The application of fracture mechanicsto concrete

and the measurement of fracture toughness

G. B. W E L C H I', B. H A I S M A N I~

R iSU M E SUMMARY

On traduit par les concepts ~nerg~tiques de la m~canique de la The failure of concrete in uniaxial compression and tension
rupture la rupture du b~ton en compression et traction uni- is explained in terms of the energy concepts of fracture mecha-
axiales; les difficult~s de mesure et d'~valuation de la r~silience nics, and the difficulties associated with the measurement and
sont alors examinees. On propose des hypotheses de base en rela- evaluation of concrete " fracture toughness " are discussed.
tion avec la fissuration progressive, la concentration des con- Basic assumptions relating to slow crack growth, stress concen-
traintes par effet d'entaille et la valeur de E ~. adopter pour tration because of notch and value of E to be adopted for the
le calcul des param~tres de la r&ilience. On montre I'effet de calculation of the fracture toughness parameters are proposed.
ces hypotheses sur I'~valuation de la vitesse de liberation de The effect of these assumptions on the values of critical strain-
I'~nergie de d~formation et sur le facteur d'intensit6 de la cor.- energy release rate and critical stress intensity factor are report-
trainte critique, ainsi que I'~volution des valeurs trouv~es avec ed together with the trend of values with changes in concrete
les modifications des propri~t~s du b~ton. properties.

INTRODUCTION F r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s has b e e n w i d e l y a n d s u c c e s s -
fully a p p l i e d to the brittle fracture of m e t a l s for m a n y
Many different t h e o r i e s h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d to y e a r s . H o w e v e r , o n l y a few r e s e a r c h w o r k e r s h a v e
e x p l a i n the failure m e c h a n i s m of c o n c r e t e , although i n v e s t i g a t e d its a p p l i c a t i o n to c o n c r e t e a n d the first
it is only in r e c e n t y e a r s that attention has b e e n d i r e c t - r e p o r t on this was p u b l i s h e d only in 1961 [1]. S e v e r a l
e d to the p o s s i b l e a p p l i c a t i o n of fracture m e c h a - i m p o r t a n t p a p e r s h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d since [2-6]
nics to i n v e s t i g a t e c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n in c o n c r e t e . although few details of e x p e r i m e n t a l investigations
F r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s d o e s not e x p l a i n the m i c r o - have been presented.
m e c h a n i s m of f r a c t u r e but r a t h e r d e a l s with the rela- The p u r p o s e of this p a p e r is to r e v i e w the a p p l i -
tionships b e t w e e n the p h y s i c a l quantities i n v o l v e d , cation of f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s to c o n c r e t e , with r e s p e c t
such as stress, e n e r g y a n d size of crack, a n d e n a b l e s to both uniaxial c o m p r e s s f o n a n d tension failures, a n d
a quantitative analysis of the failure to b e a c h i e v e d . to c o n s i d e r the difficulties e n c o u n t e r e d in m e a s u r i n g
fracture t o u g h n e s s p a r a m e t e r s for c o n c r e t e . The
failure of c o n c r e t e in s i m p l e s t r e s s fields is e x p l a i n e d
in t e r m s of f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s concepts, a n d results
(1) B.E. (Syd.), M.E., F.I.E. Aust., M.I.C.E., Associate a r e p r e s e n t e d of e x p e r i m e n t a l investigations to m e a -
Professor of Civil Engineering and Head of Materials s u r e critical s t r a i n - e n e r g y r e l e a s e rates a n d s t r e s s
Section, U n i v e r s i t y of N e w South Wales, Australia. intensity factors.
(2) B.E. (N.Z.), M.N.Z.I.E., Professional Officer, Basic a s s u m p t i o n s r e l a t i n g to the a l l o w a n c e for
D e p a r t m e n t of S t r u c t u r a l Engineering, U n i v e r s i t y of slow c r a c k growth, s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s b e c a u s e of
N e w South Wales, Sydney, Australia. notches, a n d v a l u e s of elastic m o d u l u s to b e a d o p t e d

171
VOL. 2 -- N ~ 9 -- | 969 -- M A T I ~ R I A U X ET C O N S T R U C T I O N S

for the calculation of the fracture t o u g h n e s s p a r a - cular to the p l a n e of the crack, at a point a small dis-
m e t e r s are p r o p o s e d . The effects of these a s s u m p - tance r from the c r a c k tip, is : - -
tions on actual values a r e r e p o r t e d . Finally, the
t r e n d of fracture t o u g h n e s s v a l u e s found with c o r r e s - cos ~ 0 30
p o n d i n g c h a n g e s in other c o n c r e t e p r o p e r t i e s is i+si . (7)
discussed.

