Energy Science and Engineering

Author (s)

M. Rizwan
Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering,
Delhi Technological University,
Delhi, INDIA

Majid Jamil
Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering,
Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi, INDIA

All India Council for Technical Education

Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj,
New Delhi, 110070

ii
BOOK AUTHOR DETAILS

Prof. M. Rizwan, Dept. Electrical Engineering, DTU, Delhi.

Email ID: [email protected] , [email protected]
Prof. Majid Jamil, Department of Electrical Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia Delhi.
Email ID: [email protected] , [email protected]

BOOK REVIEWER DETAILS

Prof. Santanu Bandyopadhyay, Dept. of Energy, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay.

Email ID: [email protected]

BOOK COORDINATOR (S) – English Version

1. Dr. Amit Kumar Srivastava, Director, Faculty Development Cell, All India Council for
Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi, India
Email ID: [email protected]
Phone Number: 011-29581312

2. Mr. Sanjoy Das, Assistant Director, Faculty Development Cell, All India Council for
Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi, India
Email ID: [email protected]
Phone Number: 011-29581339

December, 2022
© All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)

ISBN : 978-81-959863-9-2

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph
or any other means, without permission in writing from the All India Council for
Technical Education (AICTE).
Further information about All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) courses may be
obtained from the Council Office at Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi-110070.
Printed and published by All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi.
Laser Typeset by:

Printed at:

Disclaimer: The website links provided by the author in this book are placed for informational,
educational & reference purpose only. The Publisher do not endorse these website links or the
views of the speaker / content of the said weblinks. In case of any dispute, all legal matters to
be settled under Delhi Jurisdiction, only.

iii
iv
 Acknowledgment

The authors are grateful to the authorities of AICTE, particularly Prof. M.Jagadesh Kumar,
Chairman; Prof. M. P. Poonia, Vice-Chairman; Prof. Rajive Kumar, Member-Secretary and
Dr. Amit Kumar Srivastava, Director, Faculty Development Cell for their planning to publish
the books on “Energy Science and Engineering.” We sincerely acknowledge the valuable
contributions of the reviewer of the book Prof. Santanu Bandyopadhyay, Department of Energy
Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay for providing valuable inputs
in all units of the book.
We would also like to extend our thanks to Prof. J.P. Saini, Vice Chancellor, Delhi
Technological University, Prof. Madhusudan Singh, Registrar, Prof. Pragati Kumar, Head,
Department of Electrical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, Jamia
Administration, Prof. Munna Khan, Head, Department of Electrical Engineering, JMI, Prof.
Moinuddin, Prof. Sirajuddin Ahmad, and our Ph.D. students Astitva Kumar, Mohd. Bilal,
Abdul Azeem, and Shamshad Ali.
This book is an outcome of various suggestions of AICTE members, experts, and authors who
shared their opinion and thought to further develop engineering education in our country.
Acknowledgments are due to the contributors and different workers in this field whose
published books, review articles, papers, photographs, footnotes, references, and other valuable
information enriched us at the time of writing the book.

M. Rizwan

Majid Jamil

v
 Preface

The book titled “Energy Science and Engineering” is an outcome of the rich experience of
two authors and a reviewer in the field of electrical engineering and energy sciences. The
initiation of writing this book is to expose the basics of energy science to engineering students
and enable them to get an insight into the subject. Keeping in mind the purpose of wide
coverage as well as to provide essential supplementary information, we have included the
topics recommended by AICTE in a very systematic and orderly manner throughout the book.
Efforts have been made to explain the fundamental concepts of the subject in the simplest
possible way.

During the process of preparation of the manuscript, we have considered the various
standard text books, recent papers published in the field apart from the latest information
available on relevant websites, and accordingly, we have developed contents in different units.
While preparing the different sections, emphasis has also been laid on definitions and laws and
also on comprehensive synopsis of formulae for a quick revision of the basic principles. The
book covers fundamental as well as advanced knowledge in a very logical and systematic
manner.

