Electricity Forum Handbooks

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook Series

ELECTRICAL SAFETY &

Volume 10

ARC FLASH Handbook

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 ELECTRICAL SAFETY
AND ARC FLASH
Handbook
Volume 10
Published by The Electricity Forum

The Electricity Forum The Electricity Forum Inc.

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ELECTRICAL SAFETY
AND ARC FLASH
Handbook

Volume 10

Publisher & Executive Editor

Randolph W. Hurst

Managing Editor
Phill Feltham The Electricity Forum
A Division of the
The Hurst Communications Group Inc.
Advertising Sales All rights reserved. No part of
Tammy Williams this book may be reproduced
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Printed in Canada
ISBN-978-1-897474-31-0
The Electricity Forum
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Introduction

02 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

 Table of Contents
NEW OSHA UTILITY 04 DETECTING DANGER 42
SAFETY STANDARDS MARK ZELLER, Schweitzer Engineering
BLAIR THOMPSON & MR. DAVID WALLIS, Laboratories, Inc. & WILLIAM KNAPEK,
Directorate of Standards and Guidance OSHA OMICRON Electronics Corp.

MITIGATING ARC FLASH HAZARDS 08 NFPA 70E UPDATE AFFECTS 46

ANTONY PARSONS & REZA TAJALI, VALUABLE ASSETS
Schneider Electric Engineering Services JOHN FOGED, High Voltage Maintenance

HOW TO SELECT PPE USING NEW 12 THE IMPORTANCE OF LOCKOUT/TAGOUT 50

SAFETY STANDARDS MARTY KRONZ & MARK PFALLER, Panduit
MIKE FINNEL, Cintas Corporation
ELECTRICAL SAFETY BY DESIGN 54
IEEE UTILITY SAFETY STANDARDS 14 MASSIMO MITOLO,
JIM TOMASESKI, Vice Chair, Engineering Systems Inc. (ESI)
NESC Main Committee; Director of
Safety-Corporate, PAR Electrical Contractors

ARC FLASH RELAYS 18

JAKOB SEEDORFF, Littelfuse

FALL PROTECTION REGULATION 26

FOR UTILITIES
CRAIG FIRL, Capital Safety

IMPROVE SAFETY WITH ARC 30

FLASH LABELING
THOMAS SMITH, Brady Corporation

GUIDE TO ARC FLASH APPS 34

MICHAEL FURTAK, Mersen Canada

THE DANGERS OF ARC FLASH 36

JOHN PFEIFFER,
Pfeiffer Engineering Company Inc.

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 03

SAFETY STANDARDS

NEW OSHA
UTILITY
SAFETY
STANDARDS
A review of OSHA’s new electric
power generation, transmission,
and distribution and electrical
protective equipment standards

BY BLAIR THOMPSON & MR. DAVID WALLIS, Directorate of Society for Testing and Materials, and the Institute of Electrical
Standards and Guidance OSHA and Electronics Engineers.

THOUGHTS FROM THE TOP

On April 11, 2014, the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) “promulgated a final rule revising the
#2 It would remove differences between the construction
and general industry standards.

general industry and construction standards for work on electric

power generation, transmission, and distribution installations
and for electrical protective equipment”.
#3 It would provide protection not found in the previous
standards in four broad ways:
a) Add a requirement for information transfer between the host
In the OSHA regulations, Part 1910 of Chapter 29 of the Code and contractor and for job briefings.
of Federal Regulations covers general industry, and Part 1926 of b) Change the requirements for fall protection.
that same chapter covers construction. The revised construction c) Revise the approach-distance requirements for power line workers.
standard, which covers “the construction of transmission and d) Add requirements for protection from electric arc flash.
distribution lines and equipment”, had been unchanged since
1972. It was revised, in part, to “make it more consistent with the This white paper provides a glimpse of some of the changes
general industry standard”. OSHA’s final rule also added a new now in effect.
section for electrical protective equipment for construction.
In the construction standards, Section 1926.97 covers INFORMATION TRANSFER & JOB BRIEFINGS
electrical protective equipment, and Subpart V covers the Many general industry and construction jobsites have a host
construction of transmission and distribution facilities. For employer and contractor employer. The new standards require the
general industry, Section 1910.137 covers electrical protective transfer of information between the two employers and between
equipment, and Section 1910.269 covers the operation and all employers and employees in charge for job briefings.
maintenance of electric power generation, transmission, and The new standard’s preamble explains it is common for
distribution facilities. These two general industry standards were employers with electric power generation, transmission, and
last issued in 1994. distribution systems to have a sufficient workforce for the
At the same time, both the general industry standard in day-to-day maintenance of their systems. When work to be
Section 1910.269 and the construction standard in Part 1926, performed goes beyond routine maintenance, these employers
Subpart V, were updated with “new and revised provisions”. usually hire contractors. Contractors are used for work including
the construction of new transmission and distribution lines,
OSHA’S GOALS FOR THE NEW STANDARDS extensive renovations of transmission and distribution lines such

#1 The update would reflect the latest consensus standards

from organizations such as the American National
Standards Institute, ASTM International, formerly American
as replacing a large number of utility poles or upgrading a line
to a higher voltage, line-clearance tree trimming, overhauling
generation plants, or recovery from extensive storm damage.

04 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

 The revised standards define a host employer as one that for employees working on an elevated vertical surface, such as a
operates, or controls the operating procedures for, an electric utility pole or tower leg, and is not suitable for workers in aerial
power generation, transmission, or distribution installation on lifts. Body belts may only be used as part of a fall restraining
which a contract employer is performing work covered by the system; otherwise, a personal fall arrest system incorporating a
standard. The counterpart to the host employer is the contract body harness must be used. The rationale is made clear in the
employer, which performs work covered by the standard under preamble of the new standard.
contract. Generally, the host employer is an electric utility, Body belts may not be used as part of a personal fall arrest
whereas the contract employer is a construction firm. system for three reasons. First, body belts concentrate fall-arrest
Information transfer consists of requirements to determine forces more than body harnesses do. As a result, the risk of injury
existing conditions, any host-contractor provisions, and in a fall is much greater for an employee wearing a body belt than
requirements for job briefings. Existing conditions are for an employee wearing a body harness. Second, the wearer of a
characteristics of the system that have a bearing on safety such as body belt can slip out of a body belt in a fall. Third, an employee
voltage, maximum overvoltage, and induced voltage; the presence who is suspended in a body belt awaiting rescue runs the risk
of grounds; and the location of circuits and equipment. Conditions of suspension trauma. The circulation of blood is impaired, and
of the installation that have a bearing on safety include the venous pooling results. This is an unacceptable risk.
condition of grounds and poles, and environmental considerations. In a tethering system or in a restraint system, however, the
The host provides the contractor with information regarding use of a body belt is acceptable. The preamble continues,
characteristics and known conditions listed in the new “Although employees in aerial lifts cannot use work-positioning
standards, system design information for required hazard equipment, they can use restraint systems. As noted previously,
assessments, and other known safety-related information that a restraint system is a method of fall protection that prevents the
the contractor requests. The contractor, now made aware of worker from falling, for example, by preventing the employee
hazardous conditions as a result of the information received from reaching an unprotected edge. Body belts are permissible
from the host, relays the relevant information to employees. in restraint systems”.
In return, the contractor lets the host know about “unique
hazardous conditions presented by the contract employer’s MINIMUM APPROACH DISTANCE
work”, and “any unanticipated hazardous conditions not Technology has changed since 1972, including the technology
mentioned by the host”. Together, the host and contractor “in use in electric power transmission and distribution work.
“coordinate work rules and procedures” to ensure that both The final rule recognizes this change by providing minimum
employers follow the standards. approach distances that “are more protective and more
In a job briefing, the contractor or host employer provides
information on existing characteristics and conditions to the
employee in charge.

FALL PROTECTION IN GENERAL

The new standards broaden the requirements for fall protection.
The standards recognize fall restraint systems, personal fall arrest
systems, and work-positioning equipment. A fall restraint system
is a “fall protection system that prevents the user from falling any
distance”. A personal fall arrest system is a “system used to arrest
an employee in a fall from a working level”. Work-positioning
equipment is a “body belt or body harness system rigged to
allow an employee to be supported on an elevated vertical
surface, such as a utility pole or tower leg, and work with both
hands free while leaning”. A fall restraint system prevents one
from falling; a personal fall arrest system catches a person if one
does fall; and work-positioning equipment allows one to work
on a vertical surface.
As of April 1, 2015, with rare exception, the standards will
no longer permit free-climbing. Qualified employees climbing
or changing location will be required to use a form of fall
protection that provides an anchorage. The exception occurs
when “the employer can demonstrate that climbing or changing
location with fall protection is infeasible or creates a greater
hazard than climbing or changing location without it”. Only in
that situation will free-climbing be allowed.
Workers more than 1.2 meters (four feet) above the ground
must use a fall restraint system, work-positioning equipment, or
a personal fall arrest system, as appropriate to the situation.

WORKERS IN AERIAL LIFTS

Workers in aerial lifts are required to use fall restraint systems or
personal fall arrest equipment. Work-positioning equipment is

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 05

technologically sound than the distances specified in the” While new provisions of new regulations came into effect April
previous standards. 1, 2015, the estimate of incident heat energy came into effect
Employers must establish minimum approach distances January 1, 2015. If the estimate shows that flame-resistant clothing
(MADs) for their qualified workers starting April 1, 2015. The is required, then the selection of this clothing can be made.
employer’s MADs must equal or exceed distances calculated
by formulas given in the standards. The standards also provide BEST PRACTICES
default MAD tables that employers may follow. Minimum The new standards provide employers with compliance
approach distances in the new standard are about the same for assistance. Two appendices in the final rule, one in the
conductors energized at 72.5 kilovolts or less as in the previous construction standard and one in the general industry standard,
standards. MADs above 72.5 kV have increased from those in include tables that guide employers through a decision tree or
the previous standards, because the new MADs are more solidly flow chart by providing them “task-based examples of exposure
based on sound science. assessments”. Some tasks always require protection from
The standards also set new approach-distance requirements exposure, but others may not. As employers proceed through
that take into consideration extended reach, such as the the table, they can assess whether protective equipment is
distance required by employees putting on or removing their required for the task at hand (refer to Table 1).
gloves, for example. Once employers have assessed that exposure to hazards is
For work near live parts energized at more than 600 volts but present, they must estimate the level of incident heat energy
less than or equal to 72.5 kV, an employee must work from a their workers face. The appendices also include tables and other
position where one cannot reach into the MADs, except when guidance that provide employers with ways to estimate incident
one is wearing rubber insulating gloves, protected by insulating heat energy levels. These tables indicate which method is most
equipment, using live-line tools, or performing live-line bare- appropriate in any given situation.
hand work. Once the estimate of incident heat energy has been made,
employers must have selected the appropriate level of
PROTECTION FROM FLAMES & ELECTRIC ARCS protective equipment for their employees and required its
The new standard adds requirements for protecting employees use by April 1, 2015. Employers whose workers are exposed to
from burns resulting from flames or electric arcs. The standards hazards must ensure workers are not wearing clothing that will
that were in place before 2014 required “the employer to melt or ignite and sustain combustion. Employers must provide
ensure that each employee exposed to the hazards of flames workers with flame-resistant clothing and arc-rated equipment
or electric arcs does not wear clothing that, when exposed to that, at a minimum, will withstand the estimated incident heat.
flames or electric arcs, could increase the extent of injury that When the incident energy exceeds 2.0 calories per square
would be sustained by the employee”. The new regulations centimeter (2.0 cal/cm2), arc-rated clothing is required. Protection
require employers to assess the workplace to identify employees for the head and face is required when incident energy is at or
exposed to hazards from flames or electric arcs, estimate above 9 cal/cm2 for single-phase arcs in air or 5 cal/cm2 for other
incident energy to which these employees will be exposed, and exposures. For hands, heavy-duty, leather work gloves will suffice
provide protective clothing and other protective equipment for protection, as long as the exposure is not above 14 cal/cm2.
for the exposure. If the workplace assessment indicates such Beyond that level, rubber insulating gloves with protectors (or
exposure, the employer must “make a reasonable estimate of the arc-rated gloves when they become available) are required. Heavy
incident heat energy to which the employee would be exposed”. work shoes or boots are required for the feet.

Table 1: Example assessments for various tasks

Task Is Employee Exposed to Flame or
Electric-Arc Hazard?
Normal operation of The employer properly installs and maintains enclosed No
enclosed equipment, equipment, and there is no evidence of impending failure.
such as closing or There is evidence of arcing or overheating. Yes
opening a switch.
Parts of the equipment are loose or sticking, or the equipment Yes
otherwise exhibits signs of lack of maintenance.
Servicing electric equipment, such as racking in a circuit breaker or replacing a switch. Yes
Inspection of electric The employee is not holding conductive objects and remains outside No
equipment with the minimum approach distance established by the employer.
exposed energized The employee is holding a conductive object, such as a Yes
parts. flashlight, that could fall or otherwise contact energized parts
(irrespective of whether the employee maintains the minimum
approach distance).
The employee is closer than the minimum approach distance Yes
established by the employer (for example, when wearing rubber
insulating gloves or rubber insulating gloves and sleeves).
Using open flames, for example, in wiping cable splice sleeves. Yes

06 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

MISCELLANEOUS CHANGES
The new standards contain a few other new requirements.
First, line-clearance tree trimming (the trimming of trees
near power lines to provide space around those lines) and
work involving electric power generation installations are
covered by the general industry standard. Second, there are
some revised training requirements. All employees are to
be trained in safety-related work practices, procedures, and
requirements to a degree appropriate to the hazards they
face. In addition, qualified employees are to be trained in the
skills and techniques necessary to understand and control the
hazards they face. Employers do not need to keep records of
their workers’ certification; it is sufficient that their workers can
demonstrate their competence.
Employers will note some other miscellaneous changes
affecting qualified workers. When de-energizing distribution
and transmission lines, multiple crews working on the same line
must either coordinate their activities under a single employee
or comply independently. In regard to protective grounding,
there is now expanded information on equipotential zones
within the standards’ appendices. Additionally, workers in
underground installations will need to take certain precautions
when work could cause a cable to fail.
Requirements for electrical protective equipment have
been changed to recognize updated consensus standards. For
example, Class 00 rubber insulating gloves are now included,
and a paragraph has been added to cover electrical protective
equipment not made of rubber. In addition, the new standard
notes, “The final rule removes the requirement for employees to
wear protective footwear as protection against electric shock”.
There have been changes to some definitions. One concerns
entry into an enclosed space. A second notes that anytime “first-
aid training is required by the final rule, CPR (cardiopulmonary
resuscitation) training must be included”. A third includes some
additional distance for “tree-trimming performed near electric
supply lines and equipment energized at more than 50 kilovolts”.
Specifically, it notes a required distance of “0.1 m per 10 kV for
voltages over 50 kV”. Definitions have been added for statistical that the final rule would prevent about 20 additional fatalities
sparkover voltage and statistical withstand voltage. and about 119 additional serious injuries annually. “Applying an
average monetary value of $62,000 per prevented injury and a
COMPLIANCE DEADLINES value of $8.7 million per prevented fatality results in estimated
The final rule was published in the Federal Register on April monetized benefits of $179.2 million annually”.
11, 2014, and it became effective on July 11, 2014. A few
typographical errors escaped detection, but OSHA corrected FAMOUS LAST WORDS
them in a Federal Register notice published on September 24, OSHA further stated that because it “believes that the
2014. The compliance date for fall protection, the new minimum updated standards are easier to understand and to apply... the
approach distances, and arc-flash protective equipment was agency expects the final rule to improve safety by facilitating
April 1, 2015. Since selecting arc-flash protective equipment will compliance”. In conclusion, the agency estimated that “[c]
take time, the estimates for incident energy must have been ompliance with the final rule will result in the prevention of one
completed by January 1, 2015. fatality and six injuries per $2.5 million in costs, or, alternatively,
$3.62 of benefits per dollar of costs”.
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS This finding is in accord with a recent study. It showed that not
Shepherding a new OSHA standard from inspiration to only do OSHA inspections “prevent workers from getting hurt
publication takes years and involves the input of representatives on the job, [but] they also save billions of dollars for employers
of government and industry, and members of the general through reduced workers’ compensation costs”.
public. Part of developing a new standard is estimating its
economic impact. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Early on, OSHA weighed the costs and benefits of these new This article is largely taken from material in the final rule in the
standards. It found that “[a]n estimated 74 fatalities and 444 Federal Register, from material made for presentation before
serious injuries occur annually among employees involved in the industry groups and other interested entities, and from OSHA
electric power generation, transmission, and distribution work publications available at https://www.osha.gov/dsg/power_
addressed by the provisions of this rulemaking”. OSHA estimated generation/index.html.

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 07

MITIGATION STRATEGIES

MITIGATING
ARC FLASH
HAZARDS
Taking the necessary steps to
protect personnel in the workplace

BY ANTONY PARSONS & REZA TAJALI, Schneider Electric WHAT IS ARC FLASH MITIGATION?
Engineering Services According to Webster’s dictionary, mitigation is defined as,
“to make milder, less severe, or less violent”. When applied to
THOUGHTS FROM THE TOP electrical workplace safety, arc flash mitigation involves taking
While the threat of shock and electrocution from inadvertent steps to minimize the level of hazard and/or the risk associated
contact with energized parts has long been recognized, the with an arc-flash event.
arc flash and arc blast hazards have only fairly recently been ANSI Z10-2012, “Occupational Health and Safety Management
incorporated into the electrical safety standards. Systems”, published by the American Society of Safety Engineers
The U.S. federal agency the Occupational Safety and Health and American National Standards Institute, released a hierarchy
Administration (OSHA) enforces electrical workplace safety of arc flash mitigation controls, as shown in Figure 1.
standards outlined in the National Fire Protection Association’s The most effective arc flash safety programs look to
NFPA 70E: “Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace”. Basic incorporate “safety by design”.
compliance with guidelines in the NFPA 70E 2015 Edition, can be Though not as effective as substitution or elimination, the
established with a five-step process. goal of engineering controls is to reduce the degree of hazard.
While still important, administrative controls and warnings are
Step 1: Develop and audit an Electrical Safe Work Practices less effective because they rely on workers following proper
(ESWP) policy. procedures and safe work practices.
Step 2: Conduct an electrical system study to determine the The engineering controls covered in this white paper will
present degree of arc flash hazards and label either (1) reduce arc flash energy to a level where permitted
the equipment. tasks can be performed, or (2) locate the worker so that he or
Step 3: Ensure adequate supplies of personal protective she is not subject to harm.
equipment (PPE).
Step 4: Conduct regular safety training and employee Figure 1: Hierarchy of Arc Flash Mitigation Controls
assessments.
Most Effective Elimination
Step 5: Maintain all electrical distribution system components.
Arc Flash
Substitution
Companies can take additional steps to reduce the potential for Mitigation
an arc flash. The remainder of this paper will focus on mitigating
Engineering Controls
arc flash hazards, specifically engineering controls.
Warnings
Hazard: A source of possible injury or damage to health Typically
Administrative Controls Included
Risk: A combination of the likelihood of occurrence of injury in ESWP
or damage to health and the severity of injury or damage to Personal Protective Equipment
health that results from a hazard
Least Effective Disaster Recovery

08 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

 DID YOU KNOW
Personal protective equipment (PPE) is often
mistakenly viewed as the “solution” to arc flash
hazards. The reality is wthat even when PPE is
properly selected, it does not guarantee freedom
from injury. NFPA 70E only makes the claim that
injuries sustained during an arc flash event would
be “reduced” and “survivable” due to mitigating
effects of arc-rated PPE.

REDUCE ARC FLASH ENERGY LEVELS

Arc flash reduction systems do not eliminate the electric shock
hazard of working on or inside energized equipment. The
amount of arc flash energy reduction will be determined by an
engineering analysis.
The goal of reducing arc flash energy levels is to reduce the
severity of the potential arc flash hazards to which a worker may
be exposed. Personal protective equipment
(PPE) is required when an arc flash energy reduction system is
employed, but the level of PPE may be reduced. Circuit breakers and fuses
Obviously, too little PPE can increase the worker’s exposure determine how fast a circuit is cleared
to burns and injury. Too much PPE can also have a detrimental
effect such as heat stress, loss of motion and visibility, and Since incident energy is proportional to arcing time, the use
carelessness due to rushing the current task (refer to Figure 2). of faster-acting devices is key. As a result, proper selection of
overcurrent protective devices—in particular, selecting devices
Figure 2 that will quickly clear arcing faults from the power system—is a
powerful mitigation strategy.