w h e r e 0 is the a n g l e f o r m e d b y the radius r a n d the

x axis.
BASIS OF F R A C T U R E M E C H A N I C S
This c o n c e p t a l l o w e d a m o r e straight-forward
criterion to b e u s e d for fracture, n a m e l y the critical
stress intensity factor, Kc (or " c r a c k t o u g h n e s s ").
F r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s deals with the forces associa-
Thus the little u n d e r s t o o d s u r f a c e e n e r g y (T) a n d
ted with the r u p t u r e of a solid b o d y and, in particu-
plastic work (W) t e r m s in e q u a t i o n 3 w e r e b y p a s s e d .
lar, with the b a l a n c e of e n e r g i e s i n v o l v e d with the
A further a d v a n t a g e of u s i n g the stress intensity
p r o p a g a t i o n of a crack.
factor is that the i n d i v i d u a l K v a l u e s a r e additive for
The well k n o w n Griffith criterion is that crack s u p e r i m p o s e d stress fields.
p r o p a g a t i o n in a brittle material occurs w h e n the rate The stress intensity factor is r e l a t e d to the strain-
of r e l e a s e of strain e n e r g y is at least e q u a l to the rate e n e r g y r e l e a s e rate. Some authorities i n t r o d u c e
of i n c r e a s e in free surface e n e r g y (with r e s p e c t to 1
c r a c k area) d u e to the formation of n e w surface area. a factor of 1,-~Y-in this relationship. H o w e v e r , in
For the classical case of an elliptical hole or thin V"
crack, of l e n g t h 2c, in a plate of brittle material s u b - this p a p e r the m o r e w i d e l y u s e d relationships h a v e
j e c t e d to a p l a n e stress field, z, b e e n a d o p t e d [8], as follows : - -
~2C For p l a n e stress : K = VEG (8)
E
- - aT (1)
For p l a n e strain : K =
]/ Eo
(1 - - F 2) (9)
in which T is the specific surface e n e r g y , a n d E the
elastic modulus. The critical stress intensity factor, Kc, c o r r e s p o n d s
i.e. ~ : V(aET/=c) (2) to the critical s t r a i n - e n e r g y r e l e a s e rate a n d is also
an important m e a s u r e of f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s :
The Griffith a p p r o a c h was e x t e n d e d to ductile
materials b y c o n s i d e r i n g the additional work c a u s e d For plane strain : Kc = / (i E__V2)
Go
(io)
b y plastic deformation, W, thus : - -
~2c 8W
E -- 2T + 8c (3)
C O M P R E S S I O N FAILURE O F P L A I N C O N C R E T E

The s t r a i n - e n e r g y r e l e a s e rate (G) m a y b e defin- In uniaxial c o m p r e s s i o n of c o n c r e t e t h e r e is indi-

e d as the quantity of s t o r e d elastic s t r a i n - e n e r g y rect e v i d e n c e that the existing m i c r o c r a c k s d e v e l o p
r e l e a s e d from a c r a c k i n g s p e c i m e n as a result of a n d n e w cracks o c c u r at a b o u t 50 % of ultimate load.
e x t e n s i o n of the a d v a n c i n g crack b y a unit area. It s e e m s p r o b a b l e that at e v e n l o w e r load levels,
The strain e n e r g y r e l e a s e d from a v o l u m e of r a d i u s tensile or s h e a r b o n d failures at the a g g r e g a t e - p a s t e
c, for a crack of l e n g t h 2c in a stress field z (unit interface are initiated in s a t u r a t e d s p e c i m e n s a n d
thickness), is : s h r i n k a g e cracks b e g i n to e x t e n d in d r i e d speci-
mens.
E n e r g y release, U : ~ x (volume, or ~c ~)
Glucklich [3] has i n d i c a t e d that the tensile stresses
8U ~2c existing at the e n d s of a n i n c l i n e d crack can e x t e n d
h e n c e , E n e r g y r e l e a s e rate, G - 8c- E (4) the crack a n d r e l e a s e strain e n e r g y . These crack
e x t e n s i o n s will b e p a r a l l e l to the d i r e c t i o n of c o m p r e s -
sion since this is the only d i r e c t i o n without a c o m p r e s -
The critical s t r a i n - e n e r g y r e l e a s e rate or " fracture sive stress n o r m a l to it (see fig. 1).
t o u g h n e s s " (G=) is the c o m p o n e n t of w o r k i r r e v e r -
sibly a b s o r b e d in local plastic flow a n d c l e a v a g e sur- It has b e e n s u g g e s t e d that the s t r a i n - e n e r g y r e l e a s e
face t e n s i o n to create a n e w unit a r e a of fracture. rate m a y b e i n d e p e n d e n t of c r a c k length, in a c o m p r e s -
This c o r r e s p o n d s to the value of G at the onset of sive stress field, so that the strain e n e r g y r e l e a s e d
u n s t a b l e crack p r o p a g a t i o n . G c is a s s u m e d to b y crack formation, U, is : - -
b e a material constant which is i n d e p e n d e n t of b o d y ~bc (~comp.)2
g e o m e t r y a n d loads, a n d is a p p l i c a b l e to both brittle U -- 2E (il)
a n d ductile materials.
w h e r e b a n d c a r e c r a c k d i m e n s i o n s s h o w n in figure 1.
G= = =~2c=/E (for p l a n e stress) (5)
Hence :
G~ = ~z2cc (1 - - ~2)/E (for p l a n e strain) (6) aU ~b (~comp.)~
O - ~c -- 2E (12)
w h e r e c~ is the critical crack l e n g t h a n d ~ is Poisson's
ratio. On the other hand, Glucklich [9] has also r e p o r t e d
a theoretical r e l a t i o n s h i p for c o m p r e s s i o n which
A further i m p o r t a n t d e v e l o p m e n t was I r w i n ' s i n v o l v e s crack l e n g t h (see fig. 1) : - -
c o n c e p t of a stress intensity factor (K) [7]. Using
W e s t e r g a a r d ' s stress field e q u a t i o n s for c l e a v a g e ~c (~comp.)~.sin 2 ~ . c o s 2 ~ (1 - - ~ )
Gccomp. = E (13)
m o d e cracks, Irwin s h o w e d that the stress p e r p e n d i -