The objective of this book is to provide an introduction to energy systems and renewable energy
resources, with a scientific examination of the energy field with an emphasis on alternative
energy sources, their technology and application. This book will provide an opportunity to
explore society’s present energy needs and future energy demands, and examine conventional
energy sources and systems, including fossil fuels and nuclear energy. More focus of this book
is on renewable energy sources, sustainability & the environment.

Clean energy technologies and their importance in sustainable development, carbon footprint,
energy and environment, trade and research policy, future energy use that can be influenced by
economic, linkage between economic and environment outcomes are discussed by including
the latest available statistical data. This book also covers topics on civil project development
for creating energy infrastructure. Concepts of green building and green architecture, LEED
ratings, energy auditing, and energy enterprises with some practical examples are presented in
easy language to understand the fundamental concepts. It is important to note that in all the
units, we have provided a QR Code to collect additional knowledge on the specific topic.

vi
 As far as the present book is concerned, “Energy Science and Engineering” is meant to
provide a thorough grounding in energy and environment on the topics covered. This book will
prepare engineering students to apply the knowledge to meet the challenges of protecting the
environment and providing solutions for the development of sustainable, environment-friendly
clean and green energy to tackle 21st century and onward engineering challenges and address
the related aroused questions. The subject matters are presented in a constructive manner so
that an Engineering degree prepares students to work in different sectors or in national
laboratories at the very forefront of technology.

We sincerely hope that the book will inspire the students to learn and discuss the ideas behind
the sustainable development of energy and will surely contribute to the development of a solid
foundation of the subject. We would be thankful to all beneficial comments and suggestions
which will contribute to the improvement of future editions of the book. It gives us immense
pleasure to place this book in the hands of the teachers and students. It was indeed a big pleasure
to work on different aspects covered in the book.

M. Rizwan

Majid Jamil

vii
 Outcome Based Education

For the implementation of an outcome-based education the first requirement is to develop an

outcome-based curriculum and incorporate an outcome-based assessment in the education
system. By going through outcome-based assessments evaluators will be able to evaluate
whether the students have achieved the outlined standard, specific and measurable outcomes.
With the proper incorporation of outcome-based education there will be a definite commitment
to achieve a minimum standard for all learners without giving up at any level. At the end of the
program running with the aid of outcome-based education, a student will be able to arrive at
the following outcomes:
PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using the first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for public health and safety, and cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues, and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.
PO9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

viii
PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

ix
 Course Outcomes

Upon successful completion of the course, the students will be able to:

CO-1: Understand the fundamental aspects of energy and impacts of energy on society,
environment & climate change.
CO-2: Have the basic understanding of scientific concepts of energy, energy sources and
energy storage.
CO-3: Understand the basics of clean energy technologies and how the use of energy influence
economic, trade and environment.
CO-4: Understand the civil construction required to set up different types of underground, on
and off shore power plants.
CO-5: Realize the safety aspects of nuclear fuel & its disposal and construction of nuclear
power plants
CO-6: Have an idea about green buildings, energy auditing and energy conservation.

Expected Mapping with Programme Outcomes

(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Course
Outcomes
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12

CO-1 3 3 3 2 - 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
CO-2 3 3 2 1 - 3 2 3 1 3 3 3
CO-3 3 3 3 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
CO-4 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 - - 1 2 1
CO-5 3 1 1 - - 1` 1 1 2 1 3 1

CO-6 3 2 2 - 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

x
 Guidelines for Teachers

To implement Outcome Based Education (OBE) knowledge level and skill set of the students
should be enhanced. Teachers should take a major responsibility for the proper implementation
of OBE. Some of the responsibilities (not limited to) for the teachers in OBE system may be
as follows:

 Within reasonable constraint, they should manoeuvre time to the best advantage of all
students.
 They should assess the students only upon certain defined criterion without considering
any other potential ineligibility to discriminate them.
 They should try to grow the learning abilities of the students to a certain level before
they leave the institute.
 They should try to ensure that all the students are equipped with the quality knowledge
as well as competence after they finish their education.
 They should always encourage the students to develop their ultimate performance
capabilities.
 They should facilitate and encourage group work and team work to consolidate newer
approach.
 They should follow Blooms taxonomy in every part of the assessment.

