College of Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Process planning & product costing (MEng 5322)

L4.2- Process parameters in material removal processes

and machining time

Prepared by Gebre F.
August 2022
 Process Parameters

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Learning objectives
Students are able to know

 To determine & set cutting parameters plus machining

time in process planning.

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 Introduction
❖There are only three parameters that can influence the
success of the machining.
➢ Cutting speed- the relative surface speed between the tool
and the job.
➢ Feed- is the distance the tool travels into the job in one
revolution of the work or the distance the table holding the
work travels per one stroke of the tool.

➢ Depth of cut- is the penetration of the cutting tool into the

job in a single cut.

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 Factors affecting Feed, Speed and Depth of cut

➢ There are numerous factors that should be considered

when setting the process parameters.
➢ Operating constraints- capacity, availability, etc.

➢ Operating requirements- workpiece material and

geometry, tooling data.

➢ Tool performance factors- tool material, geometry

and cutting fluids.

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 1. Surface cutting speed

➢ The cutting speed for a machining operation refers to the

speed at which the cutting edge of the tool passes over
the surface of the workpiece.

➢ It is invariably also referred to as the surface speed.

➢ It is always considered as the maximum relative speed

between the tool and the workpiece and is usually quoted
in meters per minute (m/min).

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Surface cutting speed Contd.
❖Cutting Speeds for Turning, Boring, Milling and Drilling
➢The maximum cutting speed “V” can be calculated by
using the maximum rotational speed “N” of the
workpiece/tool and the Workpiece/tool diameter “D” in
the following equation:

Where
✓ Vc is the surface cutting speed (m/min)
✓ D the diameter of the cutter(mm) and
✓ N the revolutions of the spindle
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Surface cutting speed Contd.
➢In turning and boring where a taper is being machined,
that is, the diameter is varying across the cutting
operation, the average diameter should be used.

Where,
✓D is the average diameter of the workpiece
✓d1 the diameter of the workpiece at the start
✓d2 the diameter of the workpiece at the end
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Surface cutting speed Contd.
Example 1- For the part shown in Figure 1, calculate the
maximum surface speeds for
 Facing
 Turning all surfaces and
 Parting off
✓The maximum spindle speed of the lathe being used is
600rpm.

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 Figure 1- Example part

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 Cutting Speeds for Shaping and Planning
➢Cutting speed for shaping and planning is defined as the
average speed of the tool during the cutting stroke and
depends on the number of strokes per minute, N and length
of the stroke L.
➢The cutting speed can be determined as follows:

Where:
✓ V is the surface cutting speed (m/min),
✓ L- the length of stroke (mm),
✓ N- the number of strokes per minute and
✓ m-is the inverse of the cutting to return ratio.
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Cutting Speeds for Shaping and Planning Contd.

Example 2- A planer is capable of 15 strokes per minute,

(N) over a stroke length, (L) of 2m.

✓The cutting-to-return ratio of 3/2.

❖Determine cutting speed?

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 Cutting Speeds for Grinding
➢Grinding machines operate over a range of speeds
depending on the type of machine being used.

➢These range from approximately 1250 to 2000 m/min,

although in high-speed grinding speeds of up to 5400
m/min are achievable.

➢ The two most common grinding applications are

✓ Cylindrical grinding and
✓ Surface grinding
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Cutting Speeds For Grinding Contd.
➢The wheel speed can be determined as follows:

Where
✓Vc is the surface cutting wheel speed (m/min)
✓D the diameter of the cutter (mm) and
✓N the revolutions of the cutting wheel (rpm)
➢In addition to the speed of the cutting wheel, the
workpiece also moves across the grinding wheel or vice
versa.
➢Typical workpiece speeds range from 10 to 60m/min
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 Spindle Speeds and Number of Strokes
➢The cutting speed is used to calculate the time taken for
each operation and the total machining time.

➢The surface speed will be calculated to enable machining

to be completed within a certain time.

➢In these instances, for turning, boring, milling and drilling,

the actual spindle speed to achieve the desired surface
speed will have to be calculated.

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Spindle Speeds for Turning, Boring, Milling & Drilling

➢The spindle speed to be set depends on the diameter of:

➢ the workpiece D (for turning and boring) or
➢ the cutter D (for milling and drilling)

➢Therefore, if a small diameter and a large diameter have

to be machined at the same surface speed, then the smaller
diameter must rotate quicker.

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Spindle Speeds for Turning, Boring, Milling & Drilling contd.

➢The equation presented to calculate the cutting speeds can

be used to calculate the spindle speed by simple
transposition as follows:

Where;
✓NR is the revolutions of the cutter or the workpiece
✓Vc is the surface cutting speed (m/min) and
✓D is the diameter of the cutter or the workpiece in (mm).