172
 G . B. W E L C H -- B. H A I S M A N

CY blunted, h e n c e l o w e r i n g the l o c a l i s e d s t r e s s c o n c e n -
tration. E x a m p l e s of s u c h b l u n t i n g h a v e b e e n d e t e c t -
e d b y I s e n b e r g [11] u s i n g X - r a d i o g r a p h y .
Glucklich [4] has s u g g e s t e d that the e n e r g y r e q u i -
r e m e n t c u r v e for c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n is not a straight
line for c o n c r e t e b u t a c u r v e with an a s c e n d i n g slope.
T h e r e is an i n c r e a s e in e n e r g y d e m a n d as the c r a c k
g r o w s , c a u s e d b y b o t h the m a n y d i s c r e t e c r a c k s a n d
C b y the c r a c k a r r e s t m e c h a n i s m d u e to h e t e r o g e n e i t y .
This c o r r e s p o n d s to the " slow c r a c k g r o w t h " s t a g e
o b s e r v e d b y s o m e e x p e r i m e n t e r s . The c r i t e r i o n
for slow c r a c k g r o w t h is that a c r a c k will a l w a y s
2b~ 1
p r o p a g a t e to b a l a n c e the total e n e r g y of the system.
F i g u r e 2 s h o w s this effect. A n initial ( p r i o r to
load) c r a c k of l e n g t h c o will b e g i n to g r o w u n d e r a
s t r e s s ao, b u t will b e c h e c k e d at c 1 b e c a u s e of the
i n c r e a s e in e n e r g y d e m a n d . The s t r e s s will h a v e
to i n c r e a s e to zl b e f o r e this, o r s o m e o t h e r c r a c k
continues to g r o w to l e n g t h c 2. At A, the c r a c k will
FZG. ~. ~ Propagation of a Skew Elliptical Crack in a g r o w s p o n t a n e o u s l y . G~ is, t h e r e f o r e , the m a x i m u m
Compressive Field. s l o p e a t t a i n e d b y the e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t curve.

W h e t h e r G~ is i n d e p e n d e n t of c r a c k l e n g t h o r not
(eq. 12, 13), it can b e s h o w n that in a c o m p r e s s i v e /
field, c r a c k s a r e i n h e r e n t l y m o r e stable than c r a c k s /
in a tensile field. F u r t h e r , tensile c r a c k s d e v e l o p e d I
Energy /
in a c o m p r e s s i o n test a r e e a s i l y a r r e s t e d a n d the
t e n d e n c y is for p r o g r e s s i v e c r a c k i n g to o c c u r with Requirement
Curve %
i n c r e a s i n g load. Thus, final fracture is d e l a y e d b y
the d e v e l o p m e n t of m a n y c r a c k s p a r a l l e l to the axis
/ /
of l o a d i n g a n d the s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e has a m u c h
g r e a t e r c u r v a t u r e than irf a tension test [4].
Details of e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k to m e a s u r e Gc in
L_
/
/! a Strain Energy
c o m p r e s s i o n h a v e not b e e n r e p o r t e d . A l t h o u g h LO R e L e a s e Curves
c o m p r e s s i o n testing is the most c o m m o n c o n c r e t e ~C202
test it is also v e r y difficult to i n t e r p r e t . N e v e r t h e -
less, from the f o r e g o i n g the i m p o r t a n c e of the p r o p a - E
gation of tensile c r a c k s is a p p a r e n t , e v e n with
c o m p r e s s i v e loading.
/ /j /
/ ~
TENSILE FAILURE OF PLAIN CONCRETE

Co CI C2 c 3 C4 C5
Most of the l i m i t e d r e s e a r c h r e p o r t e d on the a p p l i -
cation of the e n e r g y c o n c e p t of fracture m e c h a n i c s Crack Length C
to c o n c r e t e has b e e n c a r r i e d out on flexure o r tensile
s p e c i m e n s . Also, the theoretical p r o p a g a t i o n of FIG. 2. - - Slow Crack Growth in a Tensile Stress Field (after
tensile c r a c k s in a tensile s t r e s s field is less c o m p l e x Glucklich).
a n d is e a s i e r to c o n s i d e r than the c o m p r e s s i v e case.
The original t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k of Griffith a n d others, E x a m p l e s of the i n c r e a s e in e n e r g y d e m a n d with
p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d , a p p l i e s d i r e c t l y to the tensile c r a c k g r o w t h in f l e x u r e tests w e r e also s h o w n e x p e r -
case. Thus the p r e v i o u s e q u a t i o n s for G c a n d zy imentally b y W e l c h [10]. T h e s e tests s h o w e d that
a p p l y (eq. 5, 6 a n d 7). s l o w l y p r o p a g a t i n g c r a c k s w e r e h a l t e d in s o m e c a s e s
Tensile f r a c t u r e in c o n c r e t e is not limited to o n e a n d then a d j a c e n t c r a c k s continued, with i n c r e a s i n g
crack, h o w e v e r , but a multitude of m i c r o c r a c k s load, e v e n n e a r 95 % of ultimate load. It was also
c o v e r the e n t i r e h i g h l y s t r e s s e d zone [4, 10]. It i n d i c a t e d that the failure of m o r t a r s p e c i m e n s in
is b e l i e v e d that the e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n e n t is i n c r e a s - flexure was different to c o n c r e t e , p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e
e d a b o u t ten-fold b y the n e w l y f o r m e d m i c r o c r a c k of l a r g e r p a s t e d e f o r m a t i o n s a n d i n c r e a s e d m i c r o -
s u r f a c e s [1]; this is a n a l o g o u s to the l a r g e e n e r g y c r a c k i n g p e r unit v o l u m e w h i c h c a u s e d l a r g e r strains
a s s o c i a t e d with the plastic d e f o r m a t i o n of metals. at failure.
H e t e r o g e n e i t y in c o n c r e t e u n d o u b t e d l y c o m p l i - T h e m e c h a n i s m of p r o g r e s s i v e m i c r o c r a c k i n g with
c a t e s the d e t a i l e d s t u d y of f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s in so i n c r e a s i n g l o a d (" s l o w c r a c k g r o w t h "), e v e n in
far as it c r e a t e s non-uniform e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t s tension, is r e a s o n a b l y e s t a b l i s h e d . H o w e v e r , the
for c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n . A c r a c k which e n c o u n t e r s calculation of Gc o r Kc of c o n c r e t e i n t r o d u c e s the
an a g g r e g a t e p a r t i c l e o r an o t h e r w i s e s t r o n g e r z o n e p r a c t i c a l difficulty of m e a s u r i n g the critical c r a c k
m a y g o a r o u n d it o r t h r o u g h it, b u t in e i t h e r e v e n t l e n g t h " c~ " This is the c r a c k l e n g t h at the start
the e n e r g y d e m a n d is n o r m a l l y i n c r e a s e d . On of r a p i d c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n a n d after the e x t e n s i v e
m e e t i n g a c r a c k a r r e s t surface, the c r a c k tip m a y b e slow c r a c k g r o w t h stage.