Bloom’s Taxonomy

Teacher should Student should be Possible Mode of

Level
Check able to Assessment
Students ability to
Create Design or Create Mini project
create
Students ability to
Evaluate Argue or Defend Assignment
justify
Students ability to Differentiate or Project/Lab
Analyze
distinguish Distinguish Methodology
Students ability to Operate or Technical Presentation/
Apply
use information Demonstrate Demonstration
Students ability to
Understand Explain or Classify Presentation/Seminar
explain the ideas
Students ability to
Remember Define or Recall Quiz
recall (or remember)

xi
 Guidelines for Students

Students should take equal responsibility for implementing the OBE. Some of the
responsibilities (not limited to) for the students in OBE system are as follows:

 Students should be well aware of each UO before the start of a unit in each and every
course.
 Students should be well aware of each CO before the start of the course.
 Students should be well aware of each PO before the start of the program.
 Students should think critically and reasonably with proper reflection and action.
 Learning of the students should be connected and integrated with practical and real life
consequences.
 Students should be well aware of their competency at every level of OBE.

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 Abbreviations and Symbols
List of Abbreviations

General Terms

Abbreviations Full form Abbreviations Full form

AERB Atomic Energy Regulatory LCA Life Cycle Analysis

Board

BWR Boiling Water Reactor LCOE Levelized Cost of Energy

CFC Chlorofluorocarbons LCOS Levelized Cost of Storage

CFLS Compact Fluorescent Lamps LEED Leadership in Energy and

Environmental Design

CT Cooling Tower LED Light Emitting Diode

DEFRA Department Of Food and Rural LWGR Light Water Graphite Reactor
Affair

DW Dry Well MNRE Ministry of New and Renewable

Energy

EC Energy Conversion NEP National Electricity Plan

EE Energy Efficiency NPP Nuclear Power Plant

EKC Empirical Kuznet Curve NPCIL Nuclear Power Corporation of

India Limited

EPA Environment Protection Agency PET polyethylene terephthalate

eQUEST Energy Quick energy simulation PSAT Pumping System Assessment

Tool

EROEI Energy Returned on Energy PWR Pressurized Water Reactor

Invested

ERV Energy Recovery Ventilation RES Renewable Energy Sources

FC Fuel Cell SECI Solar Energy Corporation of

India

FSAR Final Safety Analysis Report SMES Superconducting Magnetic

Energy Storage

FPSO Floating Production Systems SPeAR Sustainable Project Appraisal

Routine

GHG Greenhouse gases SPV Solar Photovoltaic

GoI Government of India SSAT Steam System Assessment Tool

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 General Terms

Abbreviations Full form Abbreviations Full form

IAEA International Atomic Energy TLP Tension-Leg Platform

Agency

IGBC Indian Green Building Council UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply

IHAT Indoor Humidity Assessment USGBC United States Green Building

Tool Council

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on VALCOE Value Adjusted Levelized cost

Climate Change of Electricity

LACE Levelized Avoided Cost of WRI World Resource Institute

Electricity

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 List of Figures
Unit 1 Introduction to Energy Science
Fig. 1.1: Different types of motion in the ancient Indian text 3
Fig. 1.2: Different forms of energy 5
Fig. 1.3: Different types of energy 6
Fig. 1.4: Examples of energy conversion and law of conservation 7
Fig. 1.5: World’s population since 1960 8
Fig. 1.6: World’s energy consumption since 1990 9
Fig. 1.7: GHG emission of the world since 1990 10
Fig. 1.8: Types of energy sources 12
Fig. 1.9: Sources used for energy consumption of the world 12
Fig. 1.10: Coal and Lignite (major non-renewable source) for world’s energy consumption 13
Fig. 1.11: Renewable energy share of the world 14
Fig. 1.12: Indian power scenario 15
Fig. 1.13: Electricity production of India since 1990 16
Fig. 1.14: Energy consumption comparison of developing and developed nations 19
Fig. 1.15: Per capita energy consumption of different countries 19
Fig. 1.16: Various waste to energy technologies 22

