Structure and bonding
Monday, 8 April 2024 3:40 pm
Sigma and pi bonds
A covalent bond is formed when atomic orbitals overlap.
each orbital which combines contributes one unpaired electron to the bond. The joined orbital is
called a molecular orbital. The greater the overlap the stronger the covalent bond.
Sigma bonds
Formed by the overlap of atomic orbitals along a line drawn between two nuclei. Th electron density
of the bond is formed is symmetrical about a line joining the two nuclei.
When p orbital combines with an s orbital the molecular orbital is modified to include some s and
some p characters. T
Pi bonds
Are formed by the sideways overlap of p atomic orbitals. The electron density of the bond formed is
not symmetrical about a line joining the two nuclei
Electronegativity
This is the ability of atoms in a covalent bond to attract the bonding pair of electrons to its self
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This is the ability of atoms in a covalent bond to attract the bonding pair of electrons to its self
• Electronegativity increases across a period from group 1to group7
• Electronegative decreases down a group
weak intermolecular forces
• Permanent dipole-dipole interaction
• Van der Waals forces
• Hydrogen bonding
these forces arise because of the attraction between the dipoles in the neighboring molecule
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Strength check
Hydrogen bonding > Permanent dipole-dipole interaction > van der Waals
Permanent dipole-dipole forces
Are weak attractive active forces between a positive dipole and a negative dipole of a neighboring
molecule
Van der Waal forces
These forces arise due to temporary fluctuations in electron distribution, leading to the formation of
temporary dipoles or induced dipoles.
Hydrogen bonding
• A special type of permanent dipole-dipole interaction that requires one hydrogen molecule
bonded to an F,O, or N atom
• A second molecule having F,O, or N atom with a lone pair of elections
VSEPR theory
The valence shell electron pair repulsion theory is used to work shapes of different molecules and
uses the following rule:
• Pairs of electrons in the outer shell of the atoms repel each other and move as far apart as
possible. This minimises repletion forces in the molecule
• Repulsion between lone pairs and lone pairs is greater than lone pair and bond pairs
• Repulsion between lone pairs and bond pairs is greater than bond pair and bond pairs
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Crystalline solids are characterized by a regular and repeating arrangement of atoms, ions, or
molecules in a three-dimensional lattice structure. The specific lattice structure of a crystalline solid
plays a crucial role in determining its physical properties. Here is a qualitative description of the
lattice structures and their relation to physical properties for various types of crystalline solids:
1. Simple Molecular Structures (e.g., I2): In simple molecular structures, individual molecules are
held together by weak van der Waals forces. The molecules are typically spherical or elongated
in shape and have low melting and boiling points due to the weak intermolecular forces
between them. Examples include molecular solids like iodine (I2) or solid carbon dioxide
(CO2). These solids are often soft and have relatively low densities.
2. Hydrogen Bonded Structures (e.g., Ice): Hydrogen bonded structures involve molecules held
together by strong hydrogen bonds. This type of bonding is observed in substances like ice
(H2O), where water molecules form a network of hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonding leads to
unique properties such as high melting and boiling points, low density in the solid state (ice
floats on water), and the ability to form open structures with empty spaces.
3. Giant Molecular Structures (e.g., SiO2): Giant molecular structures consist of a vast network of
covalently bonded atoms, forming a continuous three-dimensional lattice. Examples include
silicon dioxide (SiO2) in quartz and diamond. These structures have high melting and boiling
points due to the strong covalent bonds between atoms. They are typically hard, have low
electrical conductivity, and are chemically inert.
4. Ionic Structures (e.g., NaCl): Ionic structures are composed of positively charged cations and
negatively charged anions held together by strong electrostatic forces. Sodium chloride (NaCl)
is a classic example of an ionic solid. Ionic solids have high melting and boiling points, are
brittle, and conduct electricity when molten or in solution due to the presence of mobile ions.
5. Metallic Structures (e.g., Cu): Metallic structures involve a lattice of metal cations immersed in
a "sea" of delocalized electrons. Metallic bonding is characterized by strong electrostatic
attractions between the positively charged cations and the negatively charged electrons.
Metallic solids are typically malleable, ductile, and good conductors of electricity and heat.
6. Giant Atomic Structures (e.g., Graphite and Diamond): Giant atomic structures consist of a
repeating pattern of atoms held together by covalent bonds. In graphite, the carbon atoms form
layers held together by weak van der Waals forces, allowing for easy sliding between layers.
Diamond, on the other hand, has a three-dimensional network of interconnected carbon atoms.
Diamond is the hardest known substance, while graphite is soft and has good electrical
conductivity due to its layered structure.
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