Energy = Volts x Amps x Time

Faster clearing time = Lower energy
Overcurrent Protective Device Coordination Study
An overcurrent protective device (OCPD) coordination study
optimizes the protective device setting for reliability and arc
flash protection. While an OCPD study is not a requirement
of an arc flash analysis, it is recommended to have this study
completed as a component of an arc flash analysis.
The OCPD coordination study will determine if minor adjustments
in circuit breaker—or other overcurrent protective device—settings
can lower incident energy levels. However, settings must be chosen
to protect equipment properly while still allowing for normal load
currents and routine temporary overcurrents (for example, motor
starting current) to flow without causing a trip.

Specialized Relaying (Optical Technology)

Quickly clearing faults is a key to arc flash mitigation. Circuit
breaker or relay settings near the source of power may have
significant time delays to allow for coordination of downstream
Fabric rating Fabric rating Fabric rating devices. A relatively new way to address this issue is to use relays
25 Cal/cm2 40 Cal/cm2 100 Cal/cm2 that detect the presence of arcing faults by searching for the
flash of light associated with the arcing fault in addition to the
CBs and Fuses: Lowering Arc Flash Energy Levels characteristic current flow.
Circuit breakers (CBs) or fuses are always considered in the arc For an arcing fault to be detected, both the high current and a
flash analysis because arcing time is the key determining factor burst of light must exist. When both conditions are present, the
for arc flash energy. Per the equations in The IEEE Standards optical relay can operate very quickly to clear the fault. This typically
Association’s IEEE standard 1584: “Guide for Performing Arc occurs through the operation of an overcurrent protective device.
Flash Hazard Calculations”, arc flash incident energy varies Alternatively, the optical relay can activate a shorting switch that
linearly with time. If the duration of the arcing fault doubles, the creates a bolted fault that clears the arc even more quickly than a
available energy doubles; halve the duration and the energy is circuit breaker could operate. Optical relays can also be used as the
cut in half. protective relay in a virtual main configuration.

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 09

 BEFORE AND AFTER SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM
Before: No Main on Low-Voltage Switchgear After: Addition of Virtual Main

5,000 Amperes Utility 5,000 Amperes Utility

MV Relay Available Fault Current MV Relay Available Fault Current

50 50
51 51

1,500 kVA 1,500 kVA

13,800 V PRI 13,800 V PRI
480Y/277 V SEC 480Y/277 V SEC Maintenance
5.5% Z 5.5% Z Switch

50
51
Digital Relay
LV Switchgear LV Switchgear (Virtual Main)

Arc Flash Incident Arc Flash Incident

Energy 62 Cal/Cm 2
Energy 5.7 Cal/Cm 2
2 Second Duration 0.180 Second Duration

Reduced arc flash energy is based on the virtual main relay being properly set to below 85% of the arcing current. Protective device coordination study is required.

Reduced arc flash energy is based on the virtual main relay being properly set to below 85 percent 3
of the arcing current. Protective device coordination study is required.

An arc may propagate to the supply side of all devices in the same enclosure. That is why virtual
main systems trip the upstream device

10 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

REMOVE WORKERS FROM HARM’S WAY
The following arc flash mitigation solutions remove a worker from the location of, or place a
barrier between the worker and exposed energized parts.
Infrared Viewing Windows
Having infrared (IR) windows permanently installed into electrical equip-
ment enables IR scans to be performed without exposing the worker to
hazardous energy. IR windows are made of a glass-like material that is
transparent to infrared rays and allows hot spots to be registered by a ther-
mographic camera. They also facilitate permanent access for inspection of
electrical components without disturbing operations.

Online Temperature Monitoring

Online temperature monitoring, via wireless sensors, provides 24/7 access
to critical connection points where traditional thermography cannot be
used. This technology evaluates the equipment’s current condition without
exposing workers to energized parts since equipment covers do not have
to be removed. The sensors are installed during a planned outage and can
be used in equipment with high arc flash ratings without a risk of danger to
personnel or equipment.

Remote Racking System

A remote racking system (RRS) allows circuit breaker
racking operations to be performed via a control
panel located away from the cell, removing the op-
erator from manual contact with the circuit breaker.
If the operator controlling the RRS is located outside
the arc flash boundary, the need for PPE is eliminat-
ed. Remote racking systems are available for low-
voltage and medium-voltage circuit breakers.

Virtual Main Arc Flash Mitigation System POWER POINT

Switchgear and switchboards can be subjected to dangerous De-energizing equipment does not absolve the facility from the
levels of arc flash incident energy when fed directly from a power responsibility of performing the arc flash analysis or providing
transformer. The addition of a virtual main system reduces the the necessary personal protective equipment.
arc flash energy on the entire switchgear, including the main OSHA and NFPA have rules that prohibit energized work. In
incoming section. A digital relay and overcurrent sensing is added order to establish that a circuit is de-energized, the circuit must
to the low-voltage side of the service transformer and is designed be tested to verify that it has been de-energized. Until then,
to trip an existing upstream fault-breaking device, often a the circuit must be considered energized per NFPA 70E and the
medium-voltage circuit breaker, or other vacuum interrupter. This worker who performs the verification test must wear full PPE.
mitigation solution can take one of two forms. Hiring contractors to perform electrical work does not absolve
the facility from performing the calculations and providing the

1 A maintenance selector switch, which temporarily lowers

the trip setting and/or delay of the relay
The maintenance setting lowers the available arc flash incident
arc flash exposure levels to the contractor’s workers.

FAMOUS LAST WORDS

energy and temporarily forfeits selective coordination. Electrical hazards are a significant safety and financial risk for
electrical workers and their employers. OSHA mandates that

2 Zone-selective interlocking between the protective

relay and downstream branch circuit breakers in the
switchgear eliminates the need for the maintenance selector
work on electrical equipment must be performed in a manner
that does not expose the worker to undue risk of injury.
Complying with the safe work practices dictated by NFPA
switch. Arc flash energies can be permanently reduced with 70E and implementing arc flash mitigation strategies through
zone-selective interlocking. engineering controls will enhance workplace safety for
employees and reduce the financial risk for your company.

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 11

SAFETY STANDARDS

HOW TO
SELECT PPE USING NEW
SAFETY STANDARDS
Understanding the key changes to NFPA 70E

BY MIKE FINNEL, Cintas Corporation Additionally, “Hazard Analysis” is now referred to as “Risk
Assessment”. The NFPA 70E 2015 edition defines Risk Assessment
According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, during as “an overall process that identifies hazards, estimates the
the workday, an employee is hurt from electricity every 30 potential severity of injury or damage to health, estimates the
minutes—severely enough that it requires time off the job. likelihood of occurrence of injury or damage to health, and
Companies that have employees that work on or near energized determines if protective measures are required”.
equipment are faced with the responsibility of protecting
workers from electric arc flashes.
Several agencies and organizations are involved in the
effort to reduce injuries and death, including the National Fire
2 Elimination of Hazard/Risk Category 0
Hazard/Risk Category (HRC) 0 was eliminated because the
new PPE table only specifies work within the arc flash boundary.
Protection Association (NFPA). First published in 1979, at the In the past, Category 0 was for low exposure levels of heat
request of the Occupational Safety & Health Administration energy and required garments using non-melting, non-flame
(OSHA), the NFPA 70E standard covers electrical safety resistant (FR) fabrics with a minimum fabric weight of 4.5 oz/yd².
requirements for employees. The new 2015 edition is the Simply put, the committee members in charge of updating the
foremost consensus standard on electrical safety which was NFPA 70E standard felt that if no arc flash hazard is present or
released in October 2014. possible, then no arc flash PPE is required and it is not necessary
Although the new 2015 Edition of the NFPA 70E Standard to have it on a table devoted to PPE, so it was essentially
for Electrical Safety in the Workplace was released in late 2014, eliminated. According to the 2015 edition, HRC 0 would mean
many companies may be unsure of the key changes and how it the worker was outside the arc flash boundary and does not
affects them. Currently, companies in many different industries need arc-rated PPE or clothing.
across the United States have charged facility managers, safety Despite the elimination of HRC 0, PPE Categories 1, 2, 3 and
professionals and other key personnel with compliance to the 4 still have the same requirements and the same minimum arc
new changes outlined in the recently updated 70E standard. ratings as before. For example, the old HRC 3, encompassing
Several new changes to the standard pertain to protective the range of 25 to 39 cal/cm², will still be the same, but called
apparel, affecting how employers assess risks and protect their PPE level 3. Although no base line PPE “0” exists in the tables,
employees from the arc flash hazard. minimum PPE guidelines still exist and natural fibers are still
Highlights of the 2015 NFPA 70E updates include: required in underlayers.

1 Terminology Change
Within the task tables and the protective clothing table,
the NFPA has removed the commonly used term “Hazard Risk
3 New Arc Flash PPE Category Tables
The NFPA 70E Technical Committee agreed to a new format
for choosing arc-rated clothing and PPE. Companies will have to
Category (HRC)”. The term has been replaced with “Personal look at the new Task Based and PPE Category tables to determine
Protective Equipment (PPE) Category”. whether their current apparel provides sufficient protection.

12 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

 Clarification was added to the 2015 edition that the incident standard fabrics. Some arc-rated suits even have forced air inside
energy analysis or arc flash PPE categories method could be to keep employees cool.
used on the same piece of equipment for the selection of PPE,
but not both. Certification
The new Task Based Table is designed to simplify the selection Garments and other PPE tested and certified by an independent,
of PPE where the type of equipment or task is selected first accredited third-party laboratory such as the Underwriters
in order to determine if Arc Flash PPE is required. No arc flash Laboratory (UL) will properly validate performance
hazard means nothing further is required. If it is determined that characteristics published by various manufacturers.
Arc Flash PPE is required after using the table, then the reader
would move to the second (new) PPE Category table and choose Selection
the appropriate Arc Flash PPE Category. Search for a flame-resistant (FR) provider that can offer a broad
Furthermore, if the new task tables are used in lieu of an selection of FR garments to fit employees of various sizes, with
incident energy analysis and it is determined that arc flash PPE different risks, in various climates.
is required, then the garment must be arc rated and meet or
exceed the minimum arc ratings listed in Table 130.7(C) (16). RENTAL PROGRAMS
Once a company determines what protective apparel is
COST-EFFECTIVE METHOD FOR SELECTING PPE necessary to protect their employees, many implement a
A very simple, practical, and cost-effective approach to uniform rental program as a cost-effective approach to outfit
compliance with arc rated clothing and PPE, which has been their employees and to comply with industry standards on care
implemented in virtually every industry, is the (Annex H) and maintenance.
Simplified Two-Category, Arc-Rated Clothing System. A reputable uniform provider will offer daily wear garments—
The use of table H. is a simplified approach to provide such as shirts and pants—that employees want to wear, are
minimum PPE for electrical workers within facilities with large comfortable and meets the business’ safety requirements. Under
and diverse electrical systems. The clothing listed in table H. a uniform rental program, the rental provider picks up soiled
fulfills the minimum arc-rated clothing requirements of Table garments on a weekly basis to inspect them for tears or damage,
130.7(C) (15) (A) (a), Table 130.7(C) (15) (A) (b), Table 130.7(C) (15) and launder the uniforms according to industry standards.
(B) and Table 130.7(C) (16). By using appropriate water temperatures, water softness and
Companies that use the Annex H method outfit their detergents or chemical agents, industrial laundering allows
employees in two arc-rated clothing options—a minimum companies to improve the wash process of flame- resistant
of eight calories per centimeter-squared (cal/cm²) for their garments. Garments damaged from normal wear and tear are
employees’ daily wear for all PPE Category 1 and 2 tasks and a repaired with FR materials and components consistent with the
40 cal/cm² arc-rated suit for all PPE Category 3 and 4 tasks— original materials in the garment to maintain its integrity, or the
rather than selecting four types of garments based on the PPE clothing is replaced. Additionally, the provider will also retire
Category Tables. garments from service if any holes or tears cannot be repaired.
This method reduces cost, makes it easier for the wearer
and improves employee safety. An employee can be working FAMOUS LAST WORDS
on a piece of equipment that only requires PPE Category 1 Many companies are probably just learning that the NFPA 70E
protection; however, five minutes later, he or she may move to standard has changed. Now, these companies must review
another machine that would require them to add Category 2 the modifications and update how they approach PPE. While
PPE. If this process continues multiple times a day, employees different methods exist for selecting protective apparel, careful
may skip the step of adding the extra protection, putting consideration of the type of fabric, fabric performance, and
themselves and the company at risk. overall protective properties must be taken into consideration.
Organizations can benefit substantially by reviewing how
CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTING PROTECTIVE CLOTHING flame-resistant apparel is cleaned and maintained once
In addition to the employer-performed Risk Assessment, selected. It is important to note that responsibility of proper care
employers may want to consider several of the following factors to and maintenance of arc rated clothing falls on the shoulders
determine the effectiveness and wearability of protective apparel. of the employer, not the employee. Ultimately, understanding
the changes to the new 2015 NFPA 70E standard will help
Style companies protect employees and stay compliant.
If a garment is comfortable with a suitable appearance,
employees will want to wear it. Furthermore, name brand Mike Finnel is the western regional director of protective apparel
products will further enhance the appeal for use. for the Cintas Corporation, the world’s largest industrial laundry
provider and North America’s largest professional uniform provider.
Breathability
Advancements in apparel technology have enabled flame-
resistant garments to be lightweight and breathable, allowing
for ease of movement. Other technologies address the concern
of heat-related illnesses.

Moisture-wicking Capabilities
Designed to be comfortable and functional, many flame-
resistant garments wick away moisture and feel similar to

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 13

SAFETY STANDARDS

IEEE UTILITY
SAFETY
STANDARDS
A comprehensive review of relevant
guidelines and documents

BY JIM TOMASESKI, Vice Chair, NESC Main Committee; has helped save lives since its creation in 1914. As the industry
Director of Safety-Corporate, PAR Electrical Contractors progresses into the future and the pace of utility modernization
increases, so too does the significance of the NESC and its long-
Every day, utility workers are risking their lives in work environments standing revision process. Revisions, completed every five years,
that involve high-risk activities such as working at extreme heights, address new advances and challenges within the industry,
managing or repairing energized high-voltage power systems, and ensure the existence of the most relevant best practices
transporting dangerous goods, working on suspended access and safety procedures to date. The IEEE Standards Association
equipment, or the opposite, cramped underground with little published a preprint of proposed changes for the 2017 Edition
ventilation, and mitigating natural disasters. of the NESC on 1 September 2014, beginning an 8-month public
Although assuring the safety and health of America’s utility comment period.
workers is the top priority among industry, it is no easy task.
Ensuring worker safety involves setting and enforcing standards; Recent changes
providing outreach and education, general site and task-specific The 2012 edition of the National Electrical Safety Code (NESC)
training, as well as establishing partnerships and encouraging extensively revised the Scope, Application, and Definition rules.
continual improvement in workplace safety and health. Additional changes were made to the grounding requirements
Consequently, North American electric utilities and regulators in Section 9, clarification of certain fencing requirements in
rely on voluntary standards to design protocols and regulation substations and illumination requirements for generating
that will protect utility workers from the aforementioned stations and substations. A new footnote was added to clarify the
risk activities. The National Electrical Safety Code, or the application of the “K” factor for wire tensions when a messenger
NESC, published by the IEEE Standards Association, is one supports multiple conductors. Part 4 revisions included an
document utilized by utilities and regulators nation-wide. extensive redesign of the minimum approach distance tables and
Safer work practices, enhanced equipment, and technological to the rules addressing worker exposure to arc flash, specifically to
advancements have all played a role in creating a culture of recognize exposures at less than 1000 volts.
safety among the utility industry.
This white paper highlights the status of several important Impact on utilities
standards safeguarding lineman from the hazards of the Changes to the Scope, Application, and Definition sections will
installation, operations, or maintenance of electrical systems and better reflect the historical application of the NESC, and clarify the
equipment among industrial utilities. applicability of the NESC versus the U.S. National Electrical Code,
thus providing users a better understanding of the intent of the
UTILITY WORKER SAFETY NESC. Revisions to grounding requirements, in part, clarify where
This year, IEEE is commemorating the 100-year anniversary of rules require conductors or equipment to be effectively grounded.
the NESC, which has continually evolved in the last century and Other grounding requirements, specifically the grounding

14 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

electrode conductor for communications apparatus, will provide (LW) may be affected negatively in some cases, and utilities
a better level of protection from first under fault conditions. may need to examine alternate maintenance approaches or
Changes to minimum approach distances (for arc flash protection) search for ways of controlling overvoltages. These alternate
will guide employers and employees in providing safer working maintenance approaches may have legal and cost implications.
environments using up-to-date technology. It is too early to speculate. However, as North American utilities
also include Canadian utilities, it should be noted that Canada
SAFETY ON POWER LINES has adopted International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
IEEE-516: “Guide for Maintenance Methods on Energized Power standards, including IEC 61472: “Live working - Minimum
Lines” is developed by the Engineering in Safety, Maintenance, Approach Distances For Alternating Current Systems in the Voltage
and Operation of Lines (ESMOL) Subcommittee of the IEEE. Range 72,5 kV To 800 kV - A Method Of Calculation”, which uses
Dating as far back as the early 1950’s, live line maintenance previous overvoltage values. Hence, now there is a disparity
work on higher voltage transmission circuits started to be an between OSHA minimum approach distance values and IEC
economic necessity. The guide was first published in 1986. Prior MAD values. This may not affect individual utilities, but it may
to this document being published, little was available to assist seriously affect contractors who perform line work in the U.S.
employers in the development of live line programs. The guide and in Canada—which standard and MAD values will be used?
includes information regarding all aspects of live line work, Therefore, the short answer is that the expected (needed)
including tools and work methods, engineering principles, and changes may have a very serious impact for some utilities and/
other issues necessary to establish methods and procedures for or for contractors, and may cause serious confusion for workers
maintenance of energized power lines. and transmission line operators and owners.

Recent changes PROTECTIVE GROUNDING OF POWER LINES

The most recent published edition is IEEE-516-2009. Since Personal protective grounding procedures for worker protection
then, the “ad hoc” Task Force met in person and on conference and public protection require regular review and revision. Fault
calls several times to discuss revision of IEEE 516—specifically currents continue to increase, and electric or magnetic induction
minimum approach distances (MAD). The proposal/planned are more of a reality as our right-of-ways become more crowded.
changes include simplification of and corrections to MAD This guide was first developed to provide the industry with
equations, general improvement of wording, and additional state-of-the-art data and other information necessary to adopt
clarifications to the text. No changes to Tables, equations or adequate grounding procedures to protect workers.
MAD values were planned. However, now, in view of the new
U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Recent changes
overvoltage values, new MAD values will have to be determined IEEE 1048: “Guide for Protective Grounding of Power Lines” is in
(using the OSHA online calculator) and tables will have to be the balloting process. The Working Group is in the process of
revised to conform with OSHA values. resolving over 200 comments from the second recirculation
This topic is still under discussion and IEEE Task Force are of the draft. The existing 2003 version was reaffirmed from
coordinating their efforts with OSHA to develop revisions to 516 the 1990 version. When completed, the new Guide will be a
that will assist end users comply with the OSHA approach to complete rewrite. The assigned Working Group has attempted
calculating MAD. to expand IEEE 1048 with safety criteria and acknowledge there
is more than one way to meet the safety criteria. IEEE 1048 is
Impact on utilities being expanded in areas of induction, methods for protecting
At this time, based on current OSHA values that will need to be workers on the ground, and comparisons of different methods
mirrored in the next edition of 516, it appears that low wattages for establishing safe work areas. The intent of the Working Group

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 15

 OSHA regulation for the power industry, the revisions will be
again revisited and balloted later. The OSHA regulations will be
reviewed to determine what revisions are necessary to consider
in the IEEE document.

Impact on utilities
The revised document will be helpful for industry employers
looking for best practices in setting up an effective fall
protection program. The goal of the IEEE document will be
to assist employers how to best comply with the new OSHA
requirements.

CLEANING INSULATORS
IEEE 957: “Guide for Cleaning Insulators” provides utilities with
procedures for cleaning contaminated electrical insulators using
various equipment and techniques. This standard does not
provide procedures for cleaning nuclear, toxic, and hazardous
chemical contaminants from electrical insulators.

Recent changes
The scope of the IEEE 957 standard will be expanded to
include monitoring and managing the performance of cleaned
insulators to determine frequencies with greater accuracy,
effectiveness, among others. In addition, new cleaning methods
have been included (for example, steam cleaning used by
headquarters).

Impact on utilities
From the input received from the many utilities in North
America (and around the world for that matter), most feel such
a document is beneficial because many of them are looking
at guidance on improving their current practices. Their main
obstacle is that there is not sufficient utility member participation
in completing this work. IEEE looks forward to the upcoming open
commentary period, and hopes to receive some feedback and
input so that we may better address this in the future.

is to acknowledge and direct the user to multiple safe and WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS ANTENNAS
acceptable work methods, and not to unnecessarily provide new The cellular smartphone infrastructure continues to expand
requirements for line grounding. at a rapid pace. The physical placement of the transmitting
devices follows no certain criteria, resulting in the possibility of
Impact on utilities electric utility workers being exposed to the hazards of radio
IEEE 1048 will be a good reference for users in establishing frequency (RF) during many work processes. IEEE 1654: “Guide
safe work practices while working on de-energized lines. The for RF Protection of Personnel Working in the Vicinity of Wireless
updated standard will direct the user to recognize hazards and Communications Antennas Attached to Electric Power Line
establish grounding practices to protect employees from the Structures” provides information on the hazards of RF radiation
hazards of induction and accidental energization through the and information for an employer to develop and implement an
proper application of temporary protective grounds. effective RF safety program.

FALL PROTECTION FOR UTILITY WORK Recent changes

Fall protection requirements and equipment apply to a The IEEE 1654 standard has not been revised since its last
wide range of industries. When federal regulations and the publication date in 2009. A working group has been formed
development of required equipment started to radically under the IEEE Power and Energy Society’s (PES) Engineering
change, it was quickly decided the electric utility fall protection in the Safety and Maintenance and Operation of Lines (ESMOL)
processes deserved special attention. IEEE 1307: “Standard for committee that review the document and recommend
Fall Protection for Utility Work” covers all aspects of fall protection necessary revisions.
for electric utility work, including work in substations, on
transmission structures, and on distribution structures. Impact on utilities
The guide provides information on current utility practices
Recent changes and minimum requirements pertaining to radio frequency
IEEE 1307 was completely revamped to match the scope of protection of personnel working near wireless communications
how to build a good fall protection program more closely. The antennas on or near electric power line structures. Additionally,
revisions were to be balloted, but in light of the new upcoming IEEE 1654 provides RF exposure limits, RF safety compliance

16 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

 Impact on utilities
This document is a guide. Dissimilar to the National Electrical
Code or NFPA 70E, this document does not prescribe what is
covered or not covered. Users, including utilities, have the option
to use this guide or use other methods for calculation of incident
energy. I am not aware which method of calculations is used by
North American utilities for calculation of incident energy.

Jim Tomaseski is a Member of IEEE and Vice-Chair of the NESC

Main Committee and Director of Safety-Corporate, PAR Electrical
Contractors.

steps, power frequency electric and magnetic field immunity of

Photo credit: Arc flash worker (Salisburyby Honeywell)

RF personal monitors (RFPM) and RF protective clothing.

PERFORMING ARC FLASH CALCULATIONS

IEEE 1584: “Guide for Performing Arc Flash Hazard Calculations”
is designed to enable qualified personnel to analyze power
systems for estimating the incident energy to which employees
could be exposed during operation and maintenance work.
Incident energy information is important to contractors and
facility owners providing suitable protection for employees to
meet the requirements of relevant electrical workplace safety
standards. This standard provides an analytical process and
models to calculate an arc-flash boundary and incident thermal
energy. The procedure covers calculation parameters, collection
of field data if applicable, and consideration of power system
operating scenarios. This standard covers applications such as
electrical equipment and conductors for three-phase alternating
current voltages from 208 volts to 15 kilovolts. A number of
applications are not included in this standard. For example,
calculations for direct current systems and single-phase AC
systems are excluded, but some direction and references are
provided for those applications. Additionally, recommendations
for personal protective equipment with the purpose of
mitigating arc flash hazards are not included in this document.

Recent changes
No recent changes have taken place to IEEE 1584. This document
is under revision process, with a Project Authorization Request
(PAR) for revision expiration at the end of 2017. Task Groups are
currently evaluating the data being provided by IEEE/National
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) collaborative project on
testing performed by the equipment over the last few years.
These evaluations and recommendations by the Task groups will
form the basis of revisions.

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 17

ARC FLASH RELAYS

ARC FLASH
RELAYS
Answering common frequently asked questions

BY JAKOB SEEDORFF, Littelfuse Q: What is the electrical symbol of an arc flash relay?

Arc-Flash Relays are an effective defence against dangerous A: Although there is no formal symbol, Littelfuse is currently
arc-flash events. They greatly mitigate the effects of an arc flash using the following:
by detecting a developing incident and sending a trip signal to
a breaker to disconnect the current that feeds it. Many design

AFR
engineers find the decision to include arc-flash relays in a design
is an easy one. Less easy, however, is selecting the optimal relay PGA-LS20 or PGA-LS30
for an application. Arc-Flash relays are complex devices and an Fiber-optic Sensor
understanding of their operation and features is essential. This
guide covers key questions regarding arc-flash relay technology
to help specifying engineers, OEM designers, and end users Arc-Flash Relay
make an informed selection decision.
PGA-LS10
Q: How much energy is in a typical arc flash incident? Point Sensor
A: A phase-to-phase fault on a 480-volt system with 20,000 Q: What are the key considerations when choosing an arc
amperes of fault current provides 9,600,000 watts of power. flash relay?
Imagine that there is no arc protection and the fault lasts for
200 milliseconds before the overcurrent protection clears it. The A: The most important selection criteria are:
released energy would be 2 MJ (megajoule), which corresponds
roughly to a stick of dynamite. 1. Reaction time: Consider the timing of events that typically
occur during an arcing fault when evaluating an arc flash relay’s
The energy formula for a typical arc flash incident is as follows: reaction time.
Energy = voltage x current x time = 480 volts 2. Trip reliability: Next to reaction time, reliable tripping is the
x 20,000 amperes x 0.2 s = 1,920,000 joules most important characteristic of an arc flash relay, because this
ensures mitigation of an arcing fault. Two aspects of reliability
For a given system voltage, two factors can be adjusted to should be considered: trip redundancy and system-health
reduce arc flash energy: time and current. monitoring.
Time can be reduced by using a device to rapidly detect an
arc flash, thus cause the connected circuit breaker to trip at its 3. Avoidance of nuisance tripping: Typically, most arc flash
instantaneous speed, overriding any inverse-time delay. Current relays use light sensors with fixed detection thresholds set
can be reduced by using current-limiting fuses or, in case of somewhere in the range of 8,000 to 10,000 lux (luminous flux)
phase-to-ground faults, by using high-resistance grounding. light intensity. In most installations, this will avoid nuisance
tripping, because an arcing fault produces light intensity

18 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

exceeding the ambient light level inside a closed switchgear supervision is used, both high current and intense light are
cabinet. Nevertheless, it can be useful to raise the setpoint to required to have an arc flash trip.
help avoid nuisance tripping.
Q: Do arc flash relays detect ultra-violet light?
4. Sensor design and installation: Most arc flash relay
installations utilize multiple fixed-point light sensors near A: The typical spectrum of light from an arc flash is spread
vertical and horizontal bus bars where arcing faults are apt across the visible spectrum and so this is what the arc flash relay
to occur in feeder switchgear cabinets. Sufficient numbers of is detecting. Ultraviolet light is mostly used to detect corona,
sensors should be installed to cover all accessible areas, even if which can be present before an arc flash but is also present in
policy is to work only on de-energized systems. higher voltage systems where no arc flash is imminent. Using
ultraviolet light alone could lead to nuisance trips and the relay
5. Ease of use: Purchasers should consider buying easy-to-use would only be looking at a small section of the total light from
software. Some relays may require field assembly, calibration, or the arc.
advanced configuration before installing. It is critical to consider
those extra steps and the capabilities of the operators who will Q: How do modern digital arc flash relays coordinate with
be using the devices. Often, very complicated devices can be other protection older—and newer—relays?
misused because of incorrect setup or configuration, which can
defeat the purpose of the device altogether. A: Power system analysis software programs can be used to
help with system coordination. The arc flash relay has two
6. Scalability and flexibility: Several arc flash relay designs definite-time settings (10 to 1000 percent full-load current and
allow the interconnection of multiple devices, such as multiple one millisecond to 20-second time delay) that can be used
relays each with several sensors. A unique feature of using such for coordination; however, both control one set of output trip
a network is the ability of a downstream Arc-flash event to trip contacts. One set point can be used for detecting a low-level
the upstream circuit breaker. This can be very useful where the arcing conditions and the other can be used for detecting high-
upstream substation is feeding downstream motor control level arcing conditions. If either condition is met, a trip signal is
centers (MCCs). Working on live equipment is very common on sent to the circuit breaker. Coordination for arc flash protection
MCCs, thus raising the odds of an arc flash event. is not practical due to the reaction time required and utilizing
light as a fault detection method. Arc flash relays are primarily
Q: Do arc flash relays nuisance trip? operated on light intensity (more than 20 luminous kilolux)
as the light is the fastest way to detect the developing arc.
A: Normal in house lighting will not cause the arc flash relays Current levels would only be considered for those relays that
to trip. Flash lights, direct sunlight or strong torch light on have secondary over-current trip or current inhibit functionality.
short distance however can cause tripping. The best way to A quality arc protection relay will issue the trip signal to the
avoid nuisance tripping with the arc flash relay is by using the upstream breaker within one to two milliseconds. The actual
optical sensors in conjunction with the current supervisory. In disconnection of that power must happen with 35 milliseconds.
this case, you now are inputting phase current transformers
(CTs) to the relay. In this scenario, the relay examines the Q: Do modern digital arc flash relays provide zone
optical sensors for a fault and if it is true, then checks the CT identification?
inputs to see if there is rising current above the configured
nominal setting, and if both conditions are true, then it will A: Yes, many modern arc flash relays provide zone protection
trip the relay. This prevents tripping in cases where there is through the installation of sensors in each cubicle,
significant light from an outside source (such as a welder, compartment, or bucket. An arc flash relay providing zone
camera flash or direct sunlight). protection would provide a number of sensors and a dedicated
trip output for each zone. Thus, such a relay would have multiple
Q: Does thermal imaging trip an arc flash relay? trip contacts (one for each zone). Some sensors have an LED to
indicate the health of the sensor (that it is actually working). The
A: Assuming the thermal imaging device is passively detecting LED also serves a secondary function by indicating where a fault
heat in the switchgear by using the infrared light emitted, there or trip has occurred.
will be no interference with the arc flash relay or sensors.
Q: Can you compare a service-mode instantaneous setting
Q: Would a camera flash trigger an arc flash relay? to an arc flash relay?

A: When the arc flash relay is set to maximum sensitivity and A: An actual application must be examined in order to do a true
the amount of time light is required to be present on the sensor comparison. There are cases when lowering the instantaneous
is set to a minimum, it is possible that a small point-and-shoot setting would serve the same benefit as the arc flash relay in
camera close to the sensor could be sufficient to trip the relay. lowering incident energy. There may be some added complexity
Typically, a compact camera’s flash does not present enough to making sure the maintenance mode is entered and also set
intensity to cause a trip, except at very close proximity to the back to operational mode. Electrical engineers do not want to
sensor. More advanced cameras and larger flashes can trip the have miscoordination or tripping during the starting of a motor
arc flash relay from a greater distance. In applications where this if the power system starts to exceed the instantaneous level.
is a concern, it is recommended to use CTs so that non-arc flash That being said, many motor and feeder relays have this mode
light with no corresponding increase in current above normal of operation. Cases exist where the bus bar may be very large
operating conditions does not cause a trip. Where current and not loaded (during commissioning, for example). An arcing

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 19

fault is high resistance and may not get near the instantaneous load, all is well. If a fault occurs within the switchgear, the current
operating range of the breaker. That would be the worst-case going in does not equal the current going to the load. This
scenario for the instantaneous setting and show the most detection method is much quicker (33 milliseconds for detection
difference between the aforementioned setting and the light only) and may be more difficult and/or expensive to retrofit,
detection method. depending on the number of current transformers.

Q: Do the different modes of a digital arc flash relay have ELECTRICAL DESIGN SOFTWARE
different response times? Q: What is some of the commonly used software for power
system analysis?
A: It is possible for a digital arc flash relay to send a trip signal
within one millisecond of detecting light above the threshold A: SKM Software is one brand of power system analysis software
settings or within one millisecond of detecting light and current. that allows users to define the electrical parameters of their
It is also possible to configure the relay to have additional delay system and model its behavior. It is often used for co-ordination
as needed. studies and arc flash hazard analysis. Other software brands are
The one millisecond response time has no relation to whether ETAP, Easy Power, and EDSA.
the relay is a digital platform (software based). Software adds
versatility—configuration options and smart features. Analogue Q: How do you enter resistance grounding or arc flash relays
relays can perform just as quickly, although these devices into the SKM software for calculating arc flash?
offer significantly fewer options such as circuit check and
communication. A: Resistance grounding presently shows no advantage in power
system modeling software. The analysis of arc flash energy is
Q: What is the life of a digital flash relay? What maintenance based on three-phase faults. High resistance grounding does
is required and how often? eliminate the potential hazard from a single phase-to-ground
fault. Different sources show 80 to 90 percent of faults in a plant
A: On average, digital arc flash relays tend to have five-year start as a single phase-to-ground fault. Arc flash relays can be
warranties. However, these relays can last longer depending on entered as a definite time trip at one millisecond, which is then
the state of the relay’s surrounding environment. Maintenance added to the breaker clearing time.
required will depend on the user’s application and principally
focuses on removing dust collection on light sensors. We The advantage of arc flash detection is that the breaker is
recommend checking the light sensors periodically (with a no longer waiting for co-ordination of downstream devices.
period relevant for dust) with an external light source to verify Another method often used to lower incident energy is to switch
that the sensors are not obscured by dust build-up and using the relay or breaker settings to maintenance mode or a second
compressed air to blow dust off the sensors during regularly setpoint group. These are lower settings with quicker operating
scheduled maintenance. It is a best practice to check periodically times, often ignoring co-ordination of downstream devices with
that the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) trip output knowledge that a person is in the area. When the person leaves
is tripping the breaker. Breaker maintenance is also critical to the area, the settings are returned to normal.
provide reliable and fast clearing time.
Q: On average, how does an analysis company model their
Q: Does the built-in software consider the mechanical delay optical devices for power system analysis, since the relay is
of all devices in the circuit and allow for changes to faster detecting light?
reacting main breakers?
A: The advantage of detecting light is that light comes first
A: In reference to the coordination programs such as EDSA, (before pressure/sound). Light is quite simply the fastest way
ETAP, and SKM, this software all allow specific information to to detect a developing arc. One millisecond arc flash relay arc
be entered on the circuit interrupter chosen in their extensive flash trip time must be added to the circuit breaker shunt-trip
libraries. This feature can show changes of using faster main operating or clearing time. The result will be a vertical line
breakers fairly easily. Note if the equipment is older, we (definite-time) that shows the same response time regardless of
recommend testing the actual operating time of the breakers to the current. This demonstrates the advantage of using light for
ensure that the used relays are able to interrupt in the time that arc flash detection.
is allotted.
Q: How does power system analysis software recognize arc
Q: How do arc flash relays compare to zone selective flash relays?
interlocking protection (ZSIP) and bus differential?
A: Power system analysis software maintains a list of arc flash
A: These are different technologies that detect and quickly clear relays in their library. Newer relays are added with software
faults. Zone selective interlocking protection will detect a fault updates.
and block an upstream protective device from operating until For arc flash protection, the arc flash relay must detect light
the local protective device has a chance to clear the fault. If not, of sufficient intensity to initiate the tripping sequence. If current
the upstream device attempts to clear it. This takes valuable inhibit is enabled, the arc flash relay will not send a trip signal
time (100 milliseconds for detection only) and may be difficult unless sufficient current is also present. Both light and current
to retrofit. Bus differential measures the difference of current trip levels can be adjusted.
going into and out of a device, such as switchgear. If the current Currently, no power system analysis software package can
supplied by the source travels through the switchgear to the model the light detection. They only model the overcurrent

20 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

 APPLICATIONS AND INSTALLATIONS
Q: What are the typical application/system voltages?

A: The arc flash relay can be used on electrical systems operating

at any voltage (AC or DC) since it does not directly connect to
the system. The system is monitored with light sensors and
optional current transformers (for alternating current systems)
that can be selected for any current/voltage rating. The small
size of the arc flash relay allows for installation in any switchgear
cubicle, transformer compartment, or motor control center
bucket.

Q: What is the maximum recommended length from the arc

flash relay to the circuit breaker?

A: Some relays have internal mechanical relays (trip time of

about seven milliseconds). Other relays use IGBTs (advantage of
trip time of less than one millisecond). The main feature is that
the trip occurs as fast as possible and before 35 milliseconds—
including the trip time of the circuit breaker.

Q: Can the arc flash relay be used in low-voltage systems and

will a low-voltage breaker’s closing or opening cause a trip?

A: When a low-voltage breaker is closing, often a large inrush

current, depending on the configuration of the arc flash relay,
could be sufficient to allow a high-intensity light source other
than an arc flash to cause a trip. While low-voltage breakers
often produce an arc when they are opening, closing the breaker
does not normally produce an arc, so the arc flash relay should
not operate unintentionally. When opening the breaker, an arc
is typically present as part of normal operation of the breaker. If
An arc may propagate to the supply side of light sensors are placed such that the breaker arcing is visible,
then it is recommended to also use current-supervision. The
all devices in the same enclosure. That is why breaker arcing during normal opening will cause a reduction in
virtual main systems trip the upstream device current because of the increased impedance and the arc flash
relay with current-supervision will not operate.

setting. To avoid the nuisance tripping with standard protection, Q: Is internal arc classification of switchgear enclosures
the user typically increases the pickup value or time delay. enough to eliminate an arc hazard?
This leads to arcing faults going unnoticed until it is too late.
However, the primary parameter for detecting a developing arc A: No, although it minimizes the hazard, the arc flash relay may
is intense light. The secondary parameter (to avoid nuisance help prevent damage to the equipment and provide additional
tripping) is instantaneous current or pressure. Thus, the reaction protection in the event that the doors are not properly closed.
time is reduced to that of the arc flash relay (less than one Depending on the impedance of the arc fault, the arc may
millisecond unless configured otherwise) plus the circuit-breaker persist for a long time in the switchgear and could exceed the
operating time, independent of the current. rating of the gear.
Additionally, bolted pressure switches can be used, but many of
these devices have limitations in terms of interrupting and clearing Q: When working on an energized transformer, we use
time rating, so the user must first check the ratings. The opening instantaneous settings at the feeder breaker relay. Can
time or clearing time can be modeled in power system analysis modern arc flash relays provide any benefit?
software with either a circuit breaker or bolted pressure switches.
The opening time or clearing time must include all devices A: According to IEEE standard 1584: “Guide for Performing Arc-
in the sequence, which includes the shunt trip or undervoltage Flash Hazard Calculations”, published by the IEEE Standards
times as well as circuit breaker times. In cases where only light Association, the arcing current can be as low as 38 percent of the
detection is utilized, this clearing time value can be used in available bolted fault current. If the instantaneous trip setting
the software as a user-defined trip time or the arc flash relay of the circuit breaker is greater than the arcing current, the
library model can be used with the current set to a low value breaker could take seconds or minutes to open, thus creating
to reproduce the current-independent characteristic of optical a potentially dangerous arc flash condition. The arc flash relay
detection. When current and light are both required then the can react in one millisecond regardless of the fault current, and
current-inhibit level setting in the arc flash relay should be used initiate the tripping signal to open the breaker and clear the
for the model. fault within 30 millisecond or less, lowering the incident energy
to a minimum.

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 21

Q: Are there control systems available that truly eliminate or • Use care when handling, pulling, and securing cables
control arc flash? • Avoid sharp bends (greater than five centimeters) and high
temperature (greater than 80°C)
A: If electrical equipment is energized, no system can eliminate • Consider placements around air-magnetic circuit breakers
the risk of an arc flash event. • Consider movable parts and area accessible to personnel for
commissioning, testing, inspecting, among others
LIGHT SENSORS AND CURRENT TRANSFORMERS • Even though the sensors and cables have no exposed live parts
Q: What are the installation guidelines for the sensors? are fully insulated, the placement and routing must comply with
industry standard requirements on over-surface (creep) and
A: Most modern arc flash relays and sensors are easily installed through-air (clearance)
in retrofit projects and new switchgear with little or no re-
configuration. Even elaborate systems with multiple power Q: What is a typical light sensitivity radius for a fiber optic
sources take minutes to configure using the relay’s built-in USB sensor?
interface software.
Generally, it is recommended to mount one or two sensors A: This is a difficult metric to provide because the distance an arc
per cubicle to cover all horizontal and vertical bus bars, breaker can be detected by the fiber-optic sensor is dependent on many
compartments, drawers, and anywhere that there is potential for variables. However, for Littelfuse products fiber-optic sensors
an arc-fault. Threading a fiber-optic sensor through the cabinets are factory calibrated so that it will have the same detection
and in areas where point-sensor coverage is uncertain results in range as the point sensors when 60 centimeters (a standard
complete coverage and an added level of redundancy. Even if section width) is exposed to the arc flash. In other words, a
policy is to only work on de-energized systems, all maintenance three-kiloampere arc can be detected from a distance of two
areas should be monitored to prevent potential damage and centimeters from the fiber assuming that the light is incident on
additional cost. At least once sensor should have visibility of an 60 centimeters of fiber. However, for Littelfuse products fiber-
arc fault if a person blocks the other sensor(s). optic sensors also have an adjustment screw that allows the user
to calibrate the sensor to be more sensitive (for smaller sections)
Below are some additional guidelines. or less sensitive (for larger ones).
• First, determine sensor placements, and then consider zones We recommend a minimum of 20 centimeters of fiber
• Ensure sensors and cables are not blocked by objects, either exposed per section. The sensor is calibrated at the factory
fixed or movable for 60 centimeters of fiber in each monitored compartment.
• Do not place sensors or fiber cable on live or energized When using the fiber optic sensor in compartments with less
components than 60 centimeters of fiber, the sensitivity may have to be
• Chose a location that will minimize collection of foreign debris adjusted. The sensor is unable to differentiate between 10,000
and easy access for maintenance, if needed lux (light intensity) hitting 60 centimeters of fiber and 30,000 lux
hitting 20 centimeters of fiber; the
same amount of light is transmitted
through the fiber to the receiver. To
achieve the desired sensitivity, the
receiver (with the black thumbnut)
must be adjusted.

Q: Is there a maintenance schedule

for the sensors?

A: Each sensor has an internal health

LED. Its purpose is to verify the
continuity of the sensor cabling and
the internal sensor circuitry. This
‘health check’ circuit will not detect
dust buildup on the sensor. There
are several ways to mitigate dust
buildup. A sensor mounted at the
top of an enclosure looking down is
optimal. This configuration will not
collect much dust in most cabinet
installations, due to intensity of an arc
combined with the reflections off the
metal walls (even a dirty sensor will
collect a great deal of light).
Sensors must be cleaned in order
to maintain consistent sensitivity.
Sensor cleaning should be part of
regular maintenance and should be
Proper point sensor mounting in a fuse compartment

22 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

performed via compressed air or dry wipe down. A maintenance fiber-optic sensor. Repeaters may cause timing issues for the
routine can be implemented to clean sensors at a set interval sensor-check signal.
that is aligned with industry standard recommendations, such
as the National Fire Protection Association’s standard NFPA 70B: Q: How do you test the sensors; are they fail-safe?
“Recommended Practice for Equipment Maintenance”. A more
proactive approach could also be used by putting the relay into A: A sensor-check circuit in the arc flash relay tests the
service mode and shining a bright light on each sensor. A trip sensor once per second to verify that the sensor assembly is
will be indicated if the sensor is able to detect the light but the functioning correctly and that it is connected. The signal is sent
breaker will not be tripped. If the relay light is not indicating a from the arc flash relay along the cable to the sensor, which
trip, then cleaning is necessary. activates an internal LED. A failure in the sensor circuitry or
cable would result in a loss of check signal. The arc flash relay
Q: At what intensity of light will the arc flash relay indicate recognizes this signal loss as a missing sensor. Subsequently,
or trip? the relay will indicate an error condition on the sensor, the relay
faceplate, and the online output will change state.
A: The light intensity adjustment on the face plate of an arc The user can decide what to do with this relay output and
flash relay is used only to filter out nuisance tripping. The light whether it will trip the system or simply signal an alarm. The fiber-
intensity of an arc flash is so extremely high that the relay would optic sensor uses the same method except that the signal travels
trip no matter the setting. This is very important to the fact that through the length of the fiber-optic cable so a break or crimp in
the relay is Plug-and-Play (The relay will not trip if the setting that cable is also detected. Sensors can be tested individually by
is not ideal).The fiber-optic sensor has an adjustable sensitivity putting the arc flash relay into Service mode and shining a bright
(in addition to the relay sensitivity dial) that could be used to light source on the sensor. A trip will be indicated if the sensor
increase the sensitivity for a given length of fiber to levels below is able to detect the light but a trip signal will not be sent to the
and above the relay set point. breaker. A high-power flashlight can serve to verify the sensors
are properly detecting light. The power required on the flashlight
Q: How would the fiber-optic sensors be installed in is difficult to quantify because of the way the light is spread and
switchgear that is shipped in groups? Do these sensors come focused, but a three million candle power flashlight has proven
in various lengths or with repeaters? more than sufficient for use on point sensors.

A: The fiber-optic sensors have two parts, an electrical cable Q: What is the purpose of the current transformers (CTs) and
connection to the relay and the light-sensitive fiber-optic cable. are they required?
Splitting a fiber is a challenge because a bad splice can result
in decreased or increased sensitivity and failure to operate A: The purpose of the CTs is to validate an arcing condition,
or nuisance tripping. Shipping splits should be wired so that although CTs are not required for operation. The arc flash relay
the fiber-optic sensor cable does
not traverse multiple sections.
The electrical part of the sensor,
connecting the sensor to the relay,
can be up to 50 meters long and
is much easier to connect at the
final installation as well as much
more durable than optical fiber. It is
important to remember that a light-
collecting fiber-optic cable behaves
quite differently from a transmission-
only shielded fiber-optic cable.
The latter case is more
frequently used, especially in
telecommunications industries and
can have very large lengths, but in
that case light is fed directly into the
tube at a low angle of incidence and
losses along the cable are very low.
For many fiber-optic sensors, the
entire fiber-optic cable is designed
to absorb light incident on the
surface, bend the light to trap it in
the cable, and then keep it in the
cable. However, light is lost along the
length of the cable and the longer
the light must travel along the cable,
the more light is lost. Repeaters are
not available as the cost may be too
high compared to installing a second Current transformers installed for overcurrent

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 23

can detect light only to send a trip signal. If the CTs are used, system, especially at medium-voltage levels?
the relay will only send a trip signal if both light and overcurrent
conditions are detected. In applications where high-intensity A: You are correct that at medium-voltage, the system leakage
light is a possible, overcurrent detection can be used to prevent capacitive current increases, which is a function of voltage.
nuisance tripping. Fortunately, this has been well documented over the years and
tables are used to estimate the leakage current. Depending
RESISTANCE GROUNDING on this value, the ground fault on a HRG system may not be
Q: Would a ground fault on the main switchgear act as an arc recommended to remain on system.
flash relay?
Q: Is it possible to apply high-resistance grounding to a
A: HRG systems eliminate arc flash hazards associated with distribution transformer in order to minimize the arc flash
ground faults per IEEE Standard Association’s standard hazard when working on the secondary of the transformer?
“Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for
Industrial Plants”. Even though tests have shown that high- A: High-resistance grounding has some limitations. For example,
resistance grounding (HRG) systems also reduce the arc flash it cannot be used on systems with line-to-neutral loads. Another
energy with phase-to-phase arcing faults, it cannot be used to limitation is the amount of current flow during a ground fault.
reduce personal protective equipment (PPE). Arc flash relays HRG limits the current to typically 10 amperes or less, which
can be used to identify these arcing conditions and significantly may not be enough to detect on a distribution system. If these
reduce arc flash hazards. In many applications, both are used to are not issues, consider using HRG systems. However, perform a
increase uptime and protection. detailed engineering study to ensure other limitations (such as
voltage shift) are acceptable.
Q: Can we have more than a five amperes low ground fault
current available in high-resistance grounding in any Q: If you have a neutral-grounding resistor (NGR), is an arc
circumstances? flash relay also recommended?

A: The maximum ground fault current is physically limited to A: Yes, because the NGR only reduces or eliminates arcing
the value of the resistor, assuming no resistance in the fault and ground faults. For the other type of arcing faults, phase faults,
return path. For example, on a 480-volt system, for a ground an arc flash relay can be used to provide maximum protection.
fault current of 5A, the resistor value is 277V/5A = 55.4 ohms. Typically, 95 percent of all faults are ground faults, so the NGR
The 55.4-ohm resistor sets a maximum ground fault current of reduces or eliminates most of the risk and the arc flash relay
5A. However, it is typically lower due to either fault resistance provides the five percent protection in the switchgear.
and/or resistance in return path. In some older facilities where
the return path is weak, a lower resistance value is used to allow SAFETY REGULATIONS
for a higher ground fault current. Q: Do arc flash relays lower the personal protective
equipment required?
Q: Is there protection (resistance grounding) for delta
circuits? A: In order to lower the amount of PPE required, the incident
energy must be reduced. There are two ways to lower the
A: HRG systems are only used on three-wire systems,
either wye with floating neutral or delta. If used on
wye systems, the resistor is simply directly connected
to the neutral bushing. If it is a delta system, typically,
a zigzag transformer is used to create a neutral point
(or three single-phase transformers are used). In any
case, a neutral point, which is used to connect the
resistor.

Q: The code only allows high-resistance grounding

if you did not have neutral to ground loads (that
is, 277 volts). Would this only be applied on three-
wire systems?

A: Correct, the National Electric Code prohibits using

HRG systems on systems with line-to-neutral loads.
The reason is that the elevated neutral voltage,
which occurs during a ground fault, may backfeed a
circuit causing a dangerous condition. However, the
Canadian Electric Code allows HRG systems on these
systems if the entire system is tripped offline during a
ground fault.
NGR Reduces
Q: How do you address the system-leakage Ground Fault Risk
capacitance on a high-resistance grounding

24 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

 incident energy of an arc flash event, reducing the fault NFPA 70E: “Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace” for a
current or the clearing time and reducing the available energy. reduced rating in hazard risk category (HRC).
Reducing the available energy can be achieved by using
current-limiting fuses and, for single-phase faults, resistance Q: What are the regulatory agencies’ opinion on arc flash
grounding. Reducing the clearing time typically is not possible relays on life safety and critical circuits?
when using overcurrent protection due to system coordination A: Hospitals and health care facilities are not exempted
requirements. Current-based protection must have sufficient from regulatory safety requirements enforced by the U.S.
delay to prevent unnecessary tripping on momentary overload Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
or current spikes, thus losing valuable reaction time. These facilities rely on the experience and reputation of the
Arc flash relays resolve this issue by detecting overcurrent professional engineer’s assessment.
and light, which allows for the quickest reaction time in the
industry. The arc flash relay can detect an arcing condition Q: Can greater than 75 kVA transformers mitigate the arc
and send a trip signal to the circuit breaker within one flash labels and requirements?
millisecond. This detection time is much faster than standard
protection and circuit breakers, which mean using an arc A: According to IEEE 1584, if the voltage is 240 volts or less, and
flash relay in combination with a circuit breaker, will lower the fed by a single transformer rated 125 kVA or less, the hazard risk
incident energy or arc flash hazards. This results in an increase category is usually considered HRC 0.
in worker safety, less fault damage, and improved uptime.
Since the arc flash hazard has decreased, the associated PPE Q: When designing a safety protocol, should low-fault
may also be lowered. The exact amount will depend on user current/long clearing-time hazard and a high-fault current/
set points, so it must be modeled in the system to determine short clearing-time hazard with the same incident energy be
the new incident energy and PPE. Please note: While it is treated differently?
true that arc flash relays can greatly reduce the effect of an
arc flash, relays should never be considered a substitute for A: No, not if the incident energy is the same. However, if the
personal protection equipment (PPE). incident energy is more or less, NFPA 70E requires the worker
to use arc rated clothing equal to or greater than the possible
Q: Can arc flash relays reduce PPE required if only walking maximum incident energy.
in front of the equipment, or opening the cabinet to read a
nameplate? Q: Is there a recommendation as to how often you need to
update the arc flash label?
A: If the worker is within the flash protection boundary of the
exposed (line of sight) energized part, then the PPE category on A: NFPA 70E Article 130.5 requires the arc flash analysis to be
the label must be used. If the door is closed or cover is on, check updated when major modifications occur and reviewed every
Table 130.7(C)(15)(a) or (b) National Fire Protection Association’s five years, whichever occurs first. Our facility completed an arc
flash hazard assessment and has dangerous level
categories.

Q: Will the arc flash relay reduce those levels and

Monitor NGRs to will that change the amount of PPE required?
protect against resistor A: We recommend you contact the engineer or
faults and ground faults engineering firm that performed the assessment and
request them to re-run the study on that equipment
using the arc flash relay to lower the hazards.

Q: If we are using an arc flash relay as the only

method to protect personnel from arc flash, should
the arc flash relay be tested and have a safety
integrity level (SIL)?

A: We do not recommend that

the arc flash relay be used as the
only method to protect personnel
from arc flash. Adequate PPE
should be worn based on the
results of an arc flash study.
Resistance grounding is highly
recommended to eliminate single
phase-to-ground arc flashes.
Current-limiting fuses and relays
with maintenance mode settings
or dual set-point groups are also
highly recommended.

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 25

FALL PROTECTION

FALL
PROTECTION
REGULATION
FOR UTILITIES
OSHA overhauls rules for electric power
generation

BY CRAIG FIRL, Capital Safety is solely responsible to show OSHA why fall protection is
infeasible or hazardous.
The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) published updated rules and regulations in April 2014
that impact fall protection for the electrical utility industry.
These new regulations, which replace rules dating back to
2 Arc flash-compliant fall arrest equipment is required for
at-height workers exposed to flames or hazards
Personal fall arrest equipment must be capable of passing a
the 1970s, have been in development since 2005 and will drop test after exposure to an electric arc, if the workers using
replace guidelines that were both out-of-date and inconsistent. fall arrest equipment are exposed to flames or electric arc
OSHA estimates the new rules will prevent an additional 118 hazards. The OSHA electric arc/heat energy level of over 40, less
workplace injuries and 20 fatalities each year. than five, calories per centimeters squared (40+/-5 cal/cm2) is
Workers who operate or maintain electric power generation the same as ASTM International’s F887 arc flash requirement:
equipment, or transmission or distribution lines will be affected “Standard Specifications for Personal Climbing Equipment”.
by the new regulations. Additionally, these new regulations Therefore, if the at-height worker is exposed to flame or arc flash
will affect construction workers who erect new power lines or hazards, the use of arc flash fall arrest equipment (harnesses,
equipment, as well as those who alternate, convert, or improve lanyards, and self-retracting lanyards) is required to meet the
existing lines and equipment. There are two main fall protection- new OSHA regulation.
related rules that are new or revised. OSHA’s new fall protection regulation comes into effect in June
2015 This white paper is intended to prepare electric utilities and
TWO NEW/REVISED RULES qualified personnel with information on fall protection equipment

1 Qualified employees must use fall protection when

climbing or changing locations
The previous rules stated that qualified employees were
specifically outlined in the OSHA regulation.
For starters, utilities must know that owning the appropriate
products and tools is not sufficient and that practical knowledge
not required to wear or use fall protection equipment when on correct and reliable use is just as important.
climbing or changing locations. Now, all qualified employees
must use fall protection when climbing or changing locations NEW OSHA-COMPLIANT FALL PROTECTION CHECKLIST
on poles, towers, or similar structures. Qualified employees FOR UTILITIES
can avoid this rule if the employer can demonstrate that Employees in elevated locations more than four feet above the
climbing or changing locations with fall protection equipment ground must now use some type of fall protection. Additionally,
is infeasible or creates a greater hazard than climbing or aerial lift fall protection, such as fall arrest or restraint systems
changing location without it. Importantly, if the employer with a full-body harness, is required. For most applications, the
elects not to use fall protection equipment, the employer new rules require one of the following types of fall protection.

26 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

 Fall Arrest: A personal A PERSONAL FALL ARREST SYSTEM
fall arrest system stops an A personal fall arrest system is comprised of three main
employee during a fall components: an anchorage connector, body wear (full-body
harness), and a connecting device (a shock-absorbing lanyard or
Restraint: A restraint system self-retracting lifeline). Regulations require a full-body harness
prevents the user from falling for a fall arrest system and allow use of body belts only with
any distance restraint and work positioning systems.

Work Positioning: A work Anchorage Connectors

positioning system allows an Typically, users call the anchorage the tie-off point. The
employee to be supported on anchorage often consists of an I-beam, rebar, scaffolding, or
an elevated vertical surface lifeline. The anchorage connector (for example, a cross-arm
and work with both hands free strap, beam anchor, D-bolt, hook anchor, among others) is used
to join the connecting device to the anchorage and should
Other Fall Protection: Other always be positioned to avoid a “swing fall”. All anchorages must
fall protection structures (for be capable of supporting 5,000 pounds of force per worker and
example, guardrails) that must be high enough for a worker to avoid contact with a lower
meet OSHA General Industry level during a fall.
or Construction Industry
standards can also prevent Body Wear
employees from falling. As previously mentioned, the only form of body wear that is
acceptable for fall arrest is the full-body harness. Employers
Additional details to consider must select harnesses carefully based on the work environment
include: and the work at hand.

States with their own safety and health programs must have Connecting Device
standards that are at least as effective as Federal standards The critical link that joins the body wear to the anchorage/
anchorage connector, and which actually bears the greatest
Employers must provide rescue equipment to ensure the force during a fall, is the connecting device. This device can be
prompt and safe rescue of employees from enclosed spaces a shock-absorbing lanyard, fall limiter, self-retracting lifeline, or
rope grab.
Photo credit (utility bucket): Capital Safety

While working in a bucket or a basket, OSHA requires that workers wear fall protection equipment
with the lanyard or self-retracting device connected to an anchor point on the boom or bucket/
basket because mechanical failures can occur, causing workers to fall. Passing vehicles also pose a
risk if they strike the truck, which may launch a worker out of the bucket.

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 27

 Utility managers must calculate the potential fall distance

Photo credit (utility lattice): Capital Safety

to determine the appropriate type of connecting device.
Furthermore, utility managers must factor in their employees’
working environment and the work at hand when making a
decision.

FALL RESTRAINT SYSTEMS

An effective work restraint system provides an extremely high
level of safety. These systems give employees the necessary
latitude to complete their work, but limits movement past a
certain point where a fall could occur. Generally, fall restraint
systems are suitable if an employee needs to work at the edge of
a hazard.
When fitting a fall restraint system, ensure that no free fall
potential exists. Utility managers should routinely check the
system to ensure the attached worker could not maneuver into
a situation where he or she could free fall. Additionally, utility
managers should ensure a worker’s safety in all situations where
system misuse might occur (for example, workers might use
other available lanyards that are too long).
Restraint system anchor points should be positioned where
a user can access the anchor without being exposed to a fall
hazard.

WORK POSITIONING
If a worker is required to perform a task at height and he or she
needs to work hands free, then the safest form of fall prevention
is a work positioning system.
A work positioning system uses equipment to restrict
movement and hold or suspend the worker in place to carry
out a task, thereby creating a safe working zone. Care should
be taken when setting up the system to ensure that the safe
working zone is effective, as once in place the worker’s level of
awareness will decrease.
An effective work position system is comprised of 1) an anchor
point, 2) a connecting device that supports the worker, and 3) a
body support device (harness or work positioning belt).
If an employee is fully reliant upon a work positioning system
for his or her primary support, some applications then require a
secondary connection as a backup.
Work positioning systems must be rigged so workers can free
fall no more than two feet, and anchorages must be capable
of supporting at least twice the potential impact load of an
employee’s fall or 3,000 pounds, whichever is greater.
Wood pole fall restriction devices meeting the ASTM
F887 standard are deemed to meet the anchorage strength
requirement when used in accordance with manufacturer’s
instructions.

OTHER FALL PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Other fall protection systems, such as platforms, safety nets
and guardrails, do not require special equipment or active
participation from the worker and can be installed around the
perimeter of a work area to catch an employee. These types of
A Personal Fall Arrest System is comprised of an systems can also serve as excellent work platforms.
anchorage, full-body harness and a connecting
SCHEDULING A TRAINING SESSION
device, such as a shock-absorbing lanyard or
Regular safety training for utility managers and workers is always
self-retracting lifeline. Full-body harnesses are important, but day-to-day demands and a never-ending string
required for a fall arrest system. Body belts are of deadlines can make it challenging to squeeze training sessions
only allowed to be used with restraint and work into the schedule. This change in OSHA regulations is the perfect
positioning systems. opportunity for electric utilities to offer appropriate staff a refresher
course on equipment usage and fall protection practices.

28 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

 ARC FLASH REQUIREMENTS FOR FALL PROTECTION
The severity of arc flash is measured in terms of the heat energy imparted by the electric current. The OSHA
electric arc/heat energy level of 40+/-5 cal/cm2 is the same as the arc flash requirement published in ASTM
F887: “Standard Specifications for Personal Climbing Equipment”. Therefore, if the at-height worker is exposed to
flame or arc flash hazards, the use of arc flash fall arrest equipment is required.

Arc flash-compliant fall arrest equipment—harnesses, lanyards and self-retracting lanyards with an ASTM F887
reference—will meet these new OSHA requirements.

TESTING ARC FLASH PRODUCTS

The ASTM F887-11 standard calls out specific testing requirements for fall protection equipment. There are two
required steps to meet this arc flash standard.

Step 1: The equipment must withstand exposure to a 40 cal/cm2 arc. Immediately after being exposed to this
blast of electrical energy and heat, the product must not ignite, melt or drip, and have no greater than five
seconds of after-flame. If these initial requirements are met, the product is next tested to the American National
Standards Institute’s ANSI Z359: “Fall Protection Code” standard.

Step 2: The equipment must undergo static and dynamic testing, per ANSI Z359, in an accredited lab to
ensure strength and performance levels of the applicable product are maintained even after exposure to arc
flash energy.

Products that pass all tests can be marked as compliant with ASTM and ANSI requirements. All personal fall
arrest equipment must also be capable of passing a drop test after exposure to an electric arc, if workers using
fall arrest equipment are exposed to flames or electric arc hazards.

Many world-leading designers and manufacturers of height equipment. For example, workers must inspect body
safety and fall protection equipment, such as Capital Safety, offer harnesses before use (experts must review these devices
training courses to anyone who works at height or in confined annually). Furthermore, users should never modify or paint
spaces. Both standard and customized fall protection courses body harnesses, unless material is approved for this purpose.
are available at training centers worldwide. Training not only Lastly, electric utilities should remove harnesses from service
helps keep workers safe, but also helps employers comply with immediately if exposed to an impact.
OSHA, and other safety regulations within the power industry. Similarly, connectors should never be tied back to themselves,
In addition, many training resources are available online. For unless specifically designed for this use. They should always be
example, Capital Safety’s “Thinking about Fall Protection” videos worn with the impact absorber/shock pack at the D-ring, and
introduce you to all aspects of fall protection and industry should have the appropriate clip for the intended anchorage
safety requirements. These safety training videos, which are points. For example, workers must never use large climbing/
broken down into 11 chapters, can be downloaded or viewed on rebar/ladder hooks with “beamers”.
YouTube, and provide fall protection safety knowledge ranging
from compliant to expert solutions. ACT NOW
Once qualified climber exemptions for fall protection use
Any basic fall prevention training will teach you to: change in June all employees working at height must receive
• Understand the definitions of fall prevention, fall restraint, the tools and training required to meet these new OSHA
and fall arrest requirements. It is on both employees and their employers to
• Understand the requirements of fall protection know how these changes will affect their work and worksites,
• Recognize the hazards associated with fall protection and to receive the necessary training required.
• Know where to seek help and advice for fall protection
• Know how to inspect and wear personal fall arrest system FAMOUS LAST WORDS
equipment (PFAS) Every employer, as of January 2015, must assess the workplace
• Know the requirements for anchorage points and how to tie for arc flash hazards and make reasonable estimates of incident
off to them energy. Additionally, employers are required to acquire and
pay for all appropriate protective gear that the electric power
Additionally, basic training programs address many other generation, transmission, and distribution standards require.
important details about each tool and piece of fall prevention

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 29

LABELLING

IMPROVE
SAFETY WITH
ARC FLASH
LABELING
Increase safety and save costs with
proper arc flash labeling

BY THOMAS SMITH, Brady Corporation adjustment, service or maintenance while energized, creating the
potential for an arc flash incident to occur. Thus, many employers
THOUGHTS FROM THE TOP are also labeling bus ducts and other electrical equipment not
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is specifically called out in the National Electrical Code.
citing and fining employers for failure to protect employees Any modifications or renovations to electrical equipment
from the dangers of arc flash. For guidelines on how to protect that will change data on the label will require an updated arc
employees, OSHA refers employers to the NFPA 70E standard: flash risk assessment and label according to the 2015 NFPA
“Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace”, published by the 70E standard. At minimum, the safety program needs to be
National Fire Protection Association. audited at intervals not to exceed three years and arc flash risk
This document provides information on the most current assessment shall be periodically reviewed at intervals not to
arc flash labeling requirements, as well as best practices for exceed five years.
creating and maintaining such labels. In the 2015 version of the Equipment installed prior to the 2002 NEC provision
NFPA 70E standard, arc flash labeling requirements are covered does not require a label. However, should it be modified or
under Article 130.5(C) and 130.7(E)(1). Additional labeling upgraded in any way, then a label must be affixed. In fact, an
requirements are also included in Article 110.16 of the 2014 OSHA representative has stated that even changing a fuse or
version of the National Electric Code (NEC). This whitepaper will circuit breaker could be considered a modification that would
provide guidance for complying with both standards. require labeling. Labels applied prior to September 30, 2011
are acceptable if they contain the available incident energy or
WHAT NEEDS TO BE LABELED? required level of personal protective equipment (PPE).
Arc flash labeling is the responsibility of the employer, not the From a safety perspective, the hazard is the same, regardless
manufacturer or installer of the equipment. The NEC provides of when the equipment was installed. Consequently, most
the following examples of electrical equipment that must be employers are simply labeling all the appropriate equipment,
field marked with a warning label: regardless of when it was installed.
• Switchboards The NEC requirement states that the marking must be in a
• Panel boards location that is clearly visible to qualified persons before they
• Industrial control panels begin work. Typically, the label is placed outside the panel or
• Meter socket enclosures enclosure door. In some cases, companies choose to put the
• Motor control centers label inside the door to protect it from harsh environments;
however, this should only be done if the door must be opened—
This is not an all-inclusive list. Labeling is required for any piece allowing the label to be seen—in order to remove the panel
of electrical equipment that is likely to require examination, face or enclosure. The key point is that the label should be

30 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

easily noticeable by workers before they may be exposed to any edition of NFPA 70E further dictates that the label must contain
potentially dangerous live parts. three important elements.

WHAT NEEDS TO APPEAR ON THE LABEL?

Article 110.16 in the NEC states that relevant electrical
equipment shall be “field marked to warn qualified persons of
1 NOMINAL SYSTEM VOLTAGE
The label must contain a value assigned to a circuit or system
for conveniently designating its voltage class (that is, a 12-volt
potential electric arc flash hazards”. In Article 130.7(E)(1), the battery, 24-volt system, or 480-volt electrical panel).
NFPA 70E standard further notes that the design and formatting
of the labels should conform with ANSI Z535 Safety Alerting
Standards, accredited by the American National Standards
Institute, for safety signs and tags (refer to “ANSI Z535” sidebar).
2 ARC FLASH BOUNDARY
Any sign or label must specify the distance at which an
electrical arc can flash outward, which may endanger employees
Thus, it is recommended that the header, message, and working on electrical equipment, where up to second degree
pictogram, if used, be formatted according to ANSI standards. burns are likely to occur.
Currently, no widely accepted symbol exists for indicating Among key changes from 2012 standards, the Prohibited
an arc flash hazard. Many leading manufacturers offer stock Approach Boundary has been deleted. No additional protective
arc flash labels both with and without a symbol, employing equipment was required when crossing the prohibited
a pictogram composed of a red explosive graphic inside of a boundary after the Limited and Restricted boundaries were
triangular border for this purpose. previously implemented; therefore, this delineation was
removed. Additionally, the hazard/risk category 0 has been
deleted due to the new PPE table, which only specifies for work
ANSI Z535 This specification to occur within the arc flash boundary.
consists of six individual standards
ANSI Z535.1: “American National Standard for Safety Colors”
ANSI Z535.2 “American National Standard for Environmental
ADDITIONAL BOUNDARY REQUIREMENTS
and Facility Safety Signs” Conductive Articles of Jewelry and Clothing:
ANSI Z535.3 “American National Standard for Criteria for Safety Watchbands, bracelets, rings, key chains, necklaces, and
Symbols” metal frame glasses shall not be worn within the restricted
approach boundary.
ANSI Z535.4 “American National Standard for Product Safety
Signs and Labels”
Working Space: Any area required for work shall not be
ANSI Z535.5 “American National Standard for Safety Tags and used for storage. Space shall be kept clear to permit safe
Barricade Tapes (for Temporary Hazards)” operation and maintenance.
ANSI Z535.6 “American National Standard for Product Safety
Information in Product Manuals, Instructions, and Barricades: When the arc flash boundary is greater than
Other Collateral Materials” the limited approach boundary, barricades shall not be
placed closer than the arc flash boundary.

Neither the NFPA 70E nor the NEC requirements specify Insulated Tools: Employees shall use insulated tools
whether to use a “Danger” or “Warning” header; however, NFPA when working inside the restricted approach boundary of
70E does recommend identifying those situations in which there exposed energized electrical conductors.
is an extreme hazard to the worker. A commonly used guideline
is to use a red “Danger” header when the voltage is over 600
volts or when the incident energy is over 40 calories per square
centimeter (cals/cm²).
Many employers have also standardized to using the “Danger”
signal word to indicate a situation where serious injury or
death will occur. If the situation is less than the serious injury
threshold, an orange “Warning” header is used. The employer
3 ONE OF THE FOLLOWING
Incident Energy & Working Distance
Available incident energy and the corresponding working
has the final decision on which words appear on the labels, but distance on a sign or label can help protect workers. An
it is imperative that consistency be maintained on all the labels incidental energy analysis is used to help predict the incident
throughout the facility. energy of an arc flash for a specified set of conditions. Incident
It is also important to note that arc flash labels must be able to energy is the amount of energy impressed on a surface, a certain
withstand their usage environment. In other words, the print on distance away from the source, generated during an electrical
the label should not fade and the adhesive should be aggressive arc event. Incident energy should be measured and labeled in
enough to avoid peeling. When necessary, an overlaminate cal/cm², or the arc flash PPE category in NFPA 70E Table 130.7(C)
should be applied to protect the printed surface from harsh (15)(A)(b) or 130.7(C)(B) identified for equipment—but not both.
chemicals and exposure to sunlight.
Once an arc flash risk assessment has been conducted, Minimum arc rating of clothing (expressed in cal/cm²)
in which the arc flash boundary, the incident energy at the Arc rated clothing indicates it has been tested for exposure to
working distance and the personal protective equipment an electrical arc. This value was formally expressed as flame
required has been determined, Article 130.5 (C) in the 2015 resistant in previous NFPA editions.

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 31

Arc Flash Boundaries: Depending on the
application, the arc flash boundary may extend
to the opposite side of the wall.
Exposed Conductor,
or Circuit

RESTRICTED
Approach
Boundary
(increased
likelihood of
electric shock)

Restricted Limited
Wall Space Space
LIMITED
Approach PPE.
Boundary This type
(shock hazard of extensive label
exists) provides employees with
the most complete information for
protecting themselves from arc flash hazards.
ARC FLASH
Boundary PRE-PRINTED ARC FLASH LABELS
(distance where Additionally, many leading manufacturers offer pre-printed
up to 2nd degree arc flash labels with the arc flash PPE category and a list of the
burns are likely to occur) required PPE, relieving the employer from having to hand-write
this information. As with the check box labels, a version for both
2015 Arc Flash Boundaries arc flash and shock hazards is available.

Note: Depending on the application the arc

flash boundaries may extend to the other
side of the wall.

Site-specific level of PPE

Based on the proximity and level of arc flash hazards present, a
determined level of arc-rated personal protective equipment (PPE)
must be worn by employees in order to maintain electrical safety.
Finally, some safety-conscious employers go one step further
by including shock hazard information on the label. After all,
since facility owners are taking the time and effort to warn
employees of arc flash hazards, providing similar safety guidance
for the shock, the other electrical hazard, is helpful as well.
These labels provide complete arc flash hazard information, and
shock hazard information on the applicable voltage, approach
boundaries, and insulated glove and tool requirements.

WRITE-ON LABELS
Many leading manufacturers provide several versions of stock
arc flash labels, which can be written on using a permanent pen
or marker. The labels shown in Figure 2 meet all current NEC and
NFPA 70E requirements, including the updated 2015 version,
and are available with either “Danger” or “Warning” headers. Make-it-Yourself Arc Flash Labels
Warning labels should include write-in fields for indicating the Large facilities may need to create hundreds—if not
arc flash boundary incident energy and corresponding working thousands—of customized arc flash labels. In this case, industrial
distance, nominal system voltage, arc rating of clothing, PPE printing systems are the ideal solution. This option avoids the
hazard category and check boxes for designating the required time and effort associated with handwriting many labels and it

32 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

allows labels to be printed in batches as the project transitions merged into the label creation software for output to the
from one area of the plant to another. industrial printer.
Leading manufacturers provide label materials that are Finally, many companies have begun using commercial power
designed for industrial, smooth, or rough surfaces and outdoor management software to assist in mapping out their electrical
use, and that employ thermal-transfer printing to provide the system and creating one-line diagrams. In recent years, many
optimum in ultra violet (UV), chemical and abrasion resistance. of these third-party applications have added arc flash analysis
For single color printers, label materials with a pre-printed modules, which use the one-line information to calculate
colored ANSI “Danger” or “Warning” header are available; this incident energy values, flash protection boundaries, and other
option allows users to print only the black text while still pertinent arc flash variables.
creating a color label that meets the ANSIZ535 standard for Available software and printing systems can also be used
safety signs and labels. Companies who want to print multiple throughout the plant for other forms of safety and facility
colors, many manufacturers provide printer models with that identification, such as pipe marking, equipment identification,
capability as well, where the printer will produce the entire chemical labels, barcode labels, and inventory labels. This
multi-color label on a white label stock. provides an even greater and faster return on your system
In addition, software applications include investment, since it can have ongoing, beneficial use for a
preformatted arc flash templates that allow users variety of purposes long after the primary arc flash labeling
to quickly fill in the blanks on their PC, and then project is complete.
send the file to the manufacturer’s printer
to print. The templates can also be easily FAMOUS LAST WORDS
customized to include a logo or other With the rising frequency of reported arc flash accidents, and
company-specific information. the potential for serious injury or death, arc flash deserves the
wWhen large quantities of concern it is generating within OSHA and the safety industry. In
labels need to be created and order to increase safety and ensure compliance throughout the
managed, users often prefer workplace, it is essential to learn and identify arc flash hazards
to store the label information in industrial facilities. Facility owners should train employees in
in a spreadsheet. Available safe work practices and utilize the labels and awareness aids that
software allows this data to be are available to keep the message in the forefront of workers’
downloaded and automatically minds, and reinforce the desired behavior within the facility.

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 33

SOFTWARE & APPS

GUIDE TO
ARC FLASH
APPS
Simple solutions for fast and
accurate results

BY MICHAEL FURTAK, Mersen Canada

Arc flash applications are increasing in popularity among

engineers and electricians when examining hazards presented
by an arc flash. Professionals search for accessible tools to help
reduce dangers associated with arc flash as well as to assist in
selecting adequate personal protective equipment (PPE). Mobile
apps for arc flash analysis can be useful for assessing the hazards
before working on energized equipment.
Contrary to many simple and complex computer programs
used for power system and arc flash hazard analysis, only a
handful of arc flash apps are available for purchase. Each app,
available in either the Apple Store (iPhone) or Google Play
(Android-operated devices), vary in level of complexity and
range of operations.

Q: What are some specific benefits to workers using arc flash

apps on their mobile device?

A: Qualified workers use mobile apps for data collection,

field analysis of electrical equipment and evaluation of arc Association. Arc flash mobile apps support calculations and
flash dangers when access to complex power system analysis functions for typical distribution systems that use fuses and
computer software is limited or not available. Electrical and circuit breaker protection devices. They provide for real-time
safety professionals can now find ways to minimize arc flash display of incident energy and arc flash boundary results.
hazards using handheld gadgets while in the field by trying
different protection device settings and by simulating various Q: What are some of the common functions of arc flash apps
fault scenarios. for mobile devices?
The apps help in meeting the requirements of CSA Z462
“Workplace Electrical Safety” and NFPA 70E: “Standard for A: Primarily, qualified workers and facility owners use arc
Electrical Safety in the Workplace” published respectively by the flash analysis mobile apps for selecting the PPE necessary to
Canadian Standards Association and the National Fire Protection protect against thermal energy generated during arcing fault.

34 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

A typical mobile app for arc flash hazard analysis calculates of motors and generators is effectively rectified.
incident energy, arc flash boundary, determines shock approach Complex protective systems feature circuit breakers and relays
boundaries, and provides with PPE recommendations based with zone selective interlocking (ZSI), multiple maintenance
on system parameters such as equipment type, system voltage, mode trip settings, among others. ZSI scheme circuit breakers
gap between conductors, the amount of available short circuit and relays communicate with each other, securing selective
current, arc duration and working distance. Calculations results co-ordination between the devices by ensuring that faults are
displayed on a device screen alert the user about the danger cleared by the upstream protection device nearest to the fault.
present when working on energized equipment. Additionally, arcing time can be reduced by temporarily setting
upstream protective devices to lower instantaneous trip settings
Q: What are some of the advanced functions of arc flash apps during maintenance periods.
for mobile devices? Currently existing mobile apps are not yet capable of
modeling such systems. However, this drawback can be largely
A: Some mobile apps approach, by functionality, the leading- compensated for in mobile apps featuring adjustable arc
edge software programs for arc flash analysis. These apps duration limits by selecting a reasonable time it takes a person
are capable of performing analysis using metric and imperial to move away from an arc flash.
units of measurement, creating arc flash warning labels in Available short circuit current values are required for input
English, and a variety of other languages, performing arc flash when performing arc flash analysis using computer software and
boundary calculations based on constant or variable incident mobile apps. Some mobile apps are available for short circuit
threshold energy to second-degree burns for bare skin analysis and calculating the prerequisite values, which might be
exposure. Advanced mobile apps feature a built-in protection a consideration for complementing arc flash apps.
device library and the provision for adding fuse and circuit
breaker data including time-current characteristics for the FAMOUS LAST WORDS
devices not already listed in the library. Arc flash mobile apps are continuously increasing in popularity
Mobile apps are available for free or at a fraction of the cost and aim to promote the awareness of hazards presented by arc
of an average arc flash software program. Once purchased, flash and assist in selecting proper PPE before testing or working
users can install the commercial mobile app at no extra cost on on energizing equipment. Consider these apps as a handy
multiple mobile devices sharing the same Apple or Google user alternative to sophisticated software programs and as a tool of
ID. Finally yet importantly, mobile users are instantly notified choice when accurate and fast results are necessary.
when a new app version has been released and can upgrade for
free with a single tap on their
smartphone or tablet.

Q: What are some of the

drawbacks to using arc
flash apps? How can users
overcome these limitations?

A: Currently, mobile apps are

not capable of simulating time-
varying currents contributed by
inductive loads and generators.
Mobile apps built around the
IEEE Standard Association’s
1584 specification: “Guide for
Performing Arc-Flash Hazard
Calculations” empirical model
provide for specifying both the
available short circuit current
(ASCC) and the amount of ASCC
through the protection device.
Using maximum and
minimum available short circuit
current values for ASCC and
the amount of ASCC through
protection device results in
the worst case incident energy
scenario associated with the
longest arc duration and the
largest energy flux. Hence, the
uncertainty in fault current
contribution and current decay
from all different type and size

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 35

ARD FLASH SAFETY

THE
DANGERS OF
ARC FLASH
How this phenomenon leads to injuries
and fatalities

BY JOHN PFEIFFER, Pfeiffer Engineering Company Inc. What are the causes of an arc flash?
• Buildup of dust and impurities
THOUGHTS FROM THE TOP • Condensation
An arc flash is a rapid release of energy due to an arcing fault • Corrosion
between a phase conductor and another phase conductor, • Mechanical failures
neutral conductor or ground. • Faulty insulation
• Human factors
• What happens when an arc flash occurs?
• Rapid release of energy (a fire ball exploding outward) What events trigger an arc flash?
• Rapid release of heat (can cause incurable burns) • Operation (racking in a circuit breaker)
• Very bright flash (blinding light) • Opening doors
• Shock/Pressure wave (Deadly, similar to a hammer hitting • Loss of balance while holding with voltmeter test probe
someone’s chest) • General troubleshooting
• Sound wave (damages ears due to acoustic wave trauma) • Moving conductors
• Sudden spray of molten metal droplets • Making Changes
• Hot shrapnel flying in all directions • Accidental physical contact
• Accidental dropping of tools
An arc flash, a type of electrical fault, is an accidental connection • Mechanical failure (component malfunction)
of energized electrical conductors and/or the earth. Arc flashes are
created by mechanical failures, insulation failures, or by accident The two most common tasks that result in an arc flash are
while a person is working on an energized electrical system. voltage testing and troubleshooting problems. Arc flashes can
Arc flashes are a specific type of short circuit, which occurs occur in any area where electrical connections are present.
due to brief contact of energized conductors, such as a metal These areas include power panels, motor control centers, control
part falling onto an energized circuit. The initial short is of panels, bus bars, disconnect switches, transformers, and variable
relatively high impedance but the impedance begins to drop as frequency drives.
the arc is produced and the air becomes the conductor. These The cause of the short normally burns away during the initial
arc faults are generally limited to systems where the voltage is flash that establishes a highly conductive plasma that sustains
in excess of 120 volts. At 120 volts and below, the fault normally the arc fault. This plasma will conduct as much energy as is
will not sustain an arc. An arc fault, similar to an arc produced available and is only limited by the impedance of the arc and
during electric welding, occurs manually due to an object or the overall impedance of the electrical system. This massive
stimulant creating a path of conduction or by a failure such as a energy discharge burns the bus bars or wiring, vaporizing the
breakdown in insulation. copper or aluminum and thus causing an explosive volumetric

36 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

increase. The arc flash is a blast and is conservatively estimated handle the arc fault condition, they normally will not trip or trip
as an expansion in volume of 1 to 40,000. This fiery explosion fast enough to minimize the full force of an arc flash.
devastates everything in its path, creating deadly shrapnel and The amount of energy produced at the point of the arc is
droplets of molten metal flying in many directions. a function of the voltage and current present as well as the
time that the arc is sustained; this time is the most important
part of the energy equation. Every second matters greatly.
ARC FLASH FAST FACTS The transition from the arc fault to the arc flash takes a finite
time, increasing in intensity as a pressure wave develops. The
• When water boils, there is a volume increase of one to challenge to protect against an arc flash is to sense the arc fault
1,670; one cup of water becomes 1,670 cups of steam current and shut off the current in a timely manner before it
• When copper vaporizes (boils,) there is a volume increase develops into a serious arc flash condition.
of one to 67,000 Electrical engineers and technicians determine the trip
• An arc flash results in a volume increase from a times for circuit protection devices such as circuit breakers
conservative one to 40,000 to as high as one to 67,000 and fuses from time-current characteristic charts. Once the arc
fault current has been determined, a vertical line is drawn. An
engineer or a technician will be able to determine the trip time
The terminal of the arc is extremely hot having a temperature of each over-current protective device is upstream of his or her
estimated to be in excess of 35,000 oF. This is in addition to position.
plasma of vaporizing metal having a temperature of 23,000 oF.
In comparison with the sun’s surface that is only 9,940 oF and an THE CONSEQUENCE OF SINGLE PHASE
atomic bomb, after 0.3 seconds, reaches only 12,632 oF, this arc is Workers do not have to concern themselves with 120-volt
unbelievably hot. single-phase circuits. First, single-phase circuits have difficulty
• The sun’s surface temperature is 9,940 oF sustaining an arc because the current flow goes to zero every
• 0.3 seconds after an atomic bomb explodes, its core is at 12, 120th of a second, twice every cycle. When the current moves
632 oF through the zero current flow point, the arc is interrupted and
• The arc flash conductive plasma is at temperature of more thus will have to be retriggered to continue arcing. Second,
than 23,000 oF the voltage level, 120 volts, is not high enough to produce and
• The terminal points of an arc are more than 35,000 oF sustain an arc. Lastly, a 120/240-volt single-phase system also
cannot sustain an arc.
The high heat and volume expansion produces a pressure wave
that can literally knock a person over, producing sound at a level WHY FOCUS ON ARC FLASH?
that can damage hearing. The event is a fireball with shrapnel Everyday, the number of arc flash incidents in the United States
exploding outward. Injury and fires resulting from an arc flash is greater than most electricians or engineers believe. The
is primarily the result of the radiant heat produced and by the Chicago-based Capelli-Schellpfeffer, Inc. reports that five to
molten metal (1,832 oF), rather than by the arc itself. ten arc flash injuries requiring hospitalization occur each day,
The arc fault current that is produced during an arc flash is and 2000 severe arc flash burns that can cause a very slow and
usually much lower than the available bolted fault current that painful death occur each year.
occurs during a direct short circuit. Thus, the current is often The hot gasses produced from an arc flash can injure lungs
below the rating or setting of the protecting circuit breaker or and impair breathing. The very loud sound can destroy the
fuse. Unless these protective devices have been selected to eardrums and the blast can propel the person some distance

Current Goes to Zero

Extinguishing the Arc
Three Phases
1

0.5

-0.5

-.1
0 90 100 270 360

Figure 1: Single-phase current flow Figure 2: Three-phase current flow

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 37

 Arc Flash Results (Injury/Death) Important Temperatures
• External burns Skin Temperature for a curable burn ≤ 1760oF
• Temporary blindness Skin Temperature causing cell death ≥ 2050oF
• Hit by Molten Metal: 1,820oF
• Hit by flying Shrapnel Igniting clothing 7520 – 1,4720oF
• Inhaling of Toxic Gases Burning clothing ≈ 1,4720oF
• Damage to hearing
Metal droplets from arcing ≈ 1,8320oF
• Severe pain and suffering
• Treatments requiring years of skin grafting and rehabilitation Surface of sun ≈ 9,9400oF
• Probability of never returning to the workforce
•Treatment can exceed $1,000,000 Arc terminal ≈35,0000oF
• Death

away, often causing injury. If the worker is lucky enough to Control Panel
be far enough away from the direct effects of the arc flash,
psychological effects lasting many years might cause concern.
These effects can result in depression, job apprehension, and
family tension.

EVALUATING ELECTRICAL HAZARDS 480 Volts

Remember that the risk is not the equipment itself, but rather
the worker’s exposure to a dangerous environment. Figures 4
and 5 show a common motor control panel that has a mixture
of 120-volt control circuits and 480-volt motor controllers. Thus,
when a worker opens this panel, even if only working on control
circuits, he or she is still exposed to the real arc flash hazard, the
480-volt motor controllers.
One of the most serious hazards occurs while moving cables
that have been touching the metal surface inside of a panel.
Over time, normal vibrations can cause the insulation to wear.
If workers move large conductors, which are often very stiff,
the conductor can fail, thus causing severe injury or fatality—
particularly if the incorrect PPE is worn. Figure 3: Motor control panel
Motor control centers have a high risk of arc flash,
a mixture of 120-volt control signals and 480-volt
motor power.

Open Vents - will

exhaust hot gasses
during an Arc Flash
event

Figure 4: Switchboard
Several other hazards are lurking around—
particularly in electrical rooms such as those shown. Figure 5: Cables touching metal

38 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

1
START WITH A SAFE POSITION
A worker must know the best position to
be in when operating circuit breakers or
opening the door to a motor control cen-
ter. Let the panel door protect you.

Figure 6: Operating a circuit breaker

2
DETERMINE SAFE
ESCAPE ROUTE
Bus duct systems are of a
particular concern. They are
normally high up in the air and
you can only reach them with a
lift truck or ladder.
How can a worker escape if
the worst happens? A mechan-
ical failure occurs in the bus
plug while a worker is chang-
ing a fuse, resulting in an arc
flash. No escape can happen.
Employees working at height
must wear the appropriate PPE
for protection against falls and Figure 7: Bus duct overhead
arc flash. Workers must con-
sider how PPE can hinder a safe Taps on Bus Duct
escape.
Switchboards and switchgear
often have ventilation panels.
Stand to the side of the panel
while wearing the appropri-
ate PPE and reach to operate
switches. In addition, trans-
formers are another hazard
when they have ventilation
panels. Moreover, electrical
systems often leave little room
for personnel to escape.
Bus Tap Socket

Figure 8: Bus duct components

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 39

Figure 9: Switchboard with ventilation panels Figure 10: Transformer with ventilation panels

Figure 11: Switchgear

40 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

3
CONSIDER TOOLS RATED FOR TASK
Voltmeters and other test equipment have to be rated for the level of a power surge that can be expect-
ed at your work location. Use only equipment that is able to handle power surges. If not, it may explode
which can and has caused an arc flash. Voltage surges on a 230-volt line can reach as high as 2,500 volts.

4
MAINTAIN A SAFE DISTANCE
No worker wants another person interrupting them, while working on a panel. Sudden interruptions
could lead to dropped tool or test probe, consequently resulting in an arc flash. The other person could
awake in a hospital room if he or she is not wearing the proper PPE.
Safety labels list the Arc Flash Protection Boundary, a safe approach distance from energized equip-
ment. If a passerby such as a plant operator comes within this Arc Flash Protection Boundary and an arc
flash occurs, he or she will be subjected to second-degree burns if not wearing the appropriate PPE.

FLASH PROTECTION
BOUNDARY

2nd DEGREE BURNS 2nd DEGREE BURNS

OR WORSE OR LESS
IF UNPROTECTED IF UNPROTECTED
EQUIPMENT

Figure 12: Arc flash protection boundary

IMPORTANT PRECAUTIONS should be covered. Before work, ensure any loose metal objects
In order to avoid arc flash injuries or fatalities, workers and are removed.
facility owners should think ahead by assess all risks associated Whenever possible, qualified workers should cover their
with required tasks. Comprehensive knowledge of the power entire body with the appropriate PPE to minimize exposure
system means accurate, up-to-date information, which is helpful to electrical hazards as well. In addition, when working in an
in reducing mistakes and arc flash accidents. awkward position, workers should use insulating cover-up
Workers need to limit their exposure to as little time as material. Qualified workers should search for an arc flash label
possible. Qualified workers should cover exposed live metal and ensure that the proper personal protective equipment is
and use insulating barriers whenever possible. Remember, ready before any work commences.
grounded metal is conductive, so all grounded metalwork

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 41

SAFETY STANDARDS

DETECTING
DANGER
Verify performance and safety of arc flash detection systems

BY MARK ZELLER, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA),
& WILLIAM KNAPEK, OMICRON Electronics Corp. a federal agency of the U.S. government, enforces the NFPA arc
flash requirements under its “general rule” that a safe workplace
THOUGHTS FROM THE TOP must be maintained. These regulations are forcing employers to
The technology to detect arc flash hazards in switchgear has review and modify their electrical systems and work procedures
been available for several years. Until recently, the testing and to reduce arc flash hazards.
commissioning of these systems has been done using crude The IEEE Standards Association’s IEEE standard 1584: “Guide for
tools such as camera flash and manual trip verification. Performing Arc Flash Hazard Calculations” provides information
Currently, arc flash detection systems can be tested and the on how to calculate arc energy and establish boundary distances
trip timing verified using modern relay test sets. Arc hazard for personnel when working around energized electrical
boundaries are calculated and personal protective equipment equipment.
is assigned based on trip times specified by the arc flash
detection system manufacturers. Specified timing and hazard
calculations can now be validated with common relay test sets IEEE 1584 uses the following formulas:
and a coordinated light source. This paper discusses the test
set-up and procedures necessary to perform arc flash detection E=4.184(Cf )(En)(t/0.2)(610x/Dx)
system testing. Results from this testing could radically alter the
protection assumptions and safety procedures required while Where E = incident energy in joules/cm², Cf is a
working near electrical hazards in switchgear.
calculation factor (1.0 for voltages above 1 kV, and 1.5
ARC FLASH HISTORY
for voltages below 1 kV); En = normalized incident
Protecting workers from electrical hazards is not a new or novel energy; t = arc duration in seconds; D = distance from
idea. Since the first power generating station was built in 1877, arc in mm; x = distance exponent
the benefits and hazards of electricity have been recognized.
Figure 1: IEEE 1584 provides Incident energy
The power industry’s top engineers are continuously making
calculation method
electric power safer, more reliable, and, more economical.
Many papers have been published highlighting the hazards
and possible prevention of electrical arc flash, starting in 1985, As shown by the equation in Figure 1, the energy produced by
when Ralph Lee published the paper “The Other Electrical an arc flash event is proportional to the voltage, current, and
Hazard: Electric Arc Blast Burns”. duration of the event (V • I • t). IEEE 1584 concluded that, for a
The National Fire Protection Association’s NFPA 70E: “Standard fixed distance, arc time has a linear effect on incident energy.
for Electrical Safety in the Workplace” documents electrical safety Therefore, reducing fault-clearing times proportionately reduces
requirements in the United States [2]. It defines specific rules for arc flash hazards.
determining the category of electrical hazards and the personal Several key elements exist for clearing an electrical arc.
protective equipment (PPE) required for personnel in the The first step is detecting the arc flash, second is accurately
defined and marked hazard zones. determining if the arc flash is part of an electrical fault, third is

42 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

signaling the circuit interrupting breaker, and lastly, interrupting through fiber optic cables. Fiber optic cables have the advantage
the current flow to the fault. Each step in the process contributes of avoiding installation of a conductor in the electrical gear.
time to the overall time needed to clear the fault; therefore, a Fiber optic also has the following advantages: (1) electrical
significant amount of research has been invested in each step. isolation between receptor and tripping device, (2) ease of
installation, (3) online complete functional testing, (4) and
TYPES OF ARC FLASH DETECTION SYSTEMS choice of point or loop sensors. The disadvantage of fiber optic
Arc hazard detection systems have been examined that are cables include easy to damage during installation either too
triggered from sound, pressure, current, and light as well as tight bending radius or scaring of the fiber wall, and the need for
predictive systems based on ion detection of thermal imaging. special splicing tools.
This paper will focus on the arc flash detection methods and The main disadvantage of a light-only detection system is the
leave the predictive methodologies to present their own merits. risk of tripping from a non-arc flash light source. These sources
Although an arc blast contains considerable sound and pressure include, arc welding reflections, camera flash, spotlights, and
waves, in the race to fastest detection, these waves are much even light fixture failures. Any source of light exceeding the
slower than light. The fastest detection systems currently on the detection level in the relay will initiate a trip.
market all use light as the primary arc detection medium.
Current-only Detection Systems
A) Light detection Current-only detection schemes were really the first arc flash
B) Current detection detection systems invented. Generally, these systems were
C) Combined light and current detection built to protect electrical equipment, not nearby personnel.
Since current-only detection schemes were initially installed for
Light detection systems have been in existence since the early equipment protection, settings were normally chosen based
1970s. Many of these systems were installed and have proven to on equipment damage, and not personnel safety. As electrical
be effective. Safety considerations over the last few years have safety for workers has become a higher priority, the trip settings
elevated the interest in detecting and interrupting arc flash have been modified to provide separate levels of protection for
incidents faster and with high security. equipment and personnel.
A common practice is to install a switch, which changes the
protection settings on a relay from time-coordinated protection
Table 1: Detection technology in (equipment level protection) to instantaneous (personnel level
arc detection systems protection) settings while qualified personnel are working in
or around the energized equipment. Although instantaneous
Device Detection Technology Published Response Time settings can reduce the arc flash hazard under some conditions,
A Light-Only 8 m Seconds they can also create hazards if misapplied.
B Current-Only 8 m Seconds IEEE defines an instantaneous setting as having “no intentional
delay” in the output. Notice it does not specify how fast a trip
Instantaneous
element needs to respond in order to qualify as instantaneous.
C Current-Only Special 8 m Seconds This allows for significant variation in the response times of
D Light with Current 8 m Seconds instantaneous elements between manufacturers and even from
Supervision model to model of protective relays. Not all instantaneous trip
elements are created equally. Instantaneous trip response times are
E Light and Current 8 m Seconds also dependent on the magnitude and duration of the overcurrent.
F 8 m Seconds Internal signal filtering and the speed of processing logic within the
relay result in variations in instantaneous responses.
G 8 m Seconds When protection engineers build the protective relays, they must
balance the often-competing characteristics of speed and security.
For a protective relay, security is defined as the ability to trip when
Light-only Detection Systems needed and not trip when not needed. Although simplistic in
Light detection systems are based on the principal that during approach, differentiating between an overcurrent signal and noise
an arc flash event enough light will be detected by the receptor on the input channel must be carefully considered.
to indicate a flash. This concept is generally accepted as a sound Protective relay manufacturers have a detailed understanding
principal since the amount of light radiated during an arc flash is of current transformer (CT) signal variation and the effects of
significant and contains nearly the entire light spectrum. Light is saturation on the current signal; this may not be true of all arc
fast and relatively easy to detect. flash detecting devices. Therefore, when selecting a relay to
Generally, there are two types of light detectors. The first is be used for arc flash hazard mitigation, carefully evaluate each
a remote-mounted receiver that converts the light radiated manufacturer for experience, speed, and security.
by the flash to some other form of signal that is transmitted The main disadvantage of a current-only detection system
to the tripping device. These type sensors often use a copper is selecting the proper trip setting. The setting must be high
conductor for the transmission signal carrier. Copper wire is enough to ignore normal variation in current, yet low enough to
common, reliable, and flexible but also has the capability to detect an event. Instantaneous settings set at too high a number
carry current in the event of contact with the bus bars. can endanger workers and provide a false sense of safety. For
The second type of detector acts as a lens to collect the light example, by changing the settings on a feeder relay from the
produced from the flash and channels it back to a receptor in time coordinated delay of 0.5 seconds to an instantaneous
the tripping device. This channeling of the light is accomplished setting of 0.12 seconds.

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 43

 In this scenario, an engineer could assume the arc hazard own generation but still need to purchase power from the grid.
energy dropped from 29 cal/cm² to 4.5 cal/cm². This estimation • Systems that approximately balance the power they
assumes the current remains at the calculated available fault generate with the power they need
current. If the fault current is reduced (due to higher than The result is that little power is imported or exported.
expected impedance) to below the instantaneous setting, • Systems that export power to the power grid
the relay would not trip. In that case, even with a lower fault • The variations in power flow affect the ability and type of
current, the available arc flash energy would be higher than the protection needed to detect an undesired disconnection.
previously calculated level, and personnel working in PPE rated
for the lower hazard would be in jeopardy.
Table 2: Arc flash relay testing results
Light with Current Supervision Systems
Recognizing the lack of security when using any detection Device Detection Published Actual
scheme that only evaluates a single quantity, one improvement Technology Response Time Re­sponseTime
is to supervise the light detection with a current element. This A Light-Only 8 m Seconds 8 m Seconds
system measures the current and only enables the light detection
B Current-Only 8 m Seconds 8 m Seconds
trip element if the current is above some predetermined level. This
application does not monitor for a fault current, it only disables Instantaneous
the light trip element when the current is low, presumably during C Current-Only 8 m Seconds 8 m Seconds
maintenance activities. Supervision systems typically recommend Special
current enable levels just below expected normal operating load.
D Light with Current 8 m Seconds 8 m Seconds
Setting this supervision level too high disables the light portion of
Supervision
the arc detection. Setting it too low removes the security benefit
of current monitoring. E Light and Current 8 m Seconds 8 m Seconds

Light and current detection systems F 8 m Seconds 8 m Seconds

Some protection systems make full use of both overcurrent and G 8 m Seconds 8 m Seconds
light detection to create a scheme that is both fast and secure. By
combining the fault current detection in an “AND” logic statement
with the light detection element, tripping only when both are FAMOUS LAST WORDS
present creates a very secure scheme. One of the challenges to Does the Aurora vulnerability pose a risk to your generator? [3].
combining the two elements is to ensure that the fault detection While standard generator protection does not provide complete
element on the current is as fast as the light detection element. protection from the Aurora attack, modifications to the
This is accomplished by using special high-speed sampling and protection scheme can provide improved mitigation.
logic to match the response times of both elements with no delay.
REFERENCES
Consequences of misoperation [1] J. Meserve, “Staged cyberattack reveals vulnerability in power
The consequences of misoperation of the arc-flash detection grid”, CNN, September 26, 2007. Available: http://www.cnn.
scheme depend on the process and arc suppression system. When com/2007/US/ 09/26/power.at.risk/index.html
isolating the fault with a standard circuit breaker, the result of a [2] E. O. Schweitzer, III, and D. Hou, “Filtering for Protective
false trip (tripping when no fault is present) can be evaluated based Relays”, proceedings of the 47th Annual Georgia Tech Protective
on the consequences of the load lost. Failure of the system to trip Relaying Conference, Atlanta, GA, April 1993
when a fault is present will result in normal circuit protection with [3] D. Salmon, M. Zeller, A. Guzmán, V. Mynam, and M. Donolo,
the associated incident energy. If personnel working in an area with “Mitigating the Aurora Vulnerability With Existing Technology”,
PPE expect high-speed arc detection and the system responds with proceedings of the 36th Annual Western Protective Relay
slower overcurrent protection, serious injury may result. Therefore, Conference, Spokane, WA, October 2009
it is imperative that the system is reliable and tested often. Self- [4] E. O. Schweitzer, III, “Ten Tips for Improving the Security of Your
checking systems can increase confidence and provide warning in Assets”, November 2009. Available: http://www.selinc.com
the event of a failure before personnel enter the risk zone. Modern [5] Automation World Magazine, Gary Mintchell, Siemens
arc flash systems continuously test not just the relay, but also the Updates Response to Virus Attack, July 19, 2010
continuity and function of the sensors as well.
Mark Zeller received his BS from the University of Idaho in 1985.
TESTING PROCEDURES He has broad experience in industrial power system maintenance,
Testers use a number of testing procedures including (1) a operations, and protection. He has worked over 15 years in the
standard overcurrent trip paper industry, working in engineering and maintenance with
(2) a light-only trip (if available), (3) a combined light and responsibility for power system protection and engineering.
overcurrent trip (start with normal load, and then initiate an
overcurrent) and, finally, (4) a security test with load current and William Knapek is the SEC Engineering Services Manager for
a light flash (no overcurrent) should not trip. OMICRON Electronics Corp. USA. He holds a BS from East Carolina
TESTING RESULTS University and an AS from Western Kentucky University, both in
Systems can be broken into the following three groups. Industrial Technology. Will has been active in the testing field since
• Systems with operating generation that still receive 1995, and he owned and operated a testing company for 10 years.
power from the power grid He is certified as a Senior NICET Technician, Certified Plant Engineer,
These systems may include industrial plants that create their and a former NETA Level IV technician. Will is also a member of IEEE.

44 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

SAFETY STANDARDS

NFPA 70E
UPDATE
AFFECTS
VALUABLE
ASSETS
Industry standard changes safety and
maintenance procedures

BY JOHN FOGED, High Voltage Maintenance by arc flash every year.

Fortunately, both IEEE and the National Fire Protection
THOUGHTS FROM THE TOP Association (NFPA) recognize the serious ramifications related to
Electrocution is a well-known hazard associated with direct arc flash and have joined together in order to support research,
contact with electrical energy. According to the U.S. Department testing and public awareness.
of Labor, it is estimated that over 400 fatalities and nearly 10,000
serious injuries occur each year due to electrocution and arc flash ARC FLASH RISK ASSESSMENT
incidents. Arc flash incidents alone are estimated to occur five to A major revision in the 2015 NFPA 70E update states that the arc
10 times each day—resulting in a fatality every workday. To help flash boundary distance must now be calculated for all locations
prevent these type of electrical accidents, the recent 2015 version where the voltage is greater than 50 volts.
of the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 70E: “Standard As noted in the new tables, revisions were also made in order
for Electrical Safety in the Workplace” makes essential updates in to determine risk, (predicates use of PPE) and additional tables
the areas of safety, maintenance, and training. for determining proper PPE if required.
While the importance of understanding electrical safety It is important to note that these tables provide basic
is clear, understanding the regulatory updates may not be guidelines for common tasks, but even the tables require
as clear. This paper aims to provide an overview and deeper system information that may or may not be known. If work to be
understanding to safety and maintenance changes that impact performed is not located in the tables provided, or the system
facilities and electrical power infrastructures. parameters defined in the tables are not met, an engineered
analysis must be performed.
ARC FLASH HAZARDS Arc flash labeling became a NFPA 70E requirement in 2002.
Recent changes in workplace safety have heightened the These requirements were updated in 2004, 2009, 2012, and
awareness of hazards associated with electrical arcs. Arcing from 2015. While the wording in the 2009 edition only stated that
an electrical fault produces temperatures hotter than the surface electrical equipment had to be labeled, the 2015 edition clarifies
of the sun. the intent.
Arc flash is an electric current that is passed through the air
when insulation or isolation between electrified conductors NFPA 70E 130.5(D) states that labels must include nominal
is not sufficient to withstand the applied voltage. The flash is system voltage, arc flash boundary, and at least one of the
immediate and the results can be severe. following:
Far too often, employees are not properly equipped with a. Available incident energy and the corresponding working
the proper personal protective equipment (PPE) in order distance or the arc flash PPE category in Table 130.7(C)(15)(A)
to complete their jobs safely. The Institute of Electrical and (b) or Table 130.7(C)(15)(B) for the equipment, but not both;
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) reports that 2,000 workers are b. Minimum arc rating of clothing
admitted to burn centers for extended injury treatment caused c. Site specific level of PPE

46 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

 Additionally, 130.5(D) states “the method of calculating current (ac) or direct current (dc) systems. It also states that
and the data to support the information for the label shall be the arc flash PPE categories may be applicable when using
documented. Where the review of the arc flash hazard risk the incident energy method to perform and arc flash risk
assessment identifies a change that renders the label inaccurate, assessment. When performing an incident energy analysis, the
the label shall be updated. The standard now states that arc flash labels created may include an arc flash PPE category.
electrical equipment owners are responsible for documenting,
installing, and maintaining the field-marked label. DEFINING A QUALIFIED WORKER
In previous editions of NFPA 70E, the tables outlining arc flash It is important to note that not every electrical worker is
boundary distances and information specifying which distance necessarily qualified to work on every piece of equipment
required a manual calculation within the standard were vague or electrical system. “Qualified” electrical workers must
and not well defined. Fortunately, provisions in the new NFPA demonstrate the appropriate skills and abilities to determine
70E make it easier to define those boundaries. what hazards are faced, the magnitude of the hazards, the
proper work techniques to avoid the hazards, or the proper PPE
Prohibited Approach Boundary Removed to mitigate the hazards. New to the requirements for a qualified
It is important to note that the Prohibited Approach Boundary worker is the requirement for demonstration of the ability to
has been removed from the NFPA 70E standard. Article 130.4(B) work safely.
states that “the shock protection boundaries identified as limited Demonstration of skill sets is usually accomplished through
approach boundary and restricted approach boundary shall an annual observation or audit, similar to the annual audit
be applicable where approaching personnel are exposed to requirements for other safety-related programs, such as Lock
energized electrical conductors of circuit parts”. Out/Tag Out.
NFPA 70E required arc flash labeling for DC equipment with It is important to note that a person can be considered
the updates made in 2012 edition. NFPA 70E 2015 edition Table qualified with respect to certain equipment and methods, but
130.4(D)(a) outlines the approach boundaries for AC equipment still be unqualified for others.
locations, and Table 130.4(D)(b) outlines the approach
boundaries for DC equipment location. HOST EMPLOYERS & CONTRACTORS
The new standard dictates that host and contract employers
PROPER PPE must share with each other information related to safety
Proper PPE is important and lifesaving. Qualified persons must matters. Additionally, hosts and contractors need to coordinate
assess the risks involved in performing any task and dress work rules and procedures to improve safety for all workers.
accordingly. This holds true when utilizing PPE Category Tables Purposely, it falls to the host employer to make contract
or Arc Flash Hazard Warning Labels. employers aware of any known hazards that are related to the
New updates to the 2015 edition have incorporated a new contractors’ work that might not otherwise be recognizable. For
format when choosing arc-rated clothing and PPE. Table 130.7 example, the host employer may be aware that their vacuum
(C)(15)(A)(b) will be split into two tables. The first table is used breakers may not electrically close. However, to the contractor,
to determine if an arc flash hazard exists. If an arc flash hazard is the breakers may visually appear safe to close manually with the
present, a qualified person must wear all of the required clothing doors open. It is up to the host employer to ensure the contractor
and PPE. understands the unsafe condition of the vacuum breakers.
The Informative Annex H in NFPA 70E provides guidelines in
relation to proper clothing and personal protective equipment Host Employers Shall
(PPE) regardless of whether the arc flash PPE category method • Communicate known hazards that are related to the contract
or the incident energy method is used to perform an arc flash employer’s work
risk assessment. Additionally, it also provides guidance for the • Supply information about the employer’s installation that
selection of shock protective equipment. the contract employer needs to have in regards to important
Tables 130.7 (C)(15)(A)(b), 130.7 (C)(15)(B), and 130.7 (C) assessments
(16) are only applicable when using the arc flash PPE category • Report observed contract employee-related violations to the
method to perform an arc flash risk assessment for alternating contractor

Electrical energy distribution substation

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 47

Contractor Employers Shall Risk Assessment
• Ensure that each of his or her employees are aware of It is important to understand the hazards of electrical work—
identified hazards. This instruction shall be in addition to whether bodily injury or property damage. The Risk Assessment
training Procedure is one element of the electrical safety program.
• Guarantee that each employee follows safety-related work Article 110.1(G), clearly states that, “an electrical safety
practices program shall include a risk assessment procedure that
• Share all identified hazards during the course of work to the addresses employee exposure to electrical hazards”.
host employer • The procedure must identify the necessary process used by
• Maintain scope of work the employee before work is undertaken.
• Companies can identify this process by identifying possible
Shared Responsibilities hazards, assessing potential risks, and implementing risk
• Provide written safety and health program control according to the following hierarchy of methods
• Conduct safety pre-job/pre-task meetings • Elimination
• Perform worksite hazard assessments • Substitution
• Address potential hazards to which contractor may be • Engineering controls
exposed • Awareness
• Documentation • Administrative controls
• PPE
NFPA 70E CHANGES
The new 2015 NFPA 70E edition became effective in August Although not new in 2015, Article 130.5 requires updating the
2014. While most facility managers are aware of action items arc flash analysis when any major modifications or renovations
that need to take place, the following pages outline the relevant have been made and that it shall be reviewed periodically—not
changes. to exceed five years to account for changes.
• • Safety-Related Work Practices (Article 110)
• • Work Involving Arc Flash Hazards (Article 130) General Maintenance Requirement
• • General Maintenance Requirements (Article 250) New to NFPA 70E are requirements for conducting maintenance
• • Battery Risk Assessment (Article 320) on electrical equipment. Article 205.3 requires that electrical
equipment be maintained in accordance with manufacturers’
Safety Related Work Practices instructions or industry standards in order to reduce the risk of
Much can be said about a safe work place. It is the duty associated failure and the subsequent exposure of employees to
and responsibility of any employer to provide that type of electrical hazards. The equipment owner shall be responsible for
environment to all employees. That is why the NFPA updated the maintenance of electrical equipment and documentation.
their safety training requirements. Article 110.2(C) states that Common industry practice is to provide date and overall
employees responsible for responding to medical emergencies condition of the specific devices that have been tested and
shall take part in refresher training (CPR and AED) annually. maintained in the field via a test or calibration decal, which
When it comes to meetings, most facility managers and provides immediate indication of the last maintenance date
operators already comply with the requirement that employers and if it was found acceptable. This information can assist the
must meet with contactors to communicate known hazards that employee in the assessment of the overall electrical equipment
are related to the work being performed. Article 110.3(C) now maintenance status.
requires this meeting to be documented. In addition, test instruments (Article 250.4) and associated test
leads used to verify the absence or presence of voltage must be
maintained in order to assure functional integrity.
CHANGES IN TERMINOLOGY
Battery Risk Assessment
NFPA 70E changes some industry terms As in any practice, it is important to assess any work prior
• Arc Flash Risk Assessment to actually beginning the work. This rule holds true when
• Shock Risk Assessment performing a battery risk assessment. Article 320.3(A)(1) states:
• Electrical Hazard Risk Assessment “Prior to any work on a battery system, a risk assessment shall
be performed to identify the chemical, electrical shock, and arc
flash hazards and assess the risks associated with the type of
RISK & RISK ASSESSMENT tasks to be performed”.
The terms Risk and Risk Assessment have been clearly defined. In conjunction with the assessment, it is important to review
• Risk: “A combination of the likelihood of occurrence of the warning signs or labels regarding shock hazard, arc flash
injury or damage to health and the severity of injury or hazard, and thermal hazard.
damage to health that results from a hazard”
ELECTRICAL SAFETY PROGRAM
• Risk Assessment: “An overall process that identifies Ensuring worker safety and meeting the challenges of the new
hazards, estimates the potential severity of injury or NFPA 70E safety requirements can be a difficult task. Establishing
damage to health, estimates the likelihood of occurrence an effective safety program that is compliant with NFPA 70E can
of injury or damage to health, and determines if reduce injuries and fatalities, reduce lost worker productivity, avoid
protective measures are required” costly OSHA fines, and promote system performance and efficiency.
Resources and electrical testing partners are available who

48 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

can help develop and implement a strategic plan that best overheating, loose or bound equipment parts, visible damage,
fits a company’s needs—from arc flash risk assessments to or deterioration.
personal protective equipment (PPE) to everyday preventive
maintenance. Arc Flash Risk Assessment
Implementing these best practices as part of a comprehensive NFPA 70E requires facility owners to perform and arc flash
and effective electrical safety program will help achieve risk assessment to determine if an arc flash hazard exists, to
compliance with OSHA, NFPA and other industry organizations. determine appropriate safety-related work practices, arc flash
boundary, and the correct PPE to be worn within the arc flash
Preventive Maintenance boundary. These assessments must be determined prior to
An optimized preventive maintenance strategy evaluates the working on energized equipment.
condition of your equipment and determines the most cost-
effective and manageable solution to ensure the equipment’s Arc Flash Risk Assessment Labeling
overall performance, safety, and reliability. NFPA 70E requires Electrical equipment such as switchboards, panelboards,
electrical equipment and overcurrent protection devices to be industrial control panels, and motor control centers that are
properly maintained. Equipment includes: likely to require maintenance while energized, must be field
• Substations, switchgear assemblies, panelboards, motor marked with a label. Specific requirements for what must be
control center, and disconnect switches included are outline in Article 103.5 (D): “Equipment Labeling”.
• Insulated conductors, grounds and busduct
• Transfer switches and control equipment OSHA + NFPA
• Batteries Throughout the years, the U.S. Occupational Health and Safety
• Personal safety and protective equipment (for example, Administration (OSHA) has become increasingly aware of
gloves, hot sticks and flash suits) the frequency and severity of electrical arc flash hazards. As
a concerted effort in order to reduce electrical-related work
NFPA 70E Section 130.2(A)(4) states: “Normal operation of injuries and fatalities, OSHA revised the Occupation Safety
electric equipment is permitted when all of the following and Health regulation 1910.269: “Electric Power Generation,
conditions are satisfied.” As mentioned in the standards, these Transmission, and Distribution”. While this section outlines a few
conditions include the proper installation as well as the proper significant changes, a comprehensive review of the all changes
maintenance of electrical equipment. Furthermore, company to the standard can be reviewed at www.OSHA.gov.
owners must ensure that equipment doors are closed and
secured, all equipment covers are in place and secure, and that Site/Compliance Assessment
no evidence of impending failure is present. An approach to meet necessary requirements is to conduct a
The informational note for 130.2(A)(4) states that the phase comprehensive facility assessment and identify areas of risk and
properly installed means that the equipment is installed in non-compliance. It is crucial to the health and well-being of your
accordance with applicable industry codes and standards and employees and operations that a plan be formulated in order to
the manufacturer’s recommendations. The phrase properly bring the facility into compliance.
maintained means that the equipment has been maintained
in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations and Single-Line Diagrams
applicable industry codes and standards. The phrase evidence of NFPA 70E Section 205.2 requires up-to-date and accurate single-
impending failure means that there is evidence such as arcing, line diagrams. This information is essential for documenting,
troubleshooting, and communicating information about a
facility power system. A comprehensive site survey is essential to
the development, update of single-line diagrams, or completion
of electrical system drawings.

FAMOUS LAST WORDS

Arc flash is a serious hazard with potentially devastating effects.
Ensuring worker safety and meeting the challenges of the arc
flash safety requirements can be confusing and catastrophic if
not performed correctly. By partnering with a qualified service
provider, facility managers can rely on people familiar with
OSHA and NFPA standards and recommend best practices to
ensure compliance and protect your most valuable assets.

John Foged is a safety, environmental, health professional with over

25 years of experience working in the safety and environmental
field. Currently, John is the Safety and Environmental Manager
for High Voltage Maintenance (HVM) where he has overall EHS
responsibilities for the company. John is a member of the American
Society of Safety Engineers, the National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) and is a registered environmental manager.
Part of a high-voltage substation with switches
and disconnectors

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 49

ARC FLASH

THE
IMPORTANCE
OF LOCKOUT/TAGOUT
How to improve electrical safety with best practices, tools and training

BY MARTY KRONZ & MARK PFALLER, Panduit The purpose of this white paper is to describe the importance
of LOTO, the elements of an effective LOTO program and the
THOUGHTS FROM THE TOP implementation of a LOTO program. Importance of Lockout/
Every year, workers are unnecessarily exposed to hazardous Tagout LOTO is a process to control energy hazards for
energy sources such as mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, preventing accidental start-up or release of stored energy during
chemical, thermal, gravity or other energies utilized by machines set-up, maintenance and servicing of equipment. LOTO prevents
in manufacturing, during servicing, maintenance, or setting up an estimated 120 fatalities and 50,000 injuries each year.
equipment. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
Accidental start-up of machinery or unintended release of outlines the LOTO safety method in standard 29 CFR 1910.147:
stored energy often presents catastrophic risks including but not “Control of Hazardous Energy”. LOTO is a widely accepted practice
limited to crush, amputation, shock, and burn injuries as well as for US companies, and OSHA advises that “Workers servicing or
equipment damage. This exposure can cause serious physical maintaining machines or equipment may be seriously injured
injuries or death to workers unaware that someone else has or killed if hazardous energy is not properly controlled. Injuries
started a machine or energized a circuit. Many of the injuries resulting from the failure to control hazardous energy during
result in some level of permanent disability of the employee. maintenance activities can be serious or fatal.
Employee injuries, whether catastrophic, serious, or minor, Craft workers, electricians, machine operators, and laborers
negatively impact business. Risks including loss of valuable are among the three million workers who service equipment
employees, damage to equipment, production interruption, routinely and face the greatest risk of injury.” According to OSHA,
regulatory inspection, and potential damage to a business’s “Workers injured on the job from exposure to hazardous energy
reputation due to such events, can all be reduced by lose an average of 24 workdays for recuperation.” Following are
implementing proper Lockout/Tagout (LOTO) procedures to three examples of accidents due to a lack of LOTO practices.
control hazardous energy. Ten percent of all serious workplace • A steam valve is automatically turned on burning workers
injuries are attributed to failure to have an effective LOTO who are repairing a downstream connection in the piping
program. • A jammed conveyor system suddenly releases, crushing a

WHY? WHEN? WHAT?

Why do I need Lockout/Tagout? When hazards are present? What energy sources to lockout?
• Protect workers • Service • Electrical
• Prevent accidental startup or release of • Maintenance • Mechanical
hazardous energy • Repair • Pneumatic
• Set-up • Hydraulic
• Adjustment • Thermal
• Modification • Chemical
• Installation

50 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

 worker who is trying to clear the jam hazardous energy sources are isolated and rendered safe before,
• Internal wiring on a piece of factory equipment electrically and while any employee performs any servicing or maintenance
shorts, shocking an employee who is repairing the equipment on any machinery or piece of equipment.
The LOTO standard does not require a written energy control
(This information available at https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/ program; however, the standard does have several requirements
controlhazardousenergy/index.html) regarding documentation and certification of records. The
procedures must clearly and specifically outline the scope,
Why? purpose, authorization, rules, and techniques that employees
Lockout/tagout is essential for protection of employees are to use to control hazardous energy and the means to enforce
performing work where hazardous energy may be present. compliance
Accidental start-up of machinery or unintended release of The program/policy should be written clearly so authorized
stored energy often present catastrophic risks including but not employees can understand it. Furthermore, the program/policy
limited to crush, amputation, shock, and burn injuries as well as should remain dynamic in order to change with conditions and
equipment damage. Many of the injuries result in some level of regulations. It should be provided to the authorized employees
permanent disability of the employee. and expected that they read and understand it. Lastly, the
program/policy should address all aspects the program to
When? ensure they know how and when to lockout the equipment
It is necessary to control such energy every time an employee
is servicing or repairing equipment, performing maintenance 2 | PROCEDURES
tasks, installing or modifying equipment, or performing Lockout/tagout procedures are required for “complex” instances
equipment set-up or tooling changeovers. where there are multiple energy sources and/or multiple crews,
locations, employers, or specific sequences. In many cases,
What? individual procedures are also needed for equipment with a
Procedures must be developed, documented, and utilized for single energy source. The procedures must be specific to each
the control of potentially hazardous energy sources and must piece of equipment or type of equipment, providing adequate
include specific steps for shutting down, isolating, blocking and detail as to how and where to specifically isolate and control all
securing machines or equipment to control these risks. of the energy sources present for that particular equipment.

Control of Hazardous Energy Statistics

120
Number of fatalities lockout/tagout prevents each year

50,000
Number of injuries lockout/tagout prevents each year

10%
Percentage of all serious injuries are attributed to absence
or failure of a lockout/tagout program

24
Number of workdays workers injured from exposure to
hazardous energy lose for recuperation

Statistics shown based on data for the United States

Source: Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

ELEMENTS OF AN EFFECTIVE LOCKOUT/TAGOUT PROGRAM

Five essential elements of an effective LOTO program

1 | PROGRAM
The lockout/tagout program documentation sets the overall
policy and expectations for LOTO at a company or location.
Additionally, the documentation defines how a company will
implement and execute all of the other essential elements
within the LOTO program. An effective energy control program
includes energy control procedures, employee training, and Figure 1: Pneumatic energy lockout device
periodic inspections, which jointly function to ensure that

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 51

 The LOTO procedures should
contain instructions on the
following items.
• De-energize Equipment:
where and how to de-energize
the energy load on the
equipment
• Stored Energy: how to
release hazardous electrical,
mechanical, or other stored
energy (for example discharged
capacitors, springs unloaded,
pneumatic/hydraulic pressure
released, among others.)
• Verification: how to verify the
equipment is de-energized and
cannot restart in the locked out
condition

3 | TRAINING
Proper training is a necessary
component of any lockout/
tagout program. Training helps
management provide the
information and equipment Figure 2: Cord lockout device
the company’s team needs to
begin implementing an effective
LOTO program. Training is needed for two types of employees: 5 | REVIEW
authorized employees and affected employees. The final element, program inspection and review, must outline
Authorized employees include maintenance personnel who a methodology for ensuring the program remains effective for
execute LOTO processes. These employees must be trained employee protection. This element must include at least an
to demonstrate competence to execute the specific LOTO annual review of the overall program documentation as well as
procedures they are expected to utilize. a review of the equipment-specific procedure document s and
Affected employees include machine operators or office observations of execution of those equipment-specific LOTO
personnel who may encounter equipment that has been processes.
locked out. These employees should receive awareness training
(definitions, responsibilities, general procedures, device IMPLEMENTATION OF A LOTO PROGRAM
requirements, and shut down procedures) on the company’s To successfully implement a lockout/tagout program, it is
lockout program. important to understand how to perform the implementation,
using the aforementioned five elements such as procedures
4 | DEVICES and training. In order to support in this implementation, many
Protective devices should be robust, unique, and easily identifiable vendors offer a variety of safety solution to customers consisting
(refer to Figure 2). Other requirements involve a method of of relevant products and tools that help mitigate risk created by
including a lock and identification of the lockout device installer. hazards in the workplace. Management can help the company
Additional requirements include the following items. protect employees and infrastructures from the hazards created
by energized equipment and systems by working with a vendor
• Padlock Security: The key remains with the individual that acts as a single-source provider of safety solutions.
who installed the device. The padlock may be removed by
a supervisor only after all means to contact the employee PROGRAM
who installed the device are exhausted. When the employee In order to create proper lockout/tagout program
returns, the supervisor immediately informs the employee the documentation, several areas need to be addressed. These
safety device was removed topics include, but are not limited to the following items.
• Identification Method: Establish a method of identifying the
individual who installed the device, (for example, a lockout tag) • Purpose and Scope
• Energizing Prevention: Prevents energizing of the • Rules
equipment locked out without the use of excessive force • Lockout Procedures and Techniques
• Tag Security: Tag is secured with a nylon cable tie rated to 50 • Removal of Lockout Devices
pounds or equivalent • Training
• Tag Statement: Tag should include a statement prohibiting • Tagout Procedures
energizing the equipment locked out (for example, “DANGER
– EQUIPMENT LOCKED OUT”) PROCEDURES
The equipment specific LOTO procedures explain the following
steps.

52 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

 Figure 3: Machine-specific LOTO instructions

1. Provide verbal notification of LOTO to affected employees magnitude of energies available in the workplace, and the
2. Shut down machine and/or equipment using standard methods of energy isolation and control?
stopping instructions • Have all affected and other employees been advised of LOTO
3. Refer to picture and steps to isolate all energy sources procedures and instructed not to attempt to start or energize
4. Apply devices for each energy source locked or tagged out machines or circuits?
5. Release all residual and stored energy • Have all employees been instructed on the use and
6. Verify all sources have been de-energized limitations of tags?
• Is training on LOTO provided for initial job assignment, during
A sample of a LOTO procedure is shown in Figure 3. When a change in job assignments, machines, or processes, or as
equipment design does not allow for securing with a lockout needed?
device, a tagout operation may be utilized where a tag is • Is worker training certified and logged with names and dates
secured to each energy source, clearly communicating the LOTO of training?
condition. In a tagout condition, an additional preventative
measure is employed such as removing a fuse. DEVICES
Lockout/tagout devices include several key parts that are
TRAINING necessary to implement a LOTO program. Not only are products
Training for both authorized and affected employees is required needed to build a company’s LOTO program, the pro ducts
for an effective LOTO program. Answer the following questions utilized must be robust and easily identifiable as lockout devices.
to ensure that the company has an effective LOTO training in In order to implement a program, vendors offer a variety of
operation. LOTO equipment and devices (shown in the “Equipment and
• Have all authorized employees received training in the Devices” sidebar) in two device categories: Program Equipment
recognition of applicable energy sources, the types and and Energy Isolation) that meet these requirements.

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 53

SAFETY STANDARDS

ELECTRICAL SAFETY
BY DESIGN
The grounding grid of substations

BY MASSIMO MITOLO, Engineering Systems Inc. (ESI) interrupted within a safe time by protective devices. Ground
electrodes can be divided into the following two groups.
THOUGHTS FROM THE TOP
Obtaining from utilities reliable data about magnitude and
duration of single-phase line-to-ground fault currents at the
service entrance of commercial and industrial facilities is of
1 Manufactured—or intentional—electrodes, specifically
designed for the grounding of electrical systems: rods, rings,
and ground grids
critical importance in the design of substation grounding grids.
In ground-fault conditions involving the primary side of
substations, circulation of current through the grounding grid
will occur, and touch and step potentials will appear at the user’s
2 Buried metal parts, which are underground for purposes
other than grounding: concrete encased reinforcing bars,
metal pipe systems for water, heating, among others. Providing
premises. that they have a non-negligible size, these “accidental”
Ground-faults occurring immediately outside of the zone of electrodes are very effective.
protection of the user’s most upstream protective device, at
the service entrance of the facility, cannot be cleared, except by PROTECTIVE FUNCTION OF THE GROUND GRID
the utility’s device. In this case, the duration of the ground-fault Grounding systems of substations have a paramount protective
current, as well as its magnitude, depends on the utility network function, when a ground-fault occurs on the primary side of
and their protection system. the transformer. Such fault impresses a current to ground, and
The customer must request these data, which provide the the grounding grid must be able to contain touch and step
proper criterion to size the grounding grid, and assess the safety potentials within their permissible values, as recommended in
of the service entrance substation. applicable technical standards, by safely dissipating it.
This paper seeks to clarify the aforementioned issue, and In the case of failure of the basic insulation of equipment
proposes the adoption of a standard form, containing the supplied through the secondary winding of the substation
necessary basic input data to be provided by utilities during the transformer, the fault current returns to the source through
design phase. equipment grounding conductors, and the actual earth forms
no part of this fault-loop.
SYSTEM GROUNDING & GROUNDING SYSTEMS It is important to note that a grounding system does not
System grounding is defined as the intentional connection automatically guarantee the safety of the installation, as, all
to earth of the common point of the source of the electrical parameters being equal, its effectiveness depends on the
system (for example, the neutral point of a polyphase system). magnitude and duration of ground-fault currents. Longer fault
This connection allows the proper operation of equipment, and durations for low-magnitude touch voltages may be as well lethal.
stabilizes the system voltage-to-ground to known values. The Magnitude and duration of ground-fault currents, therefore,
system grounding can be “solid” if the connection to ground must be used when designing ground electrodes, so that the
does not include any intentional impedance, or is “indirect” if it maximum allowable value of the ground resistance of the grid
is made with the insertion of intentional grounding devices (for that guarantees safe values of ground potential rise, as well as of
example, grounding neutral resistors). touch and step voltages, can be determined.
Grounding systems are made of interconnected electrodes Effective touch UvT and step UvS potentials are defined as
embedded into the earth, and may consist of vertical ground potentials caused by faults, which energize the grounding
rods horizontal conductors, and metalwork not necessarily system, and expose persons to the risk of electric shock due
conceived as electrodes (for example, water pipes). Grounding to potential differences across (1) the hand(s) of the person
electrodes provide an effective path to the ground to fault touching the faulted grounded enclosures, and his or her feet
currents, which, therefore, can return to their sources, and and, (2) both feet of the person standing in the area of influence

54 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

 51N User Substation

Cable Armor

IF Ground Bus

LV Load
Protective conductor
IF

IF-I G

Figure 1: Circulation of current through

IG the user’s grid due to a ground-fault on
IG the primary side of the substation

of the grounding system. enclosures, connected for safety

The prospective touch voltage UT is instead defined as the via the equipment grounding
potential difference between the ground electrode, or metal conductor. Therefore, persons are,
parts connected to it, and the earth occupied by the person exposed to touch voltages, and due
UtilityStation
Utility Station
at the distance of one meter, when the ground electrode, or to the circulation of fault currents
metal parts, are not being touched by the person; one meter through the earth, to step voltages.
is conventionally considered the distance equal to a person’s
normal horizontal reach, as well as the distance between feet. It LOCATION OF THE GROUND-FAULT
is important to note that the value of the effective touch voltage The primary ground-fault might
differ from the value of the prospective touch voltage due to the occur outside of the zone of
person’s body impedance. protection of the most upstream
user’s protective device (for
GROUND FAULT CURRENTS example, 51 neutral, or 51N relays),
Feeder A A
Feeder Feeder B B
Feeder

As earlier anticipated, ground-faults occurring on the primary but still within the service entrance II
-GG
side of a substation will cause current to circulate through the of the facility.
substation ground grid and the actual soil (refer to Figure 1). Utilities may require that such
However, the fault current IF may return to the high-voltage zone of protection should be
source also through additional metallic paths, for example, limited so that to not comprise the
overhead ground wires of transmission lines, or metal sheath upstream area, which might include 51N-1
51N-1 51N-2
51N-2
and armors of cables. Overhead ground wires provide a means the incoming cables. The concern
of protection of transmission lines against damage from is that so the user protective
lightning. In the recently mentioned cases, a considerable device might trip upon ground
portion of the fault current can be diverted away from the faults involving the supply feeders.
ground, and both ground potential rise and potential gradients The reason of such restriction is User 1 1
User User 2 2
User
in the substation area will be lessened, with evident benefits for exemplified in Figure 2.
the safety of the personnel.
If both the high- and low-voltage systems in the facility share
the same grounding grid, which is usually the case (except for Figure 2: Nuisance tripping
grounding systems in mines, where substation and low-voltage caused by ground faults
grids are kept separate for safety reasons), the circulation of the occurring along utility feeders.
earth current IG also causes the energization of all the bonded

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 55

 1000

900

800

700

600
Voltage (V)

500

400

300

200

100

10 100 1000 10 000

Time (ms)

Figure 3: IEC Permissible touch voltage UTp as function of the fault duration
Source: IEC 61936-1: “Power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c. – Part 1: Common rules”

A ground-fault occurring along the utility Feeder A (which based on data included in the International Electrotechnical
supplies User 1) should not also trip the protective device Commission’s IEC/TS 60479-1“Effects of current on human beings
51N-2 of User 2; this event might happen if the zone of and livestock - Part 1: General aspects” standard. Specifically, for
protection of 51N-2 included the upstream network. In this a person’s body impedance not exceeded by 50 percent of the
case, the continuity of the service to multiple users would be population, a permissible body current corresponding to the
compromised because of a single fault. curve c2, which describes a probability of ventricular fibrillation
In order to prevent the loss of multiple services, utilities less than five percent, and a heart current factor chosen
selectively clear the ground-fault by isolating the faulty line. according to Table 12 of the IEC standard.
The downside aspect of this solution to the user is that both The heart current factor permits the calculation of the
magnitude and duration of touch and step voltages are magnitudes of currents through paths other than left hand
variables not under the user’s control. to feet (that is, the reference path), which impose the same
It is, therefore, clear that electrical utilities should provide probability of ventricular fibrillation as that corresponding
single-phase line-to-ground fault current If and fault duration to the left hand to feet path. In alternative to the IEC curve of
tf to designers in order to allow the minimization of touch and Figure 3, the touch voltage curve outlined in the IEEE Standards
step potentials through the proper design of the ground-grid. Association’s standard IEEE 80: “IEEE Guide for Safety in AC
Substation Grounding” (refer to Figure 4) can be used.
SAFETY CRITERIA The IEEE 80 touch voltage curve is based on a soil resistivity of
The hazard to persons in contact with an energized object is 100 Ω m (ohms meter) and a gravel surface of 0.1 meters with a
caused by the circulation of current through the cardiac region resistivity of 1000 Ωm; it is also assumed a person with a body
of sufficient intensity to trigger the ventricular fibrillation. This mass of 50 kilograms (kg).
asynchronous status of the heart, although reversible, can only The International Electrotechnical Association’s standard
be overturned with the use of defibrillators. IEC 61936-1: “Power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c. - Part 1:
The body current limits, for power-frequency purposes, are Common Rules” states that, as a rule, satisfying the touch voltage
generally translated into voltage limits UTp as a function of time, requirements also satisfies the step voltage requirements. These
so that a comparison with the calculated touch voltages can be specifications are set because the tolerable step voltage limits
performed (refer to Figure 3). are much higher than touch voltage limits due to the different
The curve of Figure 3 for the current path hand-to-foot is current path through the body that hardly involves the heart.

56 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10

 1000

900

800

700

600
Voltage (V)

500

400

300

200

100

0
10 100 1000 10 000
Time (ms)
Figure 4: IEEE 80 Permissible touch voltage UTp as function of the fault duration
Source: IEC 61936-1: “Power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c. – Part 1: Common rules”

Consequently, the step voltage magnitude is no longer employed

as a criterion to size grounding grids according to IEC standards. 5 Determine the overall impedance-to-ground of the grid RG,
based on the layout and soil characteristics
Interesting to note that the British Standards Institution’s
standard EN 50522: “Earthing of power installations exceeding 1 6 Determine the ground potential rise UG = RGIG;

kV a.c.” specifically introduces the value of 1 kΩ to represent an

average magnitude of resistance for old and wet shoes to be
considered in series to the body resistance. Additionally, the
7 Determine permissible touch voltage based on clearing time
tf communicated by the utility (Figure 3 or 4).

standard states that higher values of footwear resistance may

be used where appropriate. The ground grid design can be
accomplished according to the following steps.
8 If the final equation is UG ≤ UTp and UG ≤ 1200 V (if tf ≤ 0.5 s) or
UG ≤ 250 V (if tf ≥ 0.5 s), the design is complete

1 Collect data from the utility (that is, single-phase line-to-

ground fault current, and fault duration), and layout of the
9 If the calculation does not match the aforementioned
equations, measure and determine if the touch voltages
inside and near the grounding system are below the tolerable
equipment located at the substation. limits (refer to Figures 3 or 4); if the touch voltages are below the
tolerable limits, the design is complete.

2 Decide the initial design of the grounding grid based on the

functional requirements of the substation.
10 If the grounding system is not below tolerable limits,
then an improvement of design is required. Repeat the

3 Measure soil characteristics (that is, soil resistivity of layers). aforementioned steps to achieve success.
It appears clear that if the utility does not provide the If and tf

4 Determine the current IG discharged into the soil from the

grounding grid, based on the single-phase line-to-ground
fault current communicated by the utility, and taking into
currents during the design phase, the engineer cannot have a
rational criterion to optimize the design of the grid by properly
lowering the RG resistance. Consequently, this condition may
account current splits, worst-case fault, and future expansions. compromise the electrical safety within the facility in the case of
ground faults.

Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10 57

 Utility Substation

Source 1: kV Source 2: kV
+j Ω +j Ω

V V

V V

Feeder 1 Feeder 2
+j Ω +j Ω

I 3sc= kA I 3sc= kA
IG= kA IG= kA
tG= s tG= s
Service Entrance A Service Entrance B
Figure 5: Possible standard form to be sent to local utility at the inception of the design.

FAMOUS LAST WORDS BIBLIOGRAPHY

It has been substantiated that initial and complete input data [1] IEC 60364-5-54, “Electrical installations of buildings – Part
from utilities are crucial at the beginning of the design in order 5-54: selection and erection of electrical equipment. Earthing
to obtain an accurate model of the substation ground grid arrangements, protective conductors, and protective bonding
and, therefore, guarantee the electrical safety of the facility. conductors”: 2011.
Communications from the utility may not be standardized and [2] Popović, L.M., “Efficient Reduction of Fault Current through
may vary from one department to another within the same the Grounding Grid of Substation Supplied by Cable Line.” IEEE
organization. In essence, the utility, at the very least, should Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2000. pp. 556-561.
communicate the following information. [3] IEC 61936-1 “Power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c. – Part 1:
Common rules”: 2010.

1 Magnitude of three-phase short circuit currents (that is, I3sc)

and/or Thevenin equivalent impedance at given voltage of
the source
[4] IEEE Standard 80-2000, “IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation
Grounding”.
[5] M. Mitolo, “Electrical Safety of Low-Voltage Systems”, McGraw-
Hill, 2009. ISBN: 007150818X/ 9780071508186.

2 Impedance of feeder(s) [6] IEC TS 60479-1 “Effects of current on human beings and
livestock - Part 1: General aspects”: 2005.

3 Magnitude and duration of single-phase line to ground-fault

currents (that is, If and tf ) at service entrance.
[7] M. Mitolo, P. E. Sutherland and R. Natarajan: “Effect of High
Fault Currents on Ground Grid Design”, IEEE Transactions On
Industry Applications, Volume 46, No. 3, pages1118-1124, May/
Figure 5 exemplifies a possible form, which may be sent to the June 2010.
local utility at the beginning of the design: [8] EN 50522:2010 “Earthing of power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c.”.
The utility engineer should fill out the blanks, close/open the [9] M. Mitolo, M. Tartaglia, and F. Freschi: “An Effective Semi-
“virtual” switches “V”, and add or remove feeders, according to Analytical Method for Simulating Grounding Grids”. IEEE
the actual arrangement of their substation and the contractual Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 49, No. 1, January/
agreement with the customer. Figure 5 is a standard form February 2013, pages 252-263.
that would provide, in a non-ambiguous fashion, the basic [10] M. Mitolo, F. Freschi, M. Tartaglia: “Interferences Phenomena
information necessary to model and design the user substation between Separate Grounding Systems”. IEEE Transactions on
ground grid. Industry Applications, Vol. 50, No. 4, July/August 2014; pages
2853-2860.

58 Electrical Safety and Arc Flash Handbook • Vol. 10