Unit 2 Energy Sources

Fig. 2.1: Depiction of energy and its efficiency 28
Fig. 2.2: Conversion of energy from the different sources into a useable form 28
Fig. 2.3: Petroleum-consuming countries in 2018 30
Fig. 2.4: Conceptual illustrations of types of oil and gas wells 32
Fig. 2.5: Future trends for energy efficiency with different sources 36
Fig. 2.6: Trends in renewable energy by region 37
Fig. 2.7: Illustration of biomass energy 39
Fig. 2.8: Installed capacity transformed from heating or power generation from biomass from 39
2010-2020
Fig. 2.9: Components of a wind energy system 41
Fig. 2.10: Classification of different forms of solar energy 42
Fig. 2.11: Different types of solar photovoltaic system 43
Fig. 2.12: Depiction of a pumped hydro storage plant 50
Fig. 2.13: Benefits of pumped hydro storage system 50

Unit 3 Energy and Environment

Fig. 3.1: Elements of industrial cooling towers 60
Fig. 3.2: Different types of cooling systems 61
Fig. 3.3: Energy conservation planning 63
Fig. 3.4: Evolution of clean energy policy and markets 65
Fig. 3.5: Sustainable development goals linked with clean energy technologies 66
Fig. 3.6: Stages of performing carbon foot printing 69
Fig. 3.7: Benefits from carbon foot printing 69
Fig. 3.8: Key term associated with energy economics 72
Fig. 3.9: Economy Environment Linkages 73
Fig. 3.10: The Empirical Kuznet Curve 74

Unit 4 Civil Engineering Projects Connected with Energy Sources

Fig. 4.1: Categorization of coal mining methods 80
Fig. 4.2: Layout for coal mining processes 81

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Fig. 4.3: IoT application in coal mining 84
Fig. 4.4: Structure of under–sea oil pipe–lines 86
Fig. 4.5: Schematic of the solar chimney 89
Fig. 4.6: Layout of the horizontal windmill 94
Fig. 4.7: Layout of the vertical windmill 95
Fig. 4.8: Underground hydro power station 96
Fig. 4.9: Aboveground hydro power station 97
Fig. 4.10: Tunnel at Pragati Maidan, India 98

Unit 5 Building Structure for Nuclear Power Plants

Fig. 5.1: Structure of Nuclear Power Plant 102
Fig. 5.2: Working of Pressurized Water Reactor 107
Fig. 5.3: Working of light water graphite reactors 107
Fig. 5.4: Working of Boiling Water Reactor 108
Fig. 5.5: Typical layout for waste conditioning 111
Fig. 5.6: Nuclear Fuel Cycle 113
Fig. 5.7: Classification of the radioactive waste 113

Unit 6 Engineering for Energy Conservation (Green Building and Green Architecture)
Fig. 6.1 : Salient features of green buildings 119
Fig. 6.2 : Three phases of the building material life cycle 121
Fig. 6.3 : Key performance areas recognized by LEED certification 124
Fig. 6.4 : Breakdown of embodied energy calculations 130
Fig. 6.5 : Framework for sustainability measurement 131

Unit 7 Engineering for Energy Conservation (Energy Auditing, Efficiency & Energy
Conservation)
Fig. 7.1 : Need for Energy Auditing 138
Fig. 7.2 : Parameters for the economic feasibility of the energy audit 144
Fig. 7.3 : Different types of costs of electrical energy 144
Fig. 7.4 : Energy consumption by different loads of household 149

xvi
 List of Tables

Unit 1 Introduction to Energy Science

Table 1.1: India’s power sector at a glance (GW) 15
Table 1.2: India’s Renewable energy sector at a glance (MW) 16
Table 1.3: Initiatives and Policies taken up by GoI for promoting RE 17

Unit 2 Energy Sources

Table 2.1: World wind power production 41
Table 2.2: Description of different sources of energy and corresponding fuel 48

