging System (CCS)
a. uses J1772 connector c. NEMA 14-50
b. uses 110/120-volt outlet d. NEMA 6-50
c. can supply 1.4 to 1.9 kW
d. does not need EVSE

176 CHAPTER 12
7. Destination charging means __________. 9. Public Charging Stations (PCS) often charge __________.
a. charging at home a. by the hour of usage
b. charging at the workplace b. by the kWh
c. charging at a hotel/motel c. by the level of voltage required
d. Any of the above d. Either a or b
8. Using a J1772 plug can charge __________. 10. Charging at 7.2 kW rate is achieved using __________.
a. Most PHEV and EVs a. Level 1 charger
b. Can use 110/120 volts b. Level 2 charger
c. Can used 220/240 volts c. Level 3 charger
d. All of the above d. None of the above

E V AN D PHE V C HA RGIN G 177

Chapter 13
ELECTRIC VEHICLE
CHARGING EQUIPMENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Electric vehicle supply Nationally Recognized
be able to: equipment (EVSE) 179 Testing Laboratory
National Electric Code (NRTL) 180
• Discuss National Electric Code (NEC), National
(NEC) 180 Wireless power transfer
Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA),
National Electrical (WPT) 184
and Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory
Manufacturers
(NRTL) rules and regulations. Association (NEMA) 179
• Discuss the use of solar to charge an electric
vehicle.
• Discuss electric vehicle supply equipment.

178
 ELECTRIC VEHICLE SUPPLY TECH TIP

EQUIPMENT Think of a Gas Pump and Hose

Think of the EVSE and its charging cord as a hose and
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION Electric vehicle supply the charger on the vehicle as the opening in the neck
equipment (EVSE) supplies electricity to charge an electric of a bottle. While a wider bottle neck can take in more
vehicle (EV). The primary function of a plug-in vehicle charg- water, it is limited by the volume of water being delivered
ing station is to provide electrical safety for the operator and through the hose. The hose is limited by the pressure of
to address the risks of fire and electric shock. While the vehi- the water. in plug-in vehicle charging, the “pressure” that
cle has a charger built-in that is used to convert AC from the pushes the electrical current through the EVSE “hose”
electrical outlet to DC to charge the high-voltage battery, the is measured in volts. While the charger on the vehicle is
vehicle manufacturers require that an EVSE be used between rated by the speed at which it can push electricity from
the electrical outlet and the vehicle. ● SEE FIGURE 13-1. the home connector through to the battery pack, the
The purpose and function of the EVSE includes the EVSE itself is rated for the maximum flow of current it can
following: deliver. That volume is measured in amperage, or amps.

■ To reduce the risk of electrical shock because there is

no voltage potential at the terminals of the electrical
connector until it has been plugged into the vehicle.
and performance ratings. The NEMA 14 devices are four-wire
■ The vehicle communicates with the EVSE and once all of grounding devices (2 hot terminals, a neutral and a ground)
the connections have been verified to be correctly made, from 15 to 60 amperes with a voltage rating of 250 volts. Both
the charging process can start. the NEMA 14-30 and 14-50 are in common residential use and
An EVSE is a wall-mounted box or a part of the Level 2 charging either may also be used for home charging of electric vehicles.
cable that supplies electric energy to the vehicle onboard char- ■ NEMA 14-30 is used for electric clothes dryers.
ger. it has safety components and software that works with the ■ NEMA 14-50 is used for electric cooking ranges.
vehicle software to control charging. An EVSE supplies AC cur-
■ NEMA 6-50 is a three-wire connector with two hot terminals
rent to the vehicle’s onboard charger, which in turn converts the
and a ground (no neutral). This type of outlet is often found
AC power to DC, allowing the battery to be charged.
in RV parks and campgrounds. it requires a dedicated 50 A
circuit and is commonly used for welders or plasma cutters.
NEMA The standards established by the National Electrical
Manufacturers Association (NEMA) define a product, pro- The EVSE equipment can be plugged into any of these
cess, or procedure with terminology, construction, dimensions, outlets. ● SEE FIGURE 13-2.

FIGURE 13-1 A typical SAE J1772 electric vehicle charging plug attached to an electric vehicle. Notice that the door lid shows
that the plug can be used with 110 volts (Level 1) or 240 volts (Level 2).

E L E C T Ri C V E h iC L E C hAR g i N g E q uiP M EN T 179

 at these labs perform extensive safety testing that the prod-
ucts must pass before they can be safety certified and made
available to the public for sale. Only products with these marks
appearing on the manufactured product rating plate are safety
certified. The uL Recognized Component Mark means that the
NEMA 6-50 NEMA 14-30 NEMA 14-50 product has been tested as a component. The uL Listed is the
FIGURE 13-2 The three most commonly used outlets that more stringent of the two and is recommended for any device
are suitable for use with an electric vehicle charging station. installed in a garage or vehicle port to charge an electric vehicle.
Most experts recommend the use of the 14-50 because it has uL listing number such as the uL listing number in compliance
a separate ground and neutral terminals.
with uL2202: “Standard for Electric Vehicle Charging System
Equipment” should be on the EVSE. ● SEE FIGURE 13-3.
WARNING

NEC The National Electric Code (NEC) is derived from the

Electric vehicle charging station manufactures do not
National Fire Protection Agency. The NEC codes are the standards
recommend the use a NEMA 10-30 plug. This type
to which buildings and equipment must meet minimum regulatory
plug is commonly used for a clothes dryer or cooking
safety requirements in order to be safe enough for the general public
range and is typically wired with a neutral wire instead
to install and use. The NEC requires any charging station to be NRTL
of an earth ground. All electric vehicle charger manu-
certified in order to be installed anywhere in the united States. in
facturers recommend the plug be connected to earth
most places, installing an EVSE requires a building permit. One rea-
ground. When charging an electric vehicle, the ground
son for a permit is to provide the opportunity for a building inspector
is passed through to the vehicle from the station for
to verify that the charging station is NRTL listed and that the electri-
safety. If a neutral is used instead of a ground, the
cal installation meets all other applicable aspects of the NEC, and
neutral could generate a charge on the vehicle chas-
therefore the equipment is safe to use.
sis, creating a potential safety hazard upon contact
with the vehicle during or after charging. Do not use
PERMITS All EVSE installations must comply with local,
any EVSEs with a NEMA 10-30 adapter. Instead, it is
state, and national codes and regulations, and the work should
recommended to have an electrician re-purpose the
be done by a licensed electrical contractor. in addition to the
NEMA 10-30 receptacle into a NEMA 14-30 receptacle.
National Fire Code, local building, fire, environmental, and elec-
trical inspecting and permitting authorities may also require
permits. in many areas, installers must submit a site installation
HARD WIRED Many home and company Level 2 220/240-volt plan to the permitting authority for approval before installation.
charging stations are hard wired to the circuit breaker control The contractor should know the relevant codes and standards
panel in order to handle up to 60 amperes. hard wiring the char- and should check with the local planning department before
ger to the house wiring allows the charger to be able to supply installing EVSE. There is a variety of equipment for Level 2
the maximum possible charging current and saves the minor cost EVSE available, ranging from simple models with standard
of an outlet. A possible disadvantage of connecting the charger safety features and status lights to more advanced products
directly to the wiring is that it would require a replacement charg-
ing unit to also be hard wired or installing a plug if the unit is to be
replaced anytime in the future. it is a NEC requirement that any
plugged device be able to be disconnected or if not, a switchable CM

disconnect must be provided within sight of the component.

C US
R

LOCATION Most house charging systems are installed in

the garage, but can also be mounted in a car port or outside if
a weather proof unit and receptacle are used. Intertek
Intertek’s ETL Mark UL’s Mark

NRTL AND UL Most charging station manufacturers send FIGURE 13-3 All electric vehicle charging equipment should
samples to a Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory be certified by Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory
(NRTL), such as intertek (ETL mark) or underwriter’s Laboratory (NRTL), such as intertek (ETL mark) or underwriter’s
(uL mark) for testing of their device for safety. Safety engineers Laboratory (uL mark) for testing of their device for safety.

180 ChAPTER 13
 HOME LEVEL 2 CHARGING
?
The professional install-
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
ing a 30-amp charging station system will wire the circuit from
the home power service to handle 40 amps and will install the
What Does a “Fishy Smell” Mean While
proper circuit breaker.
Charging?
A fishy smell indicates an overheated electrical compo- ■ A 40-amp EVSE will need a 50-amp breaker.
nent, such as a circuit breaker, outlet, or wiring. Electrical ■ A 48-amp EVSE will require a 60-amp breaker.
hazards that can cause overheating include the following:
SEE CHART 13-1.
• incorrectly sized breakers/fuses
• Overloaded circuits POWER ESTI-
• Loose wires OUTPUT MATED
CIRCUIT MAX AT 240 RANGE
• Frayed cords
BREAKER OUTPUT VOLTS PER PLUG- HARD-
• Wire insulation breakdowns (AMPS) (AMPS) (KW) HOUR IN WIRED
• Older homes with electrical systems that are not 60 48 11.5 36 miles No Yes
up to code (58 km)
50 40 9.6 30 miles Yes Yes
if a fishy smell is noticed, unplug the charging station
(48 (km)
and/or shut off the circuit breaker as soon as possible
40 32 7.8 25 miles Yes Yes
and call an electrician to test and repair the circuits.
(40 km)
30 24 5.7 18 miles No Yes
that have features with enhanced displays, charging timers, (29 km)
smartphone connections, and keypads. 20 16 3.8 12 miles No Yes
(19 km)
EVSE LOCATION According to the instructions for a typi- CHART 13-1
cal charging station, the NEMA outlet should be located 20 to Circuit breaker rating and maximum output and estimated
26 inches (50 to 70 cm) from the ground and within 12 inches range per hour. Because the charger is a continuous load
(30 cm) of a stud where the charging station will be mounted. device, the circuit must be rated at 125% of the maximum
The EVSE wall unit also should be positioned to minimize the load. The recommendation to be either a plug-in or hard-wired
is based on a typical installation guide from a major charger
hazard of tripping over the power cord. This means keeping the cord
suppler. Always follow the instructions for the charger being
out of walking areas and positioning the wall unit as close as possible installed, as well as local electrical code requirements.
to the electrical inlet. Another option is to install an overhead support
that keeps the cord off the floor. ● SEE FIGURE 13-4.

LESS PREFERRED EVSE LOCATION

PREFERRED EVSE

x
LOCATIONS
x
UTILITY PANEL

FIGURE 13-4 if the charger is mounted inside a garage, it should be located so that the charging cord will not create a trip
hazard. Most house chargers are installed in the garage, but can also be mounted in a car port or outside, if a weather proof
charger and plug are used.

E L E C T Ri C V E h iC L E C hAR g iNg E qu i P M EN T 181

 ■ Some houses with very small or heavily used electric CAUTION: When using the 220/240-volt plug of the
service capacity might need to have the service upgraded charging cord, uncoil the wiring before connecting the
to handle an EVSE. plug to the vehicle. The normal cable ratings assume
■ Some home chargers are equipped with Wi-Fi access so that the wire can adequately disperse heat generated
that the charger can be controlled using a smartphone. in the cable due to the current flowing. If the cable is
wrapped into a coil, it stands a good chance of melting
the plastic insulation and causing a short and a fire.
WATTAGE Electric vehicles can be charged at power draws
comparable to various household appliances. Most electric vehi-
SAE J1772 STANDARD CHARGER PLUG Most electric vehi-
cles charging at home on a 220/240-volt Level 2 charger will draw
cles and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles use a standard charger plug.
about 7,200 watts or less. For comparison, a typical electric fur-
The standard charger plug meets the specification as designated by
nace draws about 10,000 watts and a water heater uses 4,500
SAE standard J1772 (updated in 2009). ● SEE FIGURE 13-5.
watts. The price of Level 2 residential EVSE varies, but ranges from
Because electric vehicles have a relatively short range,
$500 to $2,000 before installation and state or utility incentives.
charging stations must be made available in areas where these
vehicles are driven. For example, when the state of California
mandated the sale of zero-emission vehicles, charging stations
Case Study were set up in many areas, usually in parking lots of businesses
and schools. The parking spaces near the charging stations are
The Case of the No-Charge Chevrolet Volt
designated for electric vehicles only and can be used for free to
The owner of a Chevrolet Volt stated that sometimes recharge electric vehicles. Vehicles sold in North America have
the car would charge using a J1772 charging station, the SAE J1772 plugs and support Level 1 (110/120VAC) and
but most of the time it would not charge. The service Level 2 (220/240VAC). ● SEE FIGURE 13-6.
technician was able to verify that the vehicle would
not charge from a charging station. in an attempt to
determine if it was the charging station or the vehicle,
the service technician tried charging another Volt using AC LINE 2

the same charging station. The other Volt was suc-

cessfully charged indicating that the issue was due
AC LINE 1
to the vehicle and not due to a fault with the charging
station. Following gM’s procedure to conduct a visual
inspection, the problem was found to be a small crack
that allowed moisture into the charge connection. The
moisture in the receptacle affected the resistance of
the monitored circuit and shut down the charge pro- SAFETY
(PROXIMITY
cess. Replacing the receptacle solved the issue. DETECTION)
Summary:
• Complaint—A Chevrolet Volt had intermittent CONTROL
GROUND
PILOT
issues charging from the charging station.
• Cause—A small crack that allowed moisture into FIGURE 13-5 The terminals of a J1772 plug are not “hot”
the charge receptacle. until the connection has been made to the vehicle and
communications between the vehicle and the charger has
• Correction—Replacing the receptacle solved the
been established. Then, and only then, is voltage applied
issue.
to the terminals of the plug. Therefore, there is no danger
of electrical shock to the person using the charger plug.

182 ChAPTER 13
 CONNECTED TO
A DEDICATED ON BOARD
240-VOLT CHARGER
CIRCUIT
BATTERY

FIGURE 13-6 An electric vehicle charging station supplies alternating current, either 110/120 volts or 220/240 volts to the
vehicle. The vehicle has an on-board charger that converts the AC to DC to charge the hV battery.

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION TECH TIP

What Is the Cost per Mile an Electric Vehicle Charging Cable Tip
Versus a Gasoline Powered Vehicle? The charger cables that come with the vehicle are
if electricity costs $0.11 per kWh and the vehicle being stolen when the vehicle is charging. Some
consumes 34 kWh to travel 100 miles, the cost per vehicles will sound an alarm if the vehicle is locked
mile is about $0.04. if electricity costs $0.11 per kWh, and the charge plug is disconnected. For example,
charging an EV with a 210-mile range (assuming a fully on a Chevrolet Bolt, if it is plugged into charge and
depleted 72 kWh battery) will cost about $7.92 to reach the remote lock button is pushed twice until it honks,
a full charge. This cost is about the same as operating it sets the alarm if the charger is removed without
an average central air conditioner for about 6 hours. disarming the alarm by unlocking with the key fob.
in comparison, a gasoline powered vehicle that however, if the remote is depressed to lock it once,
achieves 25 miles per gallon (at $2.50 per gallon) it will not set the charge cord removal alarm. There
would cost the owner (who drives 200 miles to use are several things that may help to avoid theft if the
8 gallons of gasoline) about $20 or $0.10 per mile. vehicle is being charged away from home and in a
in other words, the cost per mile driving an electric public area:
vehicle is about half the cost of driving a gasoline vehi- • Place the unit inside the vehicle and close the win-
cle. in addition to the cost of the “fuel” (electricity for the dow to keep the unit safe inside.
EV and gasoline for the gasoline-powered vehicle), there
• Drill a hole in the charge release arm and install a
is the added cost of oil changes and air filter expenses
lock. ● SEE FIGURE 13-7.
that an electric vehicle does not need or require.
On some electric vehicles such as Audi, the cable
Your electric bill will vary, depending on the type of
will not detach from the car if the car is locked.
vehicle, the size of the battery, how often you charge the
battery, the efficiency of the charger, and the distance
you drive. Driving 12,000 miles per year, 280 watt-hours
per mile, 11.5¢ per kWh, and only drive on electric, your
monthly electric bill will increase $32.24, much less than
the average monthly cost for gasoline-powered cars.

E L E C T Ri C V E h i C L E C h ARg i Ng E q ui P M EN T 183
FIGURE 13-7 One way to prevent theft of the charging cord that comes with most electric vehicles is to drill a hole in the release
handle and place a lock to prevent the handle from being released.

WIRELESS CHARGING STANDARDS SAE interna-

WIRELESS CHARGING tional has established a world-wide standard for wireless
charging under SAE J2954 which includes three levels of
HOW IT WORKS Wireless power transfer (WPT) uses charging:
electromagnetic induction (magnetic resonance) between a ■ WPT 1—3.7 kW
transmitting pad on the ground and a receiving pad attached
■ WPT 2—7 kW
to the underside of the vehicle. Wireless charging allows the
vehicle to be simply driven over the transmission pad and after
■ WPT 3—11 kW
a communication “handshake,” electrical energy is transmitted WPT will make it easier to charge an electric vehicle and also make
from the transmission pad to the receiving pad and converted an autonomous vehicle able to be charged by itself without the
from AC to DC to charge the high-voltage battery. need to be plugged into a charging station. ● SEE FIGURE 13-8.

ENERGY AC/DC
BATTERY
MANAGEMENT RECTIFIER

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD ENERGY

TRANSFER

ELECTRIC GRID
AC/DC DC/AC
(PFC) CONVERTER

FIGURE 13-8 Wireless power transfer (WPT) uses electromagnetic induction between the transmitting pad on the ground and
a receiving pad attached to the underside of the vehicle. For safety, an AC/DC power supply needs to incorporate isolation and
power factor correction (PFC).

184 ChAPTER 13
TWO MEASUREMENTS
?
There are two different ways to
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
determine the electricity that an EV requires.
1. The charge required per miles driven, typically expressed How Many Solar Panels Are Needed to Charge
in kilowatt-hours per 100 miles driven (kWh/100 mi). an Electric Vehicle?

2. The electricity required to fully charge the vehicle. To calculate the number of solar panels required to

The electricity required to “fill the tank” for an EV power an electric vehicle, there are three variables

depends on the size of the battery. Most electric vehicle that have to be considered:

batteries can store between 40 and 100 kWh which deter- 1. how much electricity the vehicle will use annually
mines the range on a single charge. how much electricity 2. The wattage of the solar panels being used
an EV consumes per day, month, or year depends primarily
3. The local area which determines how much elec-
upon how far the vehicle is driven each day. According to
tricity the solar panels produce
the Federal highway Administration, the average American
Most solar panels are in the 320- to 330-watt
travels nearly 13,500 vehicle miles per year. At that level of
range. The production from solar panels will vary
driving, most EVs will require around 4,000 kWh of electricity
from region to region, with each panel producing
per year to operate.
more electricity in sunnier climates—such as the
Southwest—than they will in the Northeast part of the
united States. Depending on the location, charging an
electric vehicle typically requires 7 or 9 solar panels..

E L E C T Ri C V E h i C L E C h ARg i Ng E q ui P M EN T 185
 INSTALLING A HOME CHARGING STATION PHOTO SEQUENCE

1 2
A hole was cut in the wall of the garage to accept an NEMA
14-50 receptacle. A four-conductor, six-gauge cable was routed from
the garage to the fuse panel in the house.

3 4
The cable was run from the garage through the attic The wires were connected to a 60-amp circuit
and then down to the fuse panel. breaker in the fuse panel.

5 6
The Charge Point charging station was mounted to
The NEMA 14-50 outlet box was installed in the garage
the wall, plugged into the outlet, and connected
opening.
to Wi-Fi.

186 ChAPTER 13
 SUMMARY
1. The standards established by the National Electrical vehicle miles per year. At that level of driving, most EVs
Manufacturers Association (NEMA) define a product, pro- will require around 4,000 kWh of electricity per year to
cess, or procedure with terminology, construction, dimen- operate.
sions, and performance ratings. 3. Wireless power transfer (WPT) uses electromagnetic
2. According to the National highway Safety Administration induction between the transmitting pad on the ground and
(NhTSA), the average American travels about 13,500 a receiving pad attached to the underside of the vehicle.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. When installing electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE), 4. What does wireless power transfer (WPT) use to transfer
what certifications should be checked? energy between the transmitting pad on the ground and a
2. What is defined by National Electrical Manufacturers receiving pad attached for the underside of the vehicle?
Association (NEMA) regarding electrical outlets? 5. When using a vehicle charging cord, why is it necessary
3. What does it mean if a “fishy smell” is noticed while to uncoil the wiring before connecting the plug to the
charging? vehicle?

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. What is used to convert AC from the electrical outlet to DC c. power, one ground plus a control pilot and a safety
to charge the high-voltage battery? terminal
a. The electrical vehicle service equipment (EVSE) d. Both a and c
b. The on-board charger in the vehicle 7. SAE J1772 plugs are used for ________.
c. The inverter in the vehicle a. Level 1 charging
d. The converter in the vehicle b. Level 2 charging
2. Both the NEMA ________ and ________ are four-wire c. Level 3 charging
grounding devices that are used in residential use and d. Both a and b
either may also be used for home charging of electric 8. Most house chargers are installed in the garage, but can
vehicles. also be mounted in a carport or outside if a ________ char-
a. 10-30; 10-50 ger and plug are used.
b. 14-30; 14-50 a. Level 1
c. 6-50; 10-50 b. Level 2
d. Any of the above c. weather proof
3. ________ codes are the standards to which buildings d. Either a or b
and equipment must meet minimum regulatory safety 9. if electricity costs $0.11 per kWh and the vehicle con-
requirements. sumes 34 kWh to travel 100 miles, the cost per mile is
a. uL c. NRTL about ________.
b. NEC d. NEMA a. $4.00
4. A “fishy smell” while charging indicates ________. b. $8.00
a. overloaded circuits c. frayed cords c. $0.04
b. loose wires d. Any of the above d. $0.80
5. A 48-amp EVSE will require a ________ breaker. 10. Wireless power transfer (WPT) uses ____________
a. 50-amp c. 70-amp between the transmitting pad on the ground and a receiv-
b. 60-amp d. 80-amp ing pad attached to the underside of the vehicle.
6. The terminals of a J1772 plug are ________. a. Bluetooth
a. not “hot” until the connection has been made to the b. CAN Buss
vehicle and communication between the vehicle and c. internet
the charger has been established d. electromagnetic induction
b. “hot” at all times and could result in a shock hazard if
the terminals are touched

E L E C T Ri C V E h iC L E C hAR g i N g E q uiP M EN T 187

Chapter 14
REGENERATIVE BRAKES
LEARNING OBJECTIVE KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Inertia 189 One-pedal driving 194
be able to: Kinetic energy 189 Regeneration 190
• Describe how regenerative braking works.
• Explain the principals involved in regenerative
braking.
• Discuss the parts and components involved in
regenerative braking systems.
• Describe the servicing precautions involved
with regenerative brakes.

188
 coil windings in the motor. These windings produce a magnetic
REGENERATIVE force on the rotor of the motor, which produces torque on the

BRAKING IN VEHICLES output shaft. This torque is applied to the wheels of the vehicle
by use of a coupling of gears and shafts. When the wheel turns,
it applies a force to the ground, which due to friction between
INERTIA, FORCE, AND MASS If a moving object has
the wheel and the ground, causes the vehicle to move along
a mass, it has inertia. Inertia is the resistance of an object to
change its state of motion. In other words, as Newton’s first law the surface. ● SEE FIGURE 14-1.

of motion states: “An object in motion tends to stay in motion, All vehicles generate torque to move the wheels to drive
and an object at rest tends to stay at rest unless acted on by an the vehicle down the road. During this time, it is generating fric-
outside force.” An electric vehicle (EV) or hybrid electric vehicle tion and losses. When standard brakes are applied, it is just
(HEV) can reclaim energy by converting the energy of a moving another friction device that has specially designed material
object, called kinetic energy, into electric energy. According to to handle the heat from friction. This friction is applied to the
basic physics: drums and rotors that stop the wheel from turning. The friction
A force applied to move an object results in the equation: between the wheel and the ground actually stops the vehicle.
F = ma However, the energy absorbed by the braking system is lost
in the form of heat and cannot be recovered or stored for use
where F = force
later to help propel the vehicle. The kinetic energy increases
m = mass
with the square of the speed. In other words, if the speed of a
a = acceleration vehicle doubles, the kinetic energy is four times higher (speed
The faster an object is accelerated, the more force that has is doubled (times 2) and the kinetic energy is squared (2 times 2
to be applied. Energy from the battery (watts) is applied to the equals 4)). ● SEE FIGURE 14-2.

LAW OF INERTIA
THE TENDENCY OF OBJECTS TO RESIST CHANGES IN MOTION

MOTION

MOTION

MOTION

GRAVITY

STOP

FIGURE 14-1 Any object tends to stay in motion unless acted on by an outside force.

RE G E N E RA T IV E BRA KES 189

 ?
3,000 LB
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

= 90,301 FT-LB Are the Friction Brakes Used During

Regenerative Braking?
30 MPH Yes. Most hybrid vehicles make use of the base
(friction) brakes during stopping. The amount of
regenerative braking compared to the amount of
3,000 LB friction braking is determined by the electronic brake
controller. It is important that the base brakes be
used regularly to keep the rotors free from rust and
= 361,204 FT-LB
ready to be used to stop the vehicle. A typical curve
showing the relative proportion of brake usage is
60 MPH
shown in FIGURE 14-3.
FIGURE 14-2 Kinetic energy increases as the square of any
increase in vehicle speed.

DRIVER’S DEMAND
? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

What Is the Difference Between Mass and

Weight? HYDRAULIC
BRAKING
BRAKING
FORCE
Mass is the amount of matter in an object. One of FORCE
the properties of mass is inertia. Inertia is the resis- REGENERATIVE
tance of an object to being put in motion, and the BRAKING FORCE

tendency to remain in motion once it is set in motion.

The weight of an object is the force of gravity on the TIME
object and may be defined as the mass times
FIGURE 14-3 The regenerative braking system works with the
the acceleration of gravity. Therefore, mass means mechanical and hydraulic brake system to provide the necessary
the property of an object and weight is a force. braking force to slow and stop the vehicle. Regenerative brakes
seldom work at speeds below 10 MpH (16 km/h).

TRANSFERRING ENERGY BACK TO THE MOTOR

Inertia is the fundamental property of physics that is used to LIMITATIONS OF REGENERATIVE BRAKES There
reclaim energy from the vehicle. Instead of using 100% friction are some limitations that will always affect even the best
brakes (base brakes), the braking torque is transferred from the regenerative braking systems, which include the following:
wheels back into the motor shaft. One of the unique things about
■ It only acts on the driven wheels.
most electric motors is that electrical energy can be converted
into mechanical energy, and mechanical energy can be converted
■ The system has to be designed to allow for proper use of
back into electrical energy. In both cases, this can be done very the antilock braking system (ABS).
efficiently. Through the use of the motor and motor controller, the ■ The batteries are commanded to be kept at a maximum
force at the wheels transfers torque to the electric motor shaft. The of about 60%, plus or minus 20%, which is best for long
magnets on the shaft of the motor (called the rotor—the moving battery life and to allow for energy to be stored in the
part of the motor) move past the electric coils on the stator (the batteries during regenerative braking. If the batteries were
stationary part of the motor), passing the magnetic fields of the mag- allowed to be fully charged, there would be no place for
nets through the coils, producing electricity. This electricity is elec- the electrical current to be stored and the conventional
trical energy, which is directed to and recharges the high-voltage friction brakes alone have to be used to slow and stop
battery. This process is called regeneration, regen, or simply the vehicle. Charging the batteries over 80% would also
“reclaiming energy.” overheat the batteries.

190 CHAp TER 14

BENEFITS OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEMS
Depending on the type of vehicle, this would reduce fuel con- TYPES OF REGENERATIVE
sumption by 10% to 25%.
Regenerative braking can be extremely powerful and can
BRAKE SYSTEMS
recover about 20% of the energy normally wasted as brake
heat. Regenerative braking has the following advantages:
SERIES REGENERATION In series regenerative braking
systems, the amount of regeneration is proportional to the brake
■ Reduces the drawdown of the battery charge. pedal position. As the brake pedal is depressed further, the con-
■ Extends the overall life of the battery pack. troller that regulates the regenerative braking system computes
■ Reduces fuel consumption. the torque needed to slow the vehicle, as would occur in normal
braking. As the brake pedal is depressed even further, the ser-
All production EVs and HEVs use regenerative braking as vice brakes are blended into the regenerative braking to achieve
a method to improve vehicle efficiency, and this feature alone the desired braking performance based on brake pedal force and
provides the most fuel economy savings. How much energy is travel. Series regenerative braking requires active brake manage-
reclaimed depends on many factors, including the weight of the ment to achieve total braking to all four wheels. This braking is
vehicle, speed, and the rate of deceleration. ● SEE FIGURE 14-4. more difficult to achieve if the hybrid electric vehicle uses just
the front or rear wheels to power the vehicle. This means that

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION the other axle must use the base brakes alone, whereas the
drive wheels can be slowed and stopped using a combination of
When Does Regenerative Braking Not Work? regenerative braking and base brake action. All series regenera-
There is one unusual situation where regenerative tive braking systems use an electrohydraulic brake (eHb) system,
braking will not occur. What happens if, for example, which includes the hydraulic control unit (ABS modulator) that
the vehicle is at the top of a long hill and the battery manages the brake system pressures, as well as the front-rear
charge level is high? In this situation, the controller axle brake balance. Most hybrid vehicles use this type of regen-
can only overcharge the batteries. Overcharging is erative braking system. The regenerative braking system mainly
not good for the batteries, so the controller will dis- uses the regenerative capability, especially at higher vehicle
able regenerative braking and use the base brakes speeds, and gradually increases the amount of the base braking
only. This is one reason why the SOC of the batteries force at low vehicle speeds. ● SEE FIGURE 14-5.
is kept below 80% so regenerative braking can occur.
PARALLEL REGENERATION A parallel regenerative
braking system is less complex because the base (friction)

ACCELERATION
BRAKING

CLUTCH CLUTCH
ELECTRIC ELECTRIC
ENGINE MOTOR/ ENGINE MOTOR/
GENERATOR GENERATOR

BATTERY INVERTER BATTERY INVERTER

FIGURE 14-4 During acceleration, the ICE and motor/generator are used to propel the vehicle. During
deceleration, the energy is returned to the HV battery through the inverter that changes the AC crated in the
motor/generator to DC to charge the battery.

RE G E N E R A T IV E BRA KES 191

 BRAKE ACTUATOR

PUMP AND MOTOR

ACCUMULATOR

RESERVOIR
TANK

PRESSURE
SWITCH (PH)
RELIEF
VALVE PRESSURE
SWITCH (PL)
MASTER
CYLINDER

PRESSURE
SENSOR
PRESSURE
SENSOR
SLA

SMC2 SMC1
RESERVOIR

SLR

PRESSURE SS
SENSOR

SFLR SFLH
RESERVOIR

RESERVOIR
SFRR SFRH

FRONT-WHEEL CYLINDERS REAR-WHEEL CYLINDERS

FIGURE 14-5 The Toyota prius regenerative braking system component showing the master cylinder and
pressure switches.

192 CHAp TER 14

brakes are used along with energy recovery by the motors, this situation, the ECU knows that the driver wants only gentle
becoming generators. The controller for the regenerative brak- deceleration and instructs the hybrid ECU to apply only a small
ing system determines the amount of regeneration that can amount of regeneration. However, as master cylinder pressure
be achieved based on the vehicle speed. Front and rear brake increases, so does the amount of regeneration that can auto-
balance is retained because the base brakes are in use during matically be applied.
the entire braking event. The amount of energy captured by a If the electromechanical brake servo and ESC fail at the
parallel regenerative braking system is less than from a series same time, purely mechanical braking is still possible.
system. As a result, the fuel economy gains are less. There are four pressure sensors in the braking sys-
tem and two pressure switches. However, it is the master
REGENERATIVE BRAKE COMPONENTS It is the ABS cylinder pressure sensor that is most important. ● SEE
ECU that handles regenerative braking, as well as ABS func- FIGURE 14-7.
tions, sending a signal to the hybrid ECU how much regeneration
to impose. But how does the ABS ECU know what to do?
Rather than measuring brake pedal travel, which could
vary with pad wear, the system uses pressure measuring sen-
ABS HYDRAULIC
sors to detect master cylinder pressure. Some systems use CONTROLER
a brake pedal position (Bpp) sensor as an input signal to the
brake ECU. A typical BBp sensor has two Hall-effect sensor
elements on the vacuum booster body and a slide connected to
the brake pedal with four Hall magnets. ● SEE FIGURE 14-6.
The operation includes the following:
■ The magnets are connected to the input push rod.
■ When the driver presses the brake pedal, the Hall MASTER CYLINDER
RESERVOIR
magnets move over the Hall sensors.

This movement (speed and position) is interpreted as a

braking request by the brake control system.
The higher the master cylinder pressure, the harder the
driver is pushing on the brake pedal. If the driver is pushing FIGURE 14-7 The components under the hood of a Toyota
only gently, the master cylinder piston displacement will be Highlander hybrid electric vehicle showing the master cylinder
small and the hydraulic brakes will be only gently applied. In reservoir and the ABS controller.

HALL-EFFECT
ELEMENTS ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

What Do Regenerative Brakes Look Like?

Regenerative brakes use the rotation of the wheels
H1 H2 H3 H4 MAGNETS applied to the electric traction (drive) motor to create
BRAKE PEDAL electricity. Therefore, the brakes themselves look the
MOVEMENT same as conventional brakes because the hydraulic
N S N S brakes are still in place and work the same as con-
ventional brakes. The major difference is that the
standard wheel brakes work mostly at low vehicle
speeds, whereas conventional brakes work at all
speeds. As a result, the brakes on a hybrid electric
FIGURE 14-6 A contactless Bpp sensor uses two vehicle should last many times longer than the brakes
Hall-effect elements and magnets to determine not only
on a conventional vehicle. ● SEE FIGURE 14-8.
the position of the brake pedal, but also the speed that the
driver is depressing the brake pedal.

RE G E N E RA T IV E BRA KES 193

FIGURE 14-8 The front disc brakes on a Mustang Mach E FIGURE 14-9 The display on the dash display of an electric
electric vehicle look like most multi-piston front disc brakes vehicle shows where the one pedal feature can be turned on
used on conventional vehicles. or off.

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION more regenerative braking is achieved and the faster the
vehicle slows down. If the deceleration rate is greater
Can an On-Vehicle Brake Lathe Be Used on a than 0.2 Gs, the brake lights come on to warn the driver
Hybrid Electric Vehicle? behind that the vehicle is braking, just as if the driver
Yes. When a brake rotor needs to be machined on a depressed the brake pedal.
hybrid electric vehicle, the rotor is being rotated. On Drivers still have to use the brake pedal to come to a com-
most hybrids, the front wheels are also connected to the plete stop below 5 to 7 MpH (8 to 11 km/h). In a Nissan Leaf,
traction motor that can propel the vehicle and generate the car can come to a complete stop in its “e-pedal” mode.
electricity during deceleration and braking. When the When the car stops totally, it engages the hydraulic brakes to
drive wheels are being rotated, the motor/generator is hold it in place. This is not the case with most other vehicles
producing electricity. However, unless the high-voltage that require the driver to depress the brake pedal to hold the
circuit wiring has been disconnected, no harm will occur. vehicle from moving. ● SEE FIGURE 14-9.

EXAMPLES
■ The Nissan Leaf has a “L” setting for its drive selector that
ONE-PEDAL DRIVING increases the strength of the regeneration. But it is not
strong enough to permit proper one-pedal driving under
DEFINITION One-pedal driving means that for normal many circumstances.
driving, the driver only needs to use the accelerator pedal to ■ The Volkswagen eGolf and the Chevrolet Bolt EV offer
accelerate and decelerate. Tesla started using one-pedal driv- options for one-pedal driving or not depending on the
ing in 2012 with the Tesla Model S. The brakes on a Tesla are driver needs and desires.
stand alone and are not tied in and blended with the regenera- ■ The Bolt’s default “D” position operates like an
tive braking system. One-pedal driving involves the following:
automatic-transmission car, while the “L” position pro-
■ To accelerate, the driver depresses the accelerator pedal. vides strong regen, eliminating the idle creep, and allows
To accelerate faster, the accelerator pedal is depressed one-pedal driving right down to 0 MpH.
further. ■ Audi, while it offers one-pedal driving, the feature has to
■ To decelerate (slow down), the driver releases the be selected by the driver. The normal operation of an Audi
accelerator pedal and the vehicle speed slows. The EV is to allow the vehicle to coast, thereby maintaining the
faster the driver lets up on the accelerator pedal, the kinetic energy of the moving vehicle without converting

194 CHAp TER 14

 that energy back into electrical energy to be stored in the
0.8
HV battery.

DECELERATION (g)
0.6
■ One-pedal driving seems strange at first, but getting used
to it occurs quickly and becomes easy to control the 0.4
vehicle. The only time that the brake pedal is depressed
is for emergency situations or to hold the vehicle from 0.2
moving, and at very low speeds where regenerative
braking is not active.
THROTTLE MINIMUM MODERATE VERY HEAVY
LIFT REGENERATIVE REGENERATIVE BRAKING
NOTE: When driving in one-pedal mode, the brake light BRAKING BRAKING

will come on when the accelerator pedal is released and FIGURE 14-10 The graph compares the figures: at the far left,
the vehicle starts to slow. a throttle lift typically giving about 0.1 g deceleration; second
from the left, a minimum regenerative braking of about 0.1 g;
second from the right, a moderate regenerative braking is about
? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION 0.2 g; and on the far right, a hard emergency stop resulting in
braking of (at least) 0.8 g, which uses both the regenerative
Is One-Pedal Driving an Advantage? braking system and the base hydraulic brake system.
Some dealers are recommending that their custom-
An average deceleration rate of 15 ft/sec2 (FpSpS) (3 m/s2)
ers do not use one-pedal driving to maximized range.
can stop a vehicle traveling at 55 mph (88 km/h) in about 200 ft
Some electric vehicle manufactures also limit regen-
(61 m) and in less than 4 seconds. Deceleration is also expressed
erative braking and allow the vehicle to coast, thereby
in units called a g. One g is the acceleration of gravity, which is 32
maintaining inertia. Regenerative braking is not 100%
feet per second, per second. With a conventional hydraulic braking
efficient. If you are coasting at 60 MpH, regen slows
system, the driver can brake extremely gently, thereby only imper-
you down to 50, and then accelerates to 60 again,
ceptibly slowing the vehicle. A typical hybrid using regenerative
you will lose more energy than if the speed was kept
braking will normally indicate a 0.1 g (about 3 ft/sec2) deceleration
at a steady 60 MpH. Regenerative braking is only
rate when the throttle is released and the brake pedal has not been
useful if used for braking. The most efficient driving
applied. This rate is what a driver would normally expect to occur
mode is the one that is smoothest. That means no
when the accelerator pedal is released. This slight deceleration feels
hard acceleration or deceleration.
comfortable to the driver, as well as the passengers, because this
is what occurs in a non-hybrid vehicle that does not incorporate
regenerative braking. When the brake pedal is pressed, the deceler-
ation increases to a greater value than 0.1 g, which gives the driver
DECELERATION RATES the same feeling of deceleration that would occur in a conventional
vehicle. Maximum deceleration rates are usually greater than 0.8 g
TERMINOLOGY Deceleration rates are measured in units and could exceed 1 g in most vehicles.● SEE FIGURE 14-10.
of “feet per second, per second.” What this means is that the
vehicle will change in velocity during a certain time interval
divided by the time interval. SERVICING REGENERATIVE
Deceleration is abbreviated “ft/sec2” (pronounced “feet
per second, per second” or “feet per second squared”) or BRAKES
meters per sec2 (m/s2) in the metric system.
UNIQUE MASTER CYLINDERS Most hybrid electric
EXAMPLES Typical deceleration rates include the vehicles use unique master cylinders that do not look like con-
following. ventional master cylinders. Some use more than one brake fluid
reservoir and others contain sensors and other components,
■ Comfortable deceleration is about 8.5 ft/sec2 (3 m/s2).
which are often not serviced separately. ● SEE FIGURE 14-11.
2 2
■ Loose items in the vehicle will “fly” above 11 ft/sec (3.5 m/s ). Late model GM EVs and pHEVs use an electromechanical
■ Maximum deceleration rates for most vehicles and light brake booster combined with the ABS unit that allows the use
trucks range from 16 to 32 ft/sec2 (5 to 10 m/s2). of a more conventional master cylinder.

RE G E N E RA T IV E BRA KES 195

 ELECTRICAL
CONNECTOR

ABS HYDRAULIC
CONTROL UNIT

FIGURE 14-12 When working on the brakes on a Ford

Escape or Mercury Mariner hybrid vehicle, disconnect the
black electrical connector on the ABS hydraulic control unit
located on the passenger side under the hood.

Case Study

Regenerative Brake Warning Message

FIGURE 14-11 A master cylinder from a Toyota Highlander The owner of an electric vehicle complained to the
hybrid electric vehicle. service department about a message on the dash
that stated that the regenerative braking system is
FORD ESCAPE PRECAUTIONS On the Ford Escape degraded. This can be considered normal in cold
hybrid system, the regenerative braking system checks the integ- weather because lithium-ion batteries have no trouble
rity of the brake system as a self-test. After a certain amount of discharging when cold, but do not accept a charge
time, the brake controller will energize the hydraulic control unit easily when cold. Regenerative braking relies on
and check that pressure can be developed in the system. using the motors as generators, and the battery as
the place to store that power. Cold batteries mean
■ This is performed when a door is opened as part of the limited or no regenerative braking. Once the vehicle
wake-up feature of the system. was driven and the high-voltage batteries increased
■ The ignition key does not have to be in the ignition for in temperature, the regenerative braking system
this self-test to be performed. worked normally and the message was no longer dis-
■ This is done by developing brake pressure for short played on the dash. ● SEE FIGURE 14-13.
periods of time. Summary:
• Complaint—Vehicle owner saw a message on
To prevent physical harm or causing damage to the vehi-
the dash warning that the braking system was
cle when servicing the braking system, the technician should
degraded.
do the following:
• Cause—The high-voltage batteries were cold and
1. In order to change the brake pads, it is necessary to enter could not accept a charge from the regenerative
the “pad Service Mode” on a scan tool and disable the self- brake system.
test. This will prevent brake pressure from being applied. • Correction—Once the high-voltage batteries
2. Disconnect the wiring harness at the hydraulic control increased in temperature, the message was not
unit. ● SEE FIGURE 14-12. displayed and is considered to be normal operation
3. Check service information regarding how to cycle the igni- at very cold temperatures.
tion switch to enter the pad Service Mode.