173
 VOL. 2 ~ N ~ 9 -- 1969 -- MATI~RIAUX ET CONSTRUCTIONS

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH In this m e t h o d e x t e r n a l e n e r g y c h a n g e s a r e consi-

d e r e d , thus e l i m i n a t i n g the n e e d for the difficult
T h e r e a r e two basic m e t h o d s available to evaluate e x p e r i m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t of critical stress a n d cri-
c r a c k t o u g h n e s s of c o n c r e t e in tension. tical crack length at the o n s e t of fast crack p r o p a g a t i o n .
Firstly, if the stress at the o n s e t of u n s t a b l e crack It can b e shown that :
p r o p a g a t i o n can b e m e a s u r e d for the c o r r e s p o n d i n g i dx
critical crack length, eq. (6) a n d (10) m a y b e used. Gc = ~. F 2 d---c
If n o t c h e d b e a m s p e c i m e n s a r e tested in flexure,
the critical crack l e n g t h c~ s h o u l d i n c l u d e the equi-
v a l e n t l e n g t h of slow g r o w t h crack in addition to the w h e r e F is the e x t e r n a l f o r c e t r a n s v e r s e to crack,
notch depth. This l e n g t h of slow g r o w t h c r a c k m a y a n d x is the c o m p l i a n c e o r i n v e r s e s p r i n g constant.
b e found b y a c o m p l i a n c e t e c h n i q u e or p o s s i b l y
b y a special staining t e c h n i q u e . Values of d X / d c m a y b e f o u n d from load-defor-
mation curves, a n d h e n c e Gc c o m p u t e d .
The c o m p l i a n c e t e c h n i q u e i n v o l v e s c o m p a r i n g the
s p e c i m e n c o m p I i a n c e at failure with c o m p l i a n c e Kaplan [1] was the first to r e p o r t m e a s u r e m e n t s of
m e a s u r e m e n t s f o u n d from similar s p e c i m e n s with G c for concrete. U s i n g s a t u r a t e d c o n c r e t e a n d mor-
artificially e x t e n d e d notches. The c o m p l i a n c e of a tar b e a m s p e c i m e n s with 30 o a n g l e notches cast at
s p e c i m e n of u n k n o w n total crack d e p t h c c, c o m p r i s - m i d - s p a n , he found a v e r a g e v a l u e s for G~ of 0.11 in-
i n g original notch plus slow g r o w t h crack, will b e l b / i n 2 (0.020 c m - k g / c m 2) for a m o r t a r with water-
r e p r e s e n t e d b y a line j o i n i n g the o r i g i n of a load- c e m e n t ratio 0.50 a n d solid v o l u m e fraction of c e m e n t
d e f o r m a t i o n c u r v e to the point of c o m m e n c e m e n t paste about 0.48. O t h e r G c v a l u e s r e p o r t e d w e r e
of fast c r a c k i n g or " failure ". (This theoretically 0.12 i n - l b / i n2 (0.021 c m - k g / c m 2) for a limestone
a s s u m e s that the material is c o m p l e t e l y elastic). c o n c r e t e with w a t e r - c e m e n t ratio 0.50 a n d c e m e n t
The actual value of c C for n o t c h e d s p e c i m e n s u n d e r paste fraction a b o u t 0,30, a n d 0.08 i n - l b / i n 2 (0.014 cm-
test m a y then b e found from the p r e v i o u s l y construct- k g / c m 2) for a g r a v e l c o n c r e t e with w a t e r - c e m e n t
e d c u r v e of c o m p l i a n c e v e r s u s artificially e x t e n d e d ratio 0.60 a n d c e m e n t p a s t e fraction about 0.29.
notch depth.
A further c o r r e c t i o n for stress concentration, Kaplan m a d e no c o r r e c t i o n for slow crack g r o w t h
b e c a u s e of the notch, must b e m a d e with this test. in his calculations. The v a l u e s of G~, b a s e d only
The valid form of this c o r r e c t i o n does not a p p e a r on the original d e p t h of notch, w o u l d b e c o n s i d e r a b l y
to b e clearly e s t a b l i s h e d at this stage a n d different l o w e r ( p r o b a b l y b y m o r e than 40 %) than if the crack
v a l u e s m a y b e o b t a i n e d u s i n g different methods. d e p t h at onset of fast c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n was used.
The m e t h o d of W i n n e a n d W u n d t [12] gives : - - O n the other hand, Glucklich [13] s u b s e q u e n t l y r e p o r t -
e d u s i n g a c o m p l i a n c e t e c h n i q u e to allow for slow
crack growth, a n d f o u n d s o m e w h a t similar values of
Gc (14)
- E td! G c as : 0.12 i n - l b / i n 2 ( n o t c h e d ) a n d 0.11 i n - l b / i n 2
( u n - n o t c h e d beams). However, Glucklich also
where u s e d a different m e t h o d of m e a s u r i n g E, so that his
results a r e not strictly c o m p a r a b l e with those of
z,, = n o m i n a l stress at root of notch, Kaplan.
d = d e p t h of b e a m , with notch c,
Romualdi a n d Batson [2] t e s t e d l a r g e c o n c r e t e
plates, with centrally l o c a t e d slots, in tension. Their
values for Gc r a n g e d from 0.03 to 0.07 i n - l b / i n 2
(0.0054 to 0.0125 c m - k g / c m 2) with i n c r e a s i n g slot
than 15 % of b e a m depth), a n d g r a p h e d values for length, although no details of their c o n c r e t e w e r e
d e e p e r notches. However, e v e n w h e n u s i n g this given. The authors also p o i n t e d out that no c o r r e c -
formula, quite different c o r r e c t i o n values m a y be tion was m a d e for p o s s i b l e s l o w c r a c k growth p r i o r
obtained d e p e n d i n g upon assumptions regarding the to fracture a n d that their c o m p u t e d values of G o,
" effective notch d e p t h " (c) a d o p t e d . b a s e d on original crack l e n g t h , w e r e " s o m e w h a t
in e r r o r "
Using a n o t h e r a p p r o a c h , the Authors d e r i v e d an
e x p r e s s i o n for G~, b a s e d o n a simple linear stress Lott a n d Kesler [5] c o n s i d e r e d the fracture tough-
g r a d i e n t existing in a flexure s p e c i m e n . The e x p r e s - n e s s of c o n c r e t e in t e r m s of a critical " p s e u d o "
sion is : - - stress intensity factor, K'c; the " p s e u d o " was intro-
d u c e d into the t e r m b e c a u s e of a s s u m p t i o n s of homo-
g e n e i t y , etc. This factor c o m p r i s e d the fracture
Go= E t o u g h n e s s of the c e m e n t paste p l u s a factor to allow
(15) for the c r a c k - a r r e s t i n g a c t i o n of the a g g r e g a t e .
However, the s e p a r a t e c o m p o n e n t s of K w e r e not
w h e r e ~f = n o m i n a l e x t r e m e fibre stress, m e a s u r e d directly. Mortar a n d c o n c r e t e b e a m s
a n d A i, A 2, A 3 a r e coefficients d e r i v e d for the parti- 4 x 4 x 12 inch with a 30 o c a s t notch w e r e tested.
c u l a r form of test. Values of Kc r a n g e d from 0.27 to 0.36 k i p s / i n 3/2
This c o r r e s p o n d e d to v a l u e s of G c r a n g i n g from
H o w e v e r , the actual values of the coefficients in a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.02 i n - l b / i n ~ (0.0036 c m - k g / c m ~)
this e x p r e s s i o n d e p e n d p r i n c i p a l l y on simplifying for a m o r t a r with w a t e r - c e m e n t ratio 0.50 a n d solid
a s s u m p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the c o m p l e x a n d u n c e r t a i n v o l u m e fraction of c e m e n t p a s t e of about 0.48, to
state of stress existing. 0.03 i n - l b / i n2 (0.0054 c m - k g / c m 2) for c o n c r e t e with
The s e c o n d m e t h o d of m e a s u r i n g crack t o u g h n e s s w a t e r - c e m e n t ratio 0.60 a n d c e m e n t paste fraction
i n v o l v e s the so-called " c o m p l i a n c e calibration " a b o u t 0.25. No a l l o w a n c e was m a d e for slow crack
o r e x p e r i m e n t a l e n e r g y rate analysis. growth.

174
 G . B. W E L C H -- B. H A I S M A N

E F F E C T OF BASIC ASSUMPTIONS A N D C O N - the W i n n e an d W u n d t e x p r e s s i o n (eq. 14). S o m e

CRETE P R O P E R T I E S ON FRACTURE TOUGH- o t h e r e x p r e s s i o n s ( i n c l u d i n g that of the Authors)
NESS VALUES d i s p e n s e with the calculation of " ~, " a n d u se sim-
p l y " zf ", the n o m i n al e x t r e m e fibre stress. This is
An e x p e r i m e n t a l investigation c a r r i e d out b y the m e r e l y a rationalisation or simplification of the e x p r e s -
Authors at the U n i v e r s i t y of N e w South W a l e s indi- sion, t h e r e is no f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e in its form.
c a t e d that fracture t o u g h n e s s v a l u e s a r e c o n s i d e - The t h r e e sets of b a s i c assu m p t i o n s ( r e g a r d i n g
r a b l y i n f l u e n c e d b y the m o d e of calculation a n d b y e x p e r i m e n t a l values) a d o p t e d w e r e : - -
the basic as s u m p t i o n s a d o p t e d .
" A ssu m p t i o n s A " : Th e nominal stress at root
Firstly, the actual e x p r e s s i o n a d o p t e d for the cal- of notch, zo, is c a l c u l a t e d on the original notch depth,
culaffon of G c or Kc m a y v a r y with alJowances m a d e c o, an d the c o r r e c t i o n factor f ( c / d ) is also b a s e d on
for s p e c i m e n an d l o a d i n g g e o m e t r y , a n d will also c o. A nominal v a l u e of E, b a s e d on d y n a m i c m e a -
v a r y with the stress g r a d i e n t a s s u m e d in the vicinity s u r e m e n t s on r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s p e c i m e n s for e a c h
of the notch. The tentative e x p r e s s i o n d e r i v e d b y c o n c r e t e class is also a d o p t e d .
the Authors, (eq. 15), which was b a s e d on a l i n e a r
stress g rad i en t , g a v e significantly Io~ver G~ v a l u e s " A s s u m p t i o n s B " : Th e n o m i n al stress, z n, a nd
than W i n n e a n d W u n d ts ' e x p r e s s i o n (eq. 14) w h i ch f(c/d) a r e b a s e d on o r i g i n a l notch depth, c o, as in
r e s u l t e d from an analysis of a uniform stress field " A ssu m p t i o n s A " . H o w e v e r , the v a l u e of E is cal-
in a semi-infinite m e d i u m . Two o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s cu l at ed d i r e c t l y f r o m the s l o p e of the l o a d - d e f o r m a -
[5, 14] h a v e r e p o r t e d u s in g e x p r e s s i o n s w h i c h also tion c u r v e in e a c h case. B e c a u s e of n o n - l i n e a r
a p p e a r to g i v e l o w e r G~ v a l u e s a n d w h ic h p r e s u - relationships in most cases, the s e c a n t m o d u l u s is
m a b l y w e r e also d e r i v e d for s o m e t y p e of stress a d o p t e d b e t w e e n 0 a n d 70 % of ultimate load, an d a
gr a di en t . c o r r e c t i o n is also m a d e for s h e a r deflection.
S e c o n d l y t h e r e is d o u b t c o n c e r n i n g the p r o p e r It m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d that the a d o p t i o n of this
e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s to b e u s e d in the a d o p t e d e x p r e s - l o w e r v a l u e of E takes into account, to s o m e extent,
sion. The u s e of original notch d e p t h " c o " for the slow c r a c k g r o w t h a n d c r e e p effect d u r i n g load-
" c " will g i v e l o w e r values than if an a l l o w a n c e ing. C o n s e q u e n t l y , it c o u l d b e a r g u e d that it
is m a d e for slow c r a c k growth, in w h i c h c a s e the w o u l d b e i n c o r r e c t to u s e both this v a l u e of E a nd
critical c r a c k d e p t h " c~ " is u s e d in the calculation. allow for slow c r a c k g r o w t h in addition.
E v e n the m e t h o d of m e a s u r e m e n t of E (such as b y " A s s u m p t i o n s C " : Th e nominal stress at root of
s l o p e of l o a d - d e f o r m a t i o n c u r v e , c o m p a r e d with notch, z,, is c a l c u l a t e d on the critical notch depth,
d y n a m i c m e t h o d s ) m a y influence the v a l u e of G~ c c, w h i ch is b a s e d on the c o m p l i a n c e t e c h n i q u e to
b y a factor of ab o u t 0.6. H o w e v e r , in this latter case, estimate slow c r a c k g r o w t h p r i o r to the onset of
K~ is i n d e p e n d e n t of E a n d is not affected. fast c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n . Similarly f ( c / d ) is b a s e d on
In the Authors' investigations, b e a m s p e c i m e n s this critical notch depth. The nominal v al u e of E,
w e r e p r e p a r e d with different t y p e s of n o t c h e s (includ- b a s e d on d y n a m i c m e a s u r e m e n t s , as in " A s s u m p -
ing those cast against r a z o r b l a d e t i p p e d f o r m e r s ) an d tions A ", is used.
also saw-cuts of v a r y i n g depths. A w i d e r a n g e of It might b e s u g g e s t e d that a fourth set of assu mp-
c e m e n t pastes, m o r t a r s and c o n c r e t e s w e r e e x a m i n e d tions shou]d b e c o n s i d e r e d , i n v o l v i n g the u se of ~o
(details to b e published). L o a d - d e f o r m a t i o n c u r v e s b a s e d on slow c r a c k g r o w t h an d co, as in " A s s u m p -
w e r e a n a l y s e d b y a c o m p l i a n c e t e c h n i q u e to calcu- tions C ", but that the l o w e r v a l u e of E b e used,
late e q u i v a l e n t d e p t h of notch o r slow c r a c k growth. as in " A s s u m p t i o n s B ". The p o s s i b ] e e r r o r intro-
The effect of different basic assumptions r e g a r d i n g d u c e d b y a l l o w i n g t w i ce for s o m e of the slow c r a c k
actual or d e r i v e d e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s u s e d to cal- g r o w t h has a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d . H o w e v e r ,
culate fracture t o u g h n e s s was i n v e s t ig a t e d . T h r e e c o m p a r a t i v e v a l u e s h a v e b e e n i n c l u d e d b e l o w to
sets of assumptions w e r e a d o p t e d , although it was s h o w this effect.
r e c o g n i s e d that o t h e r combinations w e r e p o s s i b l e. The effects of t h e s e v a r i o u s assu m p t i o n s on the
It s h o u l d b e n o t e d that the fracture t o u g h n e s s v a l u e s fracture t o u g h n e s s v a l u e s for a typical structural
r e p o r t e d h e r e , for c o m p a r i s o n , w e r e calculated b y class of c o n c r e t e a r e s h o w n in T a b l e I. F o r c o m p a -

TABLE I

Effect of a s s u m p t i o n s on Gc a n d Kc

Gc Kc
Assumption '~ C ,i
f(c/d)
Set (in) ]b/in 2
I in- 1b / i n 2 c m - k g / c m 2 k i p / i n 3t2 k g / c m 3/2

"A" :
c = co, E = E d y n . . . . 0.50 0.26 5.5 • 106 0.060 0.011 0.588 65.9
" B " :
c = co, E = Estatic . . . 0.50 0.26 3.3 • 106 0.100 0.018 0.588 65.9
" C" :
c = cc E = E d y n . . . . 0.92 0.38 5.5 • 106 0.128 0.023 0.855 95.8
*" Misc. " :
c = cc, E = E s t a t i c . . . 0.92 0.38 3.3 • 106 0.214 0.038 0.855 95.8
* (Not r e c o m m e n d e d ) .

175
VOL. 2 -- N ~ 9 -- 1969 --MATI~RIAUX ET CONSTRUCTIONS

r i s o n with p r e v i o u s w o r k t h e s e v a l u e s a r e b a s e d on few r e p o r t e d v a l u e s h a v e d i f f e r e d with little a p p a -

the W i n n e a n d W u n d t f o r m of e x p r e s s i o n . The r e n t explanation. To c o m p a r e results it w o u l d b e
c o n c r e t e h a d a w a t e r - c e m e n t ratio of 0.55 a n d 0.28 n e c e s s a r y for r e s e a r c h w o r k e r s to a d o p t m o r e uni-
s o l i d v o l u m e fraction of c e m e n t paste. It will b e f o r m test m e t h o d s , as is b e i n g d o n e with metals, a n d
s e e n that the v a l u e of Gc m a y b e m o r e than d o u b l e d to a d o p t similar a l l o w a n c e s for s u c h u n c e r t a i n quan-
(for this p a r t i c u l a r c o n c r e t e ) w h e n c h a n g i n g from tifies as s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s b e c a u s e of notches,
a s s u m p t i o n set " A " to a s s u m p t i o n set " C ". A s l o w c r a c k growth, a n d v a l u e s of E.
further i n c r e a s e of a b o u t 60 % was found if the fourth It is p r o p o s e d that the f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s p a r a m e -
set of " m i s c e l l a n e o u s " a s s u m p t i o n s w e r e u s e d . t e r s Gc a n d Kc b e c a l c u l a t e d on the b a s i s of s p e c i -
The variation of G~ v a l u e s was also found to b e fic assumptions. T h r e e s e t s of a s s u m p t i o n s h a v e
c o n s i d e r a b l y i n f l u e n c e d b y the t y p e of c o n c r e t e . b e e n s u g g e s t e d , r e l a t i n g to the a l l o w a n c e for slow
F o r low s t r e n g t h c o n c r e t e the v a l u e of G~ was l o w e r c r a c k g r o w t h (or not), s t r e s s at notch root, a n d E
than for h i g h s t r e n g t h c o n c r e t e m a d e from s i m i l a r v a l u e s to b e u s e d . It is p r o p o s e d , further, that G c
m a t e r i a l s a n d w h e n c a l c u l a t e d on the s a m e set of a n d Kc v a l u e s for c o n c r e t e s h o u l d b e r e p o r t e d for
a s s u m p t i o n s . Thus, Gc values, m e a s u r e d for a w i d e o n e o r all of t h e s e s p e c i f i c a s s u m p t i o n s , to allow com-
r a n g e of c o n c r e t e s , w e r e from 0.05 i n - l b / i n 2 (0.009 cm- p a r i s o n of different r e s e a r c h results. It s h o u l d b e
k g / c m 2) to 0.12 i n - l b / i n 2 (0.021 c m - k g / c m 2) e v e n p o i n t e d out, h o w e v e r , ' that at this s t a g e it is still
t h o u g h the s a m e set of a s s u m p t i o n s (" A ") w e r e i m p o r t a n t to e x p l o r e the effect of different test
u s e d for e a c h calculation. It was a p p a r e n t that m e t h o d s , s p e c i m e n t y p e s a n d size effects, b e f o r e
G c not only_ i n c r e a s e d with s t r e n g t h but also with t r y i n g to s t a n d a r d i z e t h e s e v a r i a b l e s p r e m a t u r e l y .
i n c r e a s i n g solid v o l u m e fraction of c e m e n t p a s t e
F r o m the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h to date, it a p p e a r s
(for c o n c r e t e s with similar consistencies), a n d with
that the fracture m e c h a n i c s p a r a m e t e r s G~ a n d K~
i m p r o v e d a g g r e g a t e characteristics.
cannot b e m o r e than m a t e r i a l constants for the p a r t i -
c u l a r m o r t a r o r c o n c r e t e u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . In
CONCLUSIONS
g e n e r a l , v a l u e s of t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s a r e e x p e c t e d
to i n c r e a s e with : - -
T h e r e is no d o u b t that the e n e r g y c o n c e p t s of (a) i m p r o v e d quality of c e m e n t p a s t e (low g e l /
f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s can b e a p p l i e d to the c r a c k p r o - s p a c e ratio o r low w a t e r - c e m e n t ratio a n d i n c r e a s e d
p a g a t i o n a n d failure m e c h a n i s m of c o n c r e t e . How- hydration);
e v e r , t h e r e a r e s o m e difficulties i n t r o d u c e d b e c a u s e (b) i n c r e a s e d s o l i d v o l u m e fraction of c e m e n t
of h e t e r o g e n e i t y a n d the action of c r a c k a r r e s t e r s paste, (with c o n c r e t e s of s i m i l a r consistencies);
in c o n c r e t e a n d also b e c a u s e of the m o d e of failure
in which m i c r o c r a c k s d e v e l o p a n d a zone of m i c r o - (c) i m p r o v e d a g g r e g a t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( b e t t e r
c r a c k i n g i n c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s i n g load. These, b o n d a n d surface t e x t u r e p r o p e r t i e s , b e t t e r g r a d i n g
in turn, i n t r o d u c e difficulties in m e t h o d s of calculating a n d h e n c e b e t t e r p a c k i n g c o n t r a r y to (b));
t h e f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s p a r a m e t e r s for c o n c r e t e . (d) r e d u c e d discontinuities and cracks existing
In g e n e r a l , it has b e e n s h o w n that the critical strain- p r i o r to loading.
e n e r g y r e l e a s e rate is a s t r e n g t h d e t e r m i n i n g p r o - A l t h o u g h m e t h o d s of test a n d a s s u m p t i o n s u s e d in
p e r t y of c o n c r e t e for b o t h c o m p r e s s i o n o r t e n s i o n calculations of Gr o r Kc a p p e a r to influence their
l o a d i n g . It is b e l i e v e d that in c o m p r e s s i o n , f r a c t u r e m a g n i t u d e significantly, G~ a n d Kc n e v e r t h e l e s s m a y
is p r e c e d e d b y a p r o c e s s of p r o g r e s s i v e c r a c k i n g , b e c o n s i d e r e d to b e m a t e r i a l constants for a p a r t i -
p a r a l l e l to the axis of l o a d i n g , until sufficient internal c u l a r c o n c r e t e in the s a m e w a y as ultimate strength,
d i s r u p t i o n has o c c u r r e d for final b r e a k d o w n . In d y n a m i c elastic m o d u l u s o r e v e n v i b r a t i o n a l d a m p -
tension, a similar slow c r a c k g r o w t h o c c u r s b u t this i n g coefficient a r e also m a t e r i a l constants. Just
is m o r e c o m m o n l y r e s t r i c t e d to a zone of m i c r o c r a c k - as t h e r e is no d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n ultimate
i n g in the vicinity of the final fracture crack. c o m p r e s s i v e strength, u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h o r
The p u b l i s h e d results of e x p e r i m e n t a l investi- elastic m o d u l u s of c o n c r e t e b u t m e r e l y a g e n e r a l
gations into the p r o b l e m h a v e b e e n v e r y l i m i t e d to t r e n d with similar c o n c r e t e t y p e s , so it a p p e a r s that
date. I n d i v i d u a l w o r k e r s h a v e u s e d different m e t h o d t h e r e is a g e n e r a l t r e n d r e l a t i n g the fundamental
to e v a l u a t e the critical s t r a i n - e n e r g y r e l e a s e rate, G~ v a l u e with t h e s e arbitrary s t r e n g t h m e a s u r e m e n t s ,
G~, o r the critical s t r e s s intensity factor, K~, so that the for similar c o n c r e t e s .

176
 G. B. W E L C H -- B. H A I S M A N

REFERENCES

[1] KAI"LArr M. F. - - Crack propagation and the [9] GLUCKLICH, J. - - The effect of microcracking
fracture of concrete. Journal of the American on time-dependent deformations and the long-
Concrete Institute. Proceedings, Vol. 58, No. term strength of concrete. International Confe-
5, November, 1961, pp. 591-610. rence on the Structure of Concrete, London.
Paper C.I. September 1965.
[2] ROMrrALDI, J. P. and BATSON, G. B. - - Mechan-
ics of crack arrest in concrete. Proceedings of
the American Society of Civil Engineers. Vol. 89, [10] WELCH, G. B.- Tensile strains in unreinforced
No. EM3, June 1963, pp. 147-168. concrete beams. Magazine of Concrete Research.
Vol. 18, No. 54, March, 1966. pp. 9-18.
[3] GLUCKLICH, J. - - On the compression failure
of plain concrete. University of Illinois, Urbana.
T. & A.M. Report No 215, March 1962, 3t pp. [111 ISENBERG, J. - - A study of cracks in concrete
by X-radiography. R I L E M Bulletin No. 30,
[4] GLUCKLICH, J. - - Fracture of plain concrete. March, 1966, pp. 107-115.
Proceedings of the Americain Society of Civil
Engineers. Vol. 89, No. EM6, December, 1963,
pp. 127d38. [12] WINNE, D. H. and WUNDT, B. M. - - Appli-
cation of the Grijfith-Irwin theory of crack pro-
[5] LOTT, J. L. and KESLER, C. E. - - Crack pro- pagation to the bursting behavioar of discs, includ-
pagation in plain concrete. University of Illi- ing analytical and experimental studies. Trans-
nois, Urbana. T. & A.M. Report No. 648, 1964. actions of the American Society of Mechanical
[6] KAPLAr% M. F. -- Application of fracture Engineers. Vol. 80, 1958, pp. 1643-1655.
mechanics to concrete. International Conference
on the Structure of Concrete, London. Paper
[13] GLUCKI,ICH, J. - - The flexural static and fatigue
D.1. September, 1965. :
failure of Portland cement mortar. University
[7] IRWIN, G. R. - - Analysis of stresses and strains of Illinois, Urbana, T. & A.M. Report No. 622,
near the end of a crack traversing a plate. Jour- August 1962, 66 pp.
nal of Applied Mechanics. Vol. 24, No. 3, Sep-
tember, 1957, pp. 351-364.
[14] BROWN, W . F . , Jr., and SCRAWLEY, J . E . --
[8] American Society for Testing Materials. -- Plane strain crack toughness testing of high
Fracture toughness testing and its application. strength metallic materials. A.S.T.M. Special
A.S.T.M. Special Technical Publication No. 381, Technical Publication No. 410. December 1966,
1965, 409 pp. 129 pp.

177