Unit 3 Energy and Environment

Table. 3.1: Differences between energy conservation and energy efficiency 62
Table 3.2: Global warming potential of some GHGs 68
Table 3.3: Cost metrics associated with electricity production and consumption 71

Unit 6 Engineering for Energy Conservation (Green Building and Green Architecture)
Table 6.1: Key objectives of green buildings to select appropriate building material 119
Table 6.2: LEED Rating System 125
Table 6.3: The embodied energy content of a few items 130
Table 6.4: Various sustainability assessment tools 132

Unit 7 Engineering for Energy Conservation (Energy Auditing, Efficiency & Energy
Conservation)
Table 7.1: Key instruments required for specific types of systems for energy audit 141
Table 7.2: Types of tariffs 145
Table 7.3: Project priority guidelines 146
Table 7.4: Various sustainability assessment tools 147

xvii
 CONTENTS

Foreword iv

Acknowledgment v

Preface vi

Outcome Based Education viii

Course Outcomes x

Guidelines for Teachers xi

Guidelines for Students xii

Abbreviations and Symbols xiii

List of Figures xv

List of Tables xvii

Unit 1: Introduction to Energy Science 1-25

Unit specifics 1

Rationale 1

Pre-requisites 2

Unit outcomes 2

1.1 Historical Interpretation and Scientific Principles 2

1.1.1 Concept of Energy in Ancient Indian Text 2

1.1.2 Historical Concept of Energy in Science and Its Measurements 3

1.1.3 Theory of Energy in Different Scientific Descriptions 4

1.1.4 Force, Energy, and Power 5

1.1.5 Law of Conservation of Energy 7

1.2 Impact of Energy on Society, Environment, and Climate 8

1.2.1 Impact of Energy on Society 8

1.2.2 Impact of Energy on Environment and Climate 9

1.3 Introduction to Energy Systems and Resources 11

1.3.1 Types of Energy Resources 11

1.3.2 Global Share of Conventional and Renewable Energy 11

1.3.3 National Share of Conventional and Renewable Energy 14

1.4 Government of India Initiatives to Promote Renewable Energy 16

1.5 Introduction to Energy Sustainability and Environment 18

xviii
 1.5.1 Energy Use Trend in Developing and Developed Countries 18

1.5.2 Per Capita Energy Consumption 20

1.5.3 Need for Sustainable Energy 20

1.5.4 Difference Between Sustainable and Renewable Energy 20

1.5.5 Waste to Energy 21

1.5.6 World Energy Policy to Protect Environment 22

Unit summary 23

Short and Long Answer Type Questions 24

References and suggested readings 24

Unit 2: Energy Sources 26-55

Unit specifics 26

Rationale 26

Pre-requisites 26

Unit outcomes 26

2.1 Overview of Energy Sources 27

2.2 Sources, Transformations, Efficiency, and Storage 27

2.3 Fossil Fuels 28

2.3.1 Coal 29

2.3.2 Oil 30

2.3.3 Oil Bearing Shale and Sand 31

2.3.4 Coal Gasification 32

2.4 Past, Present, and Future 34

2.5 Remedies and Alternatives for Fossil Fuels 36

2.5.1 Biomass 38

2.5.2 Wind Energy 40

2.5.3 Solar Energy 42

2.5.4 Nuclear Energy 43

2.5.5 Hydropower energy 44

2.5.6 Tidal and Wave Energy 45

2.5.7 Hydrogen Energy 46

2.6 Sustainability and Environmental Trade-Offs of Different Energy Systems 47

2.7 Possibilities for Energy Storage and Regeneration 48

2.7.1 Pumped Storage Hydro Power Projects 49

2.7.2 Superconductor-Based Energy Storages 50

2.7.3 High-Efficiency Batteries 51

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 Unit summary 52

Short and Long Answer Type Questions 53

References and suggested readings 54

Unit 3: Energy and Environment 56-77

Unit specifics 56
Rationale 56
Pre-requisites 56
Unit outcomes 56
3.1 Introduction 57
3.1.1 Environment and its Quality 57