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Table 1- Surface cutting speeds in meters per minute

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Spindle Speeds for Turning, Boring, Milling & Drilling contd.

Example 3
Calculate the spindle speed required to turn a 75mm
diameter shoulder on a low-carbon steel component using a
high-speed steel tool.

What is the percentage increase in cutting speed if a

carbide tool is used instead?

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Spindle Speeds for Turning, Boring, Milling & Drilling Contd.
Solution

From table 1

From table 1

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Stroke Speeds for Shaping and Planning

➢Just as the spindle speed relies on the diameter of the

workpiece or the cutter, so too does the stroke speed on the
length of the stroke.

➢To maintain the cutting speed selected by the process

planner, the number of strokes has to be calculated.

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Stroke Speeds for Shaping and Planning Contd.
➢The equation presented to calculate the cutting speeds can
be used to calculate the number of strokes, N by simple
transposition as follows:

Where;
✓ N is the number of strokes per minute
✓ V is the surface cutting speed (m/min)
✓ m is inverse of return – to – cutting ratio and
✓ L is the length of stroke (mm).

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Stroke Speeds for Shaping and Planning Contd.

Example 4
➢The planer in Example 2 has been refurbished and
upgraded and it is now claimed that speeds of up to
80m/min are possible with a cutting-to-return ratio of 3:2.

✓How many strokes per minute, N is the machine capable of?

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 2. Feed Rates

➢ The feed rate of a machining operation is defined as the

speed at which the cutting tool penetrates the workpiece.

➢ This is usually stated in either millimeter per spindle

revolution (mm/rev) or as millimeter per minute (mm/min).

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 Feed Rates contd.
❖Feed Rates for Turning and Boring
❖The two most common tool materials used for turning
are;
➢ high-speed steels (HSS) and
➢ carbides
❖It is common practice for manufacturers to recommend
feed rates in millimeters per spindle revolution fr
(mm/rev).
❖Typical feed rates fr are given for both materials in
Table 2 , compiled from various sources.
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Table 2- Typical feed rates for turning/boring in mm/rev

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 Feed Rates Contd.
➢The feeds fr in mm/rev can be converted to mm/min (fm) by
using the equation:
fm = fr N
Where;
✓fm the feed rate in mm/min,
✓fr the feed rate in mm/rev and
✓N the spindle speed (rpm)

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 Feed Rates Contd.
❖Feed Rates for Milling
➢ The manufacturers of milling cutters state recommended
feed rates in :
➢ mm/rev ( fr)
➢ mm/min ( fm) or mm/tooth ( ft )
➢ When feeds are expressed in mm/rev or mm/min, they
usually refer to specific cutters in the manufacturers range
and cannot be generally applied.
➢Therefore, for general use feed rates expressed in
mm/tooth are more suitable.

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 Feed Rates Contd.
➢This can be used to determine the feed rate in mm/rev as
follows:

fr = ft n
Where;
✓ fr is the feed rate in mm /rev,
✓ ft the feed rate in mm/tooth and
✓ n the number of teeth on the cutter
➢From this, the feed fm in mm/min can be found from the
equation
fm = fr N

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Table 3- Typical feed rates for milling in millimeters per tooth

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 Feed Rates Contd.
Example 5
➢ An inserted tooth face milling cutter has 8 teeth.
✓ It is to be used to mill a surface using a spindle speed of
1250 rpm and a feed rate of 0.3 mm/tooth.

 Calculate the feed rate in m/min.

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 Feed Rates Contd.

Solution

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 Feed Rates contd.
❖Feed Rates for Drilling
➢ HSS drills are used extensively for producing smaller
holes.

➢ Since small diameter drills are liable to break, the feed

rate is related to drill size as shown in Table 4.

➢ For the production of larger drilled holes, carbide drills

are preferred.

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 Feed Rates Contd.
Table 4- Typical feed rates for HSS and carbide drills

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 Feed Rates Contd.
➢ The feed rates for drills are similar to those for carbide
end mill cutters (see Table 3).
➢ However, it should be noted that as the depth of the hole
being drilled increases, the speeds and feeds should be
reduced.
➢ Finally, the feed used will also depend on the surface
finish required.
➢ The feed rate fm (in mm/min) for drilling tools can be
determined, using the feed fr in mm/rev, from the feed
rate for turning:
fm = fr N
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 Feed Rates Contd.
❖Feed Rates for Shaping and Planning
➢ The feed rates for both shaping and planning depend on
the machine power, length of the stroke, depth of cut, the
workpiece material and the surface finish required.
➢ The feed rates fS are generally expressed in millimeters
per stroke and are sometimes referred to as the cross-
feed, that is, it is the distance moved across the
workpiece.
➢ Typically feeds for shapers are in the range of 0.05–
0.75mm/stroke
➢ and for planers in the range of 0.5–3.0mm/stroke

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 Feed Rates Contd.
➢ These can be converted to mm/min by using the following
equation:
fm = fS NS

Where;

✓ fm the feed rate in mm/min

✓ fS the feed rate in mm/stroke and

✓ NS the number of strokes per minute

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 Feed Rates Contd.
Example 6
For the planer in Example 4, the feed per stroke fS is quoted
as 2mm/stroke.

What is the feed rate fm in mm/min?

Solution
✓ fm = ? fm = fSNS
✓ fS = 2mm/stroke fm = 2 x 24
✓ NS = 24strokes/min fm = 48mm/min

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 Feed Rates Contd.
❖Feed Rates for Grinding
➢ This is the feed rate at which the grinding wheel
traverses across the workpiece while the table provides
the pass or stroke motion.

➢ The cross-feed rate will depend on the wheel shape, size

and material and the workpiece material.

➢ Typical cross-feeds for surface grinding are in the range

of 1.0–1.5mm/pass.

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 Feed Rates Contd.
➢ The feed rate for cylindrical grinding is referred to as the
in-feed and is actually the depth of cut.

➢ Typical feed rates for cylindrical grinding are also in the

region of 1.0–1.5mm/pass.

➢ However, special grinding processes are capable of

increased feed rates, with creep feed grinding capable
of up to 6 mm/pass and some high-speed grinding
processes capable of up to 12.5mm/pass.

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 3. Depth of Cut
➢ There are various factors, to be considered, that can
affect the depth of cut:
➢ the tool material
➢ the workpiece material and
➢ the tool geometry

➢ A general definition is that the depth of cut can be

defined as the difference between the original and the
new surface produced by the cutting tool.

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 Depth of Cut Contd.
❖ Depth of Cut for Turning and Boring
➢ The depth of cut is the radial feeding of the tool into the
workpiece.

➢ For the purposes of generalizing the depth of cut, turning

operations can be considered as either roughing or
finishing operations.

➢ General recommendations for depth of cut for roughing

are 6mm and for finishing, 0.4mm.

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Table 5- Typical depths of cut for turning/boring with carbide tooling

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 Depth of Cut Contd.

➢ The depth of cut will depend heavily on the workpiece

and tool material.

➢ This is given in Table 5, which gives values for depth of

cuts for various materials with carbide tooling.

➢ These values can generally be halved for HSS tooling.

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 Depth of Cut Contd.

❖ Depth of Cut for Milling

➢ Milling operations can be classified into one of four basic
operations for the purposes of discussing depth of cut :

1. Slab milling
2. Face milling
3. Slot milling and
4. End milling

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 Depth of Cut Contd.
❖ General guidelines
➢ for both face and slot milling, a recommended depth
of cut is 1–4mm.

➢for end milling, depth of cut should be around 1–

2mm.

❖However, in general a maximum depth of cut should not

exceed half the cutter diameter.

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 Depth of Cut Contd.

❖ Depth of Cut for Drilling

➢ The feed rate for drilling refers to the motion of the
cutting tool into the workpiece.

➢ However, the general guideline for depth of cut in drilling

is :
✓ Maximum depth of cut considered to be half the feed
rate fr of the tool and
✓ the minimum considered to be 0.3mm.

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 Depth of Cut Contd.

Example 7
A series of holes have to be drilled for a component.
What should the depth of cut be if a 12mm HSS drill is
used?

What should the depth of cut be if a carbide drill of the

same size is used?

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 Depth of Cut Contd.

Table 4
3.5

Table 4
3.5

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 Depth of Cut Contd.
❖ Depth of Cut for Grinding
➢ For surface grinding the depth of cut is the in-feed
distance the grinding wheel projects into the surface of
the workpiece.

➢ General recommendations for depth of cut for surface

and cylindrical grinding are the same as the values for
feeds in mm/pass.

➢ For example, for creep feed grinding a feed of up to

6mm/pass is stated and this means the maximum depth of
cut must be 6mm.
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 Machining Times
➢ All the three process variables will affect the time taken for
machining.

➢ The machining time will determine the output for the

components being machined and have a huge bearing on
the cost of manufacture.

➢ The data for speed, feed and depth of cut for the
processes will be used to calculate machining times.

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 Machining Times contd.
❖ Machining Times for Turning and Boring
➢ For the calculation of machining times for turning and
boring, two basic feed motions must be considered.

➢Feeding along the diameter, includes turning of an

external diameter and boring of an internal diameter.

➢ Feeding into the workpieces, facing & cut-off

➢ In both cases, the cutting tool moves a distance L at a feed

rate fr with the workpiece rotating at N, (rev/min).

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 Machining Times contd.
➢ These can be used to determine the machining time as
follows:

where
✓ T is the machining time (min)
✓ L the length of the workpiece (mm)
✓ A an allowance for tool approach & exit (2-5mm)
✓ fr the feed rate (mm/rev) and
✓ N the revolutions of the cutter or the workpiece in (rev/min)

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 Machining Times Contd.
➢ When Feeding into the workpieces, the cutting tool travels
across the diameter D of the workpiece a distance of
D/2 at a feed rate fr while the workpiece rotates at N in
rev/min.
➢ These can be used to determine the machining time as
follows: ✓ T the machining time (min)
✓ D the diameter of the workpiece (mm)
✓ A an allowance for tool approach and
exit (mm)
✓ fr the feed rate (mm/rev) and
✓ N the revolutions of the cutter or the
workpiece in (rev/min)
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 Machining Times Contd.
Example 8
The component in (Figure 1) is to be made from mild steel
with carbide tooling at a constant surface speed of
100m/min on a lathe with a maximum spindle speed of
1500 rev/min.
 The machining allowance is 2mm.

Determine:
(i) If the lathe is capable of turning the component at the
required surface speed;
(ii) the total machining time for the component.
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 Machining Times Contd.
❖ Machining Times for Milling and Drilling
➢ In milling, two broad categories of operations can be
identified.
➢Peripheral milling- the surface is parallel to the axis of
cutter rotation and only the teeth on the periphery of the
tool perform the cutting.

➢Face milling- the axis of rotation of the cutter is

perpendicular to surface being machined and,

✓ The main cutting action is from the teeth on the

periphery of the cutting tool, while the tool face
provides a finishing action.
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Machining Times Contd.
➢ In Peripheral milling, the tool moves across the
workpiece a distance L at a feed rate fr & can be used to
determine the machining time as follows:

where
✓ T is the machining time (min)
✓ L the length of cut (mm)
✓ A an allowance for tool
approach and exit (mm)
✓ fr the feed rate (mm/rev) and
✓ N the spindle speed (rpm)
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 Machining Times Contd.

➢ The allowance A for tool approach and exit can be

approximated when the cutter diameter D is greater
than the depth of cut d from the following:

Where
✓ A an allowance for tool approach and exit (mm)
✓ D the cutter diameter (mm) and
✓ d the depth of cut (mm)

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 Machining Times Contd.

Example 9
o The top surface of the aluminium alloy component shown
in Figure 2 is to be milled by slab milling.

✓ The depth will be machined by a ø 20mm HSS cutter with

8 cutting teeth at a constant surface speed of 45m/min.

✓ depth of cut is 4mm and the milling machine is capable of

spindle speeds of up to 3000rpm.

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 Machining Times Contd.

Determine:
(i) if the mill is capable of machining the component at
the required surface speed;

(ii) the total machining time for the component if the

mill is capable.

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8/22/2022 Figure 2- Aluminum alloy component 61
 Machining Times Contd.
➢ Face milling operations include:
➢ Face milling
➢ End milling and
➢ Slotting
➢ In face milling the allowance A for both tool approach
and exit is half the cutting tool diameter D.
➢ Therefore, the total allowance A is equal to the half
diameter D of the cutter, that is,
A = D/2

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 Machining Times Contd.
❖ Example 10
Consider Example 9 to be done on vertical milling machine
with a ø25mm carbide face milling cutter with 10 teeth.
Assume the machine is capable of spindle speeds
4000rpm & a speed of 80m/min.

 Determine:
(i) if the milling machine is capable of machining the
component at the required surface speed;
(ii) the total machining time for the component

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 Machining Times Contd.
❖ Machining time for drilling
➢ The above equation can also be used to calculate the
machining time for drilling operations.

➢ However, there is one slight difference, which is that L is

the depth of the hole being drilled.

➢ The allowance A is for tool approach and drill tip and

hence allowance A is generally considered to be half the
drill diameter D, similar to face milling, that is, A = D/2.

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 Machining Times Contd.

Example 11

The two ø20mm holes in the component in Figure 2 are

being drilled on the vertical milling machine with a carbide
drill.

Calculate the time to machine both holes.

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 Machining Times Contd.
❖ Machining Times for Shaping and Planing
➢ The cutting tool passes over the workpiece NS strokes per
minute and also moves across the width w of the
workpiece at a feed fS.
➢ To determine the machining time:
Where
➢ T is the machining time (min)
➢ W the width of the part (mm)
➢ NS the number of strokes per minute and
➢ fS the feed (mm/stroke)

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 Machining Times Contd.
Example12
✓A component of width 950mm and length 1400mm is to
be machined on the planning machine with a cutting speed
of 80m/min. How long will it take to machine the
component surface? Take cutting to return ratio of 3:2, and
use the data from example 6 for Ns and fs.

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 Thank You!!!
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