196 CHAp TER 14

FIGURE 14-13 A notice displayed on the dash informing the
driver that the regenerative brakes are degraded or temporarily
reduced. When this occurs, the brake pedal feel will change
because the system will use more of the base brakes, which
may require a higher pedal effort.

SUMMARY
1. All moving objects that have mass (weight) have kinetic 4. Brushless DC and AC induction motors are used in hybrid
energy. electric vehicles to help propel it and to generate electrical
2. The regenerative braking system captures most of the energy back to the batteries during braking.
kinetic energy from the moving vehicle and returns this 5. The controller is used to control the motors and turn
energy to high-voltage batteries to be used later to help them into a generator as needed to provide regenerative
propel the vehicle. braking.
3. The two types of regenerative braking include parallel and
series.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is inertia? 4. What is meant by “one-pedal driving”?
2. What is the difference between series and parallel regen- 5. What occurs when the driver first releases the accelera-
erative braking systems? tor pedal and starts to brake on a hybrid electric vehicle
3. What happens in the regenerative braking system when equipped with regenerative braking?
the high-voltage batteries are fully charged?

RE G E N E RA T IV E BRA KES 197

 CHAPTER QUIZ
1. Which type of regenerative braking system uses an elec- 6. Technician A says that a front-wheel-drive hybrid electric
trohydraulic system? vehicle can only generate electricity during braking from
a. Series the front wheel motor(s). Technician B says that the anti-
b. parallel lock braking (ABS) is not possible with a vehicle equipped
c. Both series and parallel with a regenerative braking system. Which technician is
d. Neither series nor parallel correct?
2. Kinetic energy is __________. a. Technician A only
a. the energy that the driver exerts on the brake pedal b. Technician B only
b. the energy needed from the batteries to propel a c. Both Technicians A and B
vehicle d. Neither Technician A nor B
c. the energy in any moving object 7. In a regenerative braking system, which part of the electric
d. the energy that the motor produces to propel the motor is being controlled by the computer?
vehicle a. The rotor
3. Inertia is __________. b. The stator
a. the energy of any moving object that has mass c. Both the rotor and the stator
(weight) d. Neither the rotor nor the stator
b. the force that the driver exerts on the brake pedal dur- 8. Two technicians are discussing deceleration rates.
ing a stop Technician A says that a one “g” stop is a gentle slowing
c. the electric motor force that is applied to the drive of the vehicle. Technician B says that a stopping rate of
wheels 8 ft/ sec2 is a severe stop. Which technician is correct?
d. the force that the internal combustion engine and the a. Technician A only
electric motor together apply to the drive wheels dur- b. Technician B only
ing rapid acceleration c. Both Technicians A and B
4. What are the benefits of regenerative brakes? d. Neither Technician A nor B
a. Reduces the draw down of the battery charge. 9. One pedal system means __________.
b. Extends the overall life of the battery pack. a. the vehicle is not equipped with a separate brake
c. Reduces fuel consumption. pedal
d. All of the above b. the accelerator pedal is used to accelerate and decel-
5. During braking on a hybrid electric vehicle equipped with erate the vehicle
regenerative braking system, what occurs when the driver c. the vehicle uses regenerative braking only and not
depresses the brake pedal? friction brakes
a. The friction brakes are only used as a backup and not d. the vehicle does not use regenerative braking
used during normal braking. 10. Which of these two is the more efficient type of regenera-
b. The motors become generators. tive braking?
c. The driver needs to apply a braking lever instead of a. Series regeneration
depressing the brake pedal to energize the regenera- b. parallel regeneration
tive braking system. c. Both types are equally efficient
d. The batteries are charged to 100% SOC. d. A third type, not mentioned, is the most efficient

198 CHAp TER 14

Chapter 15
ELECTRIC POWER
STEERING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Column-mounted Power steering control
be able to: electric power steering module (PSCM) 203
(C-EPS) 200 Steering position sensor
• Describe the purpose, function, and types of
Electric power-assisted (SPS) 203
electric power steering systems.
steering (EPAS) 200 Steering shaft torque
• Explain how electric power steering systems Electric power steering sensor 201
operate. (EPS) 200
• Discuss how to diagnose electric power steer-
ing system faults.
This chapter will help prepare for the Steering and
Suspension (A4) ASE certification test content area
“A” (Steering Systems Diagnosis and Repair).

199
 ELECTRIC POWER STEERING
TERMINOLOGY All hEV and EV vehicles use electric
power steering (EPS) systems, also called electric
power-assisted steering (EPAS). Electric power steering
takes the place of hydraulic components that were previously
used by using an electric motor to provide power assist effort.

ADVANTAGES The advantages are as follows:

■ Allows the vehicle manufacturer to save vehicle weight

and complexity because there is no need for all of the
hydraulic lines and engine-driven pump.
FIGURE 15-1 A Toyota highlander hybrid EPS assembly.
■ Improved cold weather starting because of reduced
engine load without the drag of a power steering pump.
2. Column mounted. Column-mounted electric power
■ Simple two-wire connection in many cases, making
steering (C-EPS) has sensors and the assist motor
vehicle assembly and vehicle service easier.
located inside the vehicle so they are not exposed to the
heat and outside elements as is the rack-mounted system.
TYPES OR DESIGNS There are two basic types of EPS ● SEE FIGURE 15-3.
systems:
This is the most commonly used type and involves using
1. Rack mounted. The rack-mounted system has the a manual rack-and-pinion steering gear assembly with a motor
assist motor attached to the rack and is often called a assist in the steering column. While not directly mounted on
rack-and-pinion electric power steering (R-EPS) system. the column itself, another type of electric power steering is the
Another design has the assist motor surrounding the pinion-mounted electric power steering system (P-EPS) system.
rack and this style is called a direct-drive electric power This system has the assist motor connected to the pinion shaft
steering (D-EPS) system. ● SEE FIGURES 15-1 AND 15-2. of the rack-and-pinion steering gear. ● SEE FIGURE 15–4.

DC–DC
288 V CONVERTER EPS CAN BUS
BATTERY 288 - 43.5V ECU

12 V
MOTOR BATTERY
ROTATION
TORQUE SENSOR
SENSOR

ELECTRIC BALL SCREW

MOTOR REDUCTION GEAR

FIGURE 15-2 The electric power steering used in the Toyota/Lexus SUVs uses a brushless DC (labeled BLDC) motor around the
rack of the unit and operates on 42 volts.

200 Ch APTER 15
 INSTRUMENT CLUSTER

STEERING
WHEEL

STEERING COLUMN
AND SHAFT
POWER STEERING
MALFUNCTION
INDICATOR LIGHT EPS CM, EPS
MOTOR

TORQUE SENSOR,
REDUCTION GEAR

INTERMEDIATE
SHAFT

STEERING GEAR
AND LINKAGE

FIGURE 15- 3 A column-mounted EPS system showing the location of the major components involved including the dash
warning light symbol.

The power steering motor is a 12-volt brushless DC revers-

ible motor with a 65-ampere rating. The motor assists steering
through a worm gear and reduction gear located in the steering
column housing. The motor draws about 750 to 1,000 watts
or about 1 horsepower at full assist. The motor itself is usually
replaced as an assembly or can be included with the control
unit. ● SEE FIGURE 15-5.

EPS CONTROL UNIT The electric power steering is con-

trolled by the EPS ECU, which calculates the amount of needed
assist based on the input from the steering torque sensor. The
steering torque sensor is a noncontact sensor that detects the
movement and torque applied to the torsion bar. The torsion
bar twists when the driver exerts torque to the steering wheel,

FIGURE 15-4 A pinion-mounted electric power steering and the more torque applied causes the bar to twist further.
system. This generates a higher-voltage signal to the EPS ECU. ● SEE
FIGURE 15-6.
The steering shaft torque sensor and the steering wheel
PARTS AND OPERATION position sensor are not serviced separately from each other
or from the steering column assembly. The steering column
TYPES OF MOTOR USED Some EPS motors operate assembly does not include the power steering motor and mod-
on 12 volts whereas others operate from 42 volts and use an ule assembly. The detection ring 1 and detection ring 2 are
electronic controller and a brushless DC motor as an actuator.

E L E C T RI C PO W E R ST EERIN G 201
 STEERING COLUMN
WORM WHEEL

MOTOR

WORM SHAFT

FIGURE 15-5 The EPS electric motor drives the rack through a worm gear in many electric power steering systems.

mounted on the input shaft, and detection ring 3 is mounted on POWER

STEERING
the output shaft. The input shaft and the output shaft are con- CONTROL
nected by a torsion bar. When the steering wheel is turned, the MODULE

difference in relative motion between detection rings 2 and 3 is

sensed by the detection coil and sends two signals to the EPS
ECU. These two signals are called Torque Sensor Signal 1 and M

Torque Signal 2. The EPS ECU uses these signals to control the 5V

amount of assist and also uses the signals for diagnosis. B+

5-V REFERENCE

NOTE: If the steering wheel, steering column, or the

steering gear is removed or replaced, the zero point of POSITION SENSOR 1
the torque sensors must be reset using a scan tool. The POSITION SENSOR 2
Toyota Highlander and Lexus RX 400h use a different
TORQUE SENSOR 1
electric power steering unit due to the larger size of VOLTAGE
SENSING
the vehicles. This unit uses a concentric brushless DC
TORQUE SENSOR 2 CIRCUIT
motor on the steering rack. ● SEE FIGURE 15-7.
SENSOR LOW

TORSION
BAR FIGURE 15-7 Schematic showing the EPS and the torque
and position sensors.

INPUT SHAFT INPUTS AND OUTPUTS The EPS system includes the
following components and input signals from sensors and out-
DETECTION put signals to actuator components:
DETECTION COIL
RING #3 ■ Powertrain control module (PCM)
■ Body control module (BCM)
DETECTION
RING #2 ■ Power steering control module (PSCM)
■ Battery voltage
DETECTION
RING #1 CORRECTION
■ Steering shaft torque sensor
COIL ■ Steering wheel position sensor
■ Power steering motor
■ Driver information center (DIC)
PINION
GEAR ■ Serial data communications circuits to perform the
system functions
FIGURE 15-6 The torque sensor converts the torque the
driver is applying to the steering wheel into a voltage signal. ● SEE FIGURE 15-8.

202 Ch APTER 15
 current to the power steering motor. The PSCM receives a vehicle
speed message from the PCM by way of the serial data commu-
nications circuit. At low speeds, more assist is provided for easy
turning during parking maneuvers, and at higher speeds, less
VEHICLE SPEED assist is provided for improved road feel and directional stability.
SENSOR
STEERING The steering shaft torque sensor and the steering wheel position
ANGLE sensor are not serviced separately from each other or from the
SENSOR
steering column assembly. The steering column assembly does
TORQUE not include the power steering motor and module assembly.
SENSOR

REDUCTION GEAR MOTOR

STEERING SHAFT TORQUE SENSOR The PSCM uses
the steering shaft torque sensor as a main input for determining
ECU
steering direction and the amount of assist needed. The steering
column has an input shaft, from the steering wheel to the torque
sensor, and an output shaft, from the torque sensor to the steering
shaft coupler. The input and output shafts are separated by a sec-
tion of torsion bar, where the torque sensor is located. The torque
sensor includes two different sensors in one housing. The sensors
are used to detect the direction the steering wheel is being rotated.

FIGURE 15-8 A graphical representation of the relationship of

■ When torque is applied to the steering column shaft
the various electric power steering components. during a right turn, the sensor signal 1 voltage increases,
while the signal 2 voltage decreases.
■ When torque is applied to the steering column shaft
POWER STEERING CONTROL MODULE The power
during a left turn, the sensor signal 1 voltage decreases,
steering control module (PSCM) and the power steering
while the signal 2 voltage increases.
motor are serviced as an assembly and are serviced separately
from the steering column assembly. ● SEE FIGURE 15-9. The PSCM recognizes this change in signal voltage as
When the steering wheel is turned, the PSCM uses sig- steering direction and steering column shaft torque.
nal voltage from the steering shaft torque sensor to detect the
amount of torque and steering direction being applied to the STEERING WHEEL POSITION SENSOR The PSCM uses
steering column shaft and then commands the proper amount of the steering position sensor (SPS) to determine the steering
system on-center position. Because the power steering motor
provides a slight amount of return-to-center assist, the PSCM will
command the power steering motor to the steering system center
position and not beyond. The sensor is a 5-volt dual-analog signal
device with a signal voltage range of 0 to 5 volts. The sensor’s sig-
nal 1 and signal 2 voltage values will increase and decrease within
2.5 to 2.8 volts of each other as the steering wheel is turned.

FAULT DETECTION If a major fault were to occur, the

control module will first try to maintain power-assisted steering
even if some sensors have failed. If the problem is serious, the
vehicle can be driven and steered manually. The EPS control
MOTOR unit will turn on the EPS dash warning light if a fault has been
EPS
detected. A fault in the system will not cause the malfunction
CONTROL
MODULE indicator light to come on because that light is reserved for
FIGURE 15-9 The PSCM is attached to the motor of the emission-related faults only. Fault codes can be retrieved by
electric power steering assembly on some vehicles. using a scan tool, and the codes will be displayed by the flash-
ing of the EPS warning lamp.

E L E C T RI C PO W E R S TEERIN G 203
 ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

What Is an Electrohydraulic Power Steering

System?
Electrohydraulic power steering (EhPS) is used on
the Chevrolet/GMC parallel hybrid truck (PhT) and
on the Mini Cooper. This system uses an electric
motor to drive a hydraulic pump. The EhPS module
controls the power steering motor, which has the
function of providing hydraulic power to the brake
booster and the steering gear. A secondary function
includes the ability to improve fuel economy by oper-
ating on a demand basis and the ability to provide
speed-dependent variable-effort steering. ● SEE
FIGURE 15-10 An electrohydraulic power steering assembly
FIGURE 15-10.
on a Chevrolet hybrid pickup truck.

ELECTRIC POWER STEERING be set up with the correct steering calibrations, which are

DIAGNOSIS different in relation to the vehicle’s powertrain configuration,

model type, and tire and wheel size. A factory or aftermarket

DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE The PSCM has the abil- factory-level scan tool is needed to retrieve data and to per-

ity to detect malfunctions within the power steering system. form relearn procedures if the unit is replaced. Always check

Any malfunction detected will cause the driver information service information for the exact procedures to follow when

center to display the power steering warning message and/ diagnosing and serving the electric power steering system.
● SEE FIGURE 15-11.
or the service vehicle soon indicator. The PSCM must also

FIGURE 15-11 A screen shot showing some of the data that is available in a factory or factory-level scan tool when checking
the electric power steering system.

204 Ch APTER 15
 Case Study
EPS DTCS Most electric power steering diagnostic trouble
codes (DTCs) will be “C” codes for chassis-related faults or “U”
Nissan Leaf Power Steering Fault codes for data communication faults. ● SEE CHART 15-1 for
same sample DTCs.
The owner of a Nissan Leaf SV drove home, parked
the car in the driveway, left the car for 1/2 hour, then
got into the car to drive it into the garage. After push-
ing brake and power, the car came on normally, but
the PS warning light stayed on, the car wouldn’t go DIAGNOSTIC
TROUBLE CODE
into drive, and the steering wheel was very hard to (DTC) DESCRIPTION OF FAULT
turn. I could shift into neutral, but not drive. I kept my C1511; C1512; Torque sensor fault detected
foot on the brake and hit power again, and it then C1513; C1514
powered on normally and allowed me to drive. C1521 Short in motor circuit
The owner repeated the sequence of events: Car U0073 EPS control module lost
off. Foot hard on brake. Push power. PS light stays communications
on. Steering won’t turn easily. Car won’t go into drive.
CHART 15-1
held his foot on the brake and pushed power again,
Sample DTCs for the electric power steering system.
and the car powers up normally.
The local shop was able to verify the fault and
suspected that the 12-volt battery was the cause.
Testing of the 12-volt battery verified that it was not
able to hold a charge and was replaced. This cor-
rected the customer complaint.
Summary:
• Complaint—The power steering warning light was
on and the steering was hard to turn.
• Cause—A defective 12-volt battery.
• Correction—The replacement of the 12-volt bat-
tery solved the hard steering and the warning light
concern.

SUMMARY
1. The use of electric power steering compared to conven- 4. The sensors needed include the steering wheel position
tional power steering results in more available engine sensor and the steering shaft torque sensor.
power and improved fuel economy. 5. Some vehicles that use electric power steering are capa-
2. The two basic types of EPS include the rack-mounted and ble of performing self-parking.
the column-mounted system. 6. A few vehicles use an electric motor to power a hydraulic
3. The most commonly used system uses a manual rack and pump for steering assist.
pinion gear with a column-mounted motor assist.

E L E C T RI C PO W E R S TEERIN G 205
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the types of electric power steering systems? 4. What type of motor is used in electric power steering
2. What sensors are needed for EPS systems? systems?
3. What are the advantages of using an electric power steer- 5. how does an electrohydraulic power steering work?
ing system?

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. The two basic types of electric power steering (EPS) 6. What is the relationship between the power steering con-
include ________. trol module (PSCM) and the powertrain control module
a. engine mounted and column mounted (PCM)?
b. column mounted and rack mounted a. Usually wired between the two
c. electrohydraulic and rack mounted b. No connection between the two
d. engine driven and battery powered c. Uses serial data lines between the two modules
2. The advantages of EPS compared to hydraulic power d. Mounted together on the EPS motor
steering include ________. 7. If a fault is detected in the EPS system, what dash light is
a. less weight turned on?
b. improved fuel economy a. The “check engine” light
c. increase usable engine power b. The “service vehicle soon” light
d. All of the above c. The power steering warning light
3. What type of motor is used in most EPS systems? d. Either b or c
a. AC brush type 8. What diagnostic equipment is usually needed to diagnose
b. DC brushless faults or relearn the EPS system?
c. Stepper a. Special electronic diagnostic equipment designed to
d. None of the above test each specific system
4. Two technicians are discussing EPS systems. Technician b. Factory or factory-level scan tool
A says that some systems operate on 12 volts. Technician c. A breakout box
B says that some systems operate on 42 volts, such as d. A 12-volt test light
some hybrid electric vehicles. Which technician is correct? 9. What sensor is used to detect torque is applied to the
a. Technician A only steering column shaft?
b. Technician B only a. Torque sensor
c. Both Technicians A and B b. Steering shaft position sensor
d. Neither Technician A nor B c. Steering shaft position sensor
5. A typical electric motor used in EPS systems produces d. Power steering control module
about how much power? 10. Electrohydraulic power steering systems use ________.
a. ¼ horsepower a. an electric motor to power a hydraulic pump
b. ½ horsepower b. a conventional hydraulic power steering gear
c. ¾ horsepower c. an engine-driven hydraulic power steering pump and
d. 1 horsepower an electric motor steering gear
d. Both a and b

206 Ch APTER 15
Chapter 16
EV AND HEV HVAC
SYSTEM
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Cabin filter 214 PTC heaters 213
be able to: Dog mode 225 Scroll compressor 216
• Describe the function of a hybrid electric vehi- Liquid-cooled condenser Thermal storage material
cle’s heating and cooling system. (LCC) 223 (TSM) 220
Positive temperature
• Explain the operation of the motor/electronics
coefficient (PTC) 213
cooling system in an electric and hybrid electric
vehicle.
• Describe the function of an electric vehicle’s
heating and air-conditioning (A/C) system.
• Discuss the operation and unique service pro-
cedures for electric-drive A/C compressors.
• Explain how an electric vehicle’s battery is
heated and cooled.

207
 one-third) is converted into mechanical energy to move the
HEV ICE COOLING SYSTEM vehicle, but the vast majority is released as waste heat. half of
this waste heat is sent out the exhaust system, and the other
ENGINE COOLING The purpose of the ICE (internal com- half is absorbed by the ICE cooling system. The heat that is
bustion engine) cooling system is to bring the ICE up to an opti- absorbed by the cooling system is then dissipated into the out-
mum temperature as quickly as possible and then to maintain side air by the vehicle’s radiator. ●■ SEE FIGURE 16-1.
that temperature under all operating conditions. Coolant tem-
perature for the ICE cooling system is maintained in a narrow BASIC OPERATION All automotive ICEs are liquid-cooled.
range for a number of reasons including the following: This means that the cooling system is sealed and liquid coolant is
circulated through the water jacket (internal passages) by a water
■■ The ICE is able to run at its highest efficiency and lowest
pump to absorb excess heat. The heated coolant is sent through a
emissions when it is at an operating temperature of 195°F
radiator to dissipate the heat and lower its temperature. The cool-
to 215°F (90°C to 101°C). ICEs that run cold require richer
ant then returns to the ICE internal passages to continue the cycle.
air–fuel mixtures and suffer from reduced fuel economy
and increased exhaust emissions.
■■ The engine will have better throttle response and produce WATER PUMP The water pump is the “heart” of the ICE
greater output when it is at normal operating temperature. cooling system. It is most often driven by the ICE accessory drive
belt, so it will circulate coolant whenever the ICE is running. When
■■ Engines that run cold tend to wear out much faster.
the ICE is first started, the cooling system is designed to reach
A cold ICE will condense crankcase fumes and thus its
operating temperature as quickly as possible. Therefore, the cool-
engine oil will become contaminated more quickly.
ant is not circulated through the radiator until the correct tempera-
■■ The ICE cooling system is also responsible for providing heat
ture has been reached. A thermostat is used to allow coolant flow
to the passenger compartment. The coolant temperature must
to the ICE water jacket and heater core until the coolant reaches
be maintained at an optimum level to allow the heating system
approximately 195°F (91°C). At this point, the thermostat begins to
to work properly and to maximize passenger comfort.
open and allow coolant to flow to the radiator.
■■ Overheating the ICE can lead to reduced efficiency
and possible catastrophic failure of internal mechanical
THERMOSTAT When the thermostat first starts to open,
components.
some coolant will flow to the radiator and some will continue
Temperatures in the ICE combustion chamber can exceed to circulate in the ICE water jacket. Coolant that does not flow
6000°F (3300°C). A portion of this heat energy (approximately through the thermostat enters an internal bypass tube and returns

25% EFFECTIVE POWER:

MOBILITY AND
ACCESSORIES
100%
APPLIED FUEL
ENERGY 5% FRICTION AND
(COMBUSTION) PARASTIC LOSSES

30% COOLANT

40% EXHAUST GAS

FIGURE 16-1 Only about a quarter of the total energy of the fuel in an internal combustion is used for useful work the rest is lost
to the atmosphere through the exhaust and coolant.

208 Ch APTE r 16
FIGURE 16-2 A cutaway of the front of an engine showing the coolant passages in green and the thermostat.

to the water pump inlet. As the coolant temperature continues to

rise, the thermostat will open wider until it is fully open at about HEV CABIN HEATING
215°F (20° above the opening temperature). Most of the coolant
now flows through the radiator and the cooling system is remov-
SYSTEMS
ing heat from the ICE. If the coolant temperature continues to rise
PRINCIPLES Some of the waste heat absorbed by the
past this point, the electric fan will turn on and circulate air over
ICE cooling system can also be dissipated by the heater core
the radiator to increase the amount of heat that can be dissipated.
in the passenger compartment heating system. hot coolant
●■■SEE FIGURE 16-2.
flows through the heater core and air is circulated through it to
When engine temperature decreases, the electric fan will
raise the temperature of the vehicle interior.
turn off and the thermostat will start to close. This causes
more coolant to be recirculated through the water jacket and PARTS AND OPERATION heater cores are similar to radi-
less to enter the radiator. The electric fan and thermostat ators, but are much smaller and usually have the inlet and outlet
work together to stabilize coolant temperature, and enable pipes located at the same end of the assembly. The heater core is
the ICE to operate at maximum efficiency and performance located in the passenger compartment, inside the plenum cham-
without overheating. ber (hVAC air distribution box). ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-3.
DEFROST
HEATER
CORE

MODE EVAPORATOR
DOOR CORE

BLEND
VENT
DOOR

HEATER
DOOR

INSIDE AIR OUTSIDE AIR

FRESH/CIRCULATE
DOOR
FLOOR

FIGURE 16-3 A typical hVAC plenum chamber showing the location of the various components.

E V AN D h E V h V A C SY S T EM 209
 In many systems, coolant is continually circulated through ELECTRIC ENGINE WATER PUMP An electric water
the heater core so it remains hot at all times. Air entering the ple- pump uses a DC motor to power the impeller and is used on most
num chamber must first pass through the air-conditioning (A/C) hybrid electric vehicles and some internal combustion engines.
evaporator core, and is directed either through or around the The electric water pump usually is attached to the engine and is
heater core by the blend door (air mix valve). The temperature controlled by the powertrain control module (PCM). Being con-
of the air can be adjusted by changing the position of the blend trolled by the PCM means that it can be operated only when
door and the percentage of air that is sent through the heater needed to move coolant through the engine and radiator instead
core. of being powered by the engine at all times. Also, not circulating
Once the air leaves the heater core, it is blended with any coolant until needed allows the engine to reach operating tem-
air that has bypassed it and then is directed to specific areas of perature sooner than when using an engine-driven water pump.
the vehicle, depending on the mode that is selected: This results in increased efficiency for improved fuel economy
■■ In the defrost mode, the air can be directed toward the and reduced exhaust emissions. Check service information for

windshield outlets. information about an electric water pump and where it is located
because most are often hard to see. ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-4.
■■ In the heat mode, the air can be sent to the instrument
panel outlets and/or the floor vents depending on the
driver’s preference.
HEAT MODE When in the heat mode, the A/C compressor
is turned off and the evaporator operates at ambient tempera-
HEATING SYSTEMS The amount of heat generated by the ture. This means that any temperature change of the incom-
heating system is dependent on the temperature of the coolant that ing air is now controlled only by the air temperature valve as it
is circulated through the heater core. When the ICE is first started, it directs the air across the heater core.
takes some time for the coolant to reach sufficient temperature for
NOTE: An auxiliary water (coolant) pump is a DC
heat to be sent to the passenger compartment. This is further com-
motor-operated water pump that is used to circulate
plicated with hybrid electric vehicles as the ICE coolant temperature
coolant to the heater core to help keep the cabin warm.
is more difficult to maintain when the ICE enters into idle stop or the
Hybrid electric vehicles have an electric water pump to
vehicle is operating in electric-only mode.
cool the battery packs and inverters.

ENGINE COOLANT TO/FROM HEATER CORE

TEMP. SENSOR

WATER PUMP
(FOR HEATER)

COOLANT HEAT
STORAGE TANK

WATER VALVE

FIGURE 16-4 Toyota and many other hybrid electric vehicles use an electric water pump not only to circulate coolant though the
engine, but also to circulate coolant through the heater core when operating at idle-stop mode.

210 ChAPTE r 16
MODES OF OPERATION The auxiliary water pump
Case Study
does not operate all the time. The BCM or controlling
module will control and regulate the pump based on the
The Case of the Hot Chevrolet Volt
following:
Customer complained that their Chevrolet Volt had
■■ Battery voltage a coolant leak and lack of heat when the engine was
■■ Exterior temperature running. The Volt heater system uses an electrical
■■ Interior temperature element for heat in electric mode and a pump and
valve assembly to circulate engine coolant when the
■■ Vehicle speed
engine is running. Initial inspection found a coolant
■■ Engine rPM leak in the radiator. The radiator was replaced and
■■ Coolant temperature the cooling system was refilled using a vacuum lift
■■ Temperature selected by the driver system. The cooling system has many places air can
be trapped if any other method to refill the system is
■■ Blend door position
used. Following the repair, the leak was corrected but
■■ Fan speed
the lack of heat concern continued. Further inspec-
tion, draining, flushing, and refilling of the system
FAILURE MODE A failed auxiliary water pump will usu- revealed someone had put stop-leak into the system.
ally not cause the engine to overheat. If the auxiliary cool- The stop-leak had plugged the mesh filter in the
ant pump is inoperative, the customer might notice reduced upper heater hose. ●■ SEE FIGURE 16-5. The cool-
heater performance at low speeds and at idle. While this fault ant heater hose and pipe assembly were replaced
is often caused by a defective thermostat, the wise service and the system was refilled. The lack of heat condi-
technician should check to SEE if the vehicle is equipped tion was corrected.
with an auxiliary water pump before replacing the thermo- Summary:
stat. If the auxiliary water pump fails on some hybrids, the • Concern—Coolant leak and lack of heat.
system will disable the hybrid drive system or put the vehicle • Cause—Leaking radiator and the addition of stop-
into a limp mode. leak to the engine cooling system.
• Correction—replacement of the radiator, the heater
AUXILIARY WATER PUMP DIAGNOSIS The diagnos- hose and pipe assembly, and the proper refilling of
tic process includes the following steps: the cooling system restored the cooling system.

STEP 1 Verify the customer concern. Operate the vehicle

under the same conditions as the customer to verify a
lack of cabin heating.
STEP 2 Perform a thorough visual inspection of the engine diagnosed. The electric auxiliary water pump may
cooling system looking for leaks, coolant level, be called an auxiliary cooling circuit in the service
condition, and other possible reasons for a lack of information.
cabin heat.
STEP 3 Check for codes with a scan tool. For example, a
P2600 on a Mercedes indicates a fault with the aux-
iliary water pump or water pump circuit. Some codes
may appear to be unrelated such as door module
operation and loss of communications, but they can
cause the auxiliary pump to stop operating. A scan
tool can be used to command the pump on and off so
its operation can be tested.
STEP 4 Check service information for the exact diag- FIGURE 16-5 A mesh filter used in the cooling system of a
nostic procedure to follow for the vehicle being Chevrolet Volt.

E V AN D h E V h V A C S Y S T EM 211
 The water valve is controlled by the ECM and consists of an
COOLANT HEAT STORAGE electric motor, drive gears, a rotary valve, and a valve position
sensor. ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-7.
SYSTEM The storage tank pump is used to move coolant
through the heat storage tank at times when the ICE is shut
PURPOSE In order to meet ever-increasing emissions stan-
off. This pump is located on the side of the heated coolant
dards, engineers strive to limit the impact that cold starts have
storage tank and is plumbed in series with the tank inlet.
on emissions and drivability. One approach is to use a cool- ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-8.
ant heat storage system where heated coolant is stored during
normal vehicle operation and is then used to warm the engine
intake ports prior to a cold start. Toyota uses this system in the VALVE
second-generation Prius (2004–2009). POSITION
SENSOR
TO/FROM
PARTS AND OPERATION The coolant heat storage tank COOLANT HEAT
STORAGE TANK
is built very similar to a Thermos® bottle. The tank is built with
an inner and outer casing, and a vacuum is formed between
them. This is done to prevent heat transfer from the inner cas-
ing. Approximately 3 quarts (liters) of coolant are stored inside
the inner casing, and the coolant can be kept warm for upto
three days. There is a standpipe that extends inside of the inner
casing, so coolant must rise in order to exit the tank through
the standpipe. ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-6.
A water valve is used to direct the coolant flow between
the coolant storage tank, the ICE, and the vehicle’s heater core. TO
ELECTRIC
HEATER
MOTOR
CORE
TO/FROM
ENGINE

FIGURE 16-7 The valve position sensor in the water valve

provides feedback to the ECM concerning the position of the
water valve.

FIGURE 16-6 A vacuum exists between the inner and FIGURE 16-8 The storage tank and pump as seen from
outer casing of the coolant heat storage tank. The outlet under the vehicle. This pump is energized when coolant must
temperature sensor and the drain plug are located in the be moved through the tank but the ICE is shut off.
manifold at the bottom of the tank.

212 ChAPTE r 16
 PTC HEATERS
OPERATION Some vehicles are using the electrical sys-
tem to boost the heat to the passenger compartment when
the ICE coolant temperature is low. One approach is to use
PTC heaters built into the heater core itself. Positive tem-
perature coefficient (PTC) refers to the tendency of a con-
ductor to increase its electrical resistance as its temperature
increases. PTC heaters convert electrical energy into heat,
and this is used to boost heat to the passenger compartment.
PTC heaters can also be located in the air ducts in the
form of a honeycomb-shaped grid. Air that is leaving the ple-
num chamber passes through these heaters before it enters the
passenger compartment. ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-9.
The Toyota Prius uses PTC heaters located in the heater FIGURE 16-10 Two PTC heaters are located in the footwell
air ducts in the Toyota Prius. These are energized when the
core, as well as the footwell air ducts. The A/C electronic con-
coolant temperature is low and MAX hOT is requested in the
trol unit turns on the PTC heaters when the coolant temperature
FOOT or FOOT/DEF modes.
is low and MAX hOT is requested. PTC heaters are sometimes
referred to as “glow plugs” in service information. ●■ SEE
FIGURE 16-10.

HEV CABIN COOLING

BASIC OPERATION The fundamental purpose of any
air-conditioning system is to absorb heat in one location and
then release (dissipate) that heat in another location. heat
energy must be absorbed by a refrigerant (such as r-134a or
r-1234yf) in order for it to change from a liquid to a gas. This
is achieved by using an evaporator to absorb heat from inside
the passenger compartment. The heat causes the refrigerant
to change state form a liquid to a gas. The gaseous refriger-
ant is then compressed and sent to the condenser, located
ahead of the radiator, where the absorbed heat is released to
the outside air.
Changing the refrigerant from a gas to a liquid requires
that it be compressed by the compressor to concentrate
the heat and cooled by the condenser to remove the excess
PTC heat energy. The liquid refrigerant is then directed through a
HEATER restriction (thermostatic expansion valve or orifice tube) in
FIGURE 16-9 PTC heaters can be located on the heater core the line, where a pressure drop takes place. Moving from a
itself to help boost heat to the passenger compartment when high-pressure area to a low-pressure area allows the refriger-
coolant temperature is low. ant to expand in the evaporator and absorb heat energy as it

E V AN D hE V h V A C S Y S T EM 213
 EXPANSION VALVE EVAPORATOR
AND BLOWER

COMPRESSOR

DRIER

HIGH PRESSURE SIDE, GAS

HIGH PRESSURE SIDE, LIQUID

LOW PRESSURE SIDE, LIQUID

CONDENSER LOW PRESSURE SIDE, GAS

AND FAN

FIGURE 16-11 Newer vehicles and all hybrid electric vehicles use an expansion valve-type system because it requires less
refrigerant.

changes into a gas. The cycle then starts over again as the moisture/water from the entering air and move it into the pas-
refrigerant moves out of the evaporator and into the compres- senger area. ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-12.
sor inlet. ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-11.
Control of this type of air-conditioning system is accom- DEFROST In defrost mode, the A/C compressor is acti-
plished through engagement of the compressor drive, as well vated and the evaporator core is cooled to the point where any
as the airflow across the evaporator and condenser. The com- humidity in the air will condense on the evaporator and then be
pressor is most often belt-driven by the ICE accessory drive. drained outside the vehicle. This allows for rapid clearing of the
The belt drive often uses an electrically operated clutch, which windshield and a comfortable humidity level inside the vehicle.
allows the compressor pulley to disconnect from the com- While in defrost mode, the air leaving the A/C evaporator
pressor and stop refrigerant flow in the system while the ICE core can then be sent through the heater core to raise its tem-
continues to run. perature. This warm air is now sent to the defrost outlets and
is passed over the driver and passenger side of the vehicle’s
AIRFLOW Airflow into the passenger compartment is windshield. The temperature of the air is controlled by the posi-
controlled by a blower motor, which sends the air through tion of the air temp valve (blend door), as it either directs varying
the evaporator and then into a series of passages and doors. amounts of air over the heater core or bypasses it completely.
In most situations, fresh air is brought in from outside the
vehicle and then is heated or cooled before being sent to the
A/C MODE When the system is placed in the A/C mode,
the A/C compressor is engaged and the blower motor circu-
appropriate vents. It is also possible to bring the air in from
lates air over the evaporator. The cool, dehumidified air is then
the passenger compartment itself, when the system is placed
sent to the air temp valve, where it can bypass the heater core
in the recirculation mode. The fresh air coming into the vehi-
completely if maximum cooling effect is required. however, if
cle is sent through a cabin filter. A cabin filter is used for two
warmer air is desirable, its temperature can be increased by
purposes:
changing the position of the air temperature/blend door valve
1. to remove particulate matter
so that some of the air passes through the heater core on
2. prevent dirt and debris from clogging the evaporator. its way to the distribution ducts. The final air temperature is
Note that all the incoming air must pass through the A/C achieved by blending the heated air from the heater core with
evaporator core after leaving the blower motor to remove the unheated air.

214 ChAPTE r 16
 CONDENSER

ELECTRICALLY
DRIVEN
COMPRESSOR

INVERTER
ENGINE REFRIGERANT FLOW

ENGINE
ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN COOLING
WATER PUMP WATER FLOW
FRESH
FRESH / RE-CIRCULATER
AIR

TWO LAYER FLOW A/C UNIT

RE-CIRCULATED AIR

BUTTONS FOR A/C AND BUTTON FOR FRESH/RE OPTIMUM HUMIDITY CONTROL
THERMAL CONTROL -CIRCULATION SWITCHING WITH HUMIDITY SENSOR

FIGURE 16-12 Typical airflow though an hVAC system. Outside air is drawn for the outside or from the cabin and flows through
a cabin filter before flowing to the evaporator and heater core.

...continued
Case Study Summary:
• Complaint—Customer stated that the blower
The Case of the Intermittent Blower Motor would work intermittently.
• Cause—The blower motor was found to be draw-
The owner of a Ford Explorer hybrid electric vehicle
ing an excessive amount of current causing the
complained that the blower motor would work for a
relay to open the circuit.
while when the air conditioning was on but then stop.
• Correction—The blower motor and the relay were
The blower motor would start working again at times.
both replaced which restored proper blower motor
The service technician was able to duplicate the fault.
operation.
A diagnostic trouble code B10b9 was retrieved (blower
control circuit short to ground or open). During an
inspection of the blower motor circuit components, the
blower relay was hot to the touch. Using a clamp-on
ammeter, the technician measured 30 amperes of cur- HEV A/C COMPONENTS
rent being drawn by the blower motor which exceeded
the maximum specifications of 20 amperes. The blower COMPRESSORS There are many different compressor
motor and the relay were both replaced and the circuit designs, with most utilizing either a rotary vane or a piston
current draw tested again. This time the blower motor and cylinder arrangement. however, the most commonly used
drew 14 amperes and the operated normally. compressor design in hybrid electric vehicles is the scroll com-
...continued pressor. ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-13.

E V AN D hE V h V A C S Y S T EM 215
 SUCTION
PRESSURE AREA
FLELD COLL

CLUTCH FRONT
PRESSURE PLATE

DISCHARGE
VALVE

CLUTCH
ROTOR PULLEY

DISCHARGE FIXED
PRESSURE MOVABLE SCROLL
AREA SCROLL
COMPRESSION CYCLE

FIGURE 16-13 Basic components of a scroll compressor. Note the “pockets” of refrigerant that occupy the spaces labeled with
arrows.

The scroll compressor is a highly efficient and durable Low-pressure gas enters the suction (inlet) port of the compres-
design, with very good noise, vibration, and harshness (NVh) sor, and high-pressure gas leaves the discharge (outlet) port.
characteristics. This is because it is a balanced unit that uses The temperature of the refrigerant rises as it is compressed and
an orbiting motion rather than sliding to compress the gases. it is sent on for cooling in the condenser.
It also has very low power consumption relative to other com-
pressor designs, making it especially attractive for hybrid
applications.
A scroll compressor has two primary components:
1. stationary scroll
? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

2. movable scroll Why Are Electrically Driven A/C Compressors

Mounted to the Engine?
In a scroll compressor the movable scroll does not rotate
but instead it orbits inside the stationary scroll. If an A/C compressor is electrically driven, it seems

A low-pressure area is created at the inlet (outer) port of the as if it could be mounted anywhere there is room in

scroll mechanism, and refrigerant enters this area and moves in the vehicle. The main reason why the compressor is

a spiral pattern toward the delivery port in the center. There are mounted on the engine is because the engine acts as

several “pockets” of refrigerant being compressed at any one a large damper which helps reduce noise, vibration,

time as the movable scroll orbits inside the stationary scroll. and harshness (NVh) from being created and trans-

The compressor is on the dividing line between the high- mitted to the passenger compartment.

and low-pressure sections of the air-conditioning system.

216 ChAPTE r 16
COMPRESSOR DRIVES There are two types of compres- inverter to change the DC to AC for the operation of the
sor drives used in hybrid electric vehicles: AC motor used to drive the compressor.

1. Belt-driven. This type is used in many micro-hybrid electric ■■ Three High-Voltage Wires—The three wires carry high-
vehicles and uses a standard A/C system. Another type or voltage AC from an external inverter to power the motor
engine-driven compressors uses a portion that is ICE pow- used to power the A/C compressor.
ered and the smaller section of a compressor to provide cool- ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-15 AND CHART 16-1.
ing when at idle-stop is driven by high voltage from the hybrid
battery pack. The electric motor can be “piggybacked” with
the conventional belt drive. ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-14.
COMPRESSOR OIL hybrid vehicle A/C systems that use
electric-driven compressors must use POE (polyol ester) oil, unlike
2. Electrically powered. An electrically powered A/C com-
all other compressors. PAG (polyalkylene glycol) oil, which is used
pressor is used in all electric vehicle and many hybrid
in non-hybrid vehicles, is slightly conductive and can cause deteri-
electric vehicles. There are two basic configurations of
oration of the insulation on the windings of the compressor motor.
electric A/C compressors:
This can cause the compressor to become electrically conductive,
■■ Two High-Voltage Wires—The two wires carry high- which can result in electrical leakage. This leakage can potentially
voltage DC current and the compressor itself includes an be hazardous during future service. ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-16.

CLUTCH PLATE

SNAP RING

COMPRESSOR
CLUTCH COIL

SNAP RING SHIM CENTER BOLT

PULLEY ASSEMBLY

FIGURE 16-14 The A/C compressor clutch allows the compressor to engage and dis-
engage as necessary while the ICE continues to run.

OIL SEPARATOR

A/C INVERTER

MOTOR
A B
SHAFT

FIXED SCROLL

DISCHARGE PORT
VARIABLE SCROLL

BRUSHLESS MOTOR

FIGURE 16-15 Two basic designs of compressors are used in hEV vehicles and both include an oil separator that is used to trap
and hold refrigerant oil in the compressor. (a) This compressor uses a three-phase input from the vehicle inverter and operates on
AC. (b) This compressor has two high-voltage wires from the battery pack and then uses a built-in inverter to convert DC to AC.

E V AN D h E V hV A C S Y S T EM 217
 HOT
BELT-DRIVEN A/C ELECTRICALLY POWERED REFRIGERANT
COMPRESSOR A/C COMPRESSOR VAPOR IN

Operation requires that the No compressor clutch used

internal combustion engine or needed
(ICE) be running
Capable of removing more Electrically powered—no TUBE
heat drive belt needed
Optimal A/C performance Uses a variable speed
similar to a non-hybrid compressor
vehicle FIN
Does not operate during Operates during idle-stop
idle-stop

CHART 16- 1
Performance comparison between a belt-driven A/C compres-
sor and an electrically powered A/C compressor.

COOLER
LIQUID
REFRIGERANT
OUT

FIGURE 16- 17 Condenser construction. Surface area is

maximized with cooling fins and partitioned tubes to increase
cooling capacity.

SUBCOOLING CONDENSERS Condenser subcooling is

used on most recent condensers so that there is a liquid seal
at the condenser’s bottom so the liquid line or receiver will not
FIGURE 16- 16 Specific A/C compressor oil designed for
use in honda hybrid vehicle air-conditioning systems. be fed with vapors. On a subcooling condenser, the receiver/
drier is integrated into one of the header tanks. The header tank
CONDENSERS The condenser is part of the high-pressure is ported into the drier at several points from top to bottom.
section of the air-conditioning system and is another type of By integrating the receiver/drier, liquid/vapor separation within
heat exchanger. It receives high-temperature, high-pressure the condenser is improved, thus improving heat exchange
refrigerant gas from the compressor and dissipates the heat efficiency. Most designs include an integrated drier. Some
from the refrigerant to the outside air. The refrigerant leaves the subcooling systems connect back to one or two tube rows at
outlet of the condenser as a warm, high-pressure liquid. The the bottom of the condenser.
condenser can be built with one long cooling tube following
NOTE: Many applications have the receiver drier
a serpentine path but most use multiple cooling tubes form-
attached to the condenser but not all of these are sub-
ing parallel paths. Surface area of the condenser is increased
cooling designs.
by the addition of thin fin material between the tubes, as well
as partitioning in the tubes themselves. This ensures that suf-
EXPANSION DEVICES There are two primary types
ficient air is in contact with the cooling surfaces and maximum
of expansion devices used in automotive air-conditioning
heat is dissipated. ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-17.
systems:
The condenser is typically installed ahead of the vehicle’s
radiator and has airflow sent through it either through vehicle 1. Thermostatic expansion valve (TXV)
movement or by the cooling fan. 2. Orifice tube (OT)

218 ChAPTEr 16
 HIGH-PRESSURE VAPOR

HIGH-PRESSURE LIQUID

LOW-PRESSURE VAPOR

LOW-PRESSURE LIQUID

CONDENSER CONDENSER

HIGH-SIDE HIGH-SIDE
SERVICE FITTING SERVICE FITTING
(DISCHARGE) (DISCHARGE)
RECEIVER-DRIER ORIFICE
TUBE

HIGH SIDE HIGH SIDE

COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOR
LOW SIDE EXPANSION LOW SIDE
VALVE

LOW-SIDE LOW-SIDE
SERVICE FITTING SERVICE FITTING
(SUCTION) (SUCTION)

EVAPORATOR EVAPORATOR

ACCUMULATOR

FIGURE 16-18 Basic components and refrigerant flow in an expansion-valve system and an orifice-tube system.

The type of expansion device used determines the con- entering the vehicle is thus conditioned for maximum passen-
figuration of the system, as there are differences between ger comfort. An evaporator is a heat exchanger, and therefore
a system that uses a TXV and one that uses an orifice tube. is constructed similar to a condenser. ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-19.
●■■SEE FIGURE 16-18.
THERMAL STORAGE DURING IDLE STOP hEV and
■■ An expansion valve (TXV) system uses a receiver-drier in
PhEV vehicles have engine stop-start systems but during A/C
the high-pressure side.
operation the air from the ducts start to warm in 5 to 15 seconds.
■■ An orifice tube system has an accumulator on the
low-pressure side between the evaporator and the
compressor suction port. SUCTION LINE DISCHANGE LINE/MUFFLER

EVAPORATORS The evaporator is located after the SENSING COMPRESSOR

1408F
expansion device on the low-pressure side of the A/C refriger- BULB
ant system. Its primary responsibility is to remove heat from
348F
the passenger compartment, but it is also tasked with reducing 308F
humidity as incoming air passes over its cool surfaces. Moisture EVAPORATOR
TXV CONDENSER
in the air condenses on the evaporator surface, then exits the LIQUID LINE 1108F
passenger compartment through a drain located beneath the
evaporator housing. An added benefit is that pollen and other RECEIVER FILTER DRIER
particulate matter will collect on the moist surface and be
washed out through the evaporator drain with the water. Air FIGURE 16-19 A typical thermal expansion valve (TXV)
system used in most hybrid electric vehicles.

E V AN D hE V h V A C S Y S T EM 219
reducing cooling on a warm summer day is not acceptable.
TECH TIP
One way that vehicle manufacturers use to prevent this is to
use a thermal storage evaporator. Thermal storage material
Use Heated Seats and Steering Wheel
(TSM), also called phase change material (PCM), evaporator
Instead of trying to heat all of the air inside the
has a wax chamber in the tank end or between the tubes. The
cabin, many drivers of electric vehicles command
cold insulation case is placed between refrigerant tubes, which
the heated seats and steering wheel on to make the
extracts cold energy during the air-conditioning cycle. When the
cold vehicle comfortable when cold. heated seats
air-conditioning cycle is stopped, cooled air is slowly released
use electric heating elements in the seat bottom,
from the cold insulation container via the outer fins connected
as well as in the seat back, in many vehicles. The
to the refrigerant tubes.
heating element is designed to warm the seat and/
■■ When the A/C stops, refrigerant vapor rises through the or back of the seat to about 100°F (38°C) or close
tubing and condenses against the chamber, starting the to normal body temperature (98.6°F [37°C]). ●■■SEE
thermosiphon loop and extending the cooling time. FIGURE 16-20.
■■ If the evaporator temperature rises too much, the engine A temperature sensor in the seat cushion is used to
will restart to drive the compressor. regulate the temperature. The sensor is a variable resistor,
which changes with temperature and is used as an input
With these functions, storing cold energy can be com-
signal to a heated seat control module. The heated seat
pleted even in a relatively short time of vehicle travel and cooled
module uses the seat temperature input, as well as the
air can be supplied to the cabin for an extended period of time.
input from the high–low (or variable) temperature control,
to turn the current on or off to the heating element in the
UNIQUE HYBRID AND ELECTRIC VEHICLE AIR-
seat. Some vehicles are equipped with heated seats in
CONDITIONING SERVICE Many manufacturers specify
both the front and the rear seats.
the separate or different air-conditioning service equipment for
heated steering wheels usually consist of the
hybrid and electric vehicles that use an electric air-conditioning
following components.
compressor. When the refrigerant is recovered from the sys-
tem, typically small amounts of refrigerant oil are also removed • Steering wheel with a built-in heater in the rim
from the system. To avoid cross contamination between PAG • heated steering wheel control switch
and POE oil, which might lead to an electric motor winding • heated steering wheel control module
failure or a loss of isolation, separate air-conditioning recovery
stations are specified.
When using dye to leak check the refrigerant system on
a hybrid or electric vehicle, use a dye that is compatible with
POE refrigerant oil and will not lead to an electric motor winding
failure or loss of isolation.

EV HEATING
EMPHASIS IS ON RANGE Vehicles without an ICE do
not have waste heat from coolant so they must create heat.
Potential vehicle buyers of an electric vehicle (EV) want as
much range as possible even though they can recharge every
night at home. range is often less than the manufacturer indi-
cates. In order to counteract this disadvantage, manufacturers FIGURE 16-20 The heating element of a heated seat
is a replaceable part, but service requires that the
make efficient use of the available energy. Depending on ambi-
upholstery be removed. The yellow part is the seat
ent temperature, the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning foam material and the entire white cover is the replace-
(hVAC) system can be the largest auxiliary load. The range of able heating element. This is then covered by the seat
an EV is significantly reduced when the hVAC system is acti- material.
vated during extreme temperature conditions. ...continued

220 Ch APTE r 16
 ...continued ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE HEATING Some EVs use
resistance heating for cabin temperature control. The heating
When the steering wheel heater control switch is
effect of an electric current depends on three factors:
turned on, a signal is sent to the control module and
1. The resistance, r, of the conductor. A higher resistance
electrical current flows through the heating element in
produces more heat.
the rim of the steering wheel. ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-21.
The system remains on until the ignition switch is 2. The higher the current flow, the greater amount of heat is
turned off or the driver turns off the control switch. The generated. heating a metal conductor makes it more dif-
temperature of the steering wheel is usually calibrated to ficult for electricity to flow through it. As electrons move
stay at about 90°F (32°C), and it requires 3 to 4 minutes through a metal conductor, some collide with atoms, other
to reach that temperature, depending on the outside electrons or impurities. These collisions cause resistance
temperature. Many heated steering wheels only heat a and generate heat.
part and often not all the steering wheel. A good element will have a resistance between 5 and
25 ohms. To generate a significant amount of heat requires a
significant amount of electricity. For example, a Tesla Model 3
STEERING draws about 4,800 W (20 A at 240 V) to heat the cabin using the
WHEEL resistance heating. ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-22.
ICON

PTC HEATERS One approach is to use PTC heaters built

into the heater core itself. PTC refers to the tendency of a con-
ductor to increase its electrical resistance as its temperature
increases. PTC heaters convert electrical energy into heat, and
this is used to boost heat to the passenger compartment.
PTC heaters are located in the air ducts in the form of a
honeycomb-shaped grid. Air that is leaving the plenum cham-
ber passes through these heaters before it enters the passen-
ger compartment.

FIGURE 16-21 The heated steering wheel is controlled ■■ PTC Fluid Heaters. These are self-regulating up to
by a switch on the steering wheel in this vehicle. 460°F (240°C) and can be an immersion heater put into
a fluid reservoir, or self-contained flow-through heater.

ELECTRIC HEATER USING BATTERY POWER TO DIRECTLY HEAT THE CABIN VIA THE
ELECTRIC HEATER
CABIN HEATING

BATTERY ELECTRIC HEATER

FIGURE 16-22 Electrical resistance heating is used in many electric vehicles including many Tesla models and the Mustang
Mach E SUV.

E V AN D hE V h V A C S Y S T EM 221
 extend driving range during the winter months. Vehicles that use
? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
a heat pump include but not limited to the following:

Why Doesn’t the Heater Actually Turn Off? ■■ BMW i3 EV

The owners of Chevrolet Bolts often state that if ■■ Jaguar I-Pace
they are running the heater and then turn it off, ■■ Audi E-tron
the fan continues to run so they think the heater ■■ Toyota Prius Prime
doesn’t actually turn off. The cause is due to the
■■ Volkswagen e-Golf.
resistance heating; that is, heating the coolant and
the heat dissipation of coolant retains heat longer
■■ Kia Niro EV does.
than a metal resistor heater. It turns off, but it will ■■ Tesla Model Y
just blow warm for a bit until the radiator cools off.
NOTE: Most Tesla models don’t use a heat pump as part
of the climate control system but do use waste heat
from the motor and power electronics to help warm the
In this type of system, the coolant is heated
battery.
electrically and then uses an electric water (coolant)
pump to circulate the coolant though a heater core heat pumps can capture energy by recycling waste heat
similar to the what is done when the coolant is heated not only from power electrics (PE) modules, such as drive
by the ICE in a hybrid or conventional gasoline or motors, on-board chargers, and inverters, but also from the
diesel-powered vehicle. battery pack. ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-23.
■■ PTC Air Heaters. Self-regulating up to 460°F (240°C), PARTS AND OPERATION A heat pump system is simi-
primarily used for cabin heating, but can be used for lar to an air-conditioning system where the operation can be
heating the battery pack. reversed to provide both cabin heating and cabin cooling.
A heat pump uses one refrigerant circuit that is used for both

HEAT PUMP cooling and heating. ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-24.

■■ Heating. A heat pump system heats the cabin using the
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION Many automakers use a heat temperature difference between a refrigerant and the
pump to maximize the range of an electric vehicle by scavenging outside air making it possible to heat the vehicle cabin
waste heat to warm the cabin. A heat pump is more efficient than with less power than heating the air. When the heater
PTC/electric resistance heating. The original heat pump technol- is in use, the external condenser absorbs heat from the
ogy was introduced in 2014 on the first-generation Kia Soul EV. atmosphere and the compressor is used to compress it
The 2013 Nissan Leaf was the first mass-produced vehicle in into a high-temperature gas. The cabin is heated as the
the world to offer a heat pump-based cabin heater which helped hot air flows into the cabin out of the heating ducts. heat

WASTE HEAT CABIN HEATING

COMPRESSOR

EVAPORATOR
CONDENSER

EFFICIENCY
INCREASE

FIGURE 16- 23 A heat pump is basically a reversible air-conditioning system that can provide both cabin heating and cabin
cooling.

222 ChAPTEr 16
 UNDER HOOD INTERIOR

HOT AIR GRID

ORIFICE #2

3-WAY VALVE #2
HEAT EXCHANGER

COMPRESSOR

ORIFICE #1

HEAT EXCHANGER
(CHILLER)

ACCUMU-
LATOR

EVAPORATOR

3-WAY
VALVE #1
POWER
ELECTRONICS HV BATTERY

OUTSIDE HEAT EXCHANGER

(CONDENSER - COOLING) (EVAPORATOR - HEATING) HIGH VOLTAGE BATTERY

FIGURE 16-24 A heat pump is basically a reversible air-conditioning system that can provide both cabin heating and cabin
cooling. It is used to the waste heat from the electronic components to heat the cabin.

pumps do not create heat, but instead they move heat.

The job of the condenser is to cool refrigerant so that it can
heat can be moved using less electricity than it takes to
remove heat from the cabin. Liquid-cooled condensers
heat the air in the cabin using resistive elements.
(LCC) exchange heat by removing heat from one fluid and
■■ Cooling. In the summer, heat is absorbed from inside the transferring it to another fluid. A liquid-cooled condenser is
cabin and released outside by the external condenser, a heat exchanger that removes heat from refrigerant vapor
similar to that conventional air-conditioning works. and transfers it to the liquid running through it. In the case
●■■SEE FIGURE 16-25. of the Tesla Model Y, it uses an air-to-glycol-based-coolant
low-temperature radiator. That radiator sends cold cool-
LIQUID-COOLED CONDENSER (LCC) Most vehicles ant to the condenser which removes heat from the gaseous
use an air-to-refrigerant condenser ahead of the radiator. refrigerant to cause it to condense into a liquid. The control

E V AN D h E V h V A C SY S T EM 223
 OUTSIDE VEHICLE INSIDE VEHICLE

AIR-CONDITIONING GRILLE
4
ATMOSPHERIC
1 HEAT IS ABSORBED FROM
HEAT HOT AIR
2 ATMOSPHERE
2 HEAT IS COMPRESSED AND
1 3 TURNED INTO HEATING
3 HEAT HEATS COLD AIR IN CABIN
5 AND RAISES TEMPERATURE
COLD AIR
4 HEATED AIR IS BLOWN
INTO CABIN
5 DECOMPRESSED HEAT TURNS
INTO LOW TEMPERATURE HEAT

FIGURE 16-25 A typical electric vehicle heat pump system showing the components inside the cabin and outside, under the
hood.

electronics control the components of the vehicle thermal

management system to: ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

1. heat the cabin How Much Energy Is Used by the HVAC

2. cool the cabin System?
3. heat the battery system Using a scan tool on a Chevrolet Bolt, the power
4. cool the battery system usage for the energy consumption by the A/C is 22 A
maximum at 370 V (6,600–8,000 W). A typical auto-
5. cool the drivetrain
motive heat pump drawing 1 kW will generate the
The control electronics may control the compressor
heat equivalent of between 2–3 kW with about a 60°F
to operate in an efficient mode or a lossy mode in which the
(16°C) temperature increase (delta).
compressor generates heat. The control electronics may also
As a general rule-of-thumb, there needs to be at
control the components of the vehicle thermal management
least 3,500 W of heat available, this requires a heat
system to precondition the battery.
pump about three times the size of an air conditioner,
NOTE: Although heat pumps are advantageous for and still may require a resistive heater to properly
extending cold-weather range, they don’t actually heat the cabin at 0°F (−18°C).
increase the stated EPA-estimated range of a vehicle
because the EPA does not test the effects of cabin-
heating during its cold weather test.

224 Ch APTE r 16
 ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

What Is “Dog Mode”?

Dog mode (also called pet mode) is a climate control feature in Tesla and some other electric vehicles that leaves the
air conditioning or heater on when owners leave their pets in their vehicle. It is accessed through the climate-control
settings by selecting “Dog” under the “Keep Climate On” settings. Then, a message is displayed that reads: “My owner
will be back soon. Don’t worry! The heater or A/C is on and it’s 72 degrees.” If the owner is gone for long periods of
time and the battery goes below 20%, a push notification goes to the owner’s phone to prompt them to get back to
their pet. ●■■SEE FIGURE 16-26.

NOTE: Tesla has a feature referred to as “camp mode” where the climate control system can be kept on
with the doors locked. Basically, this mode would be used if sleeping in the vehicle.

FIGURE 16-26 A message appears on the large center displace when the vehicle is placed in dog mode to notify anyone
near that the pets are safe being locked in the vehicle.

E V AN D h E V h V A C SY S T EM 225
 SUMMARY
1. The heater core is located in the passenger compartment, 5. The fresh air coming into the vehicle is sent through a
inside the plenum chamber (hVAC air distribution box) for cabin filter.
the vehicle’s heater and air-conditioning components. 6. There are two types of compressor drives used in hybrid
2. The amount of heat generated by the heating system is electric vehicles—belt-driven and electrically driven.
dependent on the temperature of the coolant that is circu- 7. PTC heaters convert electrical energy into heat, and this is
lated through the heater core. used to boost heat to the passenger compartment.
3. An auxiliary water pump is a DC motor–operated water 8. A heat pump is more efficient than PTC/electric resistance
pump that is used to circulate coolant to the heater core. heating.
4. The fundamental purpose of any air-conditioning system 9. A liquid-cooled condenser is a heat exchanger that
is to absorb heat in one location and then reject (dissipate) removes heat from refrigerant vapor and transfers it to the
that heat in another location. liquid running through it.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the purpose and function of the auxiliary water 4. What is the difference in the parts between a TXV and an
(coolant) pump? orifice tube A/C system?
2. how can it be determined if the inverter is located inside 5. What are the advantages of a heat pump hVAC system?
or outside an A/C compressor?
3. What type of refrigerant oil is used in an electrically pow-
ered A/C compressor?

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. A typical hEV uses waste heat from the ________ to heat 5. An electrically operated A/C compressor has two orange
the cabin. cables. This means the compressor ________.
a. motor/generator a. is powered by the 12-volt auxiliary battery
b. ICE b. has a built-in inverter
c. brakes c. is using an external inverter
d. exhaust d. None of the above
2. An electric water pump uses a ________ to power the 6. ________ converts electrical energy into heat, and this is
impeller and is used on most hybrid electric vehicles and used to boost heat to the passenger compartment.
some internal combustion engines. a. heater core
a. stepper motor b. Antifreeze/coolant
b. AC synchronize motor c. PTC heater
c. DC motor d. The 12-volt auxiliary battery
d. Any of the above 7. Many automakers use a ________ to maximize the range
3. The fresh air coming into the vehicle is sent through a of an electric vehicle that can travel by scavenging waste
________. heat to warm the cabin.
a. cabin filter a. heat pump
b. squirrel cage blower b. scroll compressor
c. evaporator c. variable compressor
d. condenser d. PTC
4. The type of A/C compressor most likely to be used is a 8. A ________ is a heat exchanger that removes heat from
________ design. refrigerant vapor and transfers it to the liquid running
a. piston through it.
b. scroll a. scroll compressor
c. variable displacement b. air-to-air heat exchanger
d. Both a and c c. liquid-cooled condenser
d. Any of the above

226 Ch APTE r 16
9. The electric vehicle battery heating methods include 10. Dog mode, also called pet mode, is used to ________ .
________. a. heat the rear seats to keep dogs or pets warm
a. PTC fluid heaters b. cool the seats to keep dogs or pets cool
b. PTC air heaters c. keep the interior temperature comfortable for pets
c. heater pads when they are left in a locked vehicle while the driver
d. Any of the above is gone
d. All of the above

E V AN D h E V hV A C S Y S T EM 227
Chapter 17
EV AND HEV
TRANSMISSIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Electric auxiliary pump Torque 230
be able to: 230

• Describe the function of a hybrid electric Hydraulic impulse storage

accumulator 231
vehicle (HEV) transmission.
• Understand the relationship required between
the ICE and electric motor(s).
• Explain the purpose of an auxiliary electric
pump or hydraulic impulse storage generator.
• Describe the difference between a power-split
system and an eCVT in a hybrid vehicle.
• Discuss the operation of a transmission in a
fully electric vehicle.
• Explain the operation of a two-speed gearing in
an electric vehicle

228
 and Hyundai Sonata hybrid are examples of FWD hybrid
TRANSMISSIONS AND vehicles. The Chevrolet Bolt is an example of a FWD electric
vehicle. ● SEE FIGURE 17-1.
TRANSAXLES In a four-wheel-drive (4WD) or all-wheel-drive (AWD) vehi-
cle, a transfer case or rear electric motor is used to distribute
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION All vehicles, regardless of
power to all four wheels. The Toyota Highlander/Lexus RX450h
the power source, require the use of a transmission to achieve
uses a transaxle on the front of the vehicle and an electric
reasonable acceleration and efficiency. A transmission in a
motor to drive the rear wheels in the 4WD model. The 4WD ver-
vehicle with an internal combustion engine (ICE) is designed
sion of the Ford Escape hybrid uses a separate power takeoff
to keep the torque and horsepower in the ideal range relative
(PTO) from the transaxle to mechanically drive the rear axle.
to the engine and road speed. The design of the transmission
is different when it is coupled to a hybrid powertrain, or part
Example Vehicle Transmission Configurations
of a fully electric powertrain as compared to a legacy ICE. The
internal electric motors are responsible for much of the power. Vehicle FWD/RWD/AWD Configuration
The transmission is responsible for providing the following: Toyota Prius FWD ECVT 2 Motors/1
2001–2009 Planetary
■ Torque applied to the drive wheel to accelerate the
Chevrolet Volt FWD ECVT 2 Motors/1
vehicle from a stop
2011–2015 Planetary/Clutches
■ Power at higher speeds that allows the powertrain to Toyota Prius FWD ECVT 2 motors/2
operate efficiently 2010–2015 Planetary
Toyota Prius FWD/ AWD ECVT 2 Motors/2
2016–2021 Planetary/One-way
POWERTRAIN CONFIGURATION In rear-wheel-drive clutch
(RWD) applications, it is most common to use a transmis- General Motors 2 RWD/AWD ECVT 2 Motors/ 3
sion along with a driveshaft and differential at the rear axle to Mode 2009 Planetary/Clutches
transmit torque to the drive wheels. The Lexus GS450h and Honda Accord FWD ECVT 2 Motors/ 2
LS600h are both examples of rear-wheel-drive hybrid electric Hybrid 2015 Clutches
vehicles. The Ford Mustang Mach-E standard configuration is Nissan Leaf 2011 FWD Electric Motor with
an example of a rear-wheel-drive electric vehicle. In a front- gear reduction unit
wheel-drive (FWD) vehicle, a transaxle assembly is used with Chevrolet Bolt FWD Electric Motor with
2017–2019 gear reduction unit
half-shafts to transmit torque to the drive wheels. A transaxle
is the combination of a transmission, differential, and final
drive gears built together as one assembly. A Toyota Prius

DRIVESHAFT
TRANSMISSION TRANSAXLE
DIFFERENTIAL

REAR-WHEEL DRIVE FRONT-WHEEL DRIVE

FIGURE 17-1 Rear-wheel-drive (RWD) vehicles use transmissions to send torque to the rear differential and final drive. Front-
wheel-drive (FWD) vehicles use a transaxle, which incorporates the differential and final drive into the transaxle case.

E V AN D H E V T RAN S M IS S ION S 229

 PRINCIPLES INVOLVED SPEED

TORQUE DELIVERY To move a vehicle, torque must be TORQUE

applied to the drive wheels. Torque is twisting force.
Torque is applied to the drive wheels to make the vehicle FIGURE 17-3 When output speed decreases in a transmis-
sion, output torque will increase.
accelerate. The vehicle transmission is responsible for increas-
ing engine torque in the lower speed ranges when acceleration
is required, and then reducing engine speed for the best fuel
economy when the vehicle is cruising. ICE are very different speed. In other words, when torque is increased in a transmis-
from electric motors in that they only produce torque in a rela- sion, output speed is decreased. ● SEE FIGURE 17-3.
tively narrow RPM range. ● SEE FIGURE 17-2.
An ICE is most efficient when it is operating near its torque MULTIPLE SPEED TRANSMISSIONS/TRANSAXLES
peak. This is the RPM when the engine is breathing most effi- Years ago, it was common for vehicles with automatic trans-
ciently, and is typically where the engine can deliver the best missions to have only 2, 3, or 4 gear ratios. Currently, 5-,
fuel economy. However, it is difficult to keep the engine in this 6-, 7-, 8- and 10-speed automatic transmissions are becom-
range during all phases of vehicle operation. Automotive engi- ing common. With more emphasis being placed on fuel
neers overcome this difficulty in two ways. economy and lower emissions, the continuously variable
1. By increasing the RPM range where the engine produces transmission (CVT) is becoming more popular as it provides
torque (“flattening” the torque curve). infinite gear ratios and the best opportunity to maximize
engine efficiency.
2. By increasing the number of gear ratios in the
transmission.
With more transmission ratios, it is easier to match
the vehicle road speed with the most efficient engine RPM.
Therefore, any torque increase is generated at the expense of
HEV TRANSMISSIONS
CLASSIFICATIONS HEV transmissions are different
based on the level of the hybrid vehicle in which they are
installed. A mild hybrid with stop-start system typically
250
contains a transmission with a single electric motor. A full
hybrid generally contains a transmission with two electric
TORQUE

200 motors.

ELECTRIC AUXILIARY PUMP In order to adapt

150 a conventional automatic transmission to a hybrid pow-
ertrain, an electric auxiliary pump is used to maintain
fluid pressure in the transmission during ICE idle-stop.
100
This pump is powered by a DC brushless (AC syn-
HORSEPOWER

chronous) motor, which requires a special controller to

provide the correct operating frequency and pulse width.
50
When the auxiliary pump is operating, it sends hydraulic
pressure to the transmission regulator valve, and on to the
manual valve where it is directed to the appropriate clutches.
800 1600 2400 3200 4000 4800 5000 This prevents the transmission from shifting into “neutral”
ENGINE SPEED (RPM)
FIGURE 17-2 Graph showing engine torque vs horsepower when the ICE is in idle-stop. Once the ICE restarts, the aux-
output for a typical internal combustion engine. ICEs produce iliary pump is turned off and hydraulic pressure is again sup-
maximum torque at a high RPM, whereas electric motors pro- plied by the mechanically driven transmission fluid pump.
duce maximum torque at low RPM. ● SEE FIGURE 17-4.

230 C HAPTER 17
 ELECTRIC
EX
SECONDARY
FLUID PUMP

LINE
FILTER
MANUAL
VALVE
N D3 2 1

MECHANICALLY
DRIVEN FRONT
PUMP REV
D3
FILTER PR
D2
SUMP
D2 D4

LO
REV D3

REV
LO

FIGURE 17-4 The hydraulic circuit diagram for this GM transmission includes a mechanical pump and an electric secondary
fluid pump.

transmission design with minor modification to adjust for its

HYDRAULIC IMPULSE STORAGE ACCUMULATOR
new role in a hybrid powertrain. It has four forward speeds
A hydraulic impulse storage accumulator is used to
and one reverse, with the fourth speed being an overdrive. It
provide fluid pressure as the ICE restarts after the idle-
is designed primarily for medium- and large-displacement
stop mode. During normal engine operation the mechani-
engines and is used extensively in GM pickups and SUVs. The
cal transmission pump provides the hydraulic pressure and
specific model used in the hybrid pickup is known as the M33.
charges the accumulator. When the engine restarts, the
accumulator provides the initial hydraulic pressure and the
mechanical pump provides the continuation of the pressure.
OPERATION In idle-stop mode the engine stops, which will
The pressure release from the accumulator ensures there is
in turn stop the transmission oil pump and cause the transmis-
no delay in acceleration, and it eliminates the need for an
sion to go to “neutral.” To prevent this, an electric secondary
electric auxiliary pump. ● SEE FIGURE 17-5.
fluid pump is installed on the valve body inside the transmis-
sion oil pan. Whenever the engine goes into idle-stop, the

GM PARALLEL HYBRID electric fluid pump is turned on to maintain oil pressure on the
transmission forward clutch, and keep the drivetrain connected
TRUCK (PHT) to the engine. This results in a smoother transition between
idle-stop and engine restarting as the vehicle resumes opera-
DESCRIPTION The transmission in the 2004–2008 tion. ● SEE FIGURE 17-6.
Chevrolet Silverado/GMC Sierra parallel hybrid truck (PHT) The conventional 4L60E transmission is made to allow
is based on the 4L60E electronically controlled automatic the vehicle to coast or brake without any interference from

FIGURE 17-5 When the solenoid is energized, the accumulator releases the fluid cre-
ating the initial pressure needed at restart.

E V AN D H E V T RAN S MIS S ION S 231

 60-MICRON
FLUID FILTER
GM TWO-MODE HYBRID
TRANSMISSION
DESCRIPTION The two-mode hybrid transmission used in
2009–2013 General Motors hybrid trucks is labeled a 2ML70.
This unit features two 60-kW motors in the hybrid drivetrain,
a 300-volt battery pack, and a V8 engine. A two-mode hybrid
PUMP MOTOR
electric vehicle can increase the fuel economy by about 25%,
depending on the type of driving conditions. Like all hybrids,
the two-mode combines the power of a gasoline engine with
PRESSURE
RELIEF VALVE
that of electric motors and includes the following:

FIGURE 17-6 Electric secondary fluid pump from a trans- ■ Regenerative braking that captures kinetic energy that
mission in a GM hybrid pickup. would otherwise be lost
■ Idle-stop
the engine. To enable regenerative braking, the hybrid ver- Some full-hybrid systems have a single mode of operation,
sion of the 4L60E transmission is made to apply the overrun using a single planetary gear set to split engine power to drive
clutch during coast or braking in the D4 range and either the wheels or charge the battery. These systems are effective at
third or second gear. This allows power to be transmitted low speeds because they can move the vehicle without running
back through the torque converter, which can then be used the gasoline engine (ICE). But at higher speeds, when the engine
to generate electric current for recharging the 42-volt battery is needed, using the electric motors has much less benefit. As
pack. a result, sending power through electric motors and a variable
transmission is roughly 20% less efficient than driving the vehicle
SERVICE Transmission service for the 4L60E model through a purely mechanical power path, using gears.
M33 is limited to fluid and filter changes. This transmission
requires Dexron VI fluid. The filter on the electric secondary COMPONENTS The two-mode unit is effectively an electroni-
fluid pump is replaceable, but is not a regular maintenance cally variable transmission (EVT). It includes three simple planetary
item. Transmission pressure testing can be performed using gear sets with four multiplate clutches. It has four fixed gear ratios
the line pressure tap located on the transmission case. These with two EV ratios for smooth, more efficient operation. The com-
tests are most often done by attaching a pressure gauge to ponents of the two-mode transmission include the following:
the fitting on the side of the transmission and operating the ■ Two 60-kW electric motor/generators assemblies.
transmission under various load conditions and road speeds. ■ Three planetary gear sets (one is located in front of motor/
The test results are recorded and compared to charts to
generator A, called M/G A; another is located between the
help determine what area(s) of the transmission might be
two motor/generators; and the last planetary gear set is
malfunctioning.
located behind motor/generator B, called M/G B).
A scan tool can be used to access DTCs (diagnostic trou-
■ Four wet plate clutches (two friction [rotating] and two [reaction/
ble codes) and also to perform bidirectional testing of the trans-
stationary] clutch assemblies). ● SEE FIGURE 17-7.
mission solenoids. A scan tool can also be used for clearing
the transmission adaptive pressure (TAP) values if any of the The vehicle starts moving in EV 1 with a variable ratio from
following has occurred: infinite low to 1.7:1. If the vehicle is launched with the engine
1. If the transmission has been overhauled or replaced. off, M/G A will spin the engine crankshaft so it can start run-
ning. EV 2 has a ratio between 1.7:1 and 0.5:1.
2. Repair or replacement of an apply or release component
(band, clutch, servo, piston, etc.). FIRST MODE OF OPERATION The first mode is for
3. Repair or replacement of a component that directly affects accelerating from standstill to second gear. At low speed and
line pressure. light load, the vehicle can be propelled by:

232 C HAPTER 17
 ■ Either electric motor alone
■ The ICE alone
■ Or a combination of the two (electric motor and/or ICE)

In this mode, the engine (if running) can be shut off under
certain conditions and everything will continue to operate on
electric power alone. The hybrid system can restart the ICE at
any time as needed. One of the motor/generators operates as
a generator to charge the high-voltage battery, and the other
works as a motor to assist in propelling the vehicle.

SECOND MODE OF OPERATION The second mode takes

the vehicle from second gear through to overdrive. At higher loads
and speeds, the ICE always runs. In the second mode, the motor/
FIGURE 17- 7 The two-mode transmission has orange high- generators and planetary gear sets are used to keep torque and
voltage cables entering the unit to carry electric energy from horsepower at a maximum. As the vehicle speed increases, vari-
the high-voltage battery pack to propel the vehicle and also ous combinations of the four fixed ratio planetary gears engage
charge the battery during deceleration. and/or disengage to multiply engine torque, and allowing one or
the other of the motor/generators to perform as a generator to
charge the high-voltage battery. ● SEE FIGURE 17-8.

ELECTRIC MOTOR ELECTRIC MOTOR

GENERATOR A GENERATOR B
TO INPUT INTERNAL GEAR 2 TO OUTPUT SUN GEARS GROUNDED
(STATIONARY)
TO CASE

MULTIPLE-DISC
CLUTCH

AXLE

POWER FROM ICE POWER FROM INPUT

TO INPUT INTERNAL CARRIERS TO FINAL DRIVE MULTIPLE-DISC
GEAR 1 CLUTCH

MECHANICAL COMPONENT CONNECTIONS

TWO-MODE HYBRID
TRANSMISSION

INTERNAL
COMBUSTION
ENGINE (ICE)

FIGURE 17- 8 Using two planetary gear sets, the ICE can be maintained in the most efficient speed of about 2000 RPM under
most operating conditions.

E V AN D H E V T RAN S M IS S ION S 233

 disconnect clutch are placed between the engine and the torque
converter. In addition to providing stop-start capabilities, the
electric motor provides low-speed torque and additional power.
The MTH transmission is six inches longer than the non-hybrid
model (10R80) and shares 90% of the same components. ●
SEE FIGURE 17-10 A AND B.

COMPONENTS The components of the hybrid drive unit of

the transmission are as follows:
■ Electric motor
■ Resolver (speed sensor)
■ High-voltage connection
(a)
■ Low-voltage connection

(b)

FIGURE 17-9 (a) Disassembly of the 2ML70 transmission

requires the use of a special tool and a lift or engine hoist to
remove the motor assembly. (b) The motor assembly after
(a)
being removed from the transmission.

TWO-MODE SERVICE Routine service is all that is

needed or required of the two-mode transmission. Fluid-level
check and visual inspection should be all that is required until
the first scheduled fluid change. Always use Dexron VI. Faults in
the system will often set a diagnostic trouble code. Unit repair
of the unit requires an engine hoist or the lift arm of a vehicle lift
to remove the motor assembly. ● SEE FIGURE 17-9 A AND B.

FORD/LINCOLN 10R80 MHT

DESCRIPTION The 10R80 MHT is a modular ten-speed
(b)
hybrid transmission that was introduced in the 2020 Explorer
FIGURE 17-10 (a) The driver side of the transmission con-
and the 2020 Lincoln Aviator plug-in hybrid. The transmission
tains the high-voltage connections and the shift level assem-
is unique because unlike most hybrid transmissions, it still uses
bly. The hybrid portion of the transmission is forward of the
a torque converter. The continued use of the torque converter gasket. (b) The passenger side of the transmission contains
improves towing and hauling capabilities. An electric motor and the low-voltage connections.

234 C HAPTER 17
 The hybrid drive unit is removed from the transmission as
a unit. An engine hoist and special adapter are recommended
when completing this task because of the weight of the unit.
● SEE FIGURE 17-11 A AND B.
The electric motor is a permanent magnet three-phase
motor that generates 33 kW of power. ● SEE FIGURE 17-12 A
AND B.
The resolver (speed sensor) provides the powertrain con-
trol module (PCM) with the speed, location, and direction of
rotation of the electric motor. ● SEE FIGURE 17-13.
The high-voltage connector at the transmission allows
the electric motor in the hybrid section of the transmis-
sion to be connected to the Inverter System Controller (ISC)
via the orange-colored high-voltage insulated wiring. ● SEE
(a)
FIGURE 17-14.

307-651

307-651-03

(b)

FIGURE 17-12 (a) The motor windings attached to the hous-

ing after the rotor has been removed. (b) The rotor and torque
converter assembly after being separated from the winding.

The low-voltage connectors at the transmission provide

for traditional transmission control and monitoring by the pow-
ertrain control module. ● SEE FIGURE 17-15.

SERVICE Service procedures performed at specific ser-

(b) vice intervals include the transmission fluid and filter. If the

FIGURE 17-11 (a) An engine hoist and adapter are used to non-hybrid section of the transmission experiences a failure, a
remove the hybrid portion of the transmission. (b) The hybrid detailed overhaul procedure is provided. If the hybrid section of
portion of the transmission resting on two wooden blocks after the transmission experiences a failure, it is replaced as a unit.
being removed from the transmission. Most electrical components, such as solenoids and sensors,

E V AN D H E V T RAN S M IS S ION S 235

FIGURE 17-13 The resolver is the black and gray electri- FIGURE 17-15 The low-voltage connector is for transmis-
cal sensor bolted to the housing at the bottom of the motor sion control and monitoring.
housing.

TOYOTA/LEXUS
POWER-SPLIT SYSTEM
APPLICATIONS The Toyota/Lexus power-split device
drive system is used in the following models:
■ Toyota Prius
■ Toyota Corolla Hybrid
■ Toyota Sienna
■ Toyota Venza
■ Toyota Camry Hybrid
■ Lexus CT200h
■ Toyota Highlander
■ Toyota RAVA Hybrid
■
Lexus RX400h and RX450h

DESCRIPTION The power-split transaxle is a series-parallel

hybrid technology. During most phases of vehicle operation,
the system is operating as both series and parallel at the same
time. While the control system is complex, the basic transaxle
FIGURE 17-14 The three large flat connectors allow the is very simple in design as it is built around a single planetary
electric motor to be connected to the ISC via the high-voltage gear set (power-split device) and two electric motor/genera-
cables. tors, called MG1 and MG2. ● SEE FIGURE 17-16.
A planetary gear set is composed of three main
components:
are monitored by the powertrain control module (PCM) and
1. Ring gear
supported with specific diagnostics related to a diagnostic
trouble code (DTC). The external electrical components are 2. Planet carrier
serviceable. 3. Sun gear

236 C HAPTER 17
 STATOR MG1 The gear ratio of the planetary gear set causes the ICE to
STATOR send 72% of its torque to the ring gear and the remaining 28%
MG2 to the sun gear. The torque split percentages remain the same
regardless of what mode the transaxle is operating in because
they are determined by the number of teeth on the planetary
ring gear and the sun gear. ● SEE FIGURE 17-18.
While torque split percentages are always the same,
power split percentages will vary depending on the RPM of
the various components. Horsepower is the rate at which work
is performed and is a function of torque and RPM. If a shaft

MG1
has torque applied to it, but remains at zero RPM, no work is
ROTOR MG2 ROTOR being performed and no horsepower is transmitted through the
shaft. The same principle applies to the torque split planetary
FIGURE 17-16 The Toyota Hybrid System uses two electric gear set. If the sun gear is stationary, it will still receive 28% of
motor/ generators (MG1 and MG2) and an ICE connected
the torque of the ICE, but all of the engine horsepower will be
together by a power-split device which is a simple planetary
gear set. directed through the ring gear and on to the drive wheels.

OPERATION
In the power-split transaxle, a large electric motor/genera-
■ Vehicle Stopped. When the vehicle is stopped, nothing
tor (MG2) is directly attached to the transaxle final drive and to
is happening within the vehicle drive system. The ICE is
the planetary ring gear. The ICE is connected to the planet car-
rier, and the small electric motor/generator (MG1) is connected MG2
MG1
to the sun gear. ● SEE FIGURE 17-17. ICE
The planetary ring gear always turns in the same direc-
tion as the drive wheels and its speed is directly proportional
to vehicle speed. In other words, if the ring gear is not moving,
the vehicle is not moving. The power-split device is so named
because the ICE (attached to the planet carrier) splits its torque
output between the sun gear (MG1) and the ring gear (MG2 and
drive wheels).
SUN GEAR
CONNECTED RING GEAR
TO MG1 CONNECTED TO
MG2 AND DRIVE WHEELS
SUN PLANET CARRIER
GEAR CONNECTED TO ICE

MG1 MG2
ENGINE

DRIVE PLANETARY
CHAIN CARRIER
RING
FIGURE 17-18 The planetary gearset used in the Toyota
GEAR
Hybrid System has 2.6 times the number of teeth in its ring gear
FIGURE 17-17 The power-split device from the Toyota as it has in its sun gear. This means that the ICE (attached to
Hybrid System. Note the vehicle will only move when MG2 the planet carrier) will send 72% of its torque to the ring gear
(and the ring gear) is turning. (drive wheels) and 28% of its torque to the sun gear (MG1).

E V AN D H E V T RA N S MIS S ION S 237

 shut off, and both electric motor/generators are shut off
HV BATTERY
as well. There are circuits within the vehicle that will use
electrical energy from the auxiliary battery, but the drive
MG1
system itself is effectively inert. The Toyota hybrid system
INVERTER
does not use an auxiliary starter, but instead uses the
ICE
MG1 for starting under all conditions.
● SEE FIGURE 17-19.
■ Light Acceleration. When the vehicle is driven at low
MG2
speeds and light acceleration, it is driven by MG2 alone.
● SEE FIGURE 17-20. This is because the electric
POWER-SPLIT
motor is more efficient than the ICE at low vehicle DEVICE
DRIVE
speeds. Current from the high-voltage (HV) battery is sent WHEELS
through the inverter and on to MG2 to move the vehicle.
A special graph, known as a monograph, shows the FINAL DRIVE
speed relationship between the various elements. When
the engine is stopped (0 RPM), MG2 is turning forward DRIVE POWER ELECTRIC POWER

(+), and this causes MG1 to turn backward (−). ● SEE FIGURE 17-20 Under light acceleration, power is sent to
FIGURE 17-21. MG2 to move the vehicle.
■ Normal Driving. When higher vehicle speeds are required,
the ICE must be started so that its output can be combined
with that of MG2. The ring gear is already turning clockwise
as the vehicle travels in a forward direction. Since the planet
carrier (attached to the ICE) is stationary, the sun gear
(driven by MG1) is used to drive the planet carrier clockwise
and start the ICE. Current from the HV battery is directed
through the inverter and operates MG1 as a motor, turning
clockwise and spinning the ICE up to 1000 RPM for starting.
● SEE FIGURE 17-22. 0

MG1 ENGINE MG2

SUN PLANET RING
GEAR CARRIER GEAR
HV BATTERY

FIGURE 17–21 Under light acceleration, the engine is

MG1 stopped (0 RPM), MG2 is turning forward (+), and MG1 is turn-
INVERTER ing backward (−).
ICE

Once the ICE is started, MG1 operates as a generator, but

MG2 turns in the counterclockwise direction. ICE output is now
divided or “split” between the drive wheels (ring gear) and MG1
POWER-SPLIT (sun gear). Power generated by MG1 is either directed to MG2
DEVICE to help move the vehicle or is used to recharge the HV battery,
DRIVE
WHEELS if necessary. ● SEE FIGURES 17-23 AND 17-24.

FINAL DRIVE ■ Full-Throttle Acceleration and High-Speed Cruise.

When greater acceleration is required, both MG2 and the
VEHICLE STOPPED ICE continue sending torque to the vehicle drive wheels,
FIGURE 17-19 When the vehicle is stopped, the ICE is shut but MG2 can also receive power from the HV battery to
off along with both motor/generators. increase its output. As demand increases further, the

238 C HAPTER 17
 0

MG1 ENGINE MG2

SUN PLANET RING
GEAR CARRIER GEAR

FIGURE 17-24 Normal driving—the engine is running, MG2

is turning forward (+), and MG1 is turning backward (−).

ICE speed is increased for more output. To enable an

increase in ICE speed, the sun gear (MG1) must rotate in
FIGURE 17-22 To start the ICE, MG1 (sun) acts as a motor a clockwise direction. It is during these times that MG1
and turns clockwise (CW), causing the planet carrier (attached can be configured as a motor and will draw power from
to the ICE) to also turn CW.
MG2 during a phase known as energy recirculation.
● SEE FIGURES 17-25 AND 17-26.

CURRENT FROM MG1 CAN BE

USED TO CHARGE THE HV
HV BATTERY BATTERY IF NECESSARY

MG1
INVERTER
ICE

CURRENT FROM MG1 IS

MG2 USED TO POWER MG2

POWER-SPLIT
DEVICE
DRIVE
WHEELS

FINAL DRIVE

DRIVE POWER ELECTRIC POWER

NORMAL DRIVING

FIGURE 17-23 Normal driving—the ICE is now running and some of its torque is used to drive MG1. Electricity generated by
MG1 is used to power MG2 or recharge the HV battery.

E V AN D H E V T RAN S M IS S ION S 239

 FOR MAXIMUM ACCELERATION,
HV BATTERY THE HV BATTERY CAN ALSO
PROVIDE CURRENT TO MG2
MG1
INVERTER
ICE

CURRENT FROM MG1 IS

MG2
USED TO POWER MG2

POWER-SPLIT
DEVICE
DRIVE
WHEELS

FINAL DRIVE

DRIVE POWER ELECTRIC POWER

FULL ACCELERATION &

HIGH-SPEED CRUISE

FIGURE 17-25 Full-throttle acceleration and high-speed cruise—with greater demand for acceleration, power from MG1 is com-
bined with power from the HV battery to generate higher output from MG2. It is also possible to configure MG2 as a generator and
send its power to MG1 (which then acts as a motor).

■ Deceleration and Braking. As the vehicle is decelerating, in the reverse direction to back up the vehicle, but the
MG2 is configured as a generator. The kinetic energy other components in the drive system are turned off at
(energy of movement) of the vehicle is converted into this time. The ICE does not run when the vehicle is being
electrical energy by MG2. The ICE and MG1 are shut off, driven in reverse. ● SEE FIGURE 17-28.
and current from MG2 is sent through the inverter and is
used to recharge the HV battery. ● SEE FIGURE 17-27.
■ Reverse. If reverse is selected, power is sent from the HV BATTERY

HV battery to the inverter and on to MG2. MG2 operates

MG1
INVERTER
ICE

MG2

POWER-SPLIT
0 DEVICE
DRIVE
WHEELS

MG1 ENGINE MG2 FINAL DRIVE

SUN PLANET RING
GEAR CARRIER GEAR
DRIVE POWER ELECTRIC POWER

FIGURE 17-26 Full-throttle acceleration and high-speed

DECELERATION AND BRAKING
cruise—this graph shows MG1 acting as a motor using power
from MG2. This increases the speed of the ICE, allowing it to FIGURE 17-27 Deceleration and braking—MG2 is config-
produce higher output. ured as a generator and recharges the HV battery.

240 C HAPTER 17
 HV BATTERY

MG1
INVERTER
ICE

THE POLARITY TO MG2 IS

MG2 REVERSED CAUSING IT TO
TURN BACKWARDS
POWER-SPLIT
DEVICE
DRIVE
WHEELS

FINAL DRIVE

DRIVE POWER ELECTRIC POWER

REVERSE

FIGURE 17-28 Reverse—MG2 alone is used to move the car in reverse. This is accomplished by reversing the direction of MG2.

CONSTRUCTION The Toyota power-split transaxle is built ■ MG2—Used to propel the vehicle and to charge the high-
with an aluminum case composed of two major assemblies. voltage battery during deceleration.
These are known as the MG1 assembly and the MG2 assem- Each of these major assemblies has its own water jacket
bly, and each houses its respective motor/generator. for cooling the motor/generator windings in the housing. There
Each of the motors/generators performs two functions: are two water jacket unions installed in each major assembly,
■ MG1—Used to crank the ICE and generate electrical and these send coolant to the motors from the separate inverter
current to charge the high-voltage battery. cooling system. ● SEE FIGURE 17-29 A AND B.

(a) (b)

FIGURE 17-29 (a) Coolant is circulated under the ring in the bellhousing area to remove heat generated by MG1. (b) Coolant is
circulated in the passages near the rear of the transmission to remove heat generated by MG2.

E V AN D H E V T RAN S MIS S ION S 241

 The following components are assembled on a common The transaxle oil pump is housed in the rear of the MG2
axis: assembly and is attached to the input shaft from the ICE.
● SEE FIGURE 17-32. The oil is circulated by the pump only
■ Internal combustion engine (ICE)
when the ICE is running.
■ MG1
When the vehicle is driven by MG2 only, the transaxle is
■ Power-split device splash-lubricated by the movement of the final drive gears. The
■ MG2 transaxle for the 2001–2003 Prius has a cable-operated parking lock
■ Oil pump

The final drive is housed between the two major assem-

blies and utilizes a conventional open differential for sending
torque to the front-drive wheels. A chain drive attaches the ring
gear of the power-split device to the counter drive gear, which
drives the counter driven gear that is meshed with the ring gear
of the differential assembly. ● SEE FIGURE 17-30.
This system does not use a conventional clutch or torque
converter. With this design, there is no need to disconnect the
engine from the input shaft. This is because the engine can turn
at any speed while the vehicle is stopped (ring gear is stopped)
FIGURE 17-31 The flywheel and clutch assembly serve as
by using MG1 (sun gear) as a generator. The ICE is connected
the dampener between the engine and transmission.
directly to the transaxle input shaft using a damper disc mech-
anism. ● SEE FIGURE 17-31.

FIGURE 17-30 The view of the configuration of the final drive FIGURE 17-32 With the cover removed, the transmission oil
assembly after the front cover has been removed. pump is visible on the rear of the transmission.

242 C HAPTER 17
 is similar to the Toyota power-split transmission. It is built
differently, however, to allow MG1 to control the gear ratio
between the engine and the final drive of the transaxle.
This maintains optimum engine RPM to achieve ideal tail-
pipe emissions and fuel economy when the ICE is operat-
ing. Toyota refers to this transmission as a P610 and a P710
depending on the application.

DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION The eCVt transmis-

sion uses a planetary gear set between the engine and MG1 to
control the gear ratio to the final drive. This arrangement allows
the ICE to provide power to the drive wheels. The planetary
carrier of the gear set is connected to the engine crankshaft
and turns at the same speed as the engine. The transmission
oil pump is also connected to the planetary carrier to provide
lubrication pressure when the ICE is operating. The sun gear of
the planetary is connected to MG1. The ring gear of the gear
set is connected to the counter gear that turns the pinion of
the final drive assembly to move the vehicle. The speed and
FIGURE 17- 33 The electronic actuated park lock mechanism direction of MG1 will determine if the transmission is operating
is mounted externally beginning with the 2004 model year.
in and under-drive (UD), direct-drive, or over-drive (OD) mode
of operation. The operation of MG1 provides for infinitely vari-
able ratios within the transmission and eliminates the need for
mechanism. This was replaced with an electrically actuated mecha- the older belt and pulley systems. MG1 is used to start the ICE,
nism starting with the 2004 model year. ● SEE FIGURE 17-33. generate power for the high-voltage battery, and provide power
to MG2, if needed. ● SEE FIGURE 17-34.
SERVICE Service procedures to be performed at specified MG2 is connected to the final drive assembly through
intervals include changing the transaxle oil and the coolant for the counter gear to move the vehicle in electric mode. MG2
the inverter (high-voltage) system. There are drain plugs for operates as a generator on deceleration providing regenerative
both at the bottom of the transaxle assembly. The transaxle oil braking.
is refilled through a hole in the front of the case, with the level
being brought up to a specified distance from the bottom of the
hole. The coolant is refilled at the reservoir that is located on
the inverter assembly and must be bled properly before placing
the vehicle back into service. Always use the recommended
fluids and procedures when servicing any vehicle.

NOTE: The fastest and most reliable way to refill the

inverter cooling system is to use an airlift fluid exchange
machine. This pulls the cooling system into a vacuum and
then injects the coolant into the evacuated system. This
method fills the system quickly and eliminates air bubbles.

TOYOTA HYBRID eCVT

TRANSMISSION
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION The Toyota electroni- FIGURE 17- 34 A gear set is used to transfer power to the
cally controlled continuously variable transmission (eCVT) final drive assembly.

E V AN D H E V T RAN S M IS S ION S 243

 HYBRID ELECTRIC REAR AXLE
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION The electric rear drive axle is
used for an AWD system without the use of a rear driveshaft. For
example, the Toyota Q211, used in the RAV4 and the Highlander,
and almost all systems used today regardless of the manufac-
turer, are of a similar design. The only items that vary are the size
of the components depending on the kilowatt rating on the elec-
tric motor. The rear electric axle uses a single motor that Toyota
refers to as MGR (motor generator rear). ● SEE FIGURE 17-35.
The electric rear axle has three modes of operation.
■ Startup mode: The rear axle provides a small amount of FIGURE 17- 36 A rear motor unit in a Toyota RAV4 Hybrid,
torque up to approximately 3 MPH. an all-wheel-drive HEV.
■ Mode 2: During normal driving no torque is delivered
unless front wheel slip is detected.
TECH TIP
■ Mode 3: Provides additional regenerative braking on
deceleration. Select the All-Wheel Drive Hybrid for Better
Fuel Economy
DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION Vehicles with an electric The all-wheel drive versions of the Toyota/Lexus
rear axle use a special inverter that controls three electric motors. hybrid usually get better fuel economy compared to
The unit is contained in a three-piece case. The unit is filled with the front-wheel drive version. The reason is that the
automatic transmission fluid and relies on splash lubrication and rear motor is used to generate electrical energy back
cooling. As the ring gear on the final drive is turned, transmission to the high-voltage battery during deceleration. This
fluid is splashed throughout the unit, including the electric motor, rear electric motor is used for regeneration along with
absorbing any heat generated. The heat is dissipated through MG2.
the cooling fins that are molded into the exterior of the case. The
electric motor in the Q211 is rated at 67 horsepower (55 Kw). Its
position, speed, and location are determined by a resolver that is not serviceable due to the technician’s inability to calibrate the
replacement unit. The electric motor stator contains a tempera-
ture sensor that provides feedback to the hybrid control module.
The rotor of MGR turns the MGR drive gear as it rotates. The
MGR drive gear turns the counter gear which turns the ring gear
on the final drive assembly. Each of the rear half-shafts is splined
to the final drive assembly. The unit contains a fluid fill plug, drain
plug, and level check plug should the fluid need to be serviced.
● SEE FIGURE 17-36.

HYBRID TRANSMISSION
DIAGNOSIS
STEPS INVOLVED When diagnosing a hybrid electric
vehicle (HEV) transmission concerns, perform the following
FIGURE 17- 35 The cutaway of the rear axle assembly steps:
shows the arrangement of the electric motor and the transfer STEP 1 The first step is to verify the customer complaint.
gears. STEP 2 Check the fluid level and condition.

244 CHAPTER 17
 FIGURE 17-37 The data display of the transmission control module shows live values of
various sensors and switches.

STEP 3 Check for stored diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs). have a top speed of 110–125 MPH (180–200 km/h). At top speed
STEP 4 Check for any related technical service bulletins (TSBs). the electric motor RPM is 10000 and 18000 RPM, depending on
STEP 5 Check scan tool data including checking the adaptive the make and model.
values. ● SEE FIGURE 17-37.
STEP 6 Perform visual inspections, including checking for recent SINGLE SPEED GEARING The objective of the motor
accident damage, previous repairs, or other issues. and drivetrain is improving the conversion rate of battery
STEP 7 Perform bidirectional control of the transmission using a power to actual wheel power. Every one percentage point in
factory or an enhanced aftermarket scan tool to check energy conversion efficiency translates into 2% more range.
operation. This helps to establish if the issue is inside or Most all-electric vehicles are equipped with just a single
outside of the transmission/transaxle. speed transmission/transaxle, yet are capable of delivering
STEP 8 Locate and correct the root cause of the problem. outstanding performance and acceptable range with motor
Always follow the specified diagnostic and repair proce- torque of up to 230 lb-ft (315 Nm) and peak power of 188 HP
dures for the vehicle being serviced. (140 kW).

FORD MUSTANG MACH-E BorgWarner is producing an

ELECTRIC VEHICLE Integrated Drive Module (iDM) being used in the Ford Mustang

TRANSMISSIONS Mach-E. The iDM consists within one compact assembly

including the following components:

ACCELERATION VS TOP SPEED Most production elec- ■ Electric traction motor

tric vehicles use a single-speed transmission. ICE need many ■ Single-speed gearbox
gears because they have a narrow RPM window within which ■ Thermal-management system (liquid cooling)
they can operate efficiently. For electric motors, that window is
■ Motor and power electronics
much wider, so a single-speed works for both low-end accelera-
tion and highway driving. It does require some compromise, and The iDM uses parallel axis gearing, instead featuring a
so EV manufactures usually design their system for optimum low- concentric design with outputs on the same axis as the electric
end acceleration instead of top speeds. Most electric vehicles motor, resulting in a more compact package.

E V AN D H E V T RAN S M IS S ION S 245

CHEVROLET BOLT The Chevrolet Bolt drive unit con- The heat is transferred out of the transmission to an exter-
sists of an electric motor and final drive assembly. ● SEE nal radiator using coolant. ● SEE FIGURE 17-41.
FIGURE 17-38. The drive unit is completely serviceable following the spec-
The electric motor is a permanent-magnet synchronous ified procedures and General Motors supplied special tools.
AC motor. It is rated at 150 kW and has a maximum rotation
speed of 8810 RPM (2017 model year specifications). The final NISSAN LEAF At the heart of LEAF’s powertrain is its three-
drive section of the drive unit consists of the drive gear on the phase AC electric motor. It produces 80 kilowatts of power and
output end of the electric motor, the main shaft, and the ring can produce maximum torque within 0.1 seconds. This motor
gear which is mounted on the differential assembly. ● SEE has a permanent magnet rotor core with high-density stator
FIGURE 17-39.
The final drive assembly provides a gear reduction of
7.05:1 between the electric motor and the drive wheels. The
drive unit is internally lubricated and cooled using Dexron HP
transmission fluid. ● SEE FIGURE 17-40.

ACDelco
DEXRON
DEXRON-HP
AC
ACDe
ACDelc
ACDelco
NET CONTENTS ACDelco
1qL/32 ACDelco
10-4101 19331925

FIGURE 17-38 The electric motor and final drive assembly FIGURE 17-40 Dexron HP synthetic transmission fluid is
installed in a Chevrolet Bolt. specified for the Bolt final drive assembly.

1ST GEAR WHEEL

TRANSMISSION HOUSING
BEARING D PARK GEAR
MOTOR
HOUSING BEARING F
BEARING C

MAIN SHAFT
BEARING B
FINAL DRIVE PINION

BEARING E
JOURNAL
BEARING
SOLID OUTPUT/
DIFFERENTIAL SHAFT
HOLLOW
INPUT
SHAFT
DIFFERENTIAL HOUSING
ST
BEARING A 1 GEAR
FINAL DRIVE DIFFERENTIAL
PINION
SUPPORT RING GEAR

FIGURE 17-39 A CATIA drafting of a Chevrolet Bolt electric motor and final drive assembly.

246 C HAPTER 17
FIGURE 17-41 Coolant enters through the hose on the left, FIGURE 17-42 The electric motor assembly and reducer
travels through the passageway absorbing heat, and exits to installed in a 2011 Nissan Leaf.
the radiator through the hose on the right.

winding. It produces 206.5 pound-feet of torque and weighs

129 pounds. ● SEE FIGURE 17-42.
A resolver is incorporated to input rotor position and
speed to the Vehicle Control Module (VCM). Resolver calibra-
tion data to correct for variations in manufacturing is encoded
on the traction motor housing. ● SEE FIGURE 17-43.
Instead of a conventional transmission, the LEAF incorpo-
rates a reducer that transfers the torque from the traction motor
to the drive wheels. The reducer directs the motor’s output
to provide ideal torque at both low- and high-motor speeds.
Compact and lightweight, the reducer minimizes energy loss
due to friction. The LEAF’s reducer is connected to the electric
drive motor. Its components include the input gear, main gear, FIGURE 17-43 The external connection for the resolver.
main shaft, final gear, differential, and parking unit. ● SEE
FIGURE 17-44.
Nissan is not currently servicing any of the internal parts
for the electric motor assembly; however, there is a procedure
for repairing the reducer. According to the periodic mainte-
nance schedule, the oil level in the reducer must be inspected. B
If the fluid level is found to be low, it should be filled to the
desired level with Nissan genuine Matic Fluid S. The reducer
holds approximately 1.1 liter of lubricant. A

B
? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

What Happens When You Shift to Neutral?

When neutral is selected, does it just disconnect the
power connections? Or is the motor free to spin? In
neutral, there is no power being supplied to the elec-
tric traction motor. The motor is never disconnected.
FIGURE 17-44 Power flow through the reducer.

E V AN D H E V T RA N S MIS S ION S 247

TWO-SPEED GEARING The original Tesla Roadster fea- electric motor at high speeds. The Porsche Taycan’s rear gearbox
tured a two-speed transmission and currently a two-speed unit uses a single planetary gearset and two clutches to create the
is used in the Porsche Taycan. Using a multispeed transmission ratio change. One clutch is used to decouple the rear motor alto-
in an electric vehicle provides the same benefits that it does in a gether, allowing for efficient running using only the front (single-
gasoline-powered vehicle with improved low-speed acceleration speed) axle. In most driving, the Taycan operates the rear axle in
and increased efficiency by lowering the rotating speed of the top gear. First-gear starts happen in Sport or Sport Plus mode.

SUMMARY
1. The transmission is responsible for providing torque 5. Each of the motor/generators perform two functions:
applied to the drive wheel to accelerate the vehicle from a MG1—used to crank the ICE and generate electrical
stop, and power at higher speeds that allow the engine to current to charge the high-voltage battery. MG2—used to
operate efficiently. propel the vehicle and to charge the high-voltage battery
2. In order to move a vehicle, torque must be applied to the during deceleration.
drive wheels. 6. An eCVT designed transmission does not use a belt or
3. In order to adapt a conventional automatic transmission to chain and instead uses a parallel gear design.
a hybrid powertrain, an electric auxiliary pump is used to 7. Most all-electric vehicles are equipped with just a single
maintain fluid pressure in the transmission during internal speed transmission/transaxle.
combustion engine (ICE) idle-stop. 8. Using a multispeed transmission in an electric vehicle pro-
4. The power-split transaxle is a series-parallel hybrid tech- vides the same benefits that it does in a gasoline-powered
nology. During most phases of vehicle operation, the sys- vehicle with improved low-speed acceleration and
tem is operating as both series and parallel at the same increased efficiency by lowering the rotating speed of the
time. electric motor at high speeds.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the differences in FWD, RWD, and AWD pow- 4. What are the differences in single-speed and two-speed
ertrain configurations? gearing in an electric vehicle?
2. Explain how the transmission delivers torque and opti- 5. Describe the operation of a single-speed transmission in a
mizes fuel economy. typical electric vehicle.
3. Explain how the Toyota power-split system delivers power
to the drive wheels.

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. In a GM two-mode hybrid electric vehicle, when can the 3. In a Toyota/Lexus hybrid electric vehicle, how is reverse
vehicle be powered by electric mode alone? achieved?
a. During the first mode a. The ICE reverses direction and powers the drive
b. During the second mode wheels
c. During either the first or second mode b. MG2 is used to power the vehicle in reverse
d. During heavy load conditions regardless of mode c. MG1 is used to power the vehicle in reverse
2. Modifications to automatic transmissions used in hybrid d. Either b or c depending on model and year
vehicles include ________. 4. A FWD hybrid electric vehicle with an electric rear axle
a. electric auxiliary transmission fluid pumps ________.
b. modified torque converter lockup schedule a. has all-wheel drive capabilities
c. hydraulic impulse storage accumulator b. uses a special inverter
d. All of the answers are correct c. has a separate resolver and temperature sensor for
the rear axle unit
d. All of the answers are correct

248 C HAPTER 17
5. The final drive assembly in an electric vehicle transmission 8. The oil pump in the Toyota/Lexus power-split hybrid sys-
assembly ________. tem ________.
a. transfers torque from the electric motor to the drive a. only turns when the ICE is operating
wheels b. is located in the rear cover of the transmission behind
b. reduces motor speed to produce ideal torque at low MG2
and high speeds c. only turns when MG2 is operating
c. provides for a parking mechanism for the assembly d. Both answers a and b are correct
d. All of the answers are correct 9. The electric motor in the Ford/Lincoln 10R80 MHT trans-
6. What is the first step when diagnosing a hybrid vehicle mission provides ________.
transmission? a. stop-start capabilities
a. Check the fluid level b. extra power
b. Verify the customer concern c. extra low-speed torque
c. Check for trouble codes d. All of the answers are correct
d. Check for Technical Service Bulletins (TSBs) 10. The GM parallel hybrid truck features ________.
7. In a Toyota/Lexus hybrid electric vehicle, what is the pur- a. stop-start capabilities
pose of MG1? b. regenerative braking
a. Start the ICE c. full electric mode
b. Charge the HV battery d. Both answers a and b are correct
c. Provide additional power to MG2
d. All of the answers are correct

E V AN D H E V T RAN S M IS S ION S 249

Chapter 18
EV AND HEV DRIVER
ASSIST SYSTEMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Adaptive cruise control Intelligent Speed Advice
be able to: (ACC) 255 (ISA) 257

• Describe the purpose and function of advanced Advanced driver assist Lane departure warning
systems (ADASs) 251 system (LDWS) 254
driver assist systems.
Artificial intelligence (AI) Lane keep assist (LKA)
• Discuss blind spot monitors and parking assist, 265 255
as well as self-parking systems. Automatic emergency Light Detection and
• Explain lane departure warning and lane keep braking (AEB) 258 Ranging 260
assist systems. Blind spot monitor (BSM) Parking-assist system
• Describe how adaptive cruise control systems 252 253

work. Electromagnetic parking Rear cross-traffic

sensors (EPS) 253 warning (RCTW) 257
• Discuss rear cross-traffic warning system
Haptic actuator 252 Self-parking 254
operation.
Human–machine Ultrasonic object
• Explain automatic emergency braking and pre- interface (HMI) 251 sensors 253
collision systems.
• Describe the diagnostic and calibrations proce-
dures for advanced driver assist systems.

250
 most of the following to let the driver know what the vehicle (the
ADVANCED DRIVER machine) was doing:

ASSIST SYSTEMS ■■ Speedometer

■■ Fuel level gauge (HV battery charge level)

FOUNDATION OF DRIVER ASSIST Many of the exist- ■■ Outside air temperature
ing systems on an electric or hybrid electric vehicle are also the
■■ Tire pressures
foundation of driver assist systems including the following:
■■ Instrument panel/dashboard warning icons
■■ Electronic power steering (EPS) allows the driver to steer the
vehicle with ease without need of an engine-driven hydraulic
pump. It also allows the driver assist system to steer the METHODS OF COMMUNICATION Vehicles with advanced
vehicle back into the lane if it drifts out of the lane. technology need to communicate to the driver or occupants
using the following:
■■ The antilock brake system (ABS) allows the driver to
safely navigate slippery roads. It is the part of the emer- 1. Visual displays (eyes)
gency brake assist system that stops a vehicle when an 2. Sounds
obstacle is detected. 3. Tactile (called “haptic” feedback vibrations of the seat or
■■ The electronic throttle control (ETC) system allows the the steering wheel, which are created using a DC motor
driver to accelerate smoothly. It also allows the adaptive turning an offset weight to create the vibrations)
cruise control system to maintain the proper following The hardware involved includes the following:
distance when engaged.
1. A display
2. Speakers
PURPOSE The purpose of advanced driver assist
systems (ADASs) is to provide the driver with systems that
help the driver by doing the following:
? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
■■ Alert the driver of a potential issue, such as getting too close
How Do You Reboot the Digital Display?
to the center line or too far to the right of the roadway.
For most electric vehicles, pull the first responder
■■ Help the driver maintain proper driving habits, such as
loop under the hood, then disconnect the negative
maintaining an ensured clear distance from the vehicle
battery terminal by the fuse box. Wait 5 minutes,
in front while at the same time handling the accelerator
reconnect the battery terminal and then the first
pedal to maintain a set speed.
responder loop.
■■ Help the driver avoid a collision if a vehicle in front of the On the Tesla Model 3, hold down both scroll
driver stops quickly. wheels on the steering wheel until the display
■■ Make the parking safer through parking assist systems reboots. Press and hold both scroll wheels on either
that use ultrasonic sensors to detect when the front or side of the steering wheel for up to 10 seconds and
rear bumper is getting close to an object. the main/central screen will reboot. A soft reboot
is performed by holding in both scroll wheels until
CAUTION: The advanced driver assist systems are the touchscreen turns off. A hard reboot is alleg-
designed as a driver aid and are not intended to replace edly doing the same thing, but pressing and holding
the driver. It is the responsibility of the driver to be the brake pedal until the Tesla logo appears on the
aware of the surroundings and be able to take control of touchscreen. Another variation of a “reboot” is to
the vehicle at all times. power off the car from the touchscreen and leave it
off for a few minutes (you have to stay in the car).
HUMAN–MACHINE On a Mustang Mach E, to reboot the SYNC 4
system, push Volume Down button and Forward seek
INTERFACE (HMI) button. Hold them both down at the same time until
the screen reboots.
DEFINITION The human–machine interface (HMI) was
very basic in the past because the vehicles were equipped with

E V AN D H E V D RI V E R ASS IS T SY S T EM S 251
 3. Input devices, such as a mouse, joystick, or touch screen
4. Microphone for voice commands
Behind the scenes, software is used to sort out the
vast amount of information and reduce it to the levels
where the driver can understand and react to situations
as needed.

BLIND SPOT MONITOR

FUNCTION AND TERMINOLOGY The blind spot FIGURE 18-2 An actuator that causes the seat or the
steering wheel to shake is a called a haptic actuator. The
monitor (BSM) is a vehicle-based sensor device that detects
vibration is created by using a DC motor with a weight that
other vehicles located to the side and rear of the vehicle.
is out of balance. When the motor rotates, a vibration is
Warnings can be any of the following: created.
Visual—Usually a warning light in one or both of the out-
side rearview mirrors. ●■■SEE FIGURE 18-1.
■■ Audible—Usually a beep or buzzer sound. Dodge—Blind Spot Monitoring
■■ Vibrating (tactile)—A vibration is often created in the Fiat—Blind Spot Monitoring
steering wheel or the driver’s seat called a haptic
Ford—Blind Spot Information System (BLIS)
actuator. ●■ SEE FIGURE 18-2.
GMC—Side Blind Zone Alert
The term used varies with vehicle manufacturers and
Honda—Lane Watch System
includes the following:
Hyundai—Blind Spot Detection
■■ Acura—Blind Spot Information (BSI)
Infiniti—Blind Spot Intervention System
■■ Audi—Side Assist
Jeep—Blind Spot Monitoring
■■ BMW—Active Blind Spot Detection
Land Rover—Blind Spot Monitor
■■ Buick—Side Blind Zone Alert
Lexus—Blind Spot Monitor
■■ Cadillac—Side Blind Zone Alert
Mazda—Blind Spot Monitoring (BSM)
■■ Chevrolet—Side Blind Zone Alert
Mercedes-Benz—Active Blind Spot Assist
Mitsubishi—Blind Spot Warning (BSW)
Nissan—Blind Spot Warning
Porsche—Lane Change Assist
“A” Subaru—Blind Spot Detection
PILLAR
Toyota—Blind Spot Monitor
SIDE Volvo—Blind Spot Information System (BSIS)
MIRRORS

PARTS AND OPERATION When the vehicle is first

started, the outside mirrors display will come on briefly, indi-
cating that the system is turned on and operating. The typical
detection zone includes the following:
■■ Most systems are designed to detect objects that are as
FIGURE 18-1 Blind spot monitoring systems usually use a
warning system in the side-view mirror or in the “A” pillar near small as a motorcycle with rider.
the side-view mirror to warn the driver that there is a vehicle in ■■ The detection zone extends out from the sides and
the potential blind spot. behind the vehicle about 10 feet (3 m).

252 C HAPTER 18
 ■■ It is capable of detecting objects that are about 2 to 6 ■■ Electromagnetic parking sensors (EPS) detect when
feet (0.6 to 1.8 m) tall (above the ground). a vehicle is moving slowly and toward an object. Once
detected, the sensor continues to give a signal of presence
NOTE: The blind spot monitoring system does not detect
of the obstacle. If the vehicle continues to move toward
objects that are not moving, such as walls, curbs,
the object, the alarm signal becomes more and more
bridges, or parked vehicles.
impressive as the obstacle approaches. Electromagnetic
If the blind spot monitoring system fails to work as parking sensors do not require any holes in the bumper and
designed, check service information for the specified trouble- cannot be seen from the outside of the vehicle. A BSM is
shooting and repair procedure to follow. an option that may include more than monitoring the front,
rear, and sides of the vehicle. It can include cross-traffic
alert, which can sound an alarm when backing out of a
parking space and traffic is approaching from either side.
PARKING-ASSIST SYSTEMS The system alerts the driver with warning tones with the fre-
quency indicating object distance. The faster the tone sounds,
FUNCTION AND COMPONENTS The parking-assist
the closer is the vehicle to the object. A continuous tone indicates
system is used to help drivers avoid contact with another object
a minimal predefined distance. Systems may also include visual
while moving slowly. When backing up at speed of less than
aids, such as LED or LCD readouts, to indicate object distance.
5 MPH (8 km/h), the system constantly monitors for objects
A vehicle may include a vehicle pictogram on the infotainment
located around the vehicle. The parking-assist system can usually
screen. ●■ SEE FIGURE 18-4.
detect objects that are greater than 3 inches (8 cm) wide and 10
inches (25 cm) tall, but the system cannot detect objects below
the bumper or underneath the vehicle. As the vehicle gets closer
OPERATION The system is activated automatically when the
vehicle is started. The indicator light on the dash or driver informa-
to an object, there is an audible beep out of the speakers, and
tion center indicates the system is on. The parking-assist system is
the time between the beeps becomes shorter, the closer to the
active from the time the engine is started until the vehicle exceeds a
object. The parking-assist system usually includes the follow-
speed of approximately 6 MPH (10 km/h). It is also active when the
ing components:
vehicle is backing up. The parking-assist system is automatically
■■ Ultrasonic object sensors are used to measure the
reactivated the next time the engine is started, even if the system
distances to nearby objects and are built into the fender,
was turned off by the driver the last time the vehicle was driven.
and front and rear bumper assembly. The sensors send
out acoustic pulses, and a control unit measures the
DIAGNOSIS The parking-assist control module can detect faults
return interval of each reflected signal, calculating object
and store diagnostic trouble codes. If a fault has been detected
distances. ●■ SEE FIGURE 18-3.

DETECTING
AREA

BACK SONAR

PARKING ZONE
DETECTION
ULTRASONIC SENSOR

FIGURE 18-3 The small round buttons in the rear bumper

are ultrasonic sensors used to sense distance to an object. FIGURE 18-4 The dash display on a Chevrolet showing that
an object is being detected at the front and left front of the
vehicle.

E V AN D H E V D RI V E R ASSIS T S YS T EM S 253
 TECH TIP
LANE DEPARTURE WARNING
Check for Repainted Bumpers
PARTS AND OPERATION The lane departure warning
The ultrasonic sensors embedded in the bumper are
system (LDWS) uses cameras to detect if the vehicle is crossing
sensitive to paint thickness because the paint cov-
over lane marking lines on the pavement. Some systems use two
ers the sensors. If the system does not seem to be
cameras, one mounted on each outside rearview mirror. Some sys-
responding to objects, and if the bumper has been
tems use infrared sensors located under the front bumper to moni-
repainted, measure the paint thickness using a nonfer-
tor the lane markings on the road surface. The system names also
rous paint thickness gauge. The maximum allowable
vary according to vehicle manufacturers, including the following:
paint thickness is 6 mils (0.006 inch or 0.15 millimeter).
■■ Honda/Acura: Lane Keep Assist System (LKAS)
■■ Toyota/Lexus: Lane Monitoring System (LMS)

by the control module, the red lamp flashes and the system is dis- ■■ General Motors: Lane Departure Warning (LDW)
abled. Follow service information diagnostic procedures because the ■■ Ford: Lane Departure Warning (LDW)
parking-assist module cannot usually be accessed using a scan tool. ■■ Nissan/Infiniti: Lane Departure Prevention (LDP) System

SELF-PARKING Self-parking vehicles, also called auto- If the cameras detect that the vehicle is starting to cross
matic parking vehicles, use the camera(s) and control the elec- over a lane dividing line, a warning chime sounds or a vibrating
tric power steering to guide the vehicle into a parking space. mechanism mounted in the driver’s seat cushion is triggered on
The driver may or may not have to add anything in many the side where the departure is being detected. This warning
advanced systems, whereas the driver must control the throttle does not occur if the turn signal is on in the same direction as
and the brakes in early systems. ●■ SEE FIGURE 18-5. detected. ●■ SEE FIGURE 18-6.

DIAGNOSIS AND SERVICE Before attempting to service or

repair an LDWS fault, check service information for an explana-
tion on how the system is supposed to work. If the system is not
working as designed, perform a visual inspection of the sensors
or cameras, checking for damage from road debris or evidence
of body damage, which could affect the sensors. After a visual
inspection, follow the vehicle manufacturer’s recommended diag-
nosis procedures to locate and repair the fault in the system.

CAUTION: Do not clean the camera lenses using any

FIGURE 18- 5 A self-parking-capable vehicle is able to harsh cleaning agents. Just clean the lens using a mild
parallel park or enter into a parking spot with little, or no input soap and water to avoid and prevent possible damage to
from the driver. the camera lens coating.

FIGURE 18- 6 A lane departure warning system often uses cameras to sense the road lines and warns the driver if the vehicle is
not staying within the lane, unless the turn signal is on.

254 CHAPTER 18
 LANE KEEP ASSIST ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION The purpose of lane keep PURPOSE AND FUNCTION Adaptive cruise control
assist (LKA), also called lane keep assist system (LKAS), is not (ACC), also called radar cruise control, gives the driver more
only to warn the driver if the vehicle is moving out of the lane control over the vehicle by keeping an assured clear distance
of traffic, but when there is no response from the driver, to also behind the vehicle in front. If the vehicle in front slows, the
automatically use the electric power steering system to steer ACC detects the slowing vehicle and automatically reduces
the vehicle back into the lane. ●■ SEE FIGURE 18-7. the speed of the vehicle to keep a safe distance. If the vehicle
speeds up, the ACC also allows the vehicle to increase to the
PARTS AND OPERATION Most lane keep assist sys- preset speed. This makes driving in congested areas easier
tems use a camera mounted in front of the inside rearview mir- and less tiring.
ror with a clear view of the road ahead. A typical LKAS is able
to monitor the road about 160 feet (50 m) ahead, and at vehicle TERMINOLOGY Depending on the manufacturer, adaptive
speeds above 40 MPH (60 km/h) with the camera observing a cruise control is also referred to as the following:
40-degree view ahead of the vehicle. The camera can detect ■■ Adaptive cruise control (Audi, Ford, General Motors, and
the lane marking, which includes the center line; lane separa-
Hyundai)
tion lines; and the right-side painted line, often called the fog
■■ Dynamic cruise control (BMW, Toyota/Lexus)
line; because it helps drivers see the right side of the road
under poor or in foggy visibility. When the camera detects that ■■ Active cruise control (Mini Cooper, BMW)
the vehicle is starting to get close to either lane marking, the ■■ Autonomous cruise control (Mercedes)
vehicle performs the following functions:
It uses forward-looking radar to sense the distance to
1. It warns the driver by a warning sound, and/or lights the the vehicle in front and maintains an assured clear distance.
LKA symbol on the dash. In some vehicles, the warning This type of cruise control system works within the following
includes vibrating the steering wheel in an attempt to get conditions:
the driver’s attention.
■■ At speeds from 20 to 100 MPH (30 to 161 km/h).
2. If the warnings do not result in corrective action by the
driver, the LKAS uses the electric power steering to
■■ Designed to detect objects as far away as 500 feet (150 m).
steer the vehicle back into the lane between the two lane ■■ The cruise control system is able to sense both distance
markings. and relative speed. ●■ SEE FIGURE 18-8.

FIGURE 18- 7 Lane keep assist systems not only warn the driver that the vehicle is not staying within the lane of traffic, but will
also use the electric power steering to actually move the steering wheel to bring the vehicle back into the lane. This action can
startle a driver if the driver has never experienced the vehicle taking control of the steering before.

E V AN D H E V D RI V E R ASSIS T S YS T EM S 255
 Accelerator Pedal

Servomotor
Position (APP) ETC Module
Sensor
Data Link
TPS
Accelerator
Pedal
Vehicle ECM
Electronic
Throttle Body

FIGURE 18-8 Adaptive cruise control can use radar to determine the distance of another vehicle in front. The control unit checks
the driver’s selected speed and sets the distance between the vehicles to determine what action is needed. The PCM then can
operate the throttle or the brakes through the antilock brake/electronic stability control system to slow the vehicle, if needed, to
maintain the set distance.

SRR LRR

80˚

100 FT
(30 M)
500 FT
(150 M)

FIGURE 18-9 Most radar cruise control systems use radar, both long and short range. Some systems use optical or infrared
cameras to detect objects.

PARTS AND OPERATION Radar cruise control systems DIAGNOSIS AND SERVICE If the radar cruise con-
use long-range radar (LRR) to detect faraway objects in front trol is not working properly, begin by making sure the sensor,
of the moving vehicle. Some systems use a short-range radar which is usually behind the grille on most vehicles, is not cov-
(SRR) and/or infrared (IR) or optical cameras to detect when ered. The system does not operate if the system is covered
the distance between the moving vehicle and another vehicle in by heavy mud, ice, or snow. Additionally, some aftermarket
front is reduced. ●■ SEE FIGURE 18-9. vehicle front covers obstruct the sensor view. If the sensor is
The radar frequencies include the following: replaced, some systems require a realignment using special
tools. Always refer to the manufacturer’s service information for
■■ 76 to 77 GHz (long-range radar)
specific instructions.
■■ 24 GHz (short-range radar)

256 C HAPTER 18
 Case Study ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

The Case of the Inoperative Radar Cruise What Is Intelligent Speed Advice (ISA)?
Control Intelligent Speed Advice (ISA) uses a sign rec-
The driver of a Lexus NX 300h hybrid electric vehicle ognition camera or a navigation system (GPS) to
experienced a situation where the radar cruise control determine the speed limit, which is used to warn
stopped working due to ice on the sensor after driv- the driver of the posted speed limit. Some ISA sys-
ing through light snow showers. When the front was tems automatically limit the speed of the vehicle by
checked, it was discovered that ice had accumulated limiting engine power to prevent the vehicle from
on the front grille. Using an ice scraper brush, the accelerating past the current speed limit unless
grille was cleaned, restoring the proper operation of overridden. The European New Car Assessment
the radar cruise control. ●■ SEE FIGURE 18-10. Program (Euro NCAP) is a European car safety per-
Summary: formance assessment program which is awarding
• Complaint—Radar cruise stopped working and a vehicle manufacturers if their vehicle is equipped
message appeared to clean the sensor. with this system.
• Cause—Ice buildup on the grille.
• Correction—Cleaning the front of the grille, using
a brush, restored the proper operation of the radar
cruise control.

REAR CROSS-TRAFFIC
WARNING (RCTW)
PURPOSE A rear cross-traffic warning (RCTW) system
sounds an audible warning when a vehicle is crossing at the
rear while backing. Some vehicles are capable of automatically
braking to avoid a collision.

PARTS AND OPERATION Rear cross-traffic alert is

used to warn the driver when backing from a parking space
if there is a vehicle approaching from either side. The sys-
(a) tem uses radar sensors that are installed on both sides of the
vehicle near the rear bumper. These sensors are able to detect
vehicles approaching from the left or right side of the vehicle.
These sensors activate when the vehicle is placed in reverse
and can detect vehicles from up to 65 feet (20 m) on either side.
The system is usually designed to function under the following
conditions:
■■ When the vehicle is in reverse and your speed is less than
5 MPH (8 km/h)
■■ The system is designed to detect other vehicles
approaching between 5 and 18 MPH (8 to 29 km/h).

If a vehicle is detected, the system will sound a warning

(b)
and often flash the side mirror indicators. Rear cross-traffic
FIGURE 18-10 (a) A dash warning message appeared when
the cruise control stopped working. (b) The front of a Lexus alert may not work if one of the rear sensors is blocked or dur-
hybrid shows some ice buildup that was enough to block the ing heavy rain or snow.
radar signals needed for the radar cruise control to work. ●■ SEE FIGURES 18-11 AND 18-12.

E V AN D H E V D RI V E R ASS IS T SY S T EM S 257
 OUTBOUND SIGNAL INBOUND SIGNAL

COLLISION AUTOMATIC BRAKE ASSIST WARNING

BRAKING VEHICLE DELIVERED
SLOWDOWN

FIGURE 18- 13 Sensors are used to detect when the

distance is closing fast enough that a collision may be
possible, and the system intervenes to automatically apply
the brakes if needed.

If the warnings are ignored, the automatic braking sys-

tem will intervene and either provide brake assist or apply the
RADAR SENSOR brakes autonomously (by itself) to achieve maximum braking in
an effort to avoid a collision. ●■ SEE FIGURE 18-13.
FIGURE 18- 11 Rear cross-traffic warning systems use radar
sensors at the rear corners of the vehicle, which are able to
detect a moving vehicle approaching from the sides.
PRE-COLLISION SYSTEM
PURPOSE The purpose of a pre-collision system is to
monitor the road ahead and prepare to avoid a collision, and to
protect the driver and passengers. A pre-collision or a collision
avoidance system uses the following systems:
1. The long-range and short-range radar or detection sys-
tems used by a radar cruise control system to detect
FIGURE 18- 12 If a vehicle is approaching from the side objects in front of the vehicle
when the gear selector is in reverse, a warning is sounded. 2. Antilock brake system (ABS)
3. Adaptive (radar) cruise control
4. Brake assist system
AUTOMATIC EMERGENCY
TERMINOLOGY
BRAKING Pre-collision systems can be called by
various names, depending on the make of the vehicle. Some
include the following:
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION An automatic emergency
braking (AEB) system intervenes and automatically applies the ■■ Ford/Lincoln: Collision Warning with Brake Support
brakes if needed. Automatic braking is often part of a safety ■■ Honda/Acura: Collision Mitigation Brake System
package that includes radar cruise control, and will apply the
(CMBS)
brakes in the event of a possible collision. Sensors such as
■■ Mercedes-Benz: Pre-Safe or Attention Assist
radar, sonar, and/or cameras are used, depending on the sys-
tem to detect the distance to another object. The controller,
■■ Toyota/Lexus: Pre-Collision System (PCS) or Advanced
usually an antilock braking system (ABS) controller, then issues Pre-Collision System (APCS)
a warning if a collision is possible. This warning can include ■■ General Motors: Pre-Collision System (PCS)
one or more of the following: ■■ Volvo: Collision Warning with Brake Support or Collision
1. A buzzer Warning with Brake Assist Operation
2. A warning light flashing on the dash The system functions by monitoring objects in front of the
3. A vibration of the driver’s seat vehicle and can act to avoid a collision by the following actions:

258 CHAPTER 18
 ■■ Sounds an alarm
Case Study
■■ Flashes a warning lamp
■■ Applies the brakes and brings the vehicle to a full stop (if The Case of the Tesla Model Y
needed) The owner of a Tesla Model Y was given a bright yel-
If the driver does not react, the following actions are low flyer (standard printer paper size) when registering
performed by the vehicle: to attend a car show, and told us to put it on the dash.
Almost immediately, the vehicle started acting up. When
1. Applies the brakes in full force to reduce vehicle speed as
the accelerator pedal was depressed, the vehicle would
much as possible.
keep trying to stop by applying the brakes in short
2. Closes all windows and the sunroof to prevent the occu-
bursts over and over. The only thing that changed was
pants from being ejected from the vehicle.
that yellow flyer on the dash. The driver removed the
3. Moves the seats to an upright position. flyer from the dash and the vehicle was able to function
4. Raises the headrest (if electrically powered). normally. It was dark out, and the bright yellow flyer was
5. Pretensions the seat belts. reflecting onto the front windshield, essentially creating
a hologram in the front of the vehicle. This likely caused
6. Airbags and seat belt tensioners function as designed
the front facing camera to see an object in front and the
during the collision. ●■ SEE FIGURE 18-14.
collision warning system was activated.
Summary:
WITH HILL START ASSIST
• Complaint—When the accelerator pedal was
depressed, the vehicle would keep trying to stop
by applying the brakes in short bursts.
• Cause—A bright yellow flyer was placed on top of
the dash which created a refection that fooled the
front facing camera.
• Correction—The flyer was removed from the dash,
which restored proper vehicle operation.

WITHOUT HILL START ASSIST

point. The light then passes to a Charge-Coupled Device (CCD). A

CCD is a device for the movement of electrical charge, for conversion
into a digital value. In a CCD image sensor, pixels are represented by
metal-oxide-semiconductors (MOS) capacitors. These capacitors
allow the conversion of incoming photons into electron charges at
the semiconductor-oxide interface. ●■ SEE FIGURE 18-15.
The calculation uses the image and vehicle speed to
determine how close and rapid it is approaching so the control-
FIGURE 18-14 A pre-collision system is designed to prevent a
ler can command corrective action. The controller calculates
collision first, and interacts to prepare for a collision, if needed.
the distance to impact based on the size of the object in the
field of view (over multiple frames).

CAMERAS As the object gets closer to impact, the vehicle imple-

ments a corrective action. The calculation uses the object’s
size as it appears in the field of view times the vehicle’s speed
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION Cameras are used to replace
to determine the time to impact.
the human eye. Cameras are able to recognize objects better
than radar. While radar can detect objects, the camera is used DIAGNOSIS The diagnosis of the camera system begins by
to recognize objects. reading the DTCs. The operation of the camera can be affected
by heavy rain, snow, or an accumulation of ice or mud. Before
PARTS AND OPERATION The light that reflects off an object making any repairs, it is important to verify the lens of the cam-
in front of the lens passes through the lens and is collected at a focal era is free of anything that obstructs its view. Calibration of the

E V AN D H E V D RI V E R ASSIS T S YS T EM S 259
 DRAIN PIXEL INCOMING CCD
VOLTAGE RESET PHOTONS GATES
CONTROL GATE

TRANSFER
GATE

BURIED
CHANNEL
N+

N+

N- BURIED
CHANNEL

CCD
CHARGE
TRANSFER
POTENTIAL
LATERAL WELL
OVERFLOW
DRAIN
PHOTODIODE
INTEGRATED
CHARGE POTENTIAL
POTENTIAL WELL BARRIER p-SILICON

FIGURE 18-15 A charge coupled device (CCD) is an integrated circuit on a silicon surface forming light-sensitive elements
called pixels. The light photons generate a charge that can be used by electronics and turned into a digital copy of the image on
the device.
interpretation. LiDAR systems are able to create 3-D images at
camera is required when one or more cameras are replaced or
300 yards (300 m), which is a lot further than a camera is able to
a mounting component, such as a windshield, bumper cover,
detect objects. LiDAR is used to not only detect an object, but
mirror, or door, is replaced.
also to recognize an object, like what a camera is able to do.
These systems are used to measure the distance, location, and
LIDAR SYSTEMS relative speed of nearby objects, and to confirm and validate
the data from the other onboard radar and camera sensors.
DEFINITION LiDAR means Light Detection and Ranging The operation of LiDAR is diminished by bad weather. The light
or Light Imaging, Detection, And Ranging. LiDAR systems pulses reflect off of rain or snow, making the object difficult to
emit light pulses that are reflected off of objects and return for define. ●■ SEE FIGURE 18-16.

FIGURE 18-16 LiDAR is a detection system that uses light from a laser to create a picture of the surrounding area.

260 C HAPTER 18
PARTS AND OPERATION LiDAR is usually seen on pro- STEP 5 Perform the specified procedure and static calibra-
totype autonomous vehicles that use a rotating object on the tions of the sensors as needed.
roof so that the laser light from the sensor can view all objects STEP 6 Perform the specified dynamic calibration of the sen-
surrounding the vehicle. This type of sensor is very expen- sors as needed.
sive and not practical for most vehicles that have to be driven STEP 7 Test drive the vehicle under the same operating con-
into garages or car washes. The latest LiDAR system uses ditions that were used to verify the fault to verify the
solid-state (not moving) sensors that are capable of detecting repair.
objects surrounding the vehicle. There are two different wave STEP 8 Clear all advanced driver assist system-related diag-
lengths used in LiDAR systems including 905 nanometers or nostic trouble codes (DTCs) and return the vehicle to
1,550 nanometers. A nanometer is a metric unit of length equal the customer.
to one billionth of a meter (0.000000001 m).

DIAGNOSIS AND CALIBRATION LiDAR systems are CAMERA AND RADAR

capable of self-diagnosis and store a DTC when it determines
there is a failure. The trouble code is accessible via a diagnos-
SENSOR CALIBRATION
tic scan tool. The calibration of the system is performed in a
CAMERA CALIBRATION Calibration of the camera is
static manner using targets that are positioned according to the
required when one or more cameras are replaced on a mount-
vehicle-specific instructions. A static calibration is used because
ing component, such as a windshield, bumper cover, mirror,
multiple sensors are calibrated at the same time. Refer to the
or door. The calibration is an in-shop, static process. Large
manufacturer’s service information for specific information.
patterned mats are placed around the vehicle at specific loca-
tions and the scan tool is used to initiate the process. ●■ SEE

DRIVER ASSIST DIAGNOSIS FIGURE 18-17.

VIN DECODER To identify what ADAS a vehicle is equipped TYPICAL PROCEDURE Some camera systems require
with, use the vehicle identification number (VIN), or the regular a specific target so that the camera can be calibrated. Some
production order (RPO), for vehicles built by General Motors. vehicles that do not require a special target, a factory, or
There are many online VIN decoders available, including one factory-level scan tool imitate the learning process. They will
on the National Highways Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) often use lines that are taped to the floor around the vehicle to
website. Visit https://vpic.nhtsa.dot.gov/decoder/ At this site, use as a target. ●■ SEE FIGURE 18-18.
enter the VIN and select “decode.” The results will show all of Some systems also require that the vehicle be driven
the ADAS used on that specified vehicle. at slow speeds under specific operating conditions to com-
plete the learning. This process is used to do the final accu-
DIAGNOSTIC STEPS Similar to troubleshooting any other rate calibrations. Refer to service information for specific
system or fault, the steps in the diagnostic procedure include diagnostic and calibration information for the vehicle being
the following: serviced.

STEP 1 Verify the customer concern. Check the customer con-

cern and determine that it is a true fault, and not a misun- RADAR CALIBRATION Calibration of the radar is required
derstanding, on how the system is supposed to work. anytime the unit is replaced or reinstalled. In many cases, the
STEP 2 Perform a visual inspection. Check for any physical calibration procedure must be performed anytime a grille or
faults that could affect the operation of the advanced fascia is removed or replaced. The calibration process may be
driver assist system, such as road debris and/or minor static (in the shop), or dynamic (on the road), or a combina-
collision damage. tion of the two. The static process involves the use of a scan
STEP 3 Check for any stored or pending diagnostic trouble tool and an aiming procedure. The aiming procedure requires
codes. Check all modules by performing a full module manufacturer-specific targets. ●■ SEE FIGURES 18-19 AND
scan to check for faults in all of the modules. 18-20.
STEP 4 Check service information for the specified procedure Check service information for specific diagnostic and cali-
to follow to service or repair the verified fault. bration information for the vehicle being serviced.

E V AN D H E V D RI V E R ASS IS T SY S T EM S 261
 29.53FT (9M)
VEHICLE LENGTH

MOVEMENT AREA FOR

ADJUSTMENT OF ALTERNATE FEET CLEAR, LEVEL
AREA REQUIRED
FOR TARGET
PLACEMENT

ADJUSTMENT OF ALTERNATE FEET

ADJUSTMENT OF ALTERNATE FEET

MOVEMENT AREA FOR

MOVEMENT AREA FOR

BAY SIZE
VEHICLE WIDTH

REQUIREMENT

AXIS

AXIS
WHEELBASE APPROXIMATE
1.64 FT 8.2 FT (2.5 M) 9.84 FT (3 M) 8.2 FT (2.5 M) 1.64 FT

(0.5 M) (0.5 M)
26.25 FT (8 M)

FIGURE 18-17 A typical camera calibration shop requirement to be used to calibrate the cameras on a vehicle equipped with
advance driver assist systems. The area around the vehicle must be open and free from objects or windows that could affect the
camera calibration.

FIGURE 18-18 A typical target setup required to calibrate FIGURE 18-19 Before the radar sensor can be calibrated,
the camera on a vehicle equipped with an advanced driver the target must be installed at a very precise location at the
assist system. Always follow the specified calibration front of the vehicle. The measurements involved include
procedure for the vehicle being serviced. finding the exact center of the vehicle often using a special
tool as shown.

262 C HAPTER 18
 navigation technology of the vehicle allows for increased road-
way capacity and reduced congestion and makes driving easier
for people with certain disabilities. Autonomous vehicles can
potentially reduce insurance costs and allow for an increase in
speed limits and in occupant productivity because of the pre-
cise nature of the operating systems.

CONCERNS The transition to autonomous vehicles creates

some major concerns, including the following:
■■ There are concerns about the resistance of drivers of a non-
autonomous vehicle to give up control of the vehicle to a
computer.
■■ There are also concerns as to how well the hardware func-
tions are related to cybersecurity and the loss of privacy.
■■ There are concerns about managing the transitions
between automated control to driver control and the
assignment of liability when errors occur.
■■
Possible failure of one or more sensors or operating sys-
tems or by weather conditions affecting sensor readings.

FIGURE 18-20 A typical radar target being placed in the

■■ In tests, some passengers in self-driving vehicles suffered
specified position after careful measurements from the from motion sickness.
centerline of the vehicle and the exact distance from the front
and at the specified height.
LEVELS OF AUTOMATION
AUTONOMOUS VEHICLE SAE DEFINITIONS SAE International, who establishes

OPERATION standards for the automotive industry, has created a standard

(J3016) that classifies the vehicle capabilities into five levels.
SAE J3016 has been formally adopted by the United States
DEFINITION Automotive Engineers (SAE) defines an auton-
Department of Transportation (DOT) as the reference for defin-
omous vehicle (AV) as a vehicle that uses an automated driving
ing the five levels of automation. ●■ SEE CHART 18-1 AND
system that monitors the driving environment and makes navi-
FIGURE 18-21.
gation decisions without driver input.
As the vehicle transitions from no automation to partial
automation, and then to full automation, numerous systems are
HISTORY The autonomous automobile finds its roots in da
needed to complete the tasks that are otherwise completed by
Vinci’s Self-Propelled Cart of the 1500s. Technology used in an air-
the driver. The systems used are determined by the manufac-
craft autopilot, and cruise control, provided the basis for early test
turer and the level of automation desired.
vehicles. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, advances were made in
camera and computer technology that allowed unmanned vehicles
to travel short distances in defined areas at slow speeds. Technology
LEVEL 0 SYSTEMS Level 0 systems do not include any
assistance to the driver, who is in total and continuous control
from the MQ-1 Predator aircraft in the 1990s allowed for the first use
of the vehicle at all times. However, because most fatal acci-
of radar and thermal imaging in test vehicles. In 2015, Tesla down-
dents are due to driver errors, the emphasis is on safety sys-
loaded “Autopilot” software to all Model S vehicles, giving them a
tems that take the driver out of the control. Fatal accidents are
first-of-a-kind hands-free driving for highway and freeway driving.
often due to one or more of the following:

BENEFITS Autonomous vehicles may have major ■■ Distracted driving—This could be due to others in
advantages that nonautonomous vehicles do not offer. The the vehicle talking or behaving in such a manner that
vehicle-to-vehicle communications of autonomous vehicles distracts the driver. Texting while driving is also a major
should result in fewer traffic collisions. The precise driving and cause of accidents caused by distracted driving.

E V AN D H E V D RI V E R ASSIS T S YS T EM S 263
 at highway speeds easier for the driver. Cruise control can also
SAE LEVEL VEHICLE CAPABILITIES be used in suburban areas to help the driver maintain a con-
Level 0 No automation: The driver is in complete and stant speed to help avoid speeding. While these systems do
total control of the vehicle at all times.
not reduce fatalities, they are the first of the driver aids to make
Level 1 Driver assistance: The driver is in control of the
vehicle but has help with maintaining speed and driving easier.
assured clear distance between vehicles by way of
radar cruise control. LEVEL 2 SYSTEMS Many manufacturers currently offer
Level 2 Partial automaton: The vehicle is capable of vehicles that are SAE Level 2 equipped. Level 2 systems
maintaining speed and distance between other
include the following:
vehicles and also accelerates, brakes, and turns
to follow the road. Requires the driver to have ■■ Adaptive Cruise Control—An adaptive cruise control,
their hands on the wheel.
often called radar cruise control, uses radar, lasers,
Level 3 Conditional automation: The vehicle is capable
of driving itself under most driving conditions. cameras, or a combination of sensors, to keep a constant
The driver is free to keep hands off the steering distance from the vehicle ahead.
wheel and can look at other things, such as a ■■ Blind-Spot Warning (BSW)
video, while the vehicle drives itself.
Level 4 High automation: The vehicle is capable of driv- ■■ Lane-Departure Warning
ing itself under most driving conditions, but the ■■ Rear Cross-Traffic Warning (RCTW)
driver may need to intervene in case of a situa-
tion that the automated system cannot handle. ■■ Backup Camera—A backup camera is optional or stan-
Level 5 Full automation: The vehicle is able to handle all dard equipment on many vehicles and gives the driver a
functions without the need for the driver to inter- view of the area behind the vehicle when the gear selec-
vene under all conditions.
tor is in reverse.
CHART 18-1 ■■ Forward-Collision Warning (FCW)
The SAE J3016 levels of automated vehicle capabilities. ■■ Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB)
■■ Impaired driving—According to the National Highway ■■ Self-Parking
Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), more than 10,000
The driver may or may not have to add any input in
people die in alcohol-impaired driving crashes each year.
many advanced systems, whereas the driver must control
the throttle and the brakes in early systems. Many of the
LEVEL 1 SYSTEMS Level 1 systems use cruise control to Level 2 systems are grouped together and are commonly
help maintain a constant vehicle speed, which makes driving referred to Advanced Driver Assist system (ADAS). These

LEVEL NAME WHO IS DRIVING? WHO IS MONITORING? WHO INTERVENES?

NO
0 AUTOMATION

DRIVER
1
ASSIST

PARTIAL
2
AUTOMATION

CONDITIONAL
3
AUTOMATION

HIGH
4 AUTOMATION

FULL
5 AUTOMATION

FIGURE 18-21 A graphic example of who is driving and monitoring the conditions, and who can intervene if a situation requires
evasive action.

264 C HAPTER 18
systems are currently standard or optional equipment and
their operation and service procedures are available from
service information.

LEVELS 3, 4, OR 5 SYSTEMS Autonomous vehicles

that are capable of Level 3, 4, or 5 are equipped with radar,
LiDAR, and cameras to detect objects surrounding the vehicle.
In addition, these vehicles need to be in communication with
other vehicles. The other systems need to be able to act and
react to traffic and road conditions. If all vehicles were at Level
5 automation, this could result in the following advantages:
■■ A decrease in accidents and death on the highways.
■■ Reduced congestion because vehicles can be driven
FIGURE 18-22 Artificial intelligence includes the hardware
close together, therefore allowing roads to carry more and the software needed to make judgments based on
traffic faster. the input from sensors and knowledge of the surrounding
■■ Because a driver does not need to get into or out of a environment.
vehicle, vehicles can be self-parked close to each other,
which frees parking spaces and reduces the need for
additional parking, especially in urban areas. DEDICATED SHORT-RANGE
COMMUNICATION (DSRC)
COMPUTER POWER NEEDED Data processing needs
to increase exponentially in self-driving Level 5 auton-
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION Dedicated short-range
communication (DSRC) is used for vehicle-to-vehicle commu-
omous vehicles. To interpret and process all this digi-
nication, as well as the vehicle to the infrastructure. It uses a
tal information from sensors, onboard vehicle systems,
5.9 GHz frequency and 75 MHz bandwidth to transmit critical
and the cloud to hold all of the data, the vehicle needs
information like speed, location, direction, and traffic. DSRC is
to have sufficient computing power. The architecture
an open-source network with low latency, which allows it to
used in automobile electronics is traditionally made up
transmit messages in milliseconds. The operating range of the
of individual electronic control units, and these can be
system is approximately 1,000 feet (300 meters).
improved and enhanced for autonomous driving.

PARTS AND OPERATION DSRC is supported by a net-

work of roadside equipment and onboard equipment mounted
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE in the vehicle that allows for communication to occur safely
and without interference from other forms of communication.
(AI) The transmitters and receivers operate on protocols that are
defined by IEEE 802.11p and IEEE 1609 for vehicular commu-
The automotive industry is working to develop artificial
nication. ●■ SEE FIGURE 18-23.
intelligence (AI) systems for the transportation industry,
including automated and autonomous driving systems for
passenger cars, commercial trucks, and industrial appli- DIAGNOSIS AND CALIBRATION Diagnosis of the
cations. Artificial intelligence is machine learning accom- DSRC systems involves testing hardware, as well as signal
plished through programming and training that allows the strength. The hardware has self-diagnostic capabilities and
computer to react much like a human. It enables vehicles the ability to store fault codes. This information is accessible
to understand their environment and to process sensor with a diagnostic scan tool. Repairs are not made to the hard-
and camera data. It is estimated that these computers ware; instead, it is replaced. The software is upgradeable by
are capable of 30 million deep-learning operations per the manufacturer or the service technician. The signal strength
second and require a bandwidth that supports 1 GB per is measured with specific equipment designed to measure the
second of data transfer. ●■ SEE FIGURE 18-22. frequency of DSRC devices.

E V AN D H E V D RI V E R ASSIS T S YS T EM S 265
 La Boutique

FIGURE 18- 23 Dedicated short-range communication (DSRC) is used for vehicle-to-vehicle communication to help prevent
accidents and makes it safer for everyone.

SUMMARY
1. The advanced driver assist systems are designed as a 7. Adaptive cruise control (ACC), also called radar cruise
driver aid and are not intended to replace the driver. control, gives the driver more control over the vehicle by
2. The blind spot monitor (BSM) is a vehicle-based sensor keeping an assured clear distance behind the vehicle in
device that detects other vehicles located to the side and front.
rear of the vehicle. 8. A rear cross-traffic warning (RCTW) system sounds an
3. The parking-assist system is used to help drivers avoid audible warning when a vehicle is crossing at the rear
contact with another object while moving slowly. while backing. Some vehicles are capable of automatically
braking to avoid a collision.
4. Self-parking vehicles, also called automatic parking vehi-
cles, use the camera(s) and control the electric power 9. An automatic emergency braking (AEB) system intervenes
steering to guide the vehicle into a parking space. and automatically applies the brakes if needed.
5. The lane departure warning system (LDWS) uses cameras 10. The purpose and function of a pre-collision system is to
to detect if the vehicle is crossing over lane marking lines monitor the road ahead, prepare to avoid a collision, and
on the pavement. to protect the driver and passengers.
6. The purpose of lane keep assist (LKA), also called lane 11. To identify what ADAS a vehicle is equipped with, use the
keep assist system (LKAS), is not only to warn the driver vehicle identification number (VIN), or the regular produc-
if the vehicle is moving out of the lane of traffic, but when tion order (RPO) for vehicles built by General Motors.
no response, to also automatically use the electric power 12. The ADAS diagnosis includes eight steps to find and cor-
steering system to steer the vehicle back into the lane. rect the root cause of the problem and to be properly cali-
brate the radar and cameras.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Parking-assist systems use what type of sensor? 4. What is the purpose and function of advanced driver
2. What is the difference between a lane departure warning assist systems?
and a lane keep assist? 5. When is the calibration of a camera on an autonomous
3. What type of sensors are used in automatic emergency vehicle required?
braking and pre-collision control systems?

266 CHAPTER 18
 CHAPTER QUIZ
1. What is not a function of advanced driver assist systems? 7. Calibrating radar and cameras involves all of the following
a. Self-drive capability except ________.
b. Take the load off the driver a. factory or factory-level scan tool
c. Help the driver avoid a collision if a vehicle in front of b. special targets set at precisely specified location
them stops quickly around the vehicle
d. Alert the driver of a potential issue c. both static and dynamic calibrations are required
2. Blind spot monitor (BSM) warnings can be ________. d. driving the vehicle in a circle 10 times to calibrate the
a. visual cameras
b. audible 8. LiDAR systems are capable of ________.
c. vibrating (tactile) a. creating 3-D images at 300 yards
d. Any of the above b. recognizing an object
3. Self-parking vehicles use ________ and control the c. measuring distance, location, and speed
________ to control the vehicle into a parking space. d. All of the above
a. radar; throttle 9. Calibrating radar and cameras involves all of the following
b. camera; electric power steering except ______________.
c. sonic sensor; brakes a. Factory or factory-level scan tool
d. sadar; electric power steering b. Special targets set at precisely specified location
4. The purpose of lane keep assist (LKA) is ________. around the vehicle
a. to warn the driver if moving out of a lane c. Both static (stationary and dynamic (moving) calibra-
b. used with adaptive cruise control to self-drive the tion is required
vehicle without driver input or control d. Driving the vehicle in a circle 10 times to calibrate the
c. to use the electric power steering to keep the vehicle cameras
within the lane 10. Dedicated short-range communication (DSRC) systems
d. Both a and c are capable of ______________.
5. Rear cross-traffic alert is used to warn the driver when a. Creating 3-D images at 300 yards
backing out from a parking space if there is a vehicle b. Recognizing an object
approaching from either side. The system uses ________ c. Measuring distance, location, and speed
installed on both sides of the vehicle near the rear bumper. d. allows it to transmit messages in milliseconds
a. sonar c. radar
b. ultrasonic d. cameras
6. A parking-assist system works to warn the driver if the
vehicle is getting close to an object. What type of object
cannot be detected by most systems?
a. Objects larger than 3 inches (8 cm) wide
b. Objects larger than 10 inches (25 cm) high
c. Objects underneath the vehicle
d. Any of the above

E V AN D H E V D RI V E R ASS IS T SY S T EM S 267
Chapter 19
FUEL CELLS
AND ADVANCED
TECHNOLOGIES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter the reader should Electrolysis 269 Low-grade heat 274
be able to: Energy carrier 269 Membrane electrode
• Explain how a fuel cell generates electricity and Fuel cell 269 assembly (MEA) 270

list advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells. Fuel-cell hybrid vehicle Polymer electrolyte fuel
(FCHV) 270 cell (PEFC) 270
• List the types of fuel cells and vehicle systems
Fuel-cell stack 270 Proton exchange
that use them. membrane (PEM) 270
Fuel-cell vehicle (FCV)
• Explain how ultracapacitors and transaxle work 270 Specific energy 269
in fuel-cell hybrid vehicles. Homogeneous charge Ultracapacitor 277
• Discuss the use of hydraulic pressure as an compression ignition
energy source. (HCCI) 279

• Describe the HCCI combustion process.

• Discuss alternative electricity sources.

268
 FUEL-CELL TECHNOLOGY HYDROGEN

BACKGROUND A fuel cell is an electrochemical device in BIOMASS WATER

which the chemical energy of hydrogen and oxygen is converted COAL ELECTROLYSIS
into electrical energy. The principle of the fuel cell was first discov- SOLAR POWER
NATURAL GAS
ered in 1639 by Sir William grove, a Welsh physician. In the 1950s, WIND POWER
PETROLEUM WATER POWER
national Aeronautics and Space Administration (nASA) put this OTHERS
principle to work in building devices for powering space exploration
FIGURE 19-2 Hydrogen does not exist by itself in nature.
vehicles. Fuel cells are being developed to power homes and vehi-
Energy must be expended to separate it from other, more
cles while producing low or zero emissions. ● SEE FIGURE 19-1. complex materials.

PARTS AND OPERATION The chemical reaction in a fuel cell the atmosphere to form water (H2o). Hydrogen is also found
is the opposite of electrolysis. Electrolysis is the process in which in many other compounds, such as natural gas or crude oil. In
electrical current is passed through water in order to break it into order to store hydrogen for use as a fuel, different processes
its components, hydrogen and oxygen. While energy is required to must be undertaken to separate it from these materials. For
bring about electrolysis, this same energy can be retrieved by allow- example, hydrogen can be produced from water using an elec-
ing hydrogen and oxygen to reunite in a fuel cell. While hydrogen tric current to separate the hydrogen from the oxygen using a
can be used as a fuel, it is not an energy source. Instead, hydrogen process called electrolysis. ● SEE FIGURE 19-2.
is only an energy carrier, as energy must be expended to generate
the hydrogen and store it so it can be used as a fuel.
ADVANTAGES OF A FUEL CELL A fuel cell can be used
to move a vehicle by generating electricity to power electric
HYDROGEN-POWERED BATTERY A fuel cell is a
drive motors, as well as powering the remainder of the electri-
hydrogen-powered battery. Hydrogen is an excellent fuel
cal system of the vehicle. Advantages include the following:
because it has a very high specific energy when compared to
an equivalent amount of fossil fuel. one kilogram (kg) of hydro- ■ Because they are powered by hydrogen and oxygen, fuel
gen has three times the energy content as one kilogram of gaso-
cells by themselves do not generate carbon emissions,
line. Hydrogen is the most common element on earth, but it does
such as Co2. Instead, their only emissions are water
not exist by itself in nature. Hydrogen is 14 times lighter than air.
vapor and heat, and this makes the fuel cell an ideal
candidate for a ZEV (zero-emission vehicle).
HYDROGEN SOURCES Hydrogen is a low-carbon, non-
toxic fuel that is domestically produced from local resources. ■ A fuel cell is also much more energy-efficient than a typical
This is because its natural tendency is to react with oxygen in internal combustion engine (ICE). While a vehicle powered

ELECTRIC MOTOR

HYDROGEN TANK FUEL TANK NECK

FUEL CELL

ELECTRICITY

BATTERY HYDROGEN
PROPULSION

FIGURE 19-1 A fuel cell vehicle uses a fuel cell and a high-voltage battery to provide electrical power to the electric drive
motor.

F U E L C E L L S An D A D V An C E D T E CH n oLog IES 269

 by an ICE is anywhere from 15% to 20% efficient, a fuel- FUEL-CELL TYPES There are a number of different types of
cell vehicle can achieve efficiencies upward of 40%. fuel cells, and these are differentiated by the type of electrolyte that is
■ Fuel cells have very few moving parts and have the used in their design. Some electrolytes operate best at room temper-
potential to be very reliable. Vehicle manufacturers have ature, whereas others are made to operate at up to 1600°F (871°C).
spent many years and millions of dollars in order to The fuel-cell design that is best suited for automotive
develop a low-cost, durable, and compact fuel cell that applications is the Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM). A
operates satisfactorily under all driving conditions. PEM fuel cell must have hydrogen for it to operate, and this
may be stored on the vehicle or generated, as needed, from
A fuel-cell vehicle (FCV) uses the fuel cell as its only source of
another type of fuel. There are several types of fuel cells, and
power, whereas a fuel-cell hybrid vehicle (FCHV) also has an elec-
except for the PEM type, however, most of the others are most
trical storage device that can be used to power the vehicle. Most
suitable for use as power-generating units.
new designs of fuel-cell vehicles are now based on a hybrid con-
● SEE CHART 19-1 for a comparison of the types of fuel
figuration due to the significant increase in efficiency and driveability
cells and their most common uses.
that can be achieved with this approach. ● SEE FIGURE 19-3.

DISADVANTAGES OF FUEL CELLS While major auto- PEM FUEL CELL OPERATION The Proton Exchange
mobile manufacturers continue to build demonstration vehicles Membrane fuel cell is also known as a Polymer Electrolyte
and work on improving fuel-cell system design, no vehicle Fuel Cell (PEFC). The PEM fuel cell is known for its lightweight
powered by a fuel cell has been placed into mass production. and compact design, as well as its ability to operate at ambient
There are a number of disadvantages of fuel cells, including: temperatures.
This means that a PEM fuel cell can start quickly and pro-
■ High cost
duce full power without an extensive warm-up period. The PEM
■ Lack of refueling infrastructure is a simple design based on a membrane that is coated on both
■ Safety perception sides with a catalyst, such as platinum or palladium.
■ Insufficient vehicle range ■ There are two electrodes, one located on each side of the
■ Lack of durability membrane. These are responsible for distributing hydrogen
■ Cold weather starting problems and oxygen over the membrane surface, removing waste
heat, and providing a path for electrical current flow.
■ Insufficient power density
■ The part of the PEM fuel cell that contains the mem-
All of these problems are being actively addressed by brane, catalyst coatings, and electrodes is known as the
researchers, and significant improvements are being made. Membrane Electrode Assembly (MEA).
once cost and performance levels meet that of current vehi-
■ The negative electrode (anode) has hydrogen gas
cles, fuel cells may be adopted as a mainstream technology.
directed to it, while oxygen is sent to the positive elec-
trode (cathode). Hydrogen is sent to the negative elec-
trode as H2 molecules, which break apart into H ions
(protons) in the presence of the catalyst. The electrons
(e) from the H atoms are sent through the external circuit,
generating electricity that can be used to perform work.
■ These same electrons are then sent to the positive
electrode, where they rejoin the H ions that have passed
through the membrane and have reacted with oxygen in
the presence of the catalyst. This creates H2o and waste
heat, which are the only emissions from a PEM fuel cell.
● SEE FIGURE 19-4.

FUEL-CELL STACKS A single fuel cell by itself is not

particularly useful, as it generates less than 1 volt of electri-
FIGURE 19-3 The Toyota FCHV is based on the Highlander
platform and uses much of Toyota Hybrid Synergy Drive (HSD) cal potential. It is more common for hundreds of fuel cells to
technology in its design. be built together in a fuel-cell stack. In this arrangement, the

270 CHAPTE r 19
 FUEL-CELL TYPES
PEM (POLYMER ELECTROLYTE PAFC (PHOSPHORIC ACID MCFC (MOLTEN CARBONATE
MEMBRANE) FUEL CELL) FUEL CELL) SOFC (SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL)
Electrolyte Sulfonic acid in polymer Orthophosphoric acid Li and K carbonates Yttrium-stabilized zirconia
Fuel Natural gas, hydrogen, methanol Natural gas, hydrogen Natural gas, synthetic gas Natural gas, synthetic gas
Operating Temp. 176–212°F 360–410°F 1100–1300°F 1200–3300°F
(°F) (°C) 80–100°C 180–210°C 600–700°C 650–1800°C
Electric Efficiency 30% to 40% 40% 43% to 44% 50% to 60%
Manufacturers Avista, Ballard, Energy ONSI Corp. Fuel Cell Energy, IHI, Hitachi, Honeywell, Siemens-
Partners, H-Power, Siemens Westinghouse, Ceramic
International, Plug Power
Applications Vehicles, portable power units, Stationary power units Industrial and institutional Stationary power units, mili-
small stationary power units power units tary vehicles

CHART 19-1
Types and details of fuel cells, including those most suitable to stationary power generation rather than for use in a vehicle.
LOAD fuel cells are connected in series so that total voltage of the
ELECTRON stack is the sum of the individual cell voltages. The fuel cells
FLOW
ELECTRICITY are placed end-to-end in the stack, much like slices in a loaf of
bread. Automotive fuel-cell stacks contain upward of 400 cells
HYDROGEN in their construction. ● SEE FIGURE 19-5.
(H) AIR
(O2) The total voltage of the fuel-cell stack is determined by
the number of individual cells incorporated into the assembly.
The current-producing ability of the stack, however, is depen-
WATER dent on the surface area of the electrodes. Since output of the
(H2O) fuel-cell stack is related to both voltage and current (voltage ×
current = power), increasing the number of cells or increasing
NEGATIVE POSITIVE the surface area of the cells increases power output. Some
ELECTRODE ELECTRODE
fuel-cell vehicles use more than one stack, depending on
FIGURE 19-4 The polymer electrolyte membrane only allows power output requirements and space limitations.
H+ ions (protons) to pass through it. This means that electrons
must follow the external circuit and pass through the load to MEMBRANE ELECTRODE ASSEMBLY
perform work.

TECH TIP
PE
M

CO Poisons the PEM Fuel-Cell Catalyst

Purity of the fuel gas is critical with PEM fuel cells. If
PEM
more than 10 parts per million (PPM) of carbon monox- ANODE CATALYST CATHODE CATALYST

+
H2 2H + 2e 1/2O + 2e + 2H+ H2O
ide is present in the hydrogen stream being fed to the 2

PEM anode, the catalyst is gradually poisoned and the GAS DIFFUSION
LAYERS
fuel cell is eventually disabled. This means that the purity
must be “five nines” (99.999% pure). This is a major
V H+ V
concern in vehicles where hydrogen is generated by
reforming hydrocarbons, such as gasoline, because it is
H2 FLOW AIR FLOW
difficult to remove all Co from the hydrogen during the
COOLANT FLOW
reforming process. In these applications, some means of BI-POLAR PLATE

hydrogen purification must be used to prevent Co poi- NTH UNIT CELL

soning of the catalyst. FIGURE 19-5 A fuel-cell stack is made up of hundreds of

individual cells connected in series.

F U E L C E L L S A n D AD V A nC E D T E C H noLog IES 271

 allows to offset the heat of compression. The three tempera-
REFUELING WITH HYDROGEN tures that are used to supply hydrogen include the following:
■ T40 station H2 @ –40°C (–40°F)
FUELING PROCEDURE Hydrogen is a compressed gas
■ T30 station H2 @ –30°C (–22°F)
that is stored aboveground at the station. Most hydrogen
stations have fuel delivered by a tanker truck, although some sta-
■ T20 station H2 @ –20°C (–4°F)

tions make their fuel onsite. Like Cng, hydrogen is normally sold
by the kilogram (2.2 lb). Filling a vehicle takes just minutes and, SAE J2601 SAE International-created standard J2601 is
to obtain extended driving ranges in fuel-cell electric vehicles the standard for hydrogen-fueling protocol of hydrogen fuel-
(FCEVs), the hydrogen needs to be filled at high pressures. Filling cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). This standard is used worldwide
up with hydrogen is very similar to putting propane in a barbeque for hydrogen-fueling stations. The standard J2601 fueling
tank. Just clamp the nozzle onto the receptacle. When the seal protocol uses a simple control in which the dispenser fuels
is tight, the dispenser pushes high-pressure, gaseous hydro- until the target pressure is reached, based on initial start con-
gen into the tank. When the tank is full, the dispenser stops and ditions, giving a consistent hydrogen fueling. Therefore, a
then the nozzle can be disconnected. To find a hydrogen station, H70-T40 (10,000 PSI at –40°F) fueling dispenser enables this
visit the U.S. Department of Energy website: https://www.afdc. fast-fueling by providing hydrogen fuel to the fuel-cell vehicle
energy.gov/stations/#/find/nearest ● SEE FIGURE 19-6. in usually less than 3 minutes.

PRESSURES USED The two most commonly used pres-

sures at hydrogen filling stations include:
DIRECT METHANOL
H35 = 35 MPa (5,000 PSI)
FUEL CELLS
■

■ H70 = 70 MPa (10,000 PSI)

The higher the pressure, the more hydrogen can be added PURPOSE AND FUNCTION High-pressure cylinders are
to the onboard storage tank(s). The speed of hydrogen fueling one method of storing hydrogen onboard a vehicle for use in a
is directly related to the amount of cooling that the dispenser fuel cell. This is a simple and lightweight storage method, but

FIGURE 19–6 (a) A hydrogen fueling station located at a Shell gasoline station in Los Angeles, CA. (b) The door on the side is
opened to show the fill nozzle with shut-off valve. The hydrogen at this station is made on the roof of the dispenser using water
and electricity. An electrical current separates the hydrogen from the oxygen in the water, then compresses the hydrogen, which
is then sent to a storage tank, also on the roof.

272 CHAPTE r 19
often does not provide sufficient vehicle driving range. Another
approach has been to fuel a modified PEM fuel cell with liquid
methanol instead of hydrogen gas. ● SEE FIGURE 19-7.

OPERATION Methanol is most often produced from natural

gas and has the chemical formula CH3oH. It has a higher-energy
density than gaseous hydrogen because it exists in a liquid state
at normal temperatures, and is easier to handle since no com-
pressor or other high-pressure equipment is needed. This means
that a fuel-cell vehicle can be refueled with a liquid instead of high-
FIGURE 19-8 A direct methanol fuel cell can be refueled
pressure gas, which makes the refueling process simpler and similar to a gasoline-powered vehicle.
produces a greater vehicle driving range. ● SEE FIGURE 19-8.
infrastructure for handling and storage. Another problem is “fuel
DISADVANTAGES Unfortunately, direct methanol fuel cells crossover,” in which methanol makes its way across the mem-
suffer from a number of problems, not the least of which is the brane assembly and diminishes performance of the cell. Direct
corrosive nature of methanol itself. This means that methanol methanol fuel cells also require much greater amounts of catalyst
cannot be stored in existing tanks and, thus, requires a separate in their construction, which leads to higher costs. These challenges
are leading researchers to look for alternative electrolyte materials

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

and catalysts to lower cost and improve cell performance.

NOTE: Direct methanol fuel cells are not likely to see

What Is the Role of the Humidifier in a PEM service in automotive applications. However, they are
Fuel Cell? well suited for low-power applications, such as cell
The polymer electrolyte membrane assembly in a phones or laptop computers.
PEM fuel cell acts as a conductor of positive ions and
as a gas separator. However, it can perform these
functions effectively only if it is kept moist. A fuel-cell FUEL-CELL VEHICLE SYSTEMS
vehicle uses an air compressor to supply air to
the positive electrodes of each cell, and this air is FUEL-CELL HUMIDIFIERS Water management inside a
sometimes sent through a humidifier first to increase PEM fuel cell is critical. Too much water can prevent oxygen
its moisture content. The humid air then comes in from making contact with the positive electrode; too little water
contact with the membrane assembly and keeps the can allow the electrolyte to dry out and lower its conductiv-
electrolyte damp and functioning correctly. ity. The amount of water and where it resides in the fuel cell is
also critical in determining at how low a temperature the fuel

LOAD

6e- 6e-

CO2 H H 3H2O
CO2 UNUSED H2O AIR
+ (UNUSED O2)
METHANOL/WATER 6H
H H

H H
H2O 6H
FUEL H H OXIDANT
+ +
METHANOL/WATER CH2CH H H 3/2 O2 AIR (O2)

ANODE (–) CATHODE (+)

ELECTRODE ELECTRODE
PROTON EXCHANGE
MEMBRANE (PEM)

FIGURE 19-7 A direct methanol fuel cell uses a methanol/water solution for fuel instead of hydrogen gas.

F U E L CE L L S A nD AD V A n C E D T E C H n oL ogIES 273
cell starts, because water freezing in the fuel cell can prevent it
from starting. The role of the humidifier is to achieve a balance
where it is providing sufficient moisture to the fuel cell by recy-
cling water that is evaporating at the cathode. The humidifier
is located in the air line leading to the cathode of the fuel-cell
stack. ● SEE FIGURE 19-9.
Some newer PEM designs manage the water in the cells
in such a way that there is no need to pre-humidify the incom- FUEL-CELL
RADIATOR
ing reactant gases. This eliminates the need for the humidifier
assembly and makes the system simpler overall.
POWERTRAIN
RADIATORS
FUEL-CELL COOLING SYSTEMS Heat is generated by
the fuel cell during normal operation. Excess heat can lead to
a breakdown of the polymer electrolyte membrane, so a liquid
cooling system must be utilized to remove waste heat from the FIGURE 19-10 The Honda FCX uses one large radiator for
fuel-cell stack. one of the major challenges for engineers in this cooling the fuel cell, and two smaller ones on either side for
regard is the fact that the heat generated by the fuel cell is clas- cooling drivetrain components.
sified as low-grade heat. This means that there is only a small
difference between the temperature of the coolant and that of
the ambient air. Heat transfers very slowly under these condi-
tions, so heat exchangers with a much larger surface area must
be used. ● SEE FIGURE 19-10.
In some cases, heat exchangers may be placed in other areas
of the vehicle when available space at the front of the engine com-
partment is insufficient. In the case of Toyota FCHV, an auxiliary
heat exchanger is located underneath the vehicle to increase the
cooling system heat-rejection capacity. ● SEE FIGURE 19-11.
An electric water pump and a fan drive motor are used to
enable operation of the fuel-cell cooling system. These and other
support devices use electrical power that is generated by the fuel
cell and, therefore, tend to decrease the overall efficiency of the
FIGURE 19-11 Space is limited at the front of the Toyota
vehicle. FCHV engine compartment, so an auxiliary heat exchanger is
located under the vehicle to help cool the fuel-cell stack.
POWER CONTROL
UNIT (PCU)
FUEL-CELL
RADIATOR
DC BRUSHLESS MOTOR
AND TRANSMISSION
? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
(LARGE)
FUEL-CELL
SYSTEM BOX
When Is Methanol Considered to Be a “Carbon-
DRIVE Neutral” Fuel?
TRAIN
RADIATOR Most of the methanol in the world is produced by
(SMALL) reforming natural gas. natural gas is a hydrocarbon,
FUEL-CELL
but does not increase the carbon content of our
STACK
HUMIDIFIER atmosphere as long as it remains in reservoirs below
HIGH-PRESSURE the surface. However, natural gas that is used as
HYDROGEN TANKS
a fuel causes extra carbon to be released into the
ULTRACAPACITOR
atmosphere, which is said to contribute to global
FIGURE 19-9 Powertrain layout in a Honda FCX fuel-cell
warming. natural gas is not a carbon-neutral fuel, and
vehicle. note the use of a humidifier behind the fuel-cell
neither is methanol that is made from natural gas.
stack to maintain moisture levels in the membrane electrode
assemblies.

274 CHAPTE r 19
AIR SUPPLY PUMPS Air must be supplied to the
fuel-cell stack at the proper pressure and flow rate to enable HYDROGEN STORAGE
proper performance under all driving conditions. This function
is performed by an onboard air supply pump that compresses PURPOSE AND FUNCTION one of the issues with
atmospheric air and supplies it to the fuel-cell positive elec- fuel-cell hybrid vehicles is how to store sufficient hydrogen
trode (cathode). This pump is often driven by a high-voltage onboard to allow for reasonable vehicle range. Modern driv-
electric drive motor. ers have grown accustomed to having a minimum of 300 miles
between refueling stops, a goal that is extremely difficult to
achieve when fueling the vehicle with hydrogen. Hydrogen has
FUEL-CELL HYBRID very high energy content on a pound-for-pound basis, but its
energy density is less than that of conventional liquid fuels.
VEHICLES This is because gaseous hydrogen, even at high pressure, has
a very low physical density (mass per unit volume). ● SEE
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION Hybridization tends to FIGURE 19-13.
increase efficiency in vehicles with conventional drivetrains, as A number of methods of hydrogen storage are being
energy that was once lost during braking, and otherwise nor- considered for use in fuel-cell hybrid vehicles. These include
mal operation is instead stored for later use in a high-voltage high-pressure compressed gas, liquefied hydrogen, and
battery. This same advantage can be gained by applying the solid storage in metal hydrides. Efficient hydrogen storage
hybrid design concept to fuel-cell vehicles. Whereas the fuel is one of the technical issues that must be solved in order
cell is the only power source in a fuel-cell vehicle, the fuel-cell for fuel cells to be adopted for vehicle applications. Much
hybrid vehicle relies on both the fuel cell and an electrical stor- research is being conducted to solve the issue of onboard
age device for motive power. Driveability is also enhanced with hydrogen storage.
this design, as the electrical storage device is able to supply
energy immediately to the drive motors and overcome any HIGH-PRESSURE COMPRESSED GAS Most current
“throttle lag” on the part of the fuel cell. fuel-cell hybrid vehicles use compressed hydrogen that is
stored in tanks as a high-pressure gas. This approach is the
SECONDARY BATTERIES All hybrid vehicle designs
require a means of storing electrical energy that is generated
during regenerative braking and other applications. In most
FCHV designs, a high-voltage nickel-metal hydride (niMH) bat-
tery pack is used as a secondary battery. This is most often
located near the back of the vehicle, either under or behind the
rear passenger seat. ● SEE FIGURE 19-12.
The secondary battery is built similar to a fuel-cell stack,
because it is made up of many low-voltage cells connected in
series to build a high-voltage battery.

FIGURE 19-12 The secondary battery in a fuel-cell hybrid FIGURE 19-13 A photo showing the hydrogen storage tanks
vehicle is made up of many individual cells connected in underneath a Toyota Mirai fuel-cell vehicle. This vehicle uses
series, much like a fuel-cell stack. two carbon-fiber-reinforced fuel tanks.

F U E L CE L L S A nD AD V A n C E D T E C H n oL ogIES 275
least complex of all the storage possibilities, but also has the There is also a special electrical connector that is used to
least energy density. Multiple small storage tanks are often used enable communication between the vehicle and the filling sta-
rather than one large tank in order to fit them into unused areas tion during the refueling process. ● SEE FIGURE 19-16.
of the vehicle. one drawback with this approach is that only The filling station utilizes a special coupler to connect to
cylinders can be used to store gases at the required pressures. the vehicle high-pressure refueling fitting. The coupler is placed
This creates a good deal of unused space around the outside on the vehicle fitting, and a lever on the coupler is rotated to
of the cylinders and leads to further reductions in hydrogen seal and lock it into place.
storage capacity. It is common for a pressure of 5,000 PSI (350
bar) to be used. ● SEE FIGURE 19-14. LIQUID HYDROGEN Hydrogen can be liquefied in an effort
Many newer systems use pressures as high as 10,000 to increase its energy density, but this requires that it be stored
PSI (700 bar) to increase the range of the fuel cell-powered in cryogenic tanks at −423°F (−253°C). This increases vehicle
vehicle. The tanks used for compressed hydrogen storage range, but impacts overall efficiency, as a great deal of energy
are typically made with an aluminum liner wrapped in sev- is required to liquefy the hydrogen, and a certain amount of the
eral layers of carbon fiber and an external coating of fiber- liquid hydrogen “boils off” while in storage.
glass. In order to refuel the compressed hydrogen storage one liter of liquid hydrogen has only one-fourth the
tanks, a special high-pressure fitting is installed in place energy content of 1 liter of gasoline. ● SEE FIGURE 19-17.
of the filler neck used for conventional vehicles. ● SEE
FIGURE 19-15.

GLASS FIBER

CARBON FIBER

ALUMINUM

FIGURE 19-14 The Toyota FCHV uses high-pressure storage

tanks that are rated at 350 bar. This is the equivalent of 5,000
pounds per square inch. FIGURE 19-16 note that high-pressure hydrogen storage
tanks must be replaced in 2031.

.1%-+0) (+..'4.+&
/'%*#0+5/

56#+0.'5556''.
$4#+&+0)
FIGURE 19-15 The high-pressure fitting used to refuel a fuel-
cell hybrid vehicle. FIGURE 19-17 refueling a vehicle with liquid hydrogen.

276 CHAPTE r 19
SOLID STORAGE OF HYDROGEN one method discov-
ered to store hydrogen in solid form is as a metal hydride, simi-
lar to how a niMH battery works.
ULTRACAPACITOR
A demonstration vehicle features a lightweight fiber-wrapped CAN ARRAY
storage tank under the body that stores about 6.6 pounds (3.3 kg) (EXPOSED)
of hydrogen as a metal hydride at low pressure. The vehicle can
travel almost 200 miles with this amount of fuel.
■ one kilogram of hydrogen is equal to 1 gallon of gasoline.
■ Three gallons of water generates 1 kilogram of hydrogen.

A metal hydride is formed when gaseous hydrogen molecules

disassociate into individual hydrogen atoms and bond with the FIGURE 19-19 An ultracapacitor can be used in place of a
metal atoms in the storage tank. This process uses powdered metal- high-voltage battery in a hybrid electric vehicle. This example
lic alloys capable of rapidly absorbing hydrogen to make this occur. is from the Honda FCX fuel-cell hybrid vehicle.

Ultracapacitors that are used in fuel-cell hybrid vehicles

ULTRACAPACITORS are made up of multiple cylindrical cells connected in parallel.
● SEE FIGURE 19-19.
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION An alternative to storing elec- This results in the total capacitance being the sum of
trical energy in batteries is to use ultracapacitors. A capacitor is the values of each individual cell. For example, ten 1.0-farad
best known as an electrical device that blocks DC, but allows AC capacitors connected in parallel have a total capacitance of
to pass. However, a capacitor can also be used to store electri- 10.0 farads. greater capacitance means greater electrical stor-
cal energy, and it is able to do this without a chemical reaction. age ability, and this contributes to greater assist for the electric
Instead, a capacitor stores electrical energy using the principle motors in a fuel-cell hybrid vehicle.
of electrostatic attraction between positive and negative charges.
ADVANTAGES Ultracapacitors have excellent cycle life,
PARTS AND OPERATION Ultracapacitors are built very meaning that they can be fully charged and discharged many
different from conventional capacitors. Ultracapacitor cells times without degrading their performance. They are also able to
are based on double-layer technology, in which two activated operate over a wide temperature range and are not affected by low
carbon electrodes are immersed in an organic electrolyte. The temperatures to the same degree as many battery technologies.
electrodes have a very large surface area and are separated by
a membrane that allows ions to migrate, but prevents the elec- DISADVANTAGES The one major downside of ultraca-
trodes from touching. ● SEE FIGURE 19-18. pacitors is a lack of specific energy, which means that they
Charging and discharging occurs as ions move within are best suited for sudden bursts of energy, as opposed to
the electrolyte, but no chemical reaction takes place. prolonged discharge cycles. research is being conducted to
Ultracapacitors can charge and discharge quickly and effi- improve this and other aspects of ultracapacitor performance.
ciently, making them especially suited for electric-assist appli-
cations in fuel-cell hybrid vehicles.

POSITIVE POLE
FUEL-CELL VEHICLE
COLLECTOR
PLATE
TRANSAXLES
ELECTRODE BODY

ELECTROLYTE
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION Some fuel-cell hybrid vehi-
cles use a single electric drive motor and a transaxle to direct
ALUMINUM CASE
power to the vehicle. It is also possible to use wheel motors to
ULTRACAPACITOR NEGATIVE POLE
MODULE
CELL COLLECTOR drive individual wheels. While this approach adds a significant
PLATE amount of unsprung weight to the chassis, it allows for greater
FIGURE 19-18 The Honda ultracapacitor module and control of the torque being applied to each individual wheel.
construction of the individual cells. ● SEE FIGURE 19-20.

F U E L CE L L S An D AD V An C E D T E C Hn oL ogIES 277
 HEAT VENTS TO DISSIPATE
HEAT GENERATED BY THE
FUEL CELL AND ELECTRONICS
UNIVERSAL DOCKING CONNECTION
CONNECTS TO BODY CONTROL SYSTEMS

MECHANICAL LOCKS
SECURE THE BODY
TO THE SKATEBOARD

FIGURE 19-21 The electric drive motor and transaxle

assembly from a Toyota FCHV. note the three orange cables,
indicating that this motor is powered by high-voltage three-
phase alternating current.

types of vehicles to be substituted for credit, but the technol-

FUEL-CELL STACKS AND ogy that had been developed for pure electric vehicles was
HYDROGEN STORAGE TANKS
now put to work in these other vehicle designs.
The electric traction motors used in fuel-cell hybrid vehi-
FOUR WHEEL MOTORS
PROPEL THE VEHICLE cles are very similar to those being used in current hybrid
FIGURE 19-20 The general Motors “Skateboard” concept electric vehicles. The typical drive motor is based on an AC
uses a fuel-cell propulsion system with wheel motors at all synchronous design, which is sometimes referred to as a DC
four corners. brushless motor. This design is very reliable, as it does not use
a commutator or brushes, but instead has a three-phase stator
Aside from the hydrogen-fueling system, fuel-cell hybrid and a permanent magnet rotor. ● SEE FIGURE 19-22.
vehicles are effectively pure electric vehicles in that their drivetrain An electronic controller (inverter) is used to generate the
is electrically driven. Electric motors work very well for automotive three-phase high-voltage AC required by the motor. While the
applications because they produce high torque at low rPMs and motor itself is very simple, the electronics required to power
are able to maintain a consistent power output throughout their and control it are complex.
entire rPM range. This is in contrast to vehicles powered by ICEs, Some fuel-cell hybrid vehicles use a single electric drive
which produce very little torque at low rPMs and have a narrow motor and a transaxle to direct power to the vehicle. It is also
range where significant horsepower is produced. possible to use wheel motors to drive individual wheels. While
ICE-powered vehicles require complex transmissions with
multiple speed ranges in order to accelerate the vehicle quickly and
maximize the efficiency of the ICE. Fuel-cell hybrid vehicles use
electric drive motors that require only a simple reduction in their
final drive and a differential to send power to the drive wheels. no
gear shifting is required and mechanisms, such as torque convert-
ers and clutches, are done away with completely. A reverse gear
is not required either, as the electric drive motor is simply powered
in the opposite direction. The transaxles used in fuel-cell hybrid
vehicles are extremely simple with few moving parts, making them
extremely durable, quiet, and reliable. ● SEE FIGURE 19-21.

FUEL-CELL TRACTION MOTORS Much of the tech-

nology behind the electric drive motors being used in fuel-cell
vehicles was developed during the early days of the California
ZEV mandate. This was a period when battery-powered electric
FIGURE 19-22 Drive motors in fuel-cell hybrid vehicles often
vehicles were being built by the major vehicle manufacturers in use stator assemblies similar to ones found in Toyota hybrid
an effort to meet a legislated quota in the state of California. electric vehicles. The rotor turns inside the stator and has
The ZEV mandate rules were eventually relaxed to allow other permanent magnets on its outer circumference.

278 CHAPTE r 19
this approach adds a significant amount of unsprung weight During regenerative braking, the electric drive motor
to the chassis, it allows for greater control of the torque being acts as a generator and converts kinetic (moving) energy of
applied to each individual wheel. the vehicle into electricity for recharging the high-voltage
battery pack. The PCU must take the three-phase power
FUEL-CELL POWER CONTROL UNITS The drivetrain from the motor (generator) and convert (or rectify) this into
of a fuel-cell hybrid vehicle is controlled by a power control unit DC voltage to be sent to the battery. DC power from the fuel
(PCU), which controls fuel-cell output and directs the flow of cell is also processed through the PCU for recharging the
electricity between the various components. one of the func- battery pack.
tions of the PCU is to act as an inverter, which changes direct A DC-to-DC converter is used in hybrid electric vehicles
current from the fuel-cell stack into three-phase alternating cur- for converting the high voltage from the secondary battery
rent for use in the vehicle drive motor(s). ● SEE FIGURE 19-23. pack into the 12 volts required for the remainder of the vehicle
Power to and from the secondary battery is directed electrical system. Depending on the vehicle, 42 volts may also
through the power control unit, which is also responsible for be required to operate accessories, such as the electric-assist
power steering. In fuel-cell hybrid vehicles, the DC-to-DC con-
■ Maintaining the state of charge of the battery pack and
verter function may be built into the PCU, giving it full responsi-
■ Controlling and directing the output of the fuel-cell stack.
bility for power distribution.
● SEE FIGURE 19-24.

POWER CONTROL
UNIT (PCU)
HCCI
TERMINOLOGY Homogeneous Charge Compression
Ignition (HCCI) is a combustion process. HCCI is the combus-
tion of a very lean gasoline air–fuel mixture without the use of
a spark ignition. It is a low-temperature, chemically controlled
(flameless) combustion process. ● SEE FIGURE 19-25.
HCCI combustion is difficult to control and extremely sen-
sitive to changes in temperature, pressure, and fuel type. While
FIGURE 19-23 The power control unit (PCU) on a Honda
FCX fuel-cell hybrid vehicle is located under the hood. the challenges of HCCI are difficult, the advantages include
having a gasoline engine being able to deliver 80% of diesel
efficiency (a 20% increase in fuel economy) for 50% of the cost.
FUEL CELL
A diesel engine using HCCI can deliver gasoline-like emissions.
Spark and injection timing are no longer a factor, as they are in
BATTERY a conventional port-fuel injection system.

POWER FUTURE OF HCCI While much research and develop-

CONTROL
UNIT ment needs to be performed using this combustion process,
it has been shown to give excellent performance from idle to
mid-load, and from ambient to warm operating temperatures,
as well as cold start and run capability. Because the engine
MOTOR
operates only in HCCI mode at light throttle settings, such as
during cruise conditions at highway speeds, engineers need to
improve the transition in and out of the HCCI mode. Work is
DRIVE
WHEELS also being done on piston and combustion chamber shape to
reduce combustion noise and vibration that is created during
FINAL DRIVE operation in the HCCI operating mode.
FIGURE 19-24 Toyota’s FCHV uses a power control unit that ongoing research is focusing on improving fuel economy
directs electrical energy flow between the fuel cell, battery, under real-world operating conditions, as well as controlling
and drive motor. costs.

F U E L CE L L S A nD AD V A n C E D T E C H n oL ogIES 279
 HCCI ENGINE
DIESEL ENGINE GASOLINE ENGINE (HOMOGENEOUS CHARGE
(COMPRESSION IGNITION) (SPARK IGNITED) COMPRESSION IGNITION)
FUEL
INJECTOR

HOT REGIONS HOT REGIONS LOW-TEMPERATURE

CREATE NO X AND CREATE NO X COMBUSTION RESULTS
SOOT (PM) EMISSIONS EMISSIONS IN REDUCED EMISSIONS

FIGURE 19-25 Both diesel and conventional gasoline engines create exhaust emissions due to high peak temperatures created
in the combustion chamber. The lower combustion temperatures during HCCI operation result in high efficiency with reduced
emissions.

SUMMARY
1. Fuel cell is an electrochemical device in which the 4. Ultracapacitors are built very different from conventional
chemical energy of hydrogen and oxygen is converted into capacitors. Ultracapacitor cells are based on double-layer
electrical energy. technology, in which two activated carbon electrodes are
2. A fuel-cell vehicle (FCV) uses the fuel cell as its only immersed in an organic electrolyte.
source of power, whereas a fuel-cell hybrid vehicle (FCHV) 5. Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) is a
also has an electrical storage device that can be used to combustion process. HCCI is the combustion of a very
power the vehicle. lean gasoline air–fuel mixture without the use of a spark
3. The higher the pressure, the more hydrogen can be added ignition. It is a low-temperature, chemically controlled
to the onboard storage tank(s). The speed of hydrogen (flameless) combustion process.
fueling is directly related to the amount of cooling that the
dispenser allows to offset the heat of compression.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. How does a fuel cell work? 4. How does an ultracapacitor work?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells? 5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using
3. How is hydrogen produced? hydrogen?

280 C HAPTE r 19
 CHAPTER QUIZ
1. A fuel cell produces electricity from ________. c. H93
a. gasoline/oxygen d. Either a or b
b. nitrogen/hydrogen 7. Hydrogen storage tanks are usually constructed from
c. hydrogen/oxygen ________.
d. water/oxygen a. steel
2. What are the by-products (emissions) from a fuel cell? b. aluminum
a. water vapor c. carbon fiber
b. Co d. Both b and c
c. Co2 8. HCCI is a process that eliminates what parts or compo-
d. nonmethane hydrocarbon nents in a gasoline engine?
3. Which type of fuel cell is the most likely to be used to a. Fuel tank
power vehicles? b. Battery
a. PAFC b. MCFC c. Fuel injectors
c. PEM d. SoFC d. Ignition system
4. Which liquid fuel could be used to directly power a 9. Hydrogen can be produced from _______
fuel cell? a. water
a. Methanol b. natural gas
b. Biodiesel c. crude oil
c. Ethanol d. Any of the above
d. Unleaded gasoline 10. What does H70-T40 mean when describing a hydrogen
5. Which is not a function of an ultracapacitor? filling station?
a. Can pass AC a. The type of hydrogen
b. Can be charged with DC b. The temperature and pressure rating
c. Discharges DC c. The size of the storage tank
d. Can pass DC d. The estimated time needed to fill the tank
6. The commonly used pressures at hydrogen filling stations
include______
a. H35
b. H70

F U E L CE L L S An D A D V An C E D TE C H n oL ogIES 281
Chapter 20
FIRST RESPONDER
PROCEDURES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Cut lines 288 National Fire Protection
be able to: Double cut method 288 Association (NFPA)
Hazardous materials 288
• Follow first responder standard operating
(hazmat) 288 Personal protective
procedures.
Hot stick 285 equipment (PPE) 288
• Identify electric and hybrid electric vehicles. Standard operating
Incidents 283
• Safely depower a hybrid electric vehicle. guidelines (SOG) 283
International Fire Service
• Safely handle spills from a hybrid electric Training Association Standard operating
vehicle. (IFSTA) 288 procedures (SOP) 283

• Discuss first responder issues with electric and National Fire Academy
hybrid electric vehicles. (NFA) 288

282
 EV AND HEV FIRST
RESPONDER PROCEDURES
REASONS FOR CONCERN Everyone is used to the
sound of an internal combustion engine and can tell when a
vehicle is running, while electric vehicles and many hybrid elec-
tric vehicles do not make a sound. It can be difficult for first
responders to tell if the vehicle is safe to approach and before
performing an extrication of the people in the vehicle.

INCIDENTS Incidents involving an electric or hybrid elec-

tric vehicle (HEV) could include the following:
FIGURE 20-1 Insulated tools should be used, if possible,
1. Vehicle crash when tools are needed to free an occupant or perform removal
2. Fire of battery cables of a hybrid electric vehicle.

3. Crash and fire VISUAL ANALYSIS When approaching the scene of an inci-
4. Submerged or partially submerged vehicle dent, the first consideration is always the safety of people including:
■■ Occupants of the vehicle
SOP/SOG Whenever first responders approach an inci- ■■ First responders
dent, they do not know for sure what they will find or how
■■ Others in the area
to handle the situation. The best approach for first respond-
ers is to follow standard operating procedures (SOP) also If the initial visual evaluation of the scene indicates that a hybrid
called standard operating guidelines (SOG). SOP/SOG electric vehicle may be involved, check the vehicle to confirm
procedures and guidelines are used to ensure that every- that it is a hybrid.
one in the department perform common tasks in a specific
manner. IDENTIFYING AN EV OR HYBRID VEHICLE To con-
SAE recommended practice (RP) standard J2990 firm whether a vehicle is a hybrid, look for the word “HYBRID”
addresses the potential hazards grouped into three categories: on the rear, front, or side of the vehicle. Many electric and
1. Chemical hybrid electric vehicles look the same or at least similar to a
gasoline powered vehicle, especially if it has been involved in a
2. Electrical
collision. ●■■SEE FIGURES 20-2 AND 20-3.
3. Thermal
Other incidents may occur from secondary events such as
garage fires and floods. Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) and
lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries used for vehicle propulsion
power and the standard operating procedures specify that
human life should be considered the highest priority over
any property damage. Standard operating procedures also
include the use of the proper personal protection equipment
(PPE) including:
■■ Protective clothing including helmet with a face shield
■■ Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)
■■ High-voltage gloves, including leather protective gloves
over the rubber insulated gloves
■■ Have insulated tools available, if possible, in the event FIGURE 20-2 Often the identification of a hybrid or electric
that tools are needed. ●■■SEE FIGURE 20-1. vehicle is small, such as on the side of this Lexus RX450h.

F I RST RE SPO N D E R P RO C ED U RES 283

 WARNING

Failure to properly shut down the high-voltage

system before first responder procedures are per-
formed could result in serious injury or death from
electrical shock. To prevent serious injury or death,
DO NOT touch high-voltage harnesses or compo-
nents without wearing appropriate PPE.

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

What Do the Colors of Cables Mean?

FIGURE 20-3 The under-hood view of a VW ID4 electric
vehicle. At first, it appears to be the same as many Hybrid electric vehicles are equipped with plastic con-
conventional vehicles with the master cylinder reservoir and duit to cover and protect the electrical cables. This plas-
the 12-volt battery near the bulkhead and the other plastic tic conduit is color coded to help identify the potential
covered components toward the front. risk. The colors and their meanings are as follows:
• Black—12-volt cable. Not a shock hazard but can
EV AND HEV ITEMS TO CHECK power airbags and pretensioners.
• Red—12 volts
ORANGE CABLES Orange cables under the hood, or
• Blue—42 volts. Not a shock hazard but could
orange shielding bolted to the underside of the vehicle indicates
maintain an arc if the circuit is opened. Blue is
that the vehicle is a hybrid electric vehicle. If a hybrid badge or
used for some electric power steering systems
label is not visible (due to damage, for example), the presence
and mild hybrid vehicles, such as a belt- alternator
of orange cables under the hood or orange shielding under the
starter (BAS) system. ●■■SEE FIGURE 20-5.
vehicle would also identify the vehicle as an HEV. Electrical
• Yellow—42 volts. Not a shock hazard but could
energy flows between the high-voltage battery module and the
maintain an arc if the circuit is opened (cut).
motor through either two or three heavy-duty orange cables.
Usually used for electric power steering.
In some hybrid vehicles, high-voltage cables also deliver cur-
rent to the air-conditioning (A/C) compressor (if equipped). The • Orange—Identifies a circuit that has 60 volts or higher.
high-voltage cables are routed under the vehicle between the Shock hazard could cause severe burns or death.
battery box and the engine compartment inside sturdy orange
plastic protective shields. ●■■SEE FIGURE 20-4.

FIGURE 20-4 A hybrid electric vehicle can often be identified

by looking for orange-colored cables under the hood, as well FIGURE 20-5 Blue cables under the hood of a General
as other markings on the engine cover. Motors mild-hybrid electric vehicle.

284 C HAPTER 20
12-VOLT AUXILIARY BATTERY Most 12-volt auxiliary
batteries used in many electric and hybrid electric vehicles
are hidden from view, often under black plastic panels. The
locations of a conventional lead-acid 12-volt battery generally
include the following:
■■ Under the hood (i.e., Nissan Leaf, Chevrolet Bolt, VW ID4,
Mustang Mach E)
■■ In the trunk (i.e., Toyota/ Lexus HEVs, Chevrolet Volt)

The first responders should check their guidelines as soon as

possible after identifying the make and model of vehicle. In
electric and hybrid electric vehicles, this battery also provides
power to the high-voltage battery control systems. Disconnect-
ing or cutting the negative cables to the battery may be neces- FIGURE 20-6 A Toyota Highlander hybrid battery pack
sary in some emergency situations. located under the rear seat.

HIGH-VOLTAGE BATTERY The electric motor is pow- NOTE: Small quantities of a highly alkaline liquid elec-
ered by a high-voltage battery module. The high-voltage bat- trolyte, which is corrosive to human tissue, are used
tery modules are in plastic containers, which are then placed in in the manufacture of the nickel-metal hydride (NiMH)
a sturdy metal box. ●■■SEE FIGURE 20-6. battery cells. However, in the finished cells, electrolyte
All components inside the battery box are completely insu- is absorbed into the battery separator and sealed in a
lated and isolated from the vehicle body. For maximum safety, metal case, and any leakage would be extremely rare.
the high-voltage battery box is positioned directly behind the The electrolyte is nonflammable, nonexplosive, and cre-
seat-backs or under the rear seat where it is well-protected ates no hazardous fumes or vapors in normal operating
from potential damage in a collision. ●■■SEE FIGURE 20-7. conditions.

FIRST RESPONDER SAFETY

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

HOT STICK Whenever approaching a hybrid electric

How Can the Battery Be Disconnected If It Is
vehicle, one option that can be used by first respond-
Under the Vehicle?
ers is the hot stick. A hot stick is a long tool used to pull
Some vehicles have the 12-volt auxiliary battery
high-voltage lines away from buildings or vehicles. ●■■ SEE
under the vehicle or behind panels that have to be
FIGURE 20-8.
removed to gain access to the battery terminals or
This may or may not be available to first responders and
cable. In these cases, the vehicle manufacturer spec-
could be used to move orange cables out of the way to get
ifies that the correct procedure to follow to depower
access to an occupant.
the high-voltage circuit is to remove a fuse or relay.
Instead of trying to locate a fuse that may not be
SHEPHERD’S HOOK Some vehicle manufacturers spec-
readily seen as being the correct one to remove, the
ify that a long pole with a large loop on one end be used to
suggested approach is to remove all fuses and relays.
grab a person and remove them from high voltage. This tool is
Many hybrid electric vehicles use more than one
commonly referred to as a shepherd’s hook and is made from
fuse panel or relay center. It is best to check the first
non-electrical-conducting fiberglass.
responder vehicle information to be sure. This way
the 12-volt power is removed from the high-voltage
AIRBAGS AND TENSIONERS All hybrids have front air-
controller and the high voltage is retained in the bat-
bags and front seat belt pretensioners. Most hybrid electric
tery pack.
vehicles also have side airbags for front-seat occupants, and
many are equipped with side curtain airbags as well. These

F I RST RE SPO N D E R P RO C ED U RES 285

 LI-ION HIGH-VOLTAGE BATTERY

VEHICLE LIFTING POINTS

FIGURE 20-7 Under view of a typical electric vehicle showing the location of the high-voltage battery and the recommended,
lifting points.

systems all use pyrotechnic devices with a deactivation time

(after 12-volt power is disconnected) of up to 3 minutes. To
reduce the risk of injury during the deactivation period, the fol-
lowing steps are recommended:
■■ Keep out of the path of an undeployed front airbag,
and do not cut into the center of the steering wheel or
dashboard where the front airbags are stored.
HIGH-VOLTAGE ■■ Do not cut into the rear (C) pillar where the side curtain
CABLE
inflator is stored. ●■■SEE FIGURE 20-9.

CURTAIN AIRBAG
HOT STICK

C PILLAR

FIGURE 20-8 The end of a hot stick has a hook that allows
first responders to grab and move high-voltage cables without
being shocked because the pole is made from fiberglass, FIGURE 20-9 Use caution when cutting roof pillars because
which is an insulator. the curtain airbags could be deployed.

286 C HAPTER 20
 WARNING
EMERGENCY RESPONSE
Extreme heat (320°F to 356°F [160°C to 180°C]) can
FOLLOW STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES
cause unintended airbag inflation. Follow recom-
(SOP) On arrival, emergency responders should follow
mended procedures to avoid possible injury from a
standard operating procedures (SOP) for vehicle incidents.
deploying airbag or inflator.
Standard operating procedures usually include the following
steps:
STEP 1 Identify the vehicle as soon as possible to determine if

ELECTRIC SHOCK STEP 2

it is an electric or a hybrid electric vehicle.
Disable the vehicle by performing the following:
POTENTIAL ■■ Remove the ignition key or fob.
■■ Move the key or fob at least 15 feet away
LOCATIONS OF SHOCK HAZARDS Unprotected con- from the vehicle in case it is a smart key that
tact with any electrically charged (“hot” or “live”) high-voltage can keep the vehicle powered up if near the
component can cause serious injury or death. However, receiv- vehicle.
ing an electric shock from a hybrid vehicle is highly unlikely ■■ Verify that the “READY” light is off (if equipped).
because of the following: ■■ Place the transmission in PARK or Neutral.
1. Contact with the battery module or other components ■■ Approach the vehicle from the side; avoid
inside the battery box can occur only if the box is dam- walking in the front or rear of the vehicle if
aged and the contents are exposed, or the box is opened possible.
without following proper precautions. STEP 3 Stabilize the vehicle. Chock the wheels and set the
2. Contact with any electric motor or device that has high parking brake if possible.
voltage, such as the air-conditioning compressor that
operates using high voltage and is identified by having CAUTION: Do not place cribbing (blocks) under the high-
orange electrical conduit. voltage power cables, exhaust system, or fuel system.
3. The high-voltage cables can be easily identified by their dis- STEP 4 Access the occupants. Use normal removal proce-
tinctive orange color, and contact with them can be avoided. dures as required such as:
4. The system main relays (SMRs) disconnect power from ■■ Pull the steering column forward and away
the cables the moment the ignition is turned off. from the occupant.
■■ Cut the front pillar.
DANGEROUS CONDITIONS The high-voltage (orange) ■■ Remove (peel) the roof.
cables can be hot whenever: ■■ Door removal/displacement. Doors can be
■■ The ignition switch is on. removed by conventional rescue devices such
■■ The engine has been turned off by the auto idle-stop feature. as hand, electric, and hydraulic tools.
■■ Dashboard displacement.
■■ The air conditioner is on in vehicles that use an electric
drive A/C compressor.
■■ Rescue lift airbags. Responders should not
place cribbing or rescue lift airbags under the
NOTE: The only condition common to all three situations high-voltage power cables, exhaust system, or
in which the cables can be “hot” is that the ignition fuel system.
is on. Therefore, when the ignition switch is off, elec- STEP 5 Turn the ignition off. Turning the ignition off and mov-
tric current cannot flow into the high-voltage cables ing the key or key fob away from the vehicle will dis-
because the system main relays that control the high able the high-voltage system.
voltage are turned off when the ignition is off. STEP 6 Disconnect or cut the 12-volt battery cables.

F I RST RE SPO N D E R P RO CED U RES 287

 NOTE: If a fire occurs in the high-voltage battery pack,
? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
the incident commander will have to decide whether to
pursue an offensive or defensive attack.
What Are Cut Lines?
Cut lines are dashed or dotted lines printed on yellow
OFFENSIVE FIRE ATTACK Flooding the high-voltage
tape that is wrapped around the positive and/or nega-
battery pack, located in the cargo area, with large amounts of
tive 12-volt battery cables showing the first responder
water at a safe distance will effectively control the HV battery
where the cable should be cut to disable the 12-volt
pack fire by cooling the adjacent NiMH battery modules to a
electrical system. Only some hybrid electric vehicles
point below their ignition temperature. Any remaining modules
have these cut lines marked on the battery cables. The
that are not extinguished by the water will burn themselves out.
double cut method is preferred using insulated cut-
ters. A double cut method means that after making the
DEFENSIVE FIRE ATTACK If the decision has been
first cut on a battery cable, then move about 2 inches
made to fight the fire using a defensive attack, the fire attack
and make another cut so cables will not make contact
crew should pull back a safe distance and allow the NiMH bat-
if jarred. When the 12 volts are cut, the high-voltage
tery modules to burn out. During this defensive operation, fire
system is depowered and no high voltage should be
crews may utilize a water stream or fog pattern to protect expo-
in any of the orange cables except at the battery pack
sures or to control the path of smoke.
itself. ●■■SEE FIGURE 20-10.

HAZMAT ISSUES
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS (HAZMAT) Hybrid vehi-
cles contain the same common automotive fluids used in
other vehicles. These fluids and chemicals may be considered
hazardous materials (hazmat).

12-VOLT AUXILIARY BATTERY Conventional 12-volt

batteries used in hybrid electric vehicles are lead–acid type.
If a 12-volt battery is damaged, liquid electrolyte could spill.
This mild sulfuric acid solution can be neutralized using baking
soda. Most 12-volt auxiliary batteries used in many electric and
hybrid electric vehicles are hidden from view, often under black
FIGURE 20-10 The dotted lines on the battery cables plaster panels. These batteries can be located under the hood
indicate where first responders should cut the 12-volt battery (Bolt, VW ID4, Mustang Mach E) or in the rear passenger com-
cables, which will depower the high-voltage system. partments areas such as in Toyota/ Lexus HEVs.
The first responders should check their guidelines as soon
FIRE as possible after identifying the make and model of vehicle.

FOLLOW SOP/SOG Approach and extinguish a fire using HIGH-VOLTAGE (HV) BATTERIES The high-voltage
proper vehicle firefighting practices as recommended by NiMH battery electrolyte is a caustic alkaline (pH 13.5) that is cor-
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), International rosive to human tissues. The electrolyte, however, is absorbed in
Fire Service Training Association (IFSTA), or the National the separator material and will not normally spill or leak out even
Fire Academy (NFA). Water (or foam if available) has been if a battery module is cracked. A catastrophic crash that would
proven to be a suitable extinguishing agent. Perform a fast, breach both the metal battery pack case and the plastic battery
aggressive fire attack. Use large amounts of water. Attack module would be a rare occurrence. Similar to using baking soda
teams may not be able to identify the vehicle as being a hybrid to neutralize a lead–acid battery electrolyte spill, a diluted boric
until the fire has been knocked down and overhaul operations acid solution or vinegar is used to neutralize a NiMH battery elec-
have commenced. A dry powder or CO 2 fire extinguisher can trolyte spill. Handle NiMH electrolyte spills using the following
also be used if water is not readily available. personal protective equipment (PPE):

288 C HAPTER 20
 ■■ Splash shield or safety goggles monitors any electrical connection between the high-voltage
■■ Rubber, latex, or nitrile gloves system and the body (ground). ●■■SEE FIGURE 20-11.
Therefore, there should not be a shock hazard involv-
■■ Apron suitable for alkaline materials
ing a submerged hybrid electric vehicle. Treat a submerged
■■ Rubber boots
hybrid electric vehicle as a normal incident. It will not usually be
Neutralize NiMH electrolyte using a boric acid solution known if the vehicle is a hybrid electric vehicle until it has been
or vinegar: boric acid solution—5.5 ounces of boric acid to removed from the water. Perform the following steps to handle
1 gallon of water (800 grams boric acid to 20 liters water). a hybrid electric vehicle that is fully or partially submerged in
water:
STEP 1 Remove the occupants.
STEP 2 Remove vehicle from the water.
SUBMERGED VEHICLES STEP 3 Drain water from the vehicle if possible.

If a hybrid electric vehicle is submerged, the system main NOTE: There is no risk of electric shock from touching
(high-voltage) relays cut off high voltage to all systems except the the body or the framework of the vehicle whether in or
batteries themselves. The relays are opened by the circuit that out of the water.

AUTOMATIC DISCONNECT
MANUAL DISCONNECT

K2

MOTOR

MOTOR
DRIVE
CIRCUIT(S)

K1

MOTOR
CONTROLLER

FIGURE 20-11 In the event of a collision or submersion, the system main relays will disconnect the high-voltage. None of the
high-voltage is connected to chassis ground.

SUMMARY
1. Any incident involving an electric or hybrid electric vehicle 4. To depower the high-voltage system, the 12-volt auxiliary
should be treated following standard operating proce- battery must be disconnected. Use the double cut method
dures (SOP). for best results.
2. Identification of the hybrid electric vehicle includes: 5. Cut lines are often marked on the 12-volt battery cable
• Emblems to indicate where they should be cut to disable the
• Orange cables 12-volt system, which in turn depowers the high-voltage
3. The wiring conduit colors and their meanings are as system.
follows: 6. The location of the high-voltage battery and 12-volt
• Black—12 volts battery can vary according to make, model, and year
• Red—12 volts of vehicle or behind the rear seat. The 12-volt auxiliary
• Yellow—42 volts battery can be located either under the hood or in the
• Blue—42 volts trunk area.
• Orange—60 volts or higher

F I RST RE SPO N D E R P RO C ED U RES 289

7. The steps involved in the event of an incident with a hybrid 8. In the event of a fire with a hybrid electric vehicle, follow
electric vehicle include: standard operating procedures.
Step 1—Identify the vehicle. 9. Most hybrid electric vehicles do not create any hazardous
Step 2—Disable the vehicle. materials that are not commonly found in any other inci-
Step 3—Stabilize the vehicle. dent involving conventional vehicles.
Step 4—Access the occupants.
Step 5—Turn off the ignition.
Step 6—Disconnect or cut the 12-volt battery cables.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the meaning of the various colors of wiring? 4. What is the difference between an offensive and defensive
2. What steps should be followed when dealing with an inci- first responder attack?
dent involving a hybrid electric vehicle? 5. Why does a vehicle submerged in water NOT represent a
3. Why should a first responder “double cut” the 12-volt shock risk to first responders?
power cable?

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. What is the highest priority when following standard oper- 6. What color wires or cables represent a shock hazard?
ating procedures? a. Yellow
a. Save or protect human life b. Red or black
b. Protect the vehicle from damage c. Orange
c. Extinguish the fire d. Blue
d. Rescue animals 7. The 12-volt auxiliary battery is located where?
2. What personal protective equipment (PPE) should be used a. Under the hood
when responding to an incident that could involve an elec- b. Under the second-row seat
tric or a hybrid electric vehicle? c. In the trunk
a. Helmet with face shield d. Any of the above
b. Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) 8. Why should 12-volt battery cables be double cut?
c. High-voltage linesman’s gloves a. To prevent the possibility of the cut ends coming in
d. All of the above contact
3. How would a first responder be able to identify an electric b. To prevent the high voltage from arcing
or hybrid electric vehicle? c. To be sure the circuit has been cut
a. Emblems on the front, side, or rear of the vehicle d. All of the above
b. Orange-colored cables 9. If the electrolyte from a high-voltage battery is spilled,
c. Blue-colored cables what should be used to neutralize it?
d. Both a and b a. Baking soda
4. A fire involving a hybrid electric vehicle should be extin- b. Vinegar or boric acid
guished using ________. c. Water
a. water or a fire extinguisher d. CO 2
b. large amounts of water only 10. The high-voltage system will be shut off if the________.
c. dry chemical fire extinguisher only a. ignition is turned off
d. CO 2 fire extinguisher only b. air bags deploy
5. What is the color of the cables for the 12-volt auxiliary c. vehicle becomes submerged
battery? d. Any of the above
a. Blue
b. Yellow
c. Red or black
d. Orange

290 C HAPTER 20
appendix
SAMPLE HYBRID/ELECTRIC VEHICLE SPECIALIST (L3)
ASE-TYPE CERTIFICATION TEST

CONTENT AREA QUESTIONS IN THE TEST PERCENTAGE OF THE TEST

A. Battery System 11 25%
B. Internal Combustion Engine 6 13%
C. Drive Systems 9 20%
D. Power Electronics 13 29%
E. Hybrid Supporting Systems 6 13%
TOTAL 45 100%

A. BATTERY SYSTEM 6. What tool or type of meter should be used to check for
voltage leaks/loss of isolation?
1. Hybrid electric vehicle manufacturers specify that high-
a. A CAT III DMM
voltage (HV) protective gloves be worn that meet what b. An insulation tester
specification? c. An ohmmeter
a. SAE J1930 d. A high impedance voltmeter
b. UL 1140-A
7. A HV battery pack has been removed from the vehicle.
c. ANSI class “0”
The connecting straps (connectors) for some of the mod-
d. OSHA Standard 1000
ules are found to be corroded. Technician A says that the
2. What rating should a DMM have to be safely used on a connectors should be replaced. Technician B says that the
hybrid electric or electric vehicle? battery modules should all be checked for state-of-charge
a. CAT III to see that they are all within specifications. Which techni-
b. SAE J1930 cian is correct?
c. 10 megohm a. Technician A only
d. UL 1100 b. Technician B only
3. Using a scan tool, what PID indicates that a HV battery c. Both Technicians A and B
pack is degraded? d. Neither Technician A nor B
a. Internal resistance 8. HV battery packs are cooled using .
b. State-of-charge (SOC) a. a separate cooling system with the coolant circulated
c. Battery block voltage by an electric-operated pump
d. All of the above b. cabin or outside airflow moved by an electric blower
4. At what state-of-charge does the ICE start to charge the c. the ICE cooling system to circulate coolant around the
HV battery on most hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)? HV battery module assembly
a. 30% d. Either a or b
b. 40% 9. If the HV battery pack becomes degraded, what symptom
c. 50% may the driver experience?
d. 60% a. A warning light on the dash
5. When diagnosing HV battery pack concerns, what scan b. Reduced fuel economy
tool data is one of the first to check? c. The ICE runs all or most of the time
a. State-of-charge (SOC) d. Any or all of the above
b. Internal resistance
c. External resistance
d. Electrolyte level

291
10. The internal resistance of a HEV battery is being checked C. DRIVE SYSTEMS
using a scan tool. What is normal internal resistance?
18. What is needed to safely remove and/or install a perma-
a. 15 to 40 milliohms
nent magnet rotor?
b. 1.5 to 5.0 ohms
a. HV gloves
c. 3 to 7 ohms
b. A special holder/installer
d. 10 to 15 ohms
c. Insulated tools (wrenches and pliers)
11. A HV battery pack is being diagnosed using a scan tool. A d. All of the above
diagnostic trouble code can be set if there is or
19. Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) diagnostic trouble
more difference in voltage between battery blocks.
codes .
a. 2.2
a. are global (generic) codes only (P0XXX)
b. 1.2
b. can include letters such as P0A30
c. 0.3
c. often can pin down the fault
d. 0.1
d. Both b and c
20. An insulation (isolation) tester applies to
test for continuity between the high-voltage cable and the
chassis ground.
a. a high voltage pulse
B. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE b. a high amperage current supplied at 12 volts
12. How is the idle stop function disabled to allow the ICE to c. a resistance between the two components being
run at all times? tested
a. Push a button on the dash on most HEVs d. a low voltage (about 2 volts) and a low current (about
b. Follow a prescribed procedure 0.5 A)
c. Turn on the heater 21. What data would be an indication of where a noise or
d. Open all doors shudder from the drivetrain may be located?
13. The viscosity of engine oil specified for use in a HEV is a. A low HV battery SOC
usually SAE . b. An auxiliary battery fault code
a. 0W-20 c. An insulation/isolation fault DTC for the traction motor
b. 0W-30 d. A fault code (DTC) for a failed resolver
c. 5W-30 22. If there is a stored diagnostic trouble code (DTC) for a loss
d. 10W-40 of insulation, where should the technician first check?
14. If the torque displayed on a scan tool indicates that the a. At the HV disconnect plug
motor/generator that is attached to the ICE is showing b. At the location stated in the DTC description
“positive torque.” This means that the . c. At the closest location to the chassis ground connection
a. ICE is being driven by the motor/generator (crank d. At the closest location to the HV battery
mode) 23. What type of lubricant is used in most HEV transmissions?
b. ICE is powering the motor/generator (run mode) a. POE dielectric fluid
c. motor generator is charging the HV battery b. Usually ATF of the specified type
d. motor/generator is supplying electrical energy to the c. POA engine oil
traction motor d. Silicone grease
15. The ICE does not start (nothing happens when the starting 24. A diagnostic trouble code (DTC) has been set for motor-
button or ignition key is engaged). What is the most likely rotor position sensor (resolver) fault. Technician A says
cause? that this part is a replaceable part if defective. Technician
a. The ICE fuel tank is empty B says that it is part of the traction motor assembly and
b. The auxiliary 12-volt battery is discharged or defective is replaced as an assembly. Which technician is correct?
c. The electric fuel pump for the ICE is defective a. Technician A only
d. The HV battery pack is discharged below 50% SOC b. Technician B only
16. A scan tool is needed to . c. Both Technicians A and B
a. check the SOC of the auxiliary 12-volt battery d. Neither Technician A nor B
b. check the oil level in the ICE 25. A cover is being removed from a HV component such as the
c. crank the engine at normal cranking speed to perform inverter/converter. What is the purpose of the two-wire con-
a compression test nector that is disconnected in order to remove the cover?
d. All of the above a. It is used to set a diagnostic trouble code if the cover
17. The ICE cooling system uses . is removed
a. the same coolant as used in liquid cooled electronic b. Used to shut off the HV system and discharge the
cooling system capacitors to avoid personal injury
b. pure (100%) antifreeze to provide long-term corrosion c. Used to trigger the dash warning lamp for overheat of
resistance the inverter/converter
c. an ICE or electric-powered water pump d. Used a ground connection so the cover is properly
d. Both a and c grounded

292 APPENDIX
26. The parking pawl on most hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) 33. The start button is pushed and the dash lights up but the
. vehicle does not move and the ready to move light is not
a. is mechanically applied using a cable on. What is the most likely cause?
b. is not used but instead uses an electromagnet to keep a. A weak (low charge) 12-volt auxiliary battery
the vehicle from rolling when parked b. The driver did not depress the brake pedal and the
c. uses an electric motor to move the parking pawl into system is in the accessory mode
position c. A discharged HV battery pack
d. uses the traction motor to keep the vehicle from mov- d. A fault with the ignition on switch
ing when parked 34. What is used to conduct heat from the inverter–converter
to the area where the coolant flows?
a. Heat conductive grease
D. POWER ELECTRONICS b. Engine oil
27. The internal resistance of the HV battery modules c. ATF
. d. Silicone grease
a. can be determined by using a scan tool 35. A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) has been in an accident.
b. can be measured using an ohmmeter after removing The service technician wants to check to make sure that
the modules from the battery pack the high-voltage (HV) cables have not been hurt or have
c. has to be determined using a special HV tester lost their electrical isolation (insulation). How is this test
d. can be calculated from using the current draw of the performed?
traction motor and the HV battery SOC a. Disconnect both cables at both ends and measure the
28. The ICE does not stop running when warm and at idle resistance between the two cables. It should be more
speed. What could be the cause? than 10k ohms
a. Any problem with the ICE MAF sensor b. Remove the service plug and allow the capacitors to
b. A low SOC of the HV voltage battery discharge and then measure the voltage between the
c. A fault with the HV battery two terminals
d. Either b or c c. After removing the HV cable from the vehicle, measure
29. When working on a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), what the resistance and they should be less than 0.1 ohm
type of meter leads should be used with the DMM? per foot of length
a. Leads with alligator clips d. Use an insulator tester and after disconnecting the HV
b. CAT III rated leads cable, connect one tester lead to the terminal of the
c. DOT-approved leads cable and the other to a good chassis ground. The
d. SAE-approved leads results should be greater than one million ohms
30. A factory-level aftermarket scan tool was used to retrieve 36. The 12-volt auxiliary battery has been charged and even
two diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs). There were a P0A80 replaced several times due to low charge. The voltage of
and P3006. These codes mean . the battery as shown on a scan tool display and a DMM
a. the P0A30 is a false code because it has a letter shows 11.2 volts. What is the most likely cause?
instead of all numbers a. A too small auxiliary battery
b. the P3006 is a factory DTC b. A defective DC/DC converter
c. both codes could be retrieved using a global (generic) c. A defective alternator
scan tool (code reader) d. A defective inverter
d. the P0A30 is a factory code 37. Where are the high-voltage capacitors located?
31. The master warning lamp on the dash is on. There are a. Under the HV battery pack on most HEVs
many DTCs set and the driver stated that the vehicle had b. Inside the inverter/converter compartment
run out of gas when the warning light came on. What is c. Usually attached to the ICE and they share the ICE
the best approach to fix this problem? cooling system
a. Preform a circuit check of the HV system checking for d. Under the vehicle between the HV battery and the ICE
loss of insulation 38. The AC/DC inverter cooling pump is being replaced
b. Disconnect the HV battery service plug and check because it stopped functioning. What type of coolant
the system for damage related to the HV system and should be used when refilling the system?
electronic drive system a. Premixed universal coolant only
c. Clear the codes and verify that they do not return b. The coolant that is recommended
d. Check the ICE fluids and restore to proper level c. Blue coolant that has a dielectric additive included
32. Before disconnecting the HV service plug, what should be d. Any of the above
done? 39. The system main relays (SMR) may trip and disable the
a. Wear HV gloves vehicle if what occurs?
b. Disconnect the 12-volt auxiliary battery or specified a. An airbag deploys
fuse/relay b. The vehicle is submerged in water
c. Check service information to determine how to gain c. The system detects a fault in the insulation (isolation)
access to the HV plug between the HV system and the chassis ground
d. All of the above d. Any of the above

SAM PLE H yB RI D/ E LE C T RI C V E H I C L E SPE C I AL I ST ( L 3 ) ASE -T yPE CE RT I F IC A T ION TES T 293

E. HYBRID SUPPORTING SYSTEMS 43. Many hybrid electric vehicle diagnostic trouble codes also
include “subcodes.” What is the purpose of the subcodes?
40. How should HV gloves be tested before each use?
a. They help the service technician pin down the location
a. Visual inspection for any tears or openings
of the fault
b. Roll the glove up to trap air and see if the air leaks
b. They are used only for engineers and not to be used
c. Use a voltmeter and check the resistance of the rub-
by a service technician
ber (should be greater than 10k ohms)
c. They list the voltage of the HV battery when the fault
d. Both a and b
occurred
41. The owner complained that while driving on a mountain- d. They refer to the area in service information where the
ous area, the HV battery display read at the top of the details of the system are explained
scale. About the same time, the brake pedal became
44. The wiring to the electric power steering has yellow con-
harder to depress and more force was required to slow the
duit which indicates .
vehicle. What is the most likely cause?
a. dangerous high voltage (lower than orange cable but
a. Normal operation
still fatal)
b. A fault with the master cylinder
b. 12-volt circuit
c. A HV battery SOC fault that caused the regenerative
c. 42-volt circuit
braking system to default to normal hydraulic brakes
d. 60-volt circuit
d. Driver error
45. The A/C compressor on a hybrid electric vehicle has failed
42. Before the brakes are serviced on many hybrid elec-
and has to be replaced. What precautions are needed to
tric vehicles, what precaution(s) are often needed to be
be taken?
performed?
a. Use PAG refrigerant oil
a. The brake hydraulic system needs to be placed in
b. Use the specified non-electrical conductive refrigerant
service mode
oil
b. The brake pedal needs to be depressed at least 30
c. Replace the HV cable to the compressor
times to discharge the accumulator
d. Use a high-volume vacuum pump during the evacua-
c. The HV served plug should be removed and placed in
tion process.
a safe location away from the vehicle
d. All of the above

ANSWERS
1. c 13. a 25. b 37. b
2. a 14. a 26. c 38. b
3. d 15. b 27. a 39. d
4. c 16. c 28. d 40. d
5. a 17. a 29. b 41. a
6. b 18. b 30. b 42. a
7. c 19. d 31. c 43. a
8. d 20. a 32. d 44. c
9. d 21. c 33. b 45. b
10. a 22. b 34. a
11. c 23. b 35. d
12. b 24. a 36. b

294 APPENDIX
 GLOSSARY
AC coupling AC coupling position is selected, a capacitor is Atkinson cycle The Atkinson cycle engine is an engine that
placed into the meter lead circuit, which effectively blocks all uses a late closing intake valve to reduce compression pres-
DC voltage signals, but allows the AC portion of the signal to sures and an extended power stroke event.
pass and be displayed. Automatic emergency braking (AEB) An automatic emer-
AC induction motor (ACIM) An AC induction motor is also gency braking (AEB) system intervenes and automatically
known as an AC asynchronous motor, or AC induction motor applies the brakes if needed. Automatic braking is often part
(ACIM), because it allows a certain amount of slip between the rotor of a safety package that includes radar cruise control, and
and the changing magnetic field in the stator. The term asynchro- will apply the brakes in the event of a possible collision.
nous means that the speed of the motor is not necessarily related Battery control module (BCM) The battery control module
to the frequency of the current flowing through the stator windings. (BCM) is responsible for controlling the operation of the high-
Acoustic vehicle alerting system (AVAS) Creates the voltage battery based on the requests from the hybrid control
sound whenever the vehicle is traveling at low speed. The module.
U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Battery density Battery density refers to the amount of
requires the device to emit warning sounds when travelling at energy in kilowatt-hours (kWh) that a battery can store per kilo-
speeds less than 19 MPH (30 km/h) gram of mass (kWh per kilograms) or volume (kWh per liter) of
Active balancing Active balancing is achieved when energy volume. The higher the number, the higher the energy density
is drawn from the most charged cell and transferred to the least of the battery.
charged cells, usually through DC–DC converters. Battery electric vehicle (BEV) A battery electric vehicle
Active grille shutters (AGS) Active grille shutters (AGS) are (BEV), also called an electric vehicle (EV), uses a high-voltage
designed to remain to decrease the aerodynamic drag by forc- battery pack to supply electrical energy to an electric motor(s)
ing the air to flow underneath the vehicle when closed. Only to propel the vehicle under all driving conditions.
when there is a need for cooling do the active grill shutters Battery management system (BMS) The battery manage-
open to allow air to flow through heat exchangers. They are ment system (BMS) is an electronic system that manages
used in all types of vehicle to help improve fuel economy. cells in a battery pack. The BMS monitors and controls the
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) Adaptive cruise control state of charge (SOC), state of health (SOH), state of func-
(ACC), also called radar cruise control, gives the driver more tion (SOF), temperature, and load balancing/individual cell
control over the vehicle by keeping an assured clear distance efficiency.
behind the vehicle in front. Belt alternator starter (BAS) The belt alternator starter (BAS)
Advanced driver assist systems (ADAS) Various vehicle system was the most common early stop–start system. The
systems that provide help to the driver. BAS system was the least expensive system that can be used
and still claim that the vehicle is a hybrid.
Alternating current (AC) Electric charge in alternating current
(AC) changes direction periodically. The voltage in AC circuits Blind spot monitor (BSM) The blind spot monitor (BSM)
also periodically reverses because the current changes direction. is a vehicle-based sensor device that detects other vehicles
located to the side and rear of the vehicle.
Always Be Charging (ABC) The saying that many owners
of electric vehicle mention when discussing charging at home. BNC connector A BNC connector, which is a miniature stan-
Due to the vehicle itself needing to keep the systems functional dard coaxial cable connector. BNC is an international standard
and within a temperature range, many owners simply keep their that is used in the electronics industry.
EV connected to the charging station when at home. Body control module (BCM) The body control module
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) American (BCM) monitors the operation of the climate control system as
National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a private, nonprofit orga- well as the driver’s door switch and driver’s seat belt.
nization that administers and coordinates the U.S. voluntary Boost converters Boost converters are used to enhance
standardization and conformity assessment system. high-voltage systems that operate on a lower high-voltage
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) battery. The boost converter boosts the nominal voltage out-
American Society for Testing and Materials. put by the battery to as much as 500 volts to meet increased
electrical demand based on the load.
Armature The armature, made up of many conductors, is
installed inside this strong magnetic field, with very little clear- Brushless motors Brushless motors, which use permanent
ance between the armature and the field coils. magnet rotors, produce high starting torque and are typically
over 90% efficient.
Artificial intelligence (AI) AI is machine learning accom-
plished through programming and training that allows the com- Cabin filter A cabin filter is used to remove particulate matter
puter to react much like a human. and to prevent clogging of the vehicle’s evaporator.

295
Carbohydrates All life-forms are able to collect, store, and current (AC) voltage signals and direct current (DC) voltage sig-
use energy from their environment. In carbon-based biology, nals present in the circuit. The AC part of the signal will ride on
the basic energy storage compounds are in carbohydrates, top of the DC component.
where the carbon atoms are linked by single bonds into a chain. DCFC (DC Fast Charge) Level 3 chargers are often called a
Carbon (C) Most of the energy used in the world has been DCFC (DC Fast Charge) or DC Quick Charge (DCQC).
generated by burning organic fuel that contains carbon (abbre-
Destination charging Hotels and motels often provide charg-
viated C). An economy that uses only carbon-based fuels is
ing stations known as destination charging. Hotels are adding
often referred to as a carbon-based society. Carbon is formed
chargers to their properties to help attract EV drivers traveling
from materials that were once alive on the earth.
on long trips.
Carbon footprint The carbon footprint includes energy-
Digital multimeter (DMM) A digital multimeter is capable of
related emissions from human activities, including heat, light,
measuring electrical current, resistance, and voltage.
power, refrigeration, and all transport-related emissions from
vehicles, freight, and distribution. Digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) A digital scope takes
samples of the signals that can be stopped or stored and is
Category three (CAT III) A category three (CAT III) certified
therefore called a digital storage oscilloscope, or DSO.
digital multimeter (DMM) is required for making measurements
on these high-voltage systems. Direct current (DC) Direct current (DC), the electric charge
(current) only flows in one direction.
Cathode ray tube (CRT) An analog scope uses a cathode
ray tube (CRT) similar to a television screen to display volt- Dog mode Dog mode (also called pet mode) is a climate
age patterns. The scope screen displays the electrical signal control feature in Tesla and some other electric vehicles that
constantly. leaves the air conditioning or heater on when owners leave
their pets in their car. It is accessed through the climate-con-
Channel Scopes are available that allow the viewing of more
trol settings by selecting “Dog” under the “Keep Climate On”
than one sensor or event at the same time on the display. The
settings.
number of events, which require leads for each, is called a
channel. A channel is an input to a scope. Double cut method A double cut method means that after
making the first cut on a battery cable, then move about
Column-mounted electric power steering (C-EPS)
2 inches and make another cut so cables will not make contact
Column-mounted electric power steering (C-EPS) has sen-
if jarred. When the 12 volts are cut, the high-voltage system is
sors and the assist motor located inside the vehicle so they are
depowered and no high voltage should be in any of the orange
not exposed to the heat and outside elements as is the rack-
cables except at the battery pack itself.
mounted system.
Duty cycle Duty cycle refers to the percentage of on-time of
Commutator The classic DC motor uses a rotating armature
the signal during one complete cycle. As on-time increases, the
in the form of an electromagnet with two poles. A rotary switch
amount of time the signal is off decreases and is usually mea-
called a commutator reverses the direction of the electric cur-
sured in percentage.
rent twice every cycle, to flow through the armature so that the
poles of the electromagnet push and pull against the perma- Electric auxiliary pump In order to adapt a conventional
nent magnets on the outside of the motor. automatic transmission to a hybrid powertrain, an electric auxil-
iary pump is used to maintain fluid pressure in the transmission
Controller Area Network (CAN) Robert Bosch Corporation
during internal combustion engine (ICE) idle stop.
developed the Controller Area Network (CAN) protocol, which
was called CAN 1.2, in 1993. The CAN protocol was approved Electric power steering (EPS) All HEV and EV vehicles use
by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for 2003 and electric power steering (EPS) systems, which is also called
newer vehicle diagnostics, and became a legal requirement for electric power-assisted steering (EPAS).
all vehicles by 2008. Electric power-assisted steering (EPAS) Electric power
Current clamp A current clamp (also called an amp clamp) steering takes the place of hydraulic components that were
is an electrical probe with jaws that open to allow the clamping previously used by using an electric motor to provide power
around an electrical conductor. The probe measures the mag- assist effort.
netic field created by the current flow and converts it into a Electric vehicle (EV) An electric vehicle (EV) uses a high-
waveform on the scope. It can be used with a scope to mea- voltage battery pack to supply electrical energy to an electric
sure AC or DC current in a circuit without disconnecting any motor(s) to propel the vehicle under all driving conditions.
wires or components.
Electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) Electric vehicle
Cut lines Places marked on low-voltage electrical cable supply equipment (EVSE) supplies electricity supplies electric-
in a hybrid electric vehicle that should/can be cut by a first ity to charge an electric vehicle (EV). The primary function of a
responder to disable the high-voltage circuits. plug-in vehicle charging station is to provide electrical safety
DC-to-DC converters DC-to-DC converters are electronic for the operator and to address the risks of fire and electric
devices used to transform DC voltage from one level of DC shock.
voltage to another higher or lower-level voltage. Electrical Distribution System (EDS) The Electrical
DC coupling DC coupling is the most used position on a Distribution System (EDS) is to provide the electrical conduc-
scope because it allows the scope to display both alternating tion path through the battery pack.

296 GLOSSARY
Electrolysis The process where electric current is passed in warm weather cool the inside of a building using a geother-
through water in order to break it into hydrogen and oxygen gas. mal heat pump (GHP) system.
Electromagnetic induction The creation of a voltage in a Graticule A typical scope face usually has 8 or 10 grids verti-
conductor by a moving magnetic field is called electromagnetic cally (up and down) and 10 grids horizontally (left to right). The
induction. transparent scale (grid), used for reference measurements, is
called a graticule. This arrangement is commonly 8 × 10 or
Electromagnetic parking sensors (EPS) Electromagnetic
10 × 10 divisions.
parking sensors (EPS) detect when a vehicle is moving slowly and
toward an object. Greenhouse gases (GHG) Greenhouse gases (GHG) are
those gases in our atmosphere that, if in too great a concentra-
Electromagnetism The creation of a magnetic field by the
tion, can prevent heat from escaping the surface, leading to an
use of an electrical current.
increase in the temperature on earth. In a nursery greenhouse,
Energy carrier Any medium that is utilized to store or the glass panes are painted white to reflect the heat back into
transport energy. For example, hydrogen is an energy carrier the greenhouse.
because energy must be used to generate hydrogen gas that
Guess-O-Meter (GOM) The dash display that shows the
is used as a fuel.
miles per kWh is often called a Guess-O-Meter (GOM) because
Energy Energy is defined as the ability to do work. it is often not accurate.
Energy-Efficiency Ratio (EER) Energy-Efficiency Ratio Guobiao standard (GB or GB/T) The Chinese national stan-
(EER) is a value representing the relative electrical efficiency dard. BYD and other Chinese companies use this standard
of cooling equipment in the cooling season. EER is calcu- connector, as well as Mahindra and Tata electric vehicles.
lated by dividing cooling capacity (in British thermal units per
Haptic actuator A vibration is often created in the steering
hour [Btu/h]) by the power input (in watts or W). The higher the
wheel or the driver’s seat called a haptic actuator. The vibration
EER, the less electricity the equipment uses to cool the same
is created by using a DC motor with a weight that is out of bal-
amount of air. A unit with an EER of 7 costs about twice as
ance. When the motor rotates, a vibration is created.
much to operate as one with an EER of 14.
Hazardous materials (hazmat) Chemicals or fluids that may
Engine control module (ECM) The engine control module
be considered to be hazardous.
(ECM) is responsible for all engine control systems when the
engine is running. Hertz Frequency is the number of cycles per second mea-
sured in hertz.
EV range The size or capacity of the battery pack used deter-
mines how far that the vehicle can travel without using the ICE, High voltage (HV) High-voltage (HV) circuits that if touched
commonly called the EV range. with an unprotected hand could cause serious burns or even
death.
External trigger An external trigger is when the waveform
starts when a signal is received from another external source, Homogeneous-Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) A
rather than from the signal pickup lead. low-temperature combustion process that involves air–fuel
mixtures being burned without the use of spark ignition.
Flux lines Magnetic lines of force.
Hot stick A hot stick is a long tool used to pull high-voltage
Frequency Frequency is the number of cycles per second lines away from buildings or vehicles.
measured in hertz.
human–machine interface (HMI) The human–machine inter-
Fuel cell A fuel cell is an electrochemical device in which face (HMI) was very basic in the past because the vehicles
the chemical energy of hydrogen and oxygen is converted into were equipped with most of the following to let the driver know
electrical energy. what the vehicle (the machine) was doing: Speedometer; Fuel
Fuel-cell hybrid vehicle (FCHV) A vehicle that uses a fuel cell to level gauge (HV battery charge level); Outside air temperature;
create electricity and also uses an electrical storage device such Tire pressures; Instrument panel/dashboard warning icons.
as a high-voltage battery that can be used to power the vehicle. Hybrid control module The electronic module that controls
Fuel-cell stack A collection of individual fuel cells “stacked” the hybrid drive unit.
end-to-end, similar to slices of bread. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV)
Fuel-cell vehicle (FCV) A vehicle that is powered directly are vehicles that have two sources of propulsion either with an
from the electrical power generated by a fuel cell. electric motor supplied energy from the high-voltage battery or
an internal combustion engine (ICE).
Geothermal energy Geothermal energy is energy derived
from the heat of the earth. The earth’s core is approximately Hydraulic impulse storage accumulator A hydraulic
4,000 miles from the surface and is so hot that it is molten. impulse storage accumulator is used to provide fluid pressure
Temperatures are believed to be at least 9000°F (5000°C). A as the internal combustion engine (ICE) restarts after the idle
well is drilled and the earth’s core heats water into steam that stop mode.
drives a turbine to drive an AC generator to produce electricity. Hydroelectricity Hydroelectricity is defined as converting the
Geothermal heat pump (GHP) Geothermal can be used in energy of flowing water into the mechanical energy of a turbine
cold weather to warm the interior of a building and can be used to turn a hydroelectric generator to generate electricity.

GLOSSARY 297
Incidents A possible hazardous condition such as an auto- and a watt is a volt times an ampere, which is a measurement
mobile accident. of electrical power. The higher the kWh rating of the battery, the
Inertia Inertia is the resistance of an object to change its state more electrical energy it can store.
of motion. Kinetic energy The energy of a moving object that has mass.
Insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) The current flow kWh/100 mi The EPA also expresses an EV’s energy con-
through the motor/generator ECU is controlled by six insulated- sumption in terms of the number of kilowatts per hour needed
gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs). Three of these transistors to run the vehicle for 100 miles shortened to kWh/100 mi.
control the voltage side of the circuit and are called positive For example, a Tesla Model 3 usually uses about 28 kW per
or high-side IGBTs. The other three transistors are negative or 100 miles.
low-side IGBTs because they are on the negative (ground) side
Lane departure warning system (LDWS) Lane departure
of the stator’s coils.
warning system (LDWS) uses cameras to detect if the vehicle is
Intelligent Speed Advice (ISA) Intelligent Speed Advice (ISA) crossing over lane marking lines on the pavement.
uses a sign recognition camera or a navigation system (GPS) to
Lane keep assist (LKA) Lane keep assist (LKA), also called
determine the speed limit, which is used to warn the driver of
lane keep assist system (LKAS), is not only to warn the driver if
the posted speed limit.
the vehicle is moving out of the lane of traffic, but when there
Interior permanent magnets (IPMs) Brushless permanent is no response from the driver, to also automatically use the
magnet motors use two designs of rotors In one type, the per- electric power steering system to steer the vehicle back into
manent magnets are housed inside the outer shell of the rotor the lane.
and are called interior permanent magnets (IPMs).
Lenz’s law An induced current move so that its magnetic
Internal combustion engine (ICE) The internal combustion field opposes the motion that induced the current. This prin-
engine (ICE) used in a hybrid vehicle can be either gasoline or ciple is called Lenz’s law. The relative motion between a con-
diesel, although only gasoline-powered engines are currently ductor and a magnetic field is opposed by the magnetic field of
used in hybrid vehicles. the current it has induced.
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) The Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) A type of sensor used
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has several in advanced driver assist systems that use lasers to detect
categories of voltage standards for meter and meter leads. objects.
These categories are ratings for over-voltage protection and
Liquid-cooled condensers (LCC) Liquid-cooled condens-
are rated CAT I, CAT II, CAT III, and CAT IV. The higher the
ers (LCC) exchange heat by removing heat from one fluid and
category (CAT) rating of the meter, the greater the level of
transferring it to another fluid. A liquid-cooled condenser is a
protection to the technician when measuring high-energy
heat exchanger that removes heat from refrigerant vapor and
voltage. Under each category there are various voltage
transfers it to the liquid running through it.
ratings.
Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) Lithium iron phosphate
International Fire Service Training Association (IFSTA)
(LiFePO4) is a type of battery chemistry that is stable at higher
Approach and extinguish a fire using proper vehicle firefight-
temperatures and does not contain cobalt, which is in limited
ing practices as recommended by International Fire Service
supply world-wide.
Training Association (IFSTA).
Inverters Inverters are electronic devices that can turn DC Load test Most automotive starting and charging testers use
(direct current) to AC (alternating current). It is also responsible a carbon pile to create an electrical load on the battery. The
for controlling speed and torque for electric motors. amount of the load is determined by the original CCA rating
of the battery, which should be at least 75% charged before
Irradiance The term used to define the amount of solar radia- performing a load test.
tion is irradiance. The solar irradiance at the earth’s surface var-
ies greatly depending on factors such as: Locksmith ID The shop or service technician must be a
registered vehicle security professional and have a lock-
• Latitude smith ID number in order to obtain the security codes or
• Time of day key specific information must be reentered during the
process.
• Time of year
• Cloud cover Loss of Isolation (LOI) When the ground fault system detects
high voltage leaking to ground, it sets a diagnostic trouble code
• Haze that includes the location of the fault. This type of fault is called
Joule One joule is defined being the energy transferred to an a loss of insulation/isolation (LOI).
object by the mechanical work of moving it a distance of Low-grade heat A fuel cell must have a much larger heat
1 meter against a force of 1 newton. 1 Nm (newton-meter) = exchanger because its coolant temperature typically runs very
1 Joule. close to that of the surrounding air. This is known as low-grade
Kilowatt (kW) Kilowatt (kW) is a measure of electrical power. heat.
kilowatt-hours (kWh) kWh is a unit of energy. Battery capac- Medium hybrid A hybrid electric vehicle design that utilizes
ity is measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh). A kilowatt is 1,000 watts “medium” voltage levels (between 50 and 200 volts). Medium

298 GLOSSARY
hybrids use regenerative braking and idle stop but are not the development and validation of training materials for the fire
capable of starting the vehicle from a stop using electric mode. service and related areas.
Megohm A megohm is defined as a unit of resistance, Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory (NRTL) Most
equal to one million ohms MΩ using an uppercase M and an charging station manufacturers send samples to a Nationally
abbreviation meg. Recognized Testing Laboratory (NRTL), such as Intertek (ETL
Membrane Electrode Assembly (MEA) The part of the PEM mark) or Underwriter’s Laboratory (UL mark) for testing of their
fuel cell that contains the membrane, catalyst coatings, and device for safety.
electrodes. Nickel, cobalt, and aluminum (NCA) Nickel, cobalt, and
Micro hybrid A term used to describe belt alternator starter aluminum (NCA) cathode material results in a long battery life
(BAS) and other mild hybrid systems. and faster charging capability compared to some other types of
battery chemistry.
Mild hybrid A hybrid electric vehicle design that uses regen-
erative braking and idle stop but cannot propel the vehicle in Nickel, manganese, and cobalt (NMC) A NMC battery uses
electric-only mode. A mild hybrid drive typically operates below a combination of nickel, manganese, and cobalt (NMC) for
50 volts. the cathode material. This cathode material results in slightly
lower energy, but is less volatile and can withstand variation in
Miles per hour (MPH) Level 2 charging adds about 25 miles
temperature.
of Range Per hour (RPH), labeled as miles per hour (MPH) on
the dash display of a Nissan Leaf. Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) Most current production HEVs
use nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) battery technology for the
Milliohm Milliohm (plural milliohms) is defined as one thou-
high-voltage battery. Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries
sandth of an ohm, abbreviated as mΩ with a lowercase m. In
have a positive electrode made of nickel hydroxide. The nega-
other words, this is a resistance value that is less than 1 ohm.
tive electrode is unique, in that it is a hydrogen-absorbing alloy,
MPGe To help consumers compare the energy consumption also known as a metal hydride. The electrolyte is an alkaline,
of electric vehicles with those that run on fossil fuel, the EPA usually potassium hydroxide. The nominal voltage of an NiMH
created a miles-per-gallon measurement, called MPGe. This battery cell is 1.2 volts.
is calculated based on a conversion factor of 33.705 kilowatt-
Noise-reducing tire The purpose of a noise-reducing tire is
hours of electricity equaling one gallon of gasoline. Therefore, a
to eliminate noise in the 130 to 240 Hz range that would be
battery that has a capacity of 100 kWh is equal to the energy of
normally covered up by normal engine noise in a vehicle with
about three gallons of gasoline.
an internal combustion engine. The noise reduction is accom-
National Automotive Service Task Force (NASTF) The plished by adding acoustical foam to the inside of a tire.
National Automotive Service Task Force (NASTF) is a coopera-
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
tive effort of the automotive service industry, the tool industry,
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
and the original equipment manufacturers to ensure that auto-
requirements specify that the HV gloves get inspected every six
motive professionals employed outside of the OEMs have all
months by a qualified glove inspection laboratory.
the information, training, and tools they need to diagnose and
repair modern automobiles. One-pedal driving One-pedal driving means that for normal
driving, the driver only needs to use the accelerator pedal to
National Electric Code (NEC) The National Electric Code
accelerate and decelerate.
(NEC) is derived from the National Fire Protection Agency.
The NEC codes are the standards to which buildings and Oscilloscope An oscilloscope (usually called a scope) is a
equipment must meet minimum regulatory safety require- visual voltmeter with a timer that shows when a voltage changes.
ments in order to be safe enough for the general public to Ozone Ozone is composed of three atoms of oxygen and is
install and use. The NEC requires any charging station to be abbreviated O3. Ozone occurs naturally in the atmosphere and can
NRTL certified in order to be installed anywhere in the United be detected by smell after a thunderstorm. Ozone has a strong
States. In most places, installing an EVSE requires a building clean smell, and in high concentrations it can be a lung and respi-
permit. ratory irritant. Ozone can be created by lightning, which breaks
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) The the molecular structure of oxygen (O2) into atoms (O), which then
standards established by the National Electrical Manufacturers combine back into oxygen or combine to create ozone.
Association (NEMA) define a product, process, or procedure Ozone-depleting substances (ODS) Depletion of the
with terminology, construction, dimensions, and performance earth’s upper ozone layer due to the release of man-made
ratings. The NEMA 14 devices are four-wire grounding devices chemicals threatens human health and damages plant life.
(2 hot terminals, a neutral and a ground) from 15 to 60 amperes Certain man-made chemicals used in refrigeration, air con-
with a voltage rating of 250 volts. Both the NEMA 14-30 and ditioning, fire and explosion prevention, and as solvents can
14-50 are in common residential use and either may also be trigger reactions in the atmosphere that destroy the ozone
used for home charging of electric vehicles. layer. Ozone-depleting substances (ODS) include chloro-
National Fire Academy (NFA) An organization devoted to fluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs),
fire fighter training. halons, and methyl bromide.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) An associa- Parking-assist system A system that include sensor and or
tion to identify areas of need for training materials and foster cameras to assist the driver while parking.

GLOSSARY 299
Passive balancing Passive balancing is achieved by hav- Public Charging Stations (PCS) Public Charging Stations
ing energy drawn from the most charged cell and dissipated (PCS) are available at many locations and most commercial
as heat, usually through resistors. Passive balancing allows the Level 2 charging stations.
stack to act as if every cell has the same capacity as the weak- Pulse train A DC voltage that turns on and off in a series of
est cell. Using a relatively low current, it drains a small amount pulses is called a pulse train. Pulse trains differ from an AC sig-
of energy from high SOC cells during the charging cycle so that nal in that they do not go below zero. An alternating voltage
all cells charge to their maximum state-of-charge (SOC). goes above and below zero voltage.
Personal protective equipment (PPE) Equipment such as Pulse width Pulse width is a measure of the actual on-time
safety glasses and high-voltage gloves are to be worn to help measured in milliseconds. Fuel injectors are usually controlled
protect the service technician from personal injury when work- by varying the pulse width.
ing on vehicles.
Pulse-width modulation (PWM) As on-time increases, the
Phone as a Key (PAAK) Many hybrid electric and electric
amount of time the signal is off decreases and is usually mea-
vehicles, as well as some regular (ICE) vehicles can be con-
sured in percentage and can be measured in degrees.
trolled using a smart phone application (app). This control of
the vehicle, including remote start from the smart phone, is Pumping losses Pumping losses refer to the energy required
referred to as Phone as a Key (PAAK). to overcome the restriction in the intake system to fill the cylin-
ders with air during the intake stroke.
Photovoltaics (PV) Photovoltaics (PV) is defined as the pro-
duction of electric current at the interface of two semiconduc- Range Range is how far an electric vehicle can travel on a full
tor materials, which causes them to absorb photons of light battery charge.
and release electrons to produce electricity. Range anxiety Range anxiety is a feeling that many drivers
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) A plug-in hybrid elec- experience when driving an electric vehicle because they fear run-
tric vehicle (PHEV) is a vehicle that is designed to be plugged ning out of electric battery energy before they reach their destina-
into an electrical outlet at home, at work, or when traveling to tion. This condition is very common, but according to studies, this
charge the batteries. By charging the batteries in the vehicle, feeling lasts about two weeks after first getting an electric vehicle.
it can operate using electric power alone (stealth mode) for a Range per hour (RPH) Level 2 charging adds about 25 miles
longer time, thereby reducing the use of the internal combus- of range per hour (RPH), labeled as miles per hour (MPH) on the
tion engine (ICE). dash display of a Nissan Leaf.
Polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEFC) Another term for Proton Rear cross-traffic warning (RCTW) Rear cross-traffic warn-
Exchange Membrane fuel cell. (See definition for PEM.) ing (RCTW) system sounds an audible warning when a vehicle
Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) It refers to the ten- is crossing at the rear while backing. Some vehicles are capa-
dency of a conductor to increase its electrical resistance as its ble of automatically braking to avoid a collision.
temperature increases. PTC heaters convert electrical energy Regeneration The process where electrical energy is directed
into heat, and this is used to boost heat to the passenger to and recharges the high-voltage battery. This process is
compartment. called regeneration, regen, or simply “reclaiming energy.”
Pouch cell Pouch design HV battery uses laminated archi- Resolver Most electric motors use an internal sensor to
tecture in a bag referred to as pouch cell. It is light and cost- detect rotor position, speed, and direction that is called a
effective, but exposure to humidity and high temperature can resolver or encoder. The resolver consists of an AC generator
shorten its life. or excitation coil and two AC pickup coils or detection coils.
Power Power is defined as the rate of doing work or the rate The resolver is triggered by a rotating iron egg-shaped wheel
at which work is being done. that is attached to the rotor.
Power steering control module (PSCM) The power steer- Right-hand rule Magnetic flux cylinders have direction, just
ing control module (PSCM) and the power steering motor are as the flux lines surrounding a bar magnet have direction. Most
serviced as an assembly and are serviced separately from the automotive circuits use the conventional theory of current flow
steering column assembly. (+ to −), and therefore the right-hand rule is used to determine
the direction of the magnetic flux lines.
Pressure transducer A pressure transducer can be used in
the low- and/ or high-pressure refrigerant line. The transducer Rotor In an electric motor, the rotating part (usually on the inside)
converts the system pressure into an electrical signal that is called the rotor, and the stationary part is called the stator.
allows the ECM to monitor pressure. SAE Combo Charging System (CCS) The SAE Combo Charging
Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Proton Exchange System (CCS) is a DC Fast Charging (DCFC) connector standard
Membrane fuel cell. A low-temperature fuel cell known for fast used by BMW, Ford, GM, VW, and other vehicle manufacturers.
starts and relatively simple construction. SAE J2534 SAE J2534 is a standard for communications
PTC heaters Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) refers to between a computer and a vehicle. The original standard was
the tendency of a conductor to increase its electrical resistance introduced in February of 2002, and was identified as version
as its temperature increases. PTC heaters convert electrical 02.02. The EPA and CARB regulations require all automakers
energy into heat, and this is used to boost heat to the passen- to provide a J2534 service to everyone in the United States for
ger compartment. reflashing emission-related controllers.

300 GLOSSARY
Scroll compressor The scroll compressor is a highly efficient Steering position sensor (SPS) The PSCM uses the steer-
and durable design, with very good noise, vibration, and harsh- ing position sensor (SPS) to determine the steering system on-
ness (NVH) characteristics. This is because it is a balanced unit center position.
that uses an orbiting motion rather than sliding to compress the
Steering shaft torque sensor The steering shaft torque
gases. It also has very low power consumption relative to other
sensor and the steering wheel position sensor are not ser-
compressor designs, making it especially attractive for hybrid
viced separately from each other or from the steering column
applications.
assembly.
Self-parking Self-parking vehicles, also called automatic Stratosphere The earth’s upper atmosphere. Most of the
parking vehicles, use the camera(s) and control the electric earth’s ozone is located in the stratosphere.
power steering to guide the vehicle into a parking space. The
driver may or may not have to add anything in many advanced Strong hybrid Another term for “full hybrid” (see definition for
systems, whereas the driver must control the throttle and the full hybrid).
brakes in early systems. Surface permanent magnets (SPMs) Brushless motors,
Sequestration The process of storing carbon dioxide under- which use permanent magnet rotors, produce high starting
ground is called sequestration. torque and are typically over 90% efficient. One type uses
the permanent magnets are mounted on the outside surface
SLI battery A battery used for starting, lighting, and ignition.
of the rotor. These are called surface permanent magnets
Smog Smog is a term used to describe a condition that looks (SPMs).
like smoke and/or fog.
System main relays (SMRs) System main relays (SMRs) are
Snubbers Snubbers are capacitors and resistors arranged heavy duty relays that control the high-voltage circuit between
in a circuit to control the high-voltage surges that can occur the battery and the other components of the high-voltage sys-
when circuits containing coils are switched on and off. tem. SMRs are often referred to as contactors. Depending on
Snubbers are also called flyback, freewheeling, suppressor, the design of the battery control system, the battery will contain
or catch diodes. one to three SMRs.
Solar cell A photovoltaic cell, also called a solar cell, is made Thermal storage material (TSM) Thermal storage material
from semiconductor materials. In a solar cell, a thin semicon- (TSM), also called phase change material (PCM) evaporator,
ductor wafer is used to form an electric field, positive on one has a wax chamber in the tank end or between the tubes. The
side and negative on the other. When light strikes the solar cell, cold insulation case is placed between refrigerant tubes, which
electrons are loosened from the atoms in the semiconductor extracts cold energy during the air-conditioning cycle.
material N-type and P-type silicon wafers. With electrical con-
ductors attached to the positive and negative sides, an electri- Time base Setting the time base means setting how much
cal circuit is formed so the electrons can develop an electric time will be displayed in each block called a division.
current to turn on a light bulb. Time-of-use (TOU) A time-of-use (TOU) electric rate plan is
Specific energy The energy content of a battery relative to needed to achieve the largest savings for charging. A TOU
the mass of the battery. Specific energy is measured in watt- plan offers lower electric rates during off-peak periods (usu-
hours per kilogram (W-h/kg). ally 11 PM until 5 AM), with higher rates for using electric-
ity during high-demand times. Because most EVs are parked
Squirrel-cage rotor A squirrel-cage rotor is composed of at home overnight, TOU rates are a wise choice for most EV
parallel thick copper or aluminum conductors connected to a owners.
ring of the same material at the ends. As the stator magnetic
field rotates, the field interacts with the magnetic field estab- Torque Torque is the term used to describe a rotating force
lished by the magnetic poles of the rotor, causing the rotor to that may or may not result in motion. Torque is measured as the
turn at nearly the speed of the rotating stator magnetic field. amount of force multiplied by the length of the lever through
which it acts. If a one-foot-long wrench is used to apply
Standard operating guidelines (SOG) Procedures and 10 pounds of force to the end of the wrench to turn a bolt, then
guidelines are used to ensure that everyone in the department 10 pound-feet of torque is being applied.
perform common tasks in a specific manner.
Transmission control module (TCM) The electric control
Standard operating procedures (SOP) Procedures and module that is used to control the operation and shift or an
guidelines are used to ensure that everyone in the department automatic transmission.
perform common tasks in a specific manner.
Trigger level Trigger level is the voltage that must be
State-of-charge (SOC) The state-of-charge (SOC) is the per- detected by the scope before the pattern will be displayed.
centage of the available capacity that can be stored in a battery. A scope will start displaying a voltage signal only when it is
A battery that has a state of charge of 100% is fully charged. triggered or is told to start. The trigger level must be set to
Stator In an electric motor, the rotating part (usually on the start the display. If the pattern starts at 1 volt, the trace will
inside) is called the rotor, and the stationary part is called the begin displaying on the left side of the screen after the trace
stator. has reached 1 volt.

GLOSSARY 301
Trigger slope The trigger slope is the voltage direction that Watt Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is
a waveform must have in order to start the display. Most transferred by an electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt.
often, the trigger to start a waveform display is taken from the Watt’s law Watt’s law describes the relationship between
signal itself. Besides trigger voltage level, most scopes can be power (P), voltage (E), and current (I). The relationship among
adjusted to trigger only when the voltage rises past the trigger power voltage and current can be expressed by the formula
level voltage. This is called a positive slope. P = I × E and its derivatives P/E = I and P/I = E.
Ultracapacitor An ultracapacitor delivers a quick burst of Watt-hour The watt-hour is a unit of energy equal to a power
energy during peak power demands. Some models use an of one watt operating for one hour. 1 watt-hour equals 3,600
ultracapacitor to help restart the engine. joules. The kilowatt hour is a unit of energy equal to 1,000 watt-
Ultrasonic object sensors Ultrasonic object sensors are hours, or 3.6 megajoules.
used to measure the distances to nearby objects and are built Wind power Wind power is the generation of electricity using
into the fender, and front and rear bumper assembly. The sen- air flow through wind turbines, which are mechanically pow-
sors send out acoustic pulses, and a control unit measures ered generators driven by a large turbine blade.
the return interval of each reflected signal, calculating object Wind farms Wind farms are an array of many individual wind
distances. turbines that are connected to the electric power transmission
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is divided network gird. Onshore and offshore wind farms are an inexpen-
into three. The designations include: sive source of electricity, competitive with coal or gas plants.
Wireless power transfer (WPT) Wireless power transfer (WPT)
• Designation “A,” abbreviated UVA, is not absorbed by
uses electromagnetic induction (magnetic resonance) between
the ozone layer and generally is not damaging to bio-
the transmitting pad on the ground and a receiving pad attached
logical organisms.
for the underside of the vehicle. Wireless charging allows the
• Designation “B,” abbreviated UVB, is only partially vehicle to be simply driven over the transmission pad and after
absorbed by the ozone layer and can cause damage a communication “handshake,” electrical energy is transmitted
to biological organisms. from the transmission pad to the receiving pad and then con-
• Designation “C,” abbreviated UVC, is almost com- verted from AC to DC to charge the high-voltage battery.
pletely absorbed by the ozone layer and represents Work Force exerted over a distance.
little, if any, health concerns.
Work place charging (WPC) Work place charging (WPC) is
Variable valve timing (VVT) Variable valve timing (VVT) very popular because the vehicle owner can charge their vehi-
involves the use of electric and hydraulic actuators that are cle while at work and usually for free.
used to change the timing of the camshaft(s) in relation to the Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedure
crankshaft. Variable valve timing, also called variable cam tim- (WLTP) In the United States the Environmental Protection
ing (VCT), allows the valves to be operated at different points in Agency (EPA) estimates of electric vehicle range, while in
the combustion cycle to improve performance. Europe electric vehicle range uses the Worldwide harmonized
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) Volatile organic com- Light vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP).
pounds (VOC) are gases emitted by paints, solvents, aerosol Zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) Electric vehicles that use
sprays, cleaners, glues, permanent markers, pesticides, and battery power alone to propel the vehicle are called zero-emis-
fuels. sion vehicles (ZEVs).

302 GLOSSARY
 INDEX
A American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 4
Absorbed glass mat (AGM) battery, 104 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 4
AC asynchronous motor. See AC induction motor (ACIM) Ampere hour, 105
A/C components Antilock braking system (ABS), 190, 251
belt-driven compressor, 217 Application programming interface (API), 98
compressor oil, 217–218 Armature, 145
compressors, 215–216 Artificial intelligence (AI) systems, 265
condensers, 218–219 Atkinson cycle
electrically powered compressor, 217 background, 38
evaporators, 219 engines, 38
expansion devices, 219 operation, 38
subcooling condensers, 219 Automatic emergency braking (AEB) system, 258
thermal storage during idle stop, 221 Automatic parking vehicles. See Self-parking vehicles
three high-voltage wires, 217 Automation levels, 263–265
two high-voltage wires, 217 Level 1 and 2 systems, 264
AC coupling, 68 Level 3, 4, or 5 systems, 265
Acid rain, 32–33 Level 0 systems, 263–264
AC induction motor (ACIM), 146 SAE definitions, 263
Acoustic vehicle alerting system (AVAS), 10 Autonomous vehicle (AV) operation, 263
AC synchronous motor, 146–147 Auxiliary battery
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) discharged, 103
diagnosis and service, 256–257 testing and service, 62
parts and operation, 256 Auxiliary components, 113–114
purpose and function, 255 Auxiliary water pump diagnosis, 211
terminology, 255
Advanced driver assist systems (ADAS) B
antilock brake system, 251 Batteries. See also Auxiliary battery
electronic power steering, 251 absorbed glass mat, 104
electronic throttle control (ETC) system, 251 capacity vs. vehicle mileage, 129–130
foundation of, 251 degradation rate, 136
purpose, 251 high-voltage, 120
Airbags and tensioners, 285–286 hydrogen-powered, 269
Air-conditioning system. See also A/C components inspection and testing, 137–138
A/C mode, 214 lead-acid, 122
airflow, 214 lithium-ion high-voltage, 123–124
defrost mode, 214 nickel-metal hydride, 120–123
operation, 213–214 normal operation, 136
service, 61, 220 passive and active cell balancing, 136
Alkaline batteries. See Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) battery service safety precautions, 105–106
Alternating current (DC) electricity 12-volt, 103
definition, 91 valve-regulated lead-acid, 104
generation, 91–92 Battery control module (BCM), 130
waveforms, 92 current sensors, 130
Alternative out-of-vehicle HV battery service HV disconnect, 131
internal resistance, 135 System Main Relays, 130
procedure, 134–135 temperature sensors, 130–131
state-of-charge, 135 voltage block monitoring circuits, 130
Always Be Charging (ABC), 169 Battery density, 126

303
Battery electric vehicles (BEVs), 15, 166. See also Battery Charging battery
capacity AGM, 109
Battery management system (BMS), 131 procedure, 108
Battery works timing, 109
charging state, 104 Chevrolet Bolt drive unit, 246
discharging state, 103 Coke bottle resonance, 63
fully discharged state, 103–104 Cold-cranking amperes (CCA), 105
principle involved, 103 Cold-weather concerns, 166
Belt alternator starter (BAS) system, 110–111 Colors of cables checking, 284
Belt-driven compressor, 217 Column-mounted electric power steering (C-EPS),
Blind spot monitor (BSM) 200
function and terminology, 252 Combustion, 37
parts and operation, 252–253 Communications, 96–97
Body control module (BCM), 112 CAN bus, 97
Boost converters, 155–156 Commutator, 146
Brake pedal position (BPP) sensor, 193 Compartment heating system
Braking system service, 59–60 auxiliary water pump diagnosis, 211
Brushless motors electric engine water pump, 210
AC induction motor, 146 failure mode, 211
AC synchronous motor, 146–147 heat mode, 210
electric motor torque, 148 modes of operation, 212
operation, 147–148 parts and operation, 209–210
permanent magnet motors, 147 principles, 209
types, 146 Compression stroke, 37
Compression test, 52
C Compressors, 215–216
Cabin cooling. See Air-conditioning system belt-driven, 217
California Air Resources Board (CARB), 15 electrically powered, 217
Cameras, 259 oil, 217–218
calibration, 261 Computing power vehicles, 265
Capacitors Condensers, 218. See also Capacitors
construction, 92–93 liquid-cooled, 223–225
in converters, 151–152 Conductance testing, battery, 108
definition, 92 Controller Area Network (CAN) protocol
farad rating, 153 bus communication, 97
operation, 93–94, 151–152 class A, B, and C, 97–98
precautions, 151 features, 97
principles, 151 Converters, 153–155
snubbers, 153 boost, 155
spike suppression, 94 capacitors in, 151–152
Carbohydrates, 28 DC-to-DC, 153–155
Carbon-based fuels, 28 mild hybrids, 115
Carbon footprint replacement of, 159–161
definition, 33 Coolant dye leak testing, 48–49
reduction, 34 Coolant heat storage system
Carbon-neutral fuel, 274 operational modes, 49–50
Catch diodes. See Snubbers parts and operation, 212
Cathode ray tube (CRT), 66 purpose, 49, 212
CAT III digital multimeter, 7 retaining heat, 49
CGS (Centimeter Gram Second) measuring system, 80 Cooling system service, 59
CHAdeMO, 169 Cooling system testing
Channels, 70 coolant dye leak testing, 48–49
Charge-Coupled Device (CCD), 259 pressure testing, 48

304 INDEX
 scan tool, 47–48 state-of-charge management, 132
visual inspection, 48 Electrically powered compressor, 217
Cranking amperes, 105 Electrical measurements
Current clamps, 71 megohms, 96
Current sensors, 130 milliohms, 96
Cylinder leakage test, 53–54 Electrical power, 81–82
Cylindrical NiMH battery, 122 Electric auxiliary pump, 230
Electric engine water pump, 210
D
Electric machine, 41
Data recording, 72
Electric motor control
DC coupling, 68
electronic cooling system, 151
DCFC (DC Fast Charge), 169
generator mode, 149
DC Quick Charge (DCQC), 169
insulated-gate bipolar transistors, 149–150
DC-to-DC converters, 153–155
motor mode, 148–149
testing, 157
principles, 148
Dedicated short-range communication (DSRC), 265–266
resolver, 150–151
Department of Transportation (DOT), 263
temperature sensors, 151
Depowering high-voltage system, 9
Electric motor stator testing, 157
Destination charging, 173
Electric motor torque, 148
Diagnosis procedures, 63
Electric power-assisted steering (EPAS), 200
Dielectric insulating material, 151
Electric power steering (EPS)
Digital multimeter (DMM), 7
advantages, 200
Digital storage oscilloscope (DSO), 66. See also Oscilloscope
control unit, 201
accessories, 71–72
diagnostic procedure, 204–205
current clamps, 71
diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs), 205
data recording, 72
fault detection, 203
line characteristics, 72
inputs and outputs, 202
pressure transducers, 71
motor types, 201
vacuum transducer, 72
parts and operation, 201–204
waveform analysis, 72–73
power steering control module, 203
Direct current (DC) electricity
steering shaft torque sensor, 203
definition, 90
steering wheel position sensor, 203
generation, 90
terminology, 200
waveform, 90
types/designs, 200–201
Direct-drive electric power steering (D-EPS) system, 200
Electric shock potential, 3, 287
Direct methanol fuel cells
Electric vehicle (EV), 15
disadvantages, 273
advantages of, 23–24
operation, 273
battery capacity, 166
purpose and function, 272–273
battery heating, 129
Discharged auxiliary battery, 103
charging cost, 167
Dog mode, 225
cold-weather concerns, 166
Double overhead camshaft (DOHC) engines, 42
disadvantages of, 24
Driver assist diagnosis
driving, 17–18
diagnostic steps, 261
electric motors and ICEs, 16
vin decoder, 261
equivalent economy, 129
Driver assist systems. See Advanced driver assist systems (ADASs)
front-wheel-drive, 25
Dual-voltage electrical system, 120
history, 15
Duty cycle, 68
hot-weather concerns, 166
E increasing speed of, 24
Eight channel scope, 70 kilowatts per 100 miles, 167
Electrical Distribution System (EDS) lifting process, 58
isolation testing, 132 maintenance, 18–20
purpose, 131–132 owning and charging, 172–174

IN D EX 305
Electric vehicle (EV) (continued) Electronic medical devices, 2
purchasing price, 18 Electronic power steering (EPS), 251
range, 166 Electronic throttle control (ETC) system, 251
routine service procedures, 57–63 Emergency response, 287
Electric vehicles (EV) transmissions Encoder. See Resolver
acceleration vs. top speed, 245 Energy
Chevrolet Bolt drive unit, 246 carrier, 269
Ford Mustang Mach-E, 245 definition, 79
Nissan LEAF, 246–247 forms of, 79
single speed gearing, 245 goethermal, 85–87
two-speed gearing, 248 recirculation, 239
Electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) solar electric generation, 82–83
hard wired, 180 units, 79–80
home level 2 charging, 181–182 Energy efficiency ratio (EER), 87
location, 180, 181 Engine control module (ECM), 112, 116
National Electrical Manufacturers Association, 179–180 Engine coolant temperature (ECT) sensor, 47
National Electric Code, 180 Engine cooling system, 46
Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory, 180 Engine fundamentals, 37–38
permits, 180–181 Environmental concerns, 28–32
purpose and function, 179 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 15, 32, 129
SAE J1772 standard charger plug, 182–184 European New Car Assessment Program (Euro NCAP), 257
Underwriter’s Laboratory (UL mark), 180 EV and HEV items to check
wattage, 182 high-voltage battery, 285
Electrohydraulic power steering (EHPS), 204 orange cables, 284
Electrolyte, 120–121 12-volt auxiliary battery, 285
Electromagnetic induction, 94 EV and HEV module communications
definition, 143 CAN bus communication, 97
principles, 143 CAN class A, B, and C, 97–98
voltage strength, 143–144 CAN features, 97
Electromagnetic parking sensors (EPS), 253 EV heating
Electromagnetism, 94 electrical resistance heating, 221
coil conductor, 143 heated seats and steering wheel, 220–221
creation of, 142 PTC heaters, 221–222
definition, 142 range, 220
electromagnets, 143 EV range, 164
field interaction, 142 Exhaust stroke, 38
motor principle, 142–143 Extended range electric vehicle (EREV), 165
principles, 142
right-hand rule, 142 F
straight conductor, 142 Farad rating, 153
Electromagnets, 143 Fire
Electronically controlled continuously variable transmission defensive attack, 288
(eCVT), 243 offensive attack, 288
Electronically erasable programmable read only memory SOP/SOG, 288
(EEPROM), 98 First responder procedures
Electronically variable transmission (EVT), 232 EV and HEV items to check, 284–285
Electronic cooling system identifying EV/hybrid vehicle, 283–284
construction, 127 incidents, 283
diagnostic steps, 157 SOP/SOG, 283
heat effects on electrical/electronic system, 126–127 visual analysis, 283
internal combustion engine, 157 First responder safety
need for, 126, 156–157 airbags and tensioners, 285–286
hot stick, 285

306 INDEX
 shepherd’s hook, 285 Graticule, 66
Five-stroke cycle, 38 Greenhouse gases (GHG), 29
Flux lines, 142 Ground-level ozone, 30
Flyback. See Snubbers Guess-O-Meter (GOM), 129
Force, 189–190 Guobiao standard (GB/T), 170, 172
Ford escape precautions, 196
Ford/Lincoln 10R80 MHT H
components, 234–235 Haptic actuator, 252
description, 234 Hard wired, 180
service procedures, 235–236 Hazardous materials (hazmat) issues, 288
Ford Mustang Mach-E, 245 high-voltage (HV) batteries, 288–289
Fossil fuels reduction, 28 12-volt auxiliary battery, 288
Four channel scope, 70 Health and environmental concerns, 32
Four-stroke cycle operation, 37–38 acid rain, 32–33
Freewheeling. See Snubbers carbohydrates, 28
Frequency, 68 carbon-based fuels, 28
Front-wheel-drive (FWD) vehicle, 229 carbon footprint, 33–34
Fuel-cell stack, 270–271 chemistry of carbon-based emissions, 28–29
Fuel cell technology fossil fuels reduction, 28
advantages of, 269–270 greenhouse gases, 29
air supply pumps, 275 Heat/cool HV batteries
background, 269 heating methods, 129
carbon-neutral fuel, 274 need for, 128
cooling systems, 274 service of, 128–129
definition, 269 Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system, 220–221
direct methanol, 272–273 Heat pump
disadvantages of, 270 liquid-cooled condenser (LCC), 223–225
homogeneous charge compression ignition, 279–280 parts and operation, 222
humidifiers, 273–274 purpose and function, 222
hybridization, 275 Heavy-duty starter, 112–113
hydrogen-powered battery, 269 HEV ICE cooling system, 46–47
hydrogen sources, 269 engine (ICE) cooling, 46
hydrogen storage, 275–277 thermostats, 47
parts and operation, 269 HEV/PHEV maintenance items, 57
Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell, 270 High-pressure compressed gas, 275–276
power control units, 279 High-voltage (HV) batteries
refueling with hydrogen, 272 air filter, 60
stack, 270–271 checking process, 285
traction motors, 278–279 cooling and heating system, 128–129
transaxles, 277–278 electric motor requirements, 120
types of, 270, 271 purpose and function, 120
ultracapacitors, 277 High-voltage battery monitor
Fuel economy, non-high voltage components, 57 scan data test procedure, 133–134
Full hybrid electric vehicle, 20 state-of-charge, 133
High-voltage cables, 116
G High-voltage glove photo sequence, 11–12
General Motors parallel hybrid truck (PHT) High-voltage tools and equipment
description, 231 CAT III digital multimeter, 7
operation, 231–232 depowering high-voltage system, 9
service, 232 hoisting, 9
Geothermal energy, 85–87 insulated hand tools, 7–8
Geothermal heat pump (GHP) system, 87 meg-ohm meter (insulation tester), 7
Global (generic) diagnostic trouble codes, 157 safety interlock system, 8–9

IN D EX 307
Home level 2 charging, 181–182, 186 cylinder leakage test, 53–54
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI), 279–280 Hybrid internal combustion engines, 37
Horse power, 80–81 Atkinson cycle, 38–39
Hot stick, 285 differences, 37
Hot-weather concerns, 166 engine fundamentals, 37–38
Human–machine interface (HMI) Hybrid Synergy Drive (HSD), 127
communication methods, 251–252 Hydraulic impulse storage accumulator, 231
definition, 251 Hydroelectricity
Hybrid and electric vehicle safety definition, 84
caution, 2 economic impact, 84
electric shock potential, 3 Hydrogen-powered battery, 269
high-voltage circuits, 2 Hydrogen storage
high-voltage tools and equipment, 7–8 high-pressure compressed gas, 275–276
medical devices, 2 liquid, 276
personal protective equipment (PPE), 4–6 purpose and function, 275
safe working environment, 3 solid, 277
Hybrid control module, 116
I
Hybrid electric rear drive axle, 244
ICE (internal combustion engine) cooling system
Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), 15. See also Electric vehicle (EV)
basic operation, 208
driving, 16–17
engine cooling, 208
fuel cell technology, 275
thermostat, 208–209
high-voltage battery monitor, 133–134
water pump, 208
history of, 15–16
ICE vehicle mileage, 129
ICE cooling system, 46–47
Incidents, 283
levels of, 20
Induced voltage, 94, 143
maintenance, 18–20
Induction, 143
maintenance mode, 57–58
Inertia, 189–190
medium, 20
Instrument cluster warning messages, 57
micro, 20
Insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), 95–96,
mild, 20
149–150
powertrain classifications, 20–22
Insulated hand tools, 7–8
purchasing price, 18
Intake stroke, 37
routine service procedures, 57–63
Integrated Drive Module (iDM), 244
strong, 20
Intelligent battery sensor module, 112
Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) transmissions
Intelligent Speed Advice (ISA), 257
classifications, 230
Interior permanent magnets (IPMs), 147
electric auxiliary pump, 230
Intermittent Blower Motor, 215
hydraulic impulse storage accumulator, 231
Internal combustion engines (ICE), 15, 37
Hybrid engine design
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), 7
offset crankshaft, 41–42
International Fire Service Training Association (IFSTA), 288
piston pin offset, 40–41
Inverters, 155, 159–161
Hybrid engine run mode
Isolation testing
operating procedure, 51–52
EDS, 132
purpose, 50–51
loss of, 158
Hybrid engine system
coolant heat storage system, 49–50 J
cooling system testing, 47–49 JIS (Japanese Industrial Standard), 105–106
HEV ICE cooling system, 46–47 Joule, 79
run mode, 50–52
testing, 52–54 K
variable valve timing, 42–46 Kilowatt (kW), 81, 92, 129
Hybrid engine testing Kilowatt-hour (kWh), 81, 129, 164
compression test, 52 Kinetic energy, 189

308 INDEX
L Meg-ohm meter (insulation tester), 7
Lane departure warning system (LDWS), 254 Megohms, 96
Lane keep assist (LKA), 255 Membrane Electrode Assembly (MEA), 270
Laws of thermodynamics, 79 Micro hybrids
Lead–acid batteries, 122 auxiliary components, 113–114
Lenz’s law, 144 batteries, 113
Level 1 charging body control module, 112
20-ampere circuit, 167–168 electric vehicle, 20
precautions using, 168 engine control module, 112
Level 2 charging heavy-duty starter, 112–113
higher voltage system, 168–169 intelligent battery sensor module, 112
on-board chargers, 169 manual transmission equipped vehicles, 112
Level 3 charging operation, 112
DC fast charging, 169 parts involved, 112
electrical connectors, 169–172 transmission control module, 112
LiDAR systems, 260–261 ultracapacitors, 113
definition, 259 Mild hybrids
diagnosis and calibration, 261 battery, 115
parts and operation, 261 diagnosis and testing, 117
Light Detection and Ranging, 260 electric motor, 115–116
Light Imaging, Detection, And Ranging, 260 electric vehicle, 20
Line characteristics, 72 engine control module, 116
Liquid-cooled condenser (LCC), 223–225 high-voltage cables, 116
Liquid hydrogen storage, 276 hybrid control module, 116
Lithium-ion high-voltage batteries inverter/converter, 116
advantages, 123–124 parts and operation, 115–116
cathode material, 125–126 terminology, 115
construction, 123 transmission control module, 116
cylindrical, 124 Miles-per-gallon measurement, 129
description, 123 Miles per hour (MPH), 169
designs, 124–125 Milliohms, 96
disadvantages, 124 MKS (Meter Kilogram Second) measuring system, 80
operation, 123 Module reprogramming
pouch type, 124 off-board, 100
prismatic hard case, 124 on-board, 100
repair, 134 programming hardware, 98–99
types of, 125–126 purpose, 98
uses, 123 remote, 100
Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), 125 SAE J2534 standard, 98
Load testing, battery, 107 vehicle security professional—locksmith ID, 99
Locked rotor current, 147 Motor control
Locked rotor torque (LRT), 147 examples, 94–95
Locksmith ID number, 99 insulated-gate bipolar transistors, 95–96
Low-grade heat, 274 principles, 94
Motors. See also Electric motor control
M brushless, 146–148
Magnetic force DC motor, 146
electromagnetic induction, 94 examples, 148–149
electromagnetism, 94 global (generic) diagnostic trouble codes, 157
magnetism, 94 operation, 145
Manual transmission equipped vehicles, 112 power, 144
Mass, 189–190 MPGe, 129
Medium hybrid electric vehicle, 20 Mustang Mach E, 174, 194, 229, 245, 285, 288

IN D EX 309
N types of, 66
National Automotive Service Task Force (NASTF), 99 volts per division, 67
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), Owning and charging EV
179–180 cost, 174
National Electric Code (NEC), 180 locating station, 173–174
National Fire Academy (NFA), 288 Public Charging Stations, 173
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), 288 work place charging, 173
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), 10 Ozone
Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory (NRTL), 180 definition, 30
Newton-meters (N-m), 80 ground-level, 30
Nickel, cobalt, and aluminum (NCA), 125 upper-level, 30
Nickel, manganese, and cobalt (NMC), 125 vehicles and, 30
Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) battery Ozone-depleting substances (ODS), 30
advantages/disadvantages, 122
P
charging/discharging operations, 121
Parallel hybrid powertrain, 20–21
cylindrical, 122
Parallel hybrid truck (PHT), 231–232
description and operation, 120
Parallel regenerative braking systems, 191–193
designs, 122
Parking-assist system, 253–254
electrolyte, 120–121
diagnosis, 253–254
prismatic, 122
electromagnetic parking sensors, 253
series connection, 122–123
function and components, 253
uses, 120
operation, 253
Nissan LEAF, 246–247
self-parking vehicles, 254
Noise-reducing tires, 61–62
ultrasonic object sensors, 253
Non-high voltage components, 57
Permanent magnet motors, 147
O Personal protective equipment (PPE), 283, 288–289
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 4 eye protection, 4
Off-board programming, 100 fire extinguishers, 6
Offset crankshaft, 41–42 high-voltage gloves, 4–5
Oil and filter service, 58–59 insulated rubber mats and blankets, 5–6
On-board reprogramming, 100 insulated shoes/boots, 5
One-pedal driving, 18 leather protectors, 5
advantages, 195 personal protection equipment, 6
definition, 194 shop uniform, 5
examples, 194–195 Pet mode. See Dog mode
One-, two-, and three-motor hybrid system, 22–23 Phase change material (PCM). See Thermal storage material
Open circuit battery voltage test, 107 (TSM)
Orifice tube (OT), 218–219 Phone as a Key (PAAK), 15
Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs), 134 Photovoltaics (PV), 82, 184
Oscilloscope operation, 82–83
AC coupling, 68 pH SCALE, 32–33
channels, 70 Pinion-mounted electric power steering system (P-EPS) sys-
DC coupling, 68 tem, 200–201
definition, 66 Piston pin offset, 40–41
display grid, 66–67 Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), 15, 165
leads, 71 battery capacity, 164
measuring auxiliary battery voltage, 71 charging, 165
on-time and off-time, 69 examples, 164–165
pulse trains, 68–69 identifying, 164
setting time base, 67 terminology, 164
setup photo sequence, 74–75 Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell (PEFC), 270
triggers, 70 Positive/high-side IGBTs, 95

310 INDEX
Positive temperature coefficient (PTC), 213 components, 193–194
Pouch cell, 125 deceleration rates, 195
Pound-feet (lb-ft), 80 Ford escape precautions, 196
Power, 80 friction, 190
electrical, 81–82 inertia, force, and mass, 189–190
horse, 80–81 limitations of, 190
wind, 83 one-pedal driving, 194–195
Power drive unit (PDU), 94–95 parallel, 191–193
Power output (watts) series, 191
background, 92 servicing, 195–197
formulas, 92 transferring energy back to motor, 190
Power steering control module (PSCM), 203 types of, 191
Power stroke, 38 unique master cylinders, 195–196
Pre-charge resistor, 155 Relative motion, 94, 143
Pre-collision system, 258–259 Remote programming, 100
Pressure transducers, 71 Reserve capacity, batteries, 105
Preventative maintenance. See Routine service procedures Resolver, 150–151
Prismatic NiMH battery, 122 Revolutions per minute (RPM), 68
Programming software, 99 Right-hand rule, 142
Prony brakes, 81 Rotor, 145
Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM), 270 Routine service procedures
PTC heaters, 213 air-conditioning service, 61
Public Charging Stations (PCS), 173 auxiliary battery testing and service, 62
Pulse trains braking system service, 59–60
definition, 68 cooling system service, 59
duty cycle, 68 customer perception, 57
frequency, 68 diagnosis procedures, 63
pulse width, 68 engine maintenance, 59
signal, 69 high-voltage battery air filter, 60
Pulse width, 68 instrument cluster warning messages, 57
Pulse-width modulation (PWM), 68 noise-reducing tires, 61–62
non-high voltage components, 57
R
oil and filter service, 58–59
Rack-and-pinion electric power steering (R-EPS) system, 200
steering system service, 62–63
Radar calibration, 261–263
tire service, 61
Radar cruise control. See Adaptive cruise control
Range, 166 S
Range anxiety, 167 SAE Combo Charging System (CCS), 169
driving electric vehicle, 18 SAE J2601, hydrogen-fueling protocol, 272
Range per hour (RPH), 169 SAE J2534 standard, 98
Rear cross-traffic warning (RCTW) system SAE J1772 standard charger plug, 182–184
parts and operation, 257–258 Safety interlock system
purpose, 257 local interlock, 8–9
Rear-wheel-drive (RWD) applications, 229 purpose and function, 8
Rebooting digital display, 251 Sample hybrid/electric vehicle specialist (L3) ASE-type certifi-
Reclaiming energy. See Regeneration cation test, 291–294
Refueling with hydrogen Scope. See Oscilloscope
fueling procedure, 272 Sealed valve-regulated (SVR)/sealed lead-acid (SLA). See
pressures used, 272 Valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries
SAE J2601, 272 Self-parking vehicles, 254
Regeneration, 190 Senseless DC motor design, 147
Regenerative braking systems Sequestration, 34
benefits of, 191 Series hybrid powertrain, 20–21

IN D EX 311
Series-parallel hybrid powertrain, 21–22 Tire service, 61
Series regenerative braking systems, 191 Top dead center (TDC), 38
Servicing regenerative braking systems, 195–197 Torque, 80
Shepherd’s hook, 285 Torque delivery, 230
Shock hazards, 287 Torque Sensor Signal, 201
Single channel scope, 70 Toyota hybrid eCVT transmissions, 243
SI units (International System of Units), 79–80 Toyota/Lexus power-split system
SLI battery, 103 applications, 236
Smog. See Ozone construction, 241–243
Snubbers, 153 deceleration and braking, 240
Solar cell. See Photovoltaics (PV) description, 236–237
Solar electric generation full-throttle acceleration and high-speed cruise, 238–240
photovoltaics, 82 light acceleration, 238
sun, 82 normal driving, 238
Solid hydrogen storage, 277 operation, 237–240
Solid-state battery, 126 service procedures, 243
Squirrel-cage rotor, 146 vehicle stopped, 237–238
Standard operating procedures (SOP)/standard operating Traction battery, 103
guidelines (SOG), 283, 287 Transmission adaptive pressure (TAP) values, 232
State-of-charge (SOC), 173 Transmission control module (TCM), 112, 116
management, 132 Transmissions/transaxles
Stator, 145 adaptive cruise control, 255–257
Steering shaft torque sensor, 201–202, 203 advanced driver assist systems, 251
Steering system service, 62–63 artificial intelligence (AI) systems, 265
Steering wheel position sensor, 203 automatic emergency braking (AEB) system, 258
Stop-start systems automation levels, 263–265
BAS system, 110–111 autonomous vehicle, 263
definition, 110 blind spot monitor, 252–253
diagnosis, 114–115 computing power vehicles, 265
micro hybrids, 112–114 configurations, 229
mild hybrids, 115–117 dedicated short-range communication, 265–266
Stratosphere, 31 diagnosing hybrid, 244–245
Strong hybrid electric vehicle, 20 driver assist diagnosis, 261
Submerged vehicles, 289 electric vehicles, 245–248
Suppressor. See Snubbers Ford/Lincoln 10R80 MHT, 235–236
Surface permanent magnets (SPMs), 147 human–machine interface, 251–252
System main relays (SMRs), 3, 130 hybrid electric rear drive axle, 244
hybrid electric vehicle, 230–231
T lane departure warning system, 254
Temperature sensors, 130–131, 151 lane keep assist, 255
Terminal voltage test, 107 LiDAR systems, 260–261
Tesla, 194, 221, 223, 225 multiple speed, 230
Tesla HV batteries, 124, 129 parallel hybrid truck (PHT), 231–232
Tesla Supercharger, 170, 171 parking-assist system, 253–254
Thermal storage material (TSM), 220 powertrain configuration, 229
Thermostatic expansion valve (TXV), 218, 219 pre-collision system, 258–259
Thermostats, 47 principles, 230
36-48 volt battery purpose and function, 229
construction and design, 109–110 rear cross-traffic warning (RCTW) system, 257–258
diagnosis and testing, 110 torque delivery, 230
purpose and function, 109 Toyota hybrid eCVT, 243
Three-motor hybrid systems, 22–23 Toyota/Lexus power-split, 236–243
Time-of-use (TOU), 172 two-mode hybrid transmission, 232–234

312 INDEX
Triggers V
external, 70 Vacuum transducer, 72
level, 70 Valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries, 104
slope, 70 Vane phaser system, 43–45
using, 71 Variable cam timing (VCT), 41
12-volt auxiliary battery checking, 285 Variable valve timing (VVT)
12-volt battery camshaft phasers, 43
ampere hour, 105 diagnosis of, 45–46
charging, 108–109 parts and operation, 43
cold-cranking amperes, 105 purpose of, 42
conductance testing, 108 spline phaser system operation, 43
cranking amperes, 105 systems, 42
discharged auxiliary battery, 103 vane phaser system, 43–45
importance of, 103 Vehicle security professional—locksmith ID, 99
Japanese Industrial Standard, Voltage block monitoring circuits, 130
105–106 Voltage regulator, 153
load testing, 107 Voltage test, battery, 106–107
purpose and function, 103 Voltmeter with clock, 66
ratings, 105 Volts per division (V/div), 67
reserve capacity, 105 VW ID4, 284
voltage test, 106–107
Two channel scope, 70
W
Watt, 82, 92
Two-mode hybrid transmission
Watt-hour, 81
components, 232
Watt’s law, 82
description, 232
Waveform analysis, 72–73
first mode of operation, 232–233
data recording, 72
second mode of operation, 233–234
line characteristics, 72
two-mode service, 234
Wind farms, 83–84
Two-motor hybrid systems, 22–23
Wind power, 83
Two-speed gearing transmission, 248
Wireless power transfer (WPT)
charging standards, 184
U
measurements, 185
Ultracapacitors, 113, 277
working process, 184
Ultrasonic object sensors, 253
Woods Dual Power, 15
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation
Work, 80
intensity of, 31
Work place charging (WPC), 173
ozone control of UVB irradiance, 31
Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP), 129
types of, 31
Wound rotor, 146
Underwriter’s Laboratory (UL mark), 180
Unique master cylinders, 195–196 Z
Upper-level ozone, 30 Zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs), 166

IN D EX 313
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