3.1.2 Energy and Environment 58
3.1.3 Air Pollution, Stack emissions 59
3.1.4 Cooling tower impacts, Aquatic impacts 59
3.2 Energy Efficiency and Conservation 61
3.2.1 Motivation for energy conservation 62
3.2.2 Principles of Energy Conservation 62
3.2.3 Energy Conservation in Planning 62
3.2.4 Energy Conservation in day-to-day life 63
3.3 Introduction to clean energy technologies and their importance in sustainable development 64
3.4 Carbon Footprint 67
3.4.1 Calculation of Carbon footprint 67
3.4.2 Importance of Carbon foot printing 69
3.5 Introduction to the economics of energy 70
3.5.1 Cost analysis of production and consumption 71
3.5.2 Linkages Between Economic and Environmental Outcomes 73
3.5.3 Impacts on Energy Use by Economic, Trade, and Research Policy 75
Unit summary 76
Short and Long Answer Type Questions 76
References and suggested readings 77

Unit 4: Civil Engineering Projects Connected with Energy Sources 78-100

Unit specifics 78
Rationale 78
Pre-requisites 78
Unit outcomes 78

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4.1 Coal Mining Technologies 79

4.1.1 Classification of Coal Mining Methods 80

4.1.2 New Technologies used for Coal Mining 82

4.2 Oil Exploration offshore Platforms 83

4.3 Underground and Under Sea Oil Pipe Lines 84

4.3.1 How are Subsea Gas Pipelines Built 86

4.3.2 Searching for Obstacles 86

4.4 Solar Chimney and Sustainable Architecture 87

4.5 Wave Energy Caisson 88

4.5.1 Design Parameters 89

4.5.2 Estimation of wave forces 90

4.5.3 Scour Protection 91

4.6 Coastal Installations for Tidal Power 91

4.7 Wind towers 93

4.7.1 Horizontal Windmill 93

4.7.2 Vertical Windmill 94

4.8 Underground and aboveground hydro power stations 95

4.8.1 Underground hydro power stations 95

4.8.2 Aboveground hydro power station 96

4.9 Dams, Tunnels and Penstocks 97

4.9.1 Dams 97

4.9.2 Tunnels 98

4.9.3 Penstocks 99

Unit summary 99

Short and Long Answer Type Questions 99

References and suggested readings 99

Unit 5: Building Structure for Nuclear Power Plants 101-115

Unit specifics 101

Rationale 101

Pre-requisites 101

Unit outcomes 101

5.1 Structure of a Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) and its components 102

5.2 Requirements in the Designing of the Reactor Containment 104

5.2.1 Containment structure design basis 104

5.2.2 Fracture prevention of containment boundary 104

xxi
5.3 Requirements in the ultimate limit state, deformations, and vibrations 104

5.4 Testing of reactor containment buildings 105

5.4.1 Types 106

5.4.2 Design and testing requirements 108

5.5 Safely aspects for the storage of nuclear fuel 109

5.6 Waste disposal in a nuclear power plant 110

5.6.1 Waste conditioning 110

5.6.2 Risks of nuclear waste disposal 111

5.7 Waste Disposal and Safety Aspects in Nuclear Power Plants in India 112

Unit summary 114

Short and Long Answer Type Questions 115

References and suggested readings 115

Unit 6: Engineering for Energy Conservation (Green Building and Green

116-135
Architecture)
116
Unit specifics
116
Rationale
116
Pre-requisites
116
Unit outcomes
117
6.1 Concept of Green Buildings
119
6.1.1 Material for Buildings
119
6.1.2 Designing and Building Orientations
121
6.2 LEED Ratings
123
6.3 Identification of Energy Related Enterprise
126
6.4 Embodied Energy Analysis
128
6.5 Tools for Measuring Sustainability
131
Unit summary
133
Short and Long Answer Type Questions
134
References and suggested readings
134

Unit 7: Engineering for Energy Conservation (Energy Auditing, Efficiency & 136-155
Energy Conservation)

Unit specifics 136

Rationale 136
Pre-requisites 137

xxii
 Unit outcomes 137

7.1 Energy Auditing 137

7.2 Types of Energy Auditing 138

7.2.1 Preliminary Energy Audit 139

7.2.2 Targeted Energy Audit 139

7.2.3 Detailed Energy Audit 140

7.3 Instruments required for energy auditing 141

7.4 Software used for Energy Auditing 142

7.5 Economic Analysis 143

7.6 Case Study 146

7.7 Concept of Energy Efficiency 150

7.8 Some examples of energy efficiency and energy conservation 151

Unit summary 151

Short and Long Answer Type Questions 152

References and suggested readings 155

xxiii
xxiv
 1 Introduction to Energy Science

UNIT SPECIFICS

In this unit, the following topics have been discussed for basic understating related to energy
science:

 Concept of energy
 Impacts of energy on society, environment, and climate change
 Share of renewable energy resources in the power sector
 Promotion of renewable energy-based technologies by the Government

Here, in this unit, the main focus is to aware the academicians and students of essential
principles and fundamental principles for energy education which introduces energy concepts,
energy utilization, and energy decisions. Energy is an issue that is intrinsically
multidisciplinary in nature. The fundamental concepts in energy are found in almost all, if not
all, academic areas. This handbook is meant to be utilised by people from many fields. An
integrated and systems-based approach to energy knowledge is strongly recommended.

Energy has played a critical role in human civilisation, and the use of energy sources, notably
fossil fuels, has drastically affected people's living conditions. The spectrum of human
applications for various energy sources has grown to the point that contemporary living would
be nearly impossible without them. To put it another way, human life has become increasingly
reliant on energy consumption, yet the advancements it allows come at a high cost to the
environment and vulnerable communities. Energy may be compared to a driving force that
propels a variety of desired outcomes, including personal comfort and well-being, social
welfare, economic growth and prosperity, and technical, industrial, and sustainable
development.

RATIONALE

This unit introduces fundamental concepts of energy sciences and historical interpretations in
the context of energy. Different forms of energy and their scientific developments, sources of

1
energy, and the impact of energy on society and the environment are described here. Merits
and demerits of various renewable energy sources and the present trend of development of
sustainable energy in developing and developed countries are also projected in this unit.

PRE-REQUISITES

Basic Knowledge of Physics-XII standard

UNIT OUTCOMES

List of outcomes of this unit is as follows

U1-O1: To know the historical interpretation and scientific principles of energy.

U1-O2: To understand the concept of force, energy, and power.

U1-O3: To realize the impacts of energy on the environment and related climatic issues.

U1-O4: To know the share of renewable energy at the national and global levels.

U1-O5: To understand the initiative and policies of the Government related to energy
resources, environment, and climate change.

Unit EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6
U1-O1 3 3 1 - - -
U1-O2 3 2 1 - - -
U1-O3 3 3 3 - - -
U1-O4 1 - 1 - - -
U1-O5 - - 3 - - 1

1.1. Historical Interpretation and Scientific Principles

1.1.1. Concept of Energy in Ancient Indian Text

The Indian civilisation, one of the world's oldest civilizations, has a long history of science and
technology. India was a place of sages and seers as well as philosophers and scientists in ancient
times. According to research, India actively contributed to the field of science and technology
centuries before modern laboratories were set up, from creating the greatest steel in the world
to teaching the world how to count. Many of the old Indian thoughts and methodologies have

2
shaped and reinforced the foundations of modern science and technology. The concept of
energy science is a part of classical physics, and Indian Vedas and Purana introduced Vedic
Physics closely related to matter and energy [1].

In the ancient text, the method of producing electricity using an earthen pot, copper plate,
copper sulfate, wet sawdust, and zinc amalgam can be found. This can be considered as the
electric battery of ancient times. The above process is known as ‘Agastya Samhita’ inspired by
the name of Sage Agastya. When a cell was prepared according to this process, it gave an open
circuit voltage of 1.138 V and a short circuit current of 23 mA.

Please scan the QR code for further

information on various topics
related to ‘Energy in Ancient
Indian Text’.

Newton’s three laws of motion, published in 1687, were already mentioned in Vