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Chapter 6
The condensed State of Matter
1. A solid has definite volume and shape, a liquid has a definite volume but no definite shape,
and a gas has neither a definite volume nor shape.
2. The particles in a solid are held very tightly together, so tightly that they cannot move past
each other. They can only vibrate in position. In the liquid state, the particles are touching
but there are enough spaces between them to allow them to slide past each other. In a gas,
particles have big distances between them (infinite distances compared to the sizes of the
particles).

Ex 1. Draw a diagram to show the same sample of sodium in the solid, liquid and gas states.

3. The solid and liquid states are called condensed phases of matter.
4. Gaseous elements (under room conditions) are found at the top right-hand side of the
Periodic Table.
5. Boiling point: is the constant temperature at which the liquid vaporizes from anywhere in
the solution.
6. At the boiling point:
a. Vapor pressure is equal to the surrounding pressure.
b. Bubbles of vapor can form anywhere within the liquid.
c. Molecules escape from the surface of the liquid to enter the gas phase as vapor (this also
happens at room temperature).
d. With increasing altitude, atmospheric pressure decreases and so does boiling point.
7. Melting point: is the temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid at constant
temperature.
8. At the same temperature, the average KE is the same for all the states of matter.
9. Review heating and cooling curves.

CQD 2. Use the graph below to answer the following.

Explain how the PE and KE of particles in a liquid change as we move the system from:
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a. A to B
b. B to C
c. C to D

a) All the energy added to the system is used to increase the KE of the liquid. As
temperature increases, the average KE of the particles increases. PE is approximately the
same as we are always in the liquid state.

b) The energy added to the system is used to change the liquid to gas. Therefore, PE of
the system will increase as gaseous state molecules have more PE than liquid state
molecules. As for KE, it remains the same, since temperature is not changing.

c) All the energy added to the system is used to increase the KE of the gas. As
temperature increases, the average KE of the particles increases. PE is approximately the
same as we are always in the gaseous state.

10. The average kinetic energy is directly proportional to absolute temperature. At constant
temperature, average kinetic energy remains the same.
11. Solution: is a homogeneous mixture that contains more than one compound.
12. Types of solution:

Type of solution examples

solid in liquid • salt in water
• sugar in water
• sugar in alcohol
liquid in liquid • ethanol (alcohol) in water
gas in liquid • Cola (carbon dioxide in its liquid)
• Any gas in water (ex NH3 (g) or HCl (g) in water)
gas in gas • Air (mixture of gases mainly nitrogen and oxygen)
• Any mixture of 2 or more gases together
solid in solid: Alloy • steel (iron and carbon)
• stainless steel (iron, carbon, chromium and nickel)
• bronze (copper and tin)
• brass (copper and zinc)
• Jewelry (silver or gold)

13. Differences between solution and a pure substance with respect to phase change:

Solution Pure substance

Is heterogeneous with respect to phase changes Is homogenous with respect to phase changes
• solution will change composition on boiling, • boiling point is fixed
only the solvent will vaporize • composition and boiling point will not
change during vaporization
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• solution will become more concentrated and • freezing point is constant

the boiling point will keep on increasing • composition and freezing point will not
• solution will change composition on freezing, change during freezing
only the solvent will crystallize
• solution will become more concentrated and
the freezing point will keep on decreasing

14. If we collect the vapor from a boiling aqueous solution, condense it and boil it again it
will boil at 100⁰C.
15. If we collect the crystals from a freezing aqueous solution, melt it and freeze it again it
will freeze at 0⁰C.

CQD 3.
a. How can you obtain pure water from sea water by freezing? How can you verify that a given
liquid is pure water?
b. List four properties of a solution you would expect to vary as the concentration of the solute
varies.

a. Changes of state are heterogeneous for solutions. This means that when sea water is
cooled, the crystals that form will be pure water. Filtering the resulting mixture
provides us with pure water crystals as residue which can be collected and melted.
To verify that the collected liquid is pure water, determine its boiling or freezing
point. If it boils at 100°C and/or freezes at 0°C then it is pure water.

b. Melting point, boiling point, density, vapor pressure

CQD 4. Which of the following statements about seawater is false?

a. Seawater boils at a higher temperature than pure water.

b. Seawater freezes at a lower temperature than pure water.
c. The boiling point rises as the liquid boils away.
d. The melting point falls as the liquid freezes.
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e. The density is the same as that of pure water.

16. Diagrammatic representations of elements compounds in the 3 states of matter.

CQD 5. Consider the following diagrams.

Which of the following diagrams represents:

a. nitrogen gas?
b. an alloy?
c. H2O?
d. a gas as Ne?
e. a gaseous mixture of Ne and Xe?
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Diagram Explanation
Any diatomic gas as oxygen O2, chlorine Cl2,
Nitrogen gas? C
fluorine F2 or hydrogen H2
An alloy is a solid mixture of two or more
An alloy? E
metals
H2O? D
Any monoatomic gas as He, Ne, Ar, Kr or
A gas as Ne? A
Xe
A mixture of 2 monoatomic gases as He, Ne,
A gaseous mixture of Ne and Xe? B
Ar, Kr or Xe

17. Demonstration: filtration

18. Selective solubility
19. Alcohol is flammable, therefore it cannot be heated directly. To heat alcohol, we should
use a steam bath or an electric heater.
20. If you need to collect sugar from sugar alcohol solution heat the solution using an electric
heater to crystallization point. Leave the solution to cool and crystals to form. Filter off the
crystals.

CQD 6.
a. How would you obtain dry sand and dry salt from a mixture of sand and salt? Describe clearly
all the steps you follow.
b. Sugar dissolves in water and alcohol, and salt dissolves in water but not in alcohol. How do
you separate a mixture of salt and sugar?

a.
• Add excess water and stir to dissolve all the salt.
• Carry on a filtration to separate the sand as a residue on the filter paper. Place the
filter paper in an electric oven to dry the sand.
• Place the filtrate (salt in water) in an evaporating dish for crystallization to obtain
the dry salt.

b.
1) Add excess alcohol to the mixture and stir
2) Filter the mixture to separate the salt, and allow the salt residue to dry
3) Gently and safely heat the solution to crystallize (using an electric heater since
alcohol is flammable)

CQD 7. It is required to heat a beaker containing some alcohol. How should this be done
SAFELY?

Place the alcohol in a beaker on a water bath and heat the water electrically.
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21. Demonstration: Sublimation: Examples of solids that can sublime at room temperature:
1) Solid iodine, I2 (s)
2) Dry ice or solid carbon dioxide CO2 (s)
3) Any ammonium compound as ammonium chloride, NH4Cl and ammonium bromide,
NH4Br

CQD 8. What does it mean to say that a substance sublimes?

Sublimes means changes from solid to gas directly without passing through the liquid state.

CQD 11. Which mixture is easy to separate by sublimation?

a) Salt + sand
b) Salt + sugar
c) Salt plus ammonium chloride
d) Nitrogen and oxygen liquids
e) Ammonium chloride dissolved in water.
f) Sodium chloride (table salt) and iodine
g) Dry ice and table salt

22. Demonstration: Simple Distillation

EX. 11 Which mixture is easy to separate by distillation?

a) Salt + sand
b) Salt + sugar
c) Salt plus ammonium chloride
d) Nitrogen and oxygen gases
e) Calcium chloride dissolved in water.

23. Demonstration: Fractional distillation. Discuss briefly: fractional distillation of

liquefied air and fractional distillation of crude oil.

CQD 9.
a. Name all the apparatus needed to perform a distillation.
b. Name the liquid collected at the end of distillation.
c. When do we use a fractional distillation and what is a fractionating column?

a.
1) Condenser
2) Round bottom flask
3) Thermometer
4) Bunsen burner
5) Stand

b. distillate
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c. Whenever two liquids with boiling points that are close together are to be separated.
The fractionating column is a long tube containing obstacles and cooled only by air.

Examples:
1. To obtain a distillate quite rich in the most volatile liquid in a single attempt
2. In the fractional distillation of air to obtain relatively pure liquid oxygen and liquid
nitrogen.

EX. 12 Which mixture is easy to separate by fractional distillation?

a) Salt + sand
b) Salt + sugar
c) Salt plus ammonium chloride
d) Nitrogen and oxygen liquids
e) Calcium chloride dissolved in water.
f) Alcohol + water (where alcohol is obtained as a distillate from the mixture)

24. Demonstration: Separating funnel

CQD 10. When do we use a separating funnel?

To separate two immiscible liquids like water and oil

EX. 13 Which mixture is easy to separate by using a separating funnel?

a) Salt + sand
b) Water and alcohol
c) Salt plus ammonium chloride
d) Nitrogen and oxygen liquids
e) Water and oil

25. Adsorption: means sticking to the surface.

EX. 14 Which mixture is easiest to separate into components by adsorption?

a) Brewed tea
b) Sea water
c) Sand and salt
d) Blue copper sulfate solution
e) Yellow potassium chromate solution.
f) a solution of brown sugar

26. Adsorption: sticking of the particles of one material on the surface of another. Examples
of adsorbing substances:
• Silica gel: adsorbs water vapor
• Charcoal: adsorbs gases with strong odor and removes colored impurities from a solution
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EX. 15 Which of the following is a good adsorbing agent?

a) Sponge
b) Charcoal
c) Sand
d) Silica
e) Filter paper.

27. Demonstration: Chromatography

• It is the technique used to separate different compounds, especially those that can be easily
destroyed by heat or chemicals.
• It can be used to separate colored components as:
1) Green liquid obtained by squashing green leaves.
2) Black ink
• The property that carries the liquid up the paper is capillary action.

Study of a chromatography paper after it dries:

Chromatography could be used to check the purity of a dye as well as a separation technique.
Dyes 1 and 2 are soluble pure substances . The spot moved up the paper with the solvent and
did not split.
Dyes 3-6 are mixtures of soluble components. The spot moved up with the solvent and split
into more than one spot. The greater the solubility of a component the greater is its Rf value
the larger is the separation from the base line.
Dyes 2 and 5, 3 and 5, 3 and 6 have a common component same Rf value. Rf value is a
physical constant.
If a dye sticks to the x on the base line this dye is considered to be insoluble in the solvent.
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EX. 16 Which mixture is easiest to separate into components by chromatography?

a) Water and alcohol

b) Sea water
c) Green liquid obtained by squashing green leaves
d) Blue copper sulfate solution
e) Yellow potassium chromate solution.
f) Different dyes present in red ink

28. Demonstration: Crystallization

EX. 17 Crystallization is suitable to obtain certain solids from their solution. Give an example.

1) Salt from a salt solution

2) Sugar from sugar solution
3) Salt from sea water

Note: Students should study sec 3 from text book

EX 18. Chapter review Q 17 page 54

Complete the following statements:

a) A residue is the solid left on the filter paper.

b) The filtrateis the liquid that passes through the filter paper.
c) The process of evaporating a liquid and then condensingthe vapor is known as
distillation
d) Sublimation is the process used to separate dry ice from table salt.
e) Selective solubility is the process used to separate sugar from salt.

EX 19. Chapter test Q 8 page 59

a) From the list below choose the process shown in each diagram.
Chromatography distillation crystallization filtration

Process A: Distillation
Process B: Crystallization
Process C: Chromatography
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b) Choose which process A, B or C, you could use to separate pure water from sea water.
Process A: Distillation

c) Choose which process A, B or C, you could use in food analysis to show that a bottle
offruit squash may contain several water soluble dyes.
Process C: Chromatography

EX 20 Chapter test Q 10 page 60

Rock salt contains insoluble solids, and the soluble salt, sodium chloride. The following
processes are needed to separate sodium chloride from rock salt.

Evaporation Crystallization Addition of water Filtration Stirring

Put each process in the correct order for separating sodium chloride from rock salt.
Addition of water, stirring, filtration, evaporation, crystallization

EX 21. Chapter test Q 11 page 60

You are given some mixtures below. Name the method you would think the most appropriate to
obtain water from each mixture.

a) Salt + Water Distillation

b) Alcohol + Water Fractional distillation
c) Sand + Water Filtration
d) Water vapor + Air Fractional distillation

29. An aqueous solution is one in which the solvent is water.

30. Salt and water is an example of aqueous solutions where the solute is a solid.
31. Alcohol and water is an example of aqueous solutions where the solute is a liquid.
32. Ammonia and water is an example of aqueous solutions where the solute is a gas

EX 22.
a) What are aqueous solutions?
Aqueous solutions are solutions in which the solvent is water.
b) Can you have aqueous solutions where the solute is a solid, a liquid or a gas? Yes
c) Give an example of each case.
1) Salt and water. (a solution of solid in water)
2) Alcohol and water. (a solution of liquid in water)
3) Carbon dioxide and water. (a solution of gas in water)

33. Concentration: relative amounts of solute and solvent.

34. Molar concentration (Molarity): is the number of moles of solute per liter (dm3) of
solution. (the relative amounts of solute and solution)

0.5 M of solution means 0.5 moles of solute in 1 dm3 solution

1.0 M of solution means 1.0 moles of solute in 1 dm3 solution
5.0 M of solution means 5.0 moles of solute in 1 dm3 solution
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EX. 23.
a) What does the term 'the molar concentration of a solution' refers to?
Molar concentration of a solution indicates the number of moles of a solute per dm3 of
solution.
b) Is this the same thing as molarity? Yes.
c) What does it mean to say that the molar concentration of a sugar solution is 0.25 M?
It means the solution contains 0.25 mole of the solute per dm3 of solution.

35. Concentration of a given solution does not change if solution is split into fractions. Ex21
p.25

EX. 24. A 2 L bottle of 0.35 M solution is split into ten containers of 100ml capacity. What is
the concentration of the solution in each of the new containers? 0.35 M

EX. 25. Two liters of 1.0 M NaCl solution is prepared in a flask. 500 ml of solution is poured out
of the flask into a beaker. What is the concentration of the salt solution in the beaker? 1.0M

EX. 25. Ex 21 page 25

What do we mean by a 1.5 M solution? 1.5 moles of solute per each 1 dm3 solution
Which has a higher concentration, 20 ml of 1.5 M solution or 200 ml of the same solution?
Same concentration

36. Relationships between n, V, C and m, M, V, C:7

𝐧𝐧 𝐧𝐧
n = CV 𝐂𝐂 = 𝐕𝐕
𝐕𝐕 = 𝐂𝐂

𝐦𝐦
m=n×M m = CVM 𝐌𝐌 = 𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂

CQD 12.
a. Pour 100 cm3 of 4.0 M salt solution into a clean volumetric 500 cm3 flask.
Add enough water to fill the flask up to the etched mark. What is the concentration of the salt
solution in the new flask?
b. Given 2.0 dm3 of 1.5 M solution. How many moles of solute are in the solution?
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a. Given: V1 = 100cm3, [salt]old = 4.0M, V2 = 500cm3 R.T.F.: [salt]new

Upon dilution the number of moles does not change

[𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨]𝐕𝐕 (𝟒𝟒.𝟎𝟎)(𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)
[new] = 𝐕𝐕 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 = (𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓) = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭

b. Given: V = 2.0 L, C = 1.5 M RTF: n

n = CV = (1.5) (2.0) = 3.0 moles

CQD 13.
a. What mass of ammonium chloride, NH4Cl, are present in 0.20 dm3 of a 0.50 M NH4Cl
solution?
b. What volume of a 0.250 M K2CrO4, solution contains 38.8 g of K2CrO4?
c. 2.00 dm3 of a 1.00 M solution contain 73 g of an acid X. What is the molecular mass of X?

a. Given: V = 0.20 L, [NH4Cl] = 0.50 M R.T.F.: m

𝐦𝐦
n = C V = 𝐌𝐌 ⇒ m = CVM = (0.50)(0.20) (53.5) = 5.35g = 5.4 g

b. Given: m = 38.8 g, [K2CrO4] = 0.250 M R.T.F.: V

𝐧𝐧 𝐦𝐦 𝐦𝐦 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑.𝟖𝟖
𝐂𝐂 = 𝐕𝐕
= 𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌
⇒ 𝐕𝐕 = 𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂
= (𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐)(𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏) = 0.800 dm3

c. Given: m = 73 g, [X] = 1.00 M, V = 20 dm3 R.T.F.: M

𝐧𝐧 𝐦𝐦 𝐦𝐦 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
𝐂𝐂 = 𝐕𝐕
= 𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌
⇒ 𝐌𝐌 = 𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂
= (𝟏𝟏.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎)(𝟐𝟐.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎) = 36.5 = 37 g

CQD 15. [G]

a. If 1.0 mol of a solute is dissolved in enough water to make 2.0 dm3 of solution, what is C, the
molar concentration of this solution?
b. How many moles of a salt should be dissolved in 0.50 dm3 of water to make a 0.25 M solution
of that salt?
c. What is the volume of a 0.10 M solution that contains 0.20 mol of a salt?

a. Given: n = 1.0 mol, V = 2.0 dm3 RTF: C

n 1.0
C= = = 0.50 M
V 2.0

b. Given: C = 0.25 M, V = 2.0 dm3 RTF: n

n = C × V = 0.25 × 0.50 = 0.13 mol

c. Given: n = 0.20 mol, C = 0.10 M RTF: V

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n 0.20
V= = =2.0 M
C 0.10

59. Preparing solutions with given concentrations:

a) Calculations:
1. Calculate number of moles (from concentration and volume given)
2. Calculate required mass of the given solute
b) Laboratory procedure:
1. Add the measured mass of solid to selected volumetric flask.
2. Add little water to dissolve
3. Add enough water till the meniscus is tangent with the line or the etched mark at
the neck of the flask.
4. Close the volumetric flask and shake to homogenize.

CQD 14. Explain how you would prepare a 1.00 L of 1.00 M NaCl solution.

a.
Calculations:
Find the number of moles needed: n = CV = (1.00)(1.00) = 1.00 mol
Find mass needed: m = nM = (1.0)(58.5) = 58.5 g

b. Laboratory procedure:
1) 58.5 g of NaCl is weighed
2) Add solid to 1.00 dm3 volumetric flask and add some distilled water to dissolve
the solid. The mixture is swirled until the salt dissolves completely.
3) Add enough water till the etched mark and shake to homogenize.

EX. 26. CRQ 22 (a), page 54

Write directions for preparing 1.0 dm3 of 1.0 M Lead nitrate, Pb(NO3)2, solution.

Calculations:
Find the number of moles needed: n=CV=1.00×1.00=1.00 mole
Find mass needed: m=nM=1.00×331=331g

Laboratory procedure:
1) 331g of Pb(NO3)2 is weighed
2) Add solid to 1.00 dm3 volumetric flask and add some distilled water to dissolve the
solid. The mixture is swirled until the salt dissolves completely.
3) Add enough water till the etched mark.
4) Close the lid and shake vigorously to homogenize.
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60. Dilution of solution: If a solution is diluted by adding water ⇒

• Number of moles in concentrated solution = number of moles of dilute solution. CV = C’V’
• Upon dilution, volume of water needed for dilution = V dilute solution – V concentrated
solution

EX. 27. Pour the 100 cm3 of 4.0 M salt solution into a clean volumetric 500 cm3 flask. Add
enough water to fill the flask up to the etched mark. What is the concentration of the salt solution
in the new flask?

n concentrated solution = n dilute solution

CV = C’V’
4.0 M × 0.1 dm3 = C’ × 0.5 dm3 C’ = 0.80 M

EX. 28. 200 cm3of 0.40 M NaCl solution was poured into a 500 cm3 beaker. Water was added
till the etched mark.

a) What is the new concentration?

n concentrated solution = n dilute solution
CV = C’V’
0.40 M × 0.2 dm3 = C’ × 0.5 dm3 C’ = 0.16 M

b) What is the volume of water needed for dilution?

V water = 500 – 200 = 300 cm3 = 0.300 L

EX. 29. You are given 100 cm3 of 0.50 M HCl, how much water must you add to reduce the
concentration to 0.10M.

What should the new volume be: CV = C’V’ ⇒ (0.50M)(0.1 dm3) = (0.10M)V’
V’ = 0.5 dm3
How much water was added: Vwater = 500 – 100 = 400 cm3 = 0.40 L

EX. 30 To what volume must 50.0 cm3 of 3.50 M H2SO4 be diluted in order to make a 2.00 M
H2SO4?
n concentrated solution = n dilute solution
CV = C’V’ 3.5 M × 0.05 dm3 = 2.00× V’ V’ = 0.0875 dm3 = 87.5 cm3

61. To find [solutes] after mixing two or more solutions:

Step 1: Calculate the number of moles of each solution
Step 2: Calculate the total volume
Step 3: Find new concentration.

EX. 31. What is the concentration of NaCl in a solution prepared by mixing 20 cm3 of 0.40 M
NaCl and 30 cm3 of 0.10 M NaCl solutions?
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1) n of NaCl in solution 1 = (0.40)(20 × 10-3) = 8.0 × 10-3 mole

2) n of NaCl in solution 2 = (0.10)(30 × 10-3) = 3.0 × 10-3 mole
3) n of NaCl total = 11 × 10-3 mole
4) V total = 20 + 30 = 50 cm3
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑
5) new NaCl concentration = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑 = 0.22 M

62. Mixing equal volumes of different solutions halves the concentration of all species in the
solution.

EX. 32. What is the concentration of NaCl and KF in a solution prepared by mixing 20 cm3 of
0.40 M NaCl and 20 cm3 of 0.10 M KF solutions?

Volume was doubles ⇒ concentrations will be halved ⇒[NaCl] = 0.20M, [KF] = 0.050M

63. Saturated solution: is a solution that has dissolved in it the maximum amount of solute it
can hold at a given temperature and is in contact with the undissolved solute. In simple
words, a saturated solution is a solution in which no more solute can dissolve.
64. Solubility: it is the concentration of a saturated solution at a certain temperature.
Soluble solubility > 0.1 M
Slightly soluble solubility < 0.1 M
Very slightly soluble solubility < 10-3 M
Insoluble or negligible solubility solubility is low
65. Conductor: a material that completes an electric circuit
66. Electric current: is the movement of electric charge.
67. Electrolyte: a substance that dissolves in water producing electrically conducting solutions,
example: aqueous solution of sodium chloride.
68. DEMONSTRATION for conductors and non-conductors.
69. Non-electrolyte: a substance that dissolves in water producing electrically non-conducting
solutions, example aqueous solution of sugar and distilled water. Water itself is a bad
conductor of electricity. When small quantities of a certain substance are dissolved in water,
water becomes a good conductor of electricity.
70. Examples of electrolytes:
1- All acids are electrolytes e.g acetic acid CH3COOH, sulphuric acid H2SO4...
2- All ionic compounds are electrolytes e.g NaCl, CaCl2, MgBr2....
71. Brief introduction to section 6.6.3
72. Ions: are charged particles( charged atoms or groups of atoms)
73. Cations: positively charged ions (usually metal ions eg Na+, Ca2+..)
74. Anions: negatively charged ions ( non-metal ions, eg Cl-, CO32-)
75. Ionic compounds: are compounds in which oppositely charged ions are held together
strongly by an electrostatic force of attraction. They are formed from the reaction between a
metal and a non-metal. Examples of ionic compounds are sodium chloride (table salt), NaCl,
calcium chloride, CaCl2, and silver nitrate, AgNO3.
76. Sodium chloride NaCl is made from the combination of sodium ions Na+ and chloride
ions Cl- in a ratio of 1:1. When one mole of sodium chloride dissolves in water it provides the
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solution with two moles of ions( 1mole of sodium ions and 1 mole of chloride ions) as per the
equation: NaCl(s) →Na+(aq)+Cl-(aq)

CQD 17. [G] Write the balanced equation of dissociation of the following ionic compounds in
water.

a. BaI2
b. K3N
c. Ca(NO3)2

a. BaI2(s) → Ba2+(aq) + 2I-(aq)

b. K3N(s) → 3K+(aq) + N3-(aq)
c. Ca(NO3)2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)

77. Calcium chloride is made from the combination of calcium ions Ca2+ and chloride ions
Cl- in a ratio of 1:2. When one mole of calcium chloride dissolves in water it provides the
solution with three moles of ions( 1mole of calcium ions and 2 moles of chloride ions) as per the
equation: CaCl2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq).

78. Silver nitrate AgNO3 is made from the combination of silver ions Ag+ and nitrate ions NO3-
in a ratio of 1:1. When one mole of silver nitrate dissolves in water it provides the solution
with two moles of ions( 1mole of silver ions and 1 mole of nitrate ions) as per the equation:
AgNO3 (s) → Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

79. Sodium chloride and all other ionic compounds are electrolytes because they provide the
solution with freely moving ions which can carry electric charge.
80. An electric current flows when we have a complete circuit. Current flows outside the battery
from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. If an ionic solution is connected to a
battery, all positive ions move in the direction of the current, away from the positive
electrode and towards the negative electrode. All negative ions move in a direction opposite
to the current, away from the negative electrode and towards the positive electrode.

81. Not all ionic compounds are soluble in water and ionize completely in it. Examples
include: calcium carbonate, silver chloride, silver bromide, silver iodide and barium sulphate.
82. Memorize name and formulae of cations and anions listed p. 47 part2 textbook.

CQD 18. Name the following:

Chemical Formula Chemical Name

a) AgI Silver iodide
b) KOH Potassium hydroxide
c) PbSO4 Lead (II) sulfate or Lead (II) sulphate
d) BaCr2O7 Barium dichromate
e) Li2CO3 Lithium carbonate

83. Writing the formulae of ionic compounds

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CQD 19. Write the formulae of the following:

Chemical Name Chemical formula

a) Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3
b) Lead (II) chromate PbCrO4
c) Hydrogen fluoride HF
d) Barium sulfate BaSO4
e) Calcium carbonate CaCO3

CQD 22. [G] Deduce the empirical formula of the compound made of the following ions:

a. Al3+ and S2-

b. NH4+ and SO42-
c. Fe3+ and CO32-

If the magnitudes of the charges are different, we use the crisscross method or we multiply
by suitable subscripts to balance the charges. If the charges are equal in magnitude, we do
not multiply.
a. Al2S3
b. (NH4)2SO4
c. Fe2(CO3)3

84. Properties of an ionic solid: ionic solids have high mpt and bpt, do not conduct electricity
when solid, conduct electricity when molten or aqueous. Ionic solids form clear crystals.

CQD 21. Describe the structure of the solid ionic compound NaBr.

NaBr solid exists as a lattice of oppositely charged Na+ and Br- ions, in which each ion is
surrounded by six ions of the opposite charge, bonded to them via ionic bonding.

85. Write dissociation reactions of ionic compounds in water. The equations must be balanced
for atoms and for charge

EX. 33. Balance the three equations below.

1) MgCl2(s) → Mg2+(aq) + Cl−(aq).

2) Na2Cr2O7(s) → Na+(aq) + Cr2O72−(aq).
3) Cr2O72−(aq) + H2O → CrO42−(aq) + H+(aq).

86. Precipitate: is solid formed when mixing two aqueous solutions.

87. Precipitation reaction: is a reaction where a precipitate (solid) is formed.
 18

EX. 34. Precipitation in chemistry means:

a) Rain falling on a plain.

b) The reaction where a gas is formed.
c) The condensation that results when the vapors of a liquid are cooled.
d) The formation of steam.
e) The formation of solid from a solution.

88. Demonstration: Different precipitation reactions:

e.g i) silver nitrate and sodium chloride
ii) silver nitrate and sodium bromide
iii) silver nitrate and sodium iodide
iv) lead(II) nitrate and sodium sulphate
v) calcium chloride and sodium carbonate

89. Write a complete formula equation, a complete ionic equation, a net-ionic equation to
represent a precipitation reaction.

CQD 16.
a. When solutions of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, and calcium chloride, CaCl2, are mixed, a
white precipitate of calcium carbonate, CaCO3(s) is obtained. Write the balanced equations for
this reaction in three different ways.
b. When solutions of silver nitrate, AgNO3, and potassium chloride, KCl, are mixed; a white
precipitate of silver chloride, AgCl(s), is obtained. Write the balanced equations for this reaction
in three different ways.

a.
Overall non-ionic reaction: Na2CO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq) → CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Overall ionic reaction: 2Na+(aq)+CO32-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) +2Cl-(aq) → CaCO3(s) +2Na+(aq) + 2Cl(aq)

Net ionic reaction: Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → CaCO3(s)

b.
Overall non-ionic reaction: AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq)
Overall ionic reaction: Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + K+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s) + K+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

Net ionic reaction: Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)

90. Predominant ions: is that take part in the reaction

91. Spectator ions: ions that do not take part in a reaction.

EX. 34. In the reaction:

Ag+(aq) + NO3− (aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq) → AgCl(s) + NO3− (aq) + Na+(aq)
The predominant reacting species is/are

92. Molecular solids are made up of molecules. Examples of molecular solids are wax, sugar,
hydrogen chloride, ammonia ...
 19

93. Discuss properties of molecular solids:

• low mpt and bpt
• In general they remain molecular when dissolved in water and are non-electrolyte
• In general they are non-electrolytes: sugar (s)→ sugar (aq)
• Some molecular compounds like acids e.g hydrogen chloride are electrolytes:
HCl(g)→H+(aq) + Cl- (aq)
96. Other types of solids: metallic solids and network solids
97. Metallic solids: e.g Cu, Ag, Na
98. Network solids / giant molecular/ giant covalent solids are atomic solids made up of
atoms joined together by strong covalent bonds. Network solids are characterized by their
high melting point and boiling point. e.g Sand (SiO2) , graphite (C) and diamond(C)

EX. 35. Examples of metallic and network solids respectively are

a) copper and wax.

b) salt and sugar.
c) gold and charcoal.
d) sodium and diamond.
e) mercury and string.
f) gold and sand

99. Determine [ions] present given number of moles of salt and volume of solution.

CQD 23. [G] Magnesium chloride, MgCl2 dissolves in water to form a conducting solution
containing Mg2+, and that of chloride ions, Cl-. if 0.15 moles of MgCl2 is dissolved in water and
diluted into 1.5 dm3. What is the number of moles of magnesium ions and that of chloride ions
in the solution?

Given: n of MgCl2 = 0.15 mol, V = 1.5 L R.T.F.: [Mg2+], [Cl-]

Write the balanced equation MgCl2 → Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

Write the most convenient ratio 1 mole 1 mole 2 moles
Write the given 0.15 mole ? ?
Solve 𝒏𝒏𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝟐𝟐+ = 0.15 mole 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪− = 0.30 mole
𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟎𝟎.𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
[Mg2+] = 𝟏𝟏.𝟓𝟓
= 0.10M [Cl-] = 𝟏𝟏.𝟓𝟓
= 0.20M
 20

EX. 36. 37.0 g of calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 are dissolved in water to make a 200 cm3 solution.
what is the concentration of each ion in this solution?

EX. 37. A solution is prepared by diluting a 25 ml of 0.300 M solution of NiCl2 to a final volume
of 500 ml. What is the concentration of: a) NiCl2 b) Ni2+ ions c) Cl- ions

ColdVold 0.300× 25
Calculate concentration of NiCl2 after dilution [NiCl 2 ] = = = 0.015M
Vtotal 500
Write the net ionic equation

NiCl2→ Ni2+ + 2 Cl-

1 1 2
0.015 M : 0.015M : 0.030 M

[NiCl2] = 0.015 M [Ni2+] = 0.015 M [Cl-] = 0.030 M

100. Determine the concentration of each ion present in a solution prepared by mixing
two other solutions without precipitate formation

CQD 24. [G] 0.400 dm3 of solution which contains 0.100 mol of Na2SO4(aq), was mixed with
1.00 dm3 of solution which contains 0.100 mol of zinc chloride, ZnCl2. Calculate the
concentrations of all ions in the resulting solution. Assume that volumes of these solutions are
additive.

Give: 𝑽𝑽𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝟒𝟒 = 0.40 L, 𝒏𝒏𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝟒𝟒 = 0.100 mole, 𝑽𝑽𝒁𝒁𝒁𝒁𝒁𝒁𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐 = 1.00 L, 𝒏𝒏𝒁𝒁𝒁𝒁𝒁𝒁𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐 = 0.100 mole
RTF: C of all ions

Write the balanced equation. Na2SO4 → 2Na+(aq) + SO42- (aq)

Write the most convenient reacting ratio. 1 mole 2 mol 1mol
Write the given and required to find. 0.100 mol ? ?
Find 𝒏𝒏𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵+ . 0.200 mole
Find 𝒏𝒏𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝟒𝟒 𝟐𝟐− . 0.100 mole
Write the balanced equation. ZnCl2 → Zn2+(aq) + 2Cl- (aq)
Write the most convenient reacting ratio. 1 mole 1 mol 2mol
Write the given and required to find. 0.100 mol ? ?
Find 𝒏𝒏𝒁𝒁𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐+ . 0.100 mole
Find 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪− . 0.200 mole
Find Vtotal 1.00 + 0.40 = 1.40 dm3
𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Find [Na+]. 𝟏𝟏.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
= 0.143 M
𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
Find [SO42-] 𝟏𝟏.𝟒𝟒
= 0.0714M
𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Find [Cl-]. 𝟏𝟏.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
= 0.143 M
𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
Find [Zn2+] 𝟏𝟏.𝟒𝟒
= 0.0714M
 21

CQD 25. A solution is made by mixing 50.0 mL of 0.20 M NaBr solution with 150 mL of 0.10
M Na2SO4 solution. Calculate the concentrations of all the ions present in the final solution.

Given: VNaBr = 50.0 mL, [NaBr] = 0.20 M, 𝑽𝑽𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝟒𝟒 = 150 mL, [Na2SO4] = 0.10 M
R.T.F.: [Na+], [SO42-], [Br-]
Find 𝒏𝒏𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 𝒏𝒏𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 = (0.20)(50.0) = 10 mmoles
Find 𝐧𝐧𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝟒𝟒 𝐧𝐧𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝟒𝟒 = (0.10)(150) = 15 mmoles
Find 𝒏𝒏𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵+ from NaBr 𝒏𝒏𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵+ = 10 mmoles
Find 𝒏𝒏𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩− 𝒏𝒏𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩− = 10 mmoles
Find 𝒏𝒏𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 from Na2SO4
+ 𝒏𝒏𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵+ = 30 mmoles
Find 𝒏𝒏𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝟐𝟐− 𝒏𝒏𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝟐𝟐− = 15 mole
𝟒𝟒 𝟒𝟒
Find Vtotal Vtotal = 200 mL
𝒏𝒏 + 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏+𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
Find [Na+] [Na+] = 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 = 0.20 M
𝑽𝑽 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
Find [Br-] [Br-] = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 0.050 M
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
Find [SO42-] [SO42-] = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 0.075 M

EX. 38. Determine the concentration of each ion in a solution prepared by mixing 20 cm3 0.10 M
NaCl solution with 30cm3 0.30 M CaCl2 solution.

Steps:
Find n of each solution: nNaCl = (20×10-3)(0.10) = 2.0 ×10-3 mole
𝐧𝐧𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝟐𝟐 = (20×10-3)(0.10) = 2.0 ×10-3 mole
Find n of each ion:

NaCl → Na+ (aq) + Cl-(aq) CaCl2 → Ca+2 (aq) + 2 Cl- (aq)

1mole 1 mole 1 mole 1mole 1 mole 2 mole
2.0 ×10-3 2.0 ×10-3 2.0 ×10-3 2.0 ×10-3 2.0 ×10-3 4.0 ×10-3

n of Na+ = 2.0 ×10-3 mole, n of Ca2+= 2.0 ×10-3 mole

n of Cl- = (2.0 ×10-3 + 4.0 ×10-3) = 6.0 ×10-3 mole

𝟐𝟐.𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑
Find concentration of each ion: [Na+] = = 0.050M
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑
𝟐𝟐.𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑
[Ca2+] = = 0.050M
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑
𝟔𝟔.𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑
[Cl-] = = 0.15M
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑

OR
 22

Steps:
Mixing equal volumes halves concentration. Concentration of NaCl after mixing is 0.050 M
and that of CaCl2 is 0.050 M

Write the net ionic equation for each chemical and the concentration of each ion

NaCl → Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) CaCl2 → Ca+2 (aq) + 2 Cl- (aq)
1 : 1 : 1 1 : 1 : 2
0.050M 0.050 M 0.05 0.050M 0.050 M 0.10
M M

Find the final concentration of each ion present in solution

[Na+] = 0.050 M
[Ca2+] = 0.05 M
[Cl- ] = 0.05 + 0.10 = 0.15 M

EX. 39. Calculate the concentration of all ions after mixing 0.100 moles FeCl3 and 0.100 moles
of NH4Cl and dissolving them into a 1.00 dm3 solution.

Steps:
Find n of each solution: 𝐧𝐧𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝟒𝟒 𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂 = 0.100 mole
𝐧𝐧𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝟑𝟑 = 0.100 mole
Find n of each ion:

NH4Cl → NH4+ (aq) + Cl-(aq) FeCl3 → Fe+3 (aq) + 3 Cl- (aq)

1mole 1 mole 1 mole 1mole 1 mole 3 mole
0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.300

n of NH4+ = 0.100 mole, n of Fe3+= 0.100 mole, n of Cl- = (0.100 + 0.300) = 0.400 mole
𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
Find concentration of each ion: [NH4+] = 𝟏𝟏.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 0.100M
𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
[Fe3+] = 𝟏𝟏.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 0.100M
𝟎𝟎.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
[Cl-] = 𝟏𝟏.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 0.400M
OR

𝐧𝐧 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝐧𝐧 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

[𝐍𝐍𝐇𝐇𝟒𝟒 𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂] = = = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 [𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐥𝐥𝟑𝟑 ] = = = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝐕𝐕 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐕𝐕 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
 23

NH4Cl → NH4+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) FeCl3 → Fe3+ (aq) + 3Cl-(aq)

1 1 1 1 1 3
0.100M 0.100 M 0.100 M 0.100M 0.100 M 0.300M

[NH4+] = 0.100 M
[Fe3+] = 0.100 M
[Cl-] = 0.100 + 0.300 = 0.400 M

101. Determine the concentration of each ion present in a solution prepared by mixing two
other solutions resulting in the formation of a precipitate. Calculate the mass of precipitate
formed.

CQD 20. When solutions of calcium chloride, CaCl2, and potassium carbonate, K2CO3, are
mixed, the following reaction occurs:

2K+(aq) + CO32-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → CaCO3(s) + 2K+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

a. Rewrite the equation showing predominant reacting species only.

b. 0.50 L of 0.400 M CaCl2 is mixed with 1.00 L of 0.200 M K2CO3. CaCO3 has negligible
solubility. Calculate the concentrations of all ions present when precipitation stops.
c. 1.00 L of 0.400 M CaCl2 is mixed with 1.00 L of 0.200 M K2CO3. CaCO3 has a negligible
solubility. Calculate the concentrations of all the ions present after precipitation stops.

a. Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → CaCO3(s)

b. Given: V of CaCl2= 0.500 L, [CaCl2] = 0.400 M, V of K2CO3= 1.00 L, [K2CO3] = 0.200 M

R.T.F.: [Ca2+], [CO32-], [Cl-], mass of ppt

Find𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 = (0.400)(0.500) = 0.200 mole

Find 𝐧𝐧𝑲𝑲𝟐𝟐 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟑𝟑 𝐧𝐧𝑲𝑲𝟐𝟐 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟑𝟑 = (0.200)(1.00) = 0.200 mole
Find 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪+𝟐𝟐 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐+ = 0.200 mole
Find 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪− 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪− = 0.400 mole
Find 𝒏𝒏𝑲𝑲+ 𝒏𝒏𝑲𝑲+ = 0.400 mole
Find 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐− 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐− = 0.200 mole
𝟑𝟑 𝟑𝟑
Find Vtotal Vtotal = 1.50 L
𝟎𝟎.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
Find [Cl-] [Cl-] = 𝟏𝟏.𝟓𝟓 = 0.267 M
𝟎𝟎.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
Find [K+] [K+] = 𝟏𝟏.𝟓𝟓
= 0.267 M
Write the reaction taking place Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → CaCO3(s)
Write n 0.200mole 0.200 mole 0.200 mole
Neither is LR, both get completely consumed
[Ca2+] = [CO32-] = negligible Mass of ppt = (0.200)(100) = 20.0 g
 24

c. Given: V of CaCl2= 1.00 L, R.T.F.: [Ca2+], [CO32-], [Cl-],

[CaCl2]=0.400M [K+]
V of K2CO3=1.00 L, [K2CO3]= 0.200M

Find𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 = (0.400)(1.00) = 0.400 mole

Find 𝐧𝐧𝑲𝑲𝟐𝟐 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟑𝟑 𝐧𝐧𝑲𝑲𝟐𝟐 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟑𝟑 = (0.200)(1.00) = 0.200 mole
Find 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪+𝟐𝟐 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐+ = 0.400 mole
Find 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪− 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪− = 0.800 mole
Find 𝒏𝒏𝑲𝑲+ 𝒏𝒏𝑲𝑲+ = 0.400 mole
Find 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐− 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐− = 0.200 mole
𝟑𝟑 𝟑𝟑
Find Vtotal Vtotal = 1.00 L
𝟎𝟎.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
Find [Cl-] [Cl-] = 𝟐𝟐.𝟎𝟎 = 0.400 M
𝟎𝟎.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
Find [K+] [K+] = 𝟐𝟐.𝟎𝟎 = 0.200 M
Find Limiting Reagent:
Write the reaction taking place Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → CaCO3(s)
Write n 0.400 mole 0.200 mole
𝟎𝟎.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Divide by smallest 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
Compare and predict LR 0.400 > 0.200
Find n of ER left 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐+ = 0.400 – 0.200 = 0.200 mole
𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Find C of ER [Ca2+] = 𝟐𝟐.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 0.100 M, [CO32-] = negligible
Write the reaction taking place Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → CaCO3(s)
Write Given 1 mole 100 g
0.20 mole ?
Solve 𝒎𝒎𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝟑𝟑 = (0.200)( 100) = 20.0 g

EX. 40 Determine the concentration of each ion and mass of AgCl produced in a solution
prepared by mixing 20 cm3 0.10 M AgNO3 solution with 30cm3 0.20 M NaCl solution. Silver
chloride is sparingly soluble.

EX. 41 Determine the concentration of each ion and mass of AgCl produced in a solution
prepared by mixing 20 cm3 0.10 M AgNO3 solution with 30cm3 0.20 M CaCl2 solution. Silver
chloride is sparingly soluble.

EX. 42 Determine the concentration of each ion and mass of AgCl produced in a solution
prepared by mixing 20 cm30.10 M Pb(NO3)2 solution with 30cm30.10 M NaCl solution. Lead(II)
chloride is sparingly soluble.
 25

CQD 26 [T] Matter is classified into elements, compounds and mixtures.

a. Explain the difference between an element and a compound?

b. A student wants to separate water from a mixture of sand and sugar.

Name the processes used to separate water from the mixture in the correct order.

c. Fractional distillation is used to separate two miscible liquids having close boiling points.
A student uses the apparatus below to separate a mixture of two alcohols of boiling points 138°C
and 157°C, respectively.

i. Name apparatus X.
ii. R and W are two openings in apparatus X. Which of the two openings is the cold water
inlet?
iii. Why it is not recommended to use the above apparatus to separate the two alcohols?
iv. Another student suggests that if he replaces the water bath with a Bunsen burner the
above apparatus would be suitable to separate the two alcohols.
Do you agree with him? Explain your reasoning.
v. What apparatus can be fitted into the fractionating column to ensure purity of the
alcohol extracted?
vi. Which alcohol is collected first in beaker A?

a. Element is a pure substance made of one type of atoms

Compound is a pure substance made from two or more elements chemically
combined together
b. filtration, simple distillation
c. i. condenser
ii. W
iii. Water bath cannot exceed 100°C/ water in the water bath will evaporate at
100°C
iv. No, since alcohol is flammable
v. thermometer
vi. Alcohol of lower boiling point/ Alcohol that boils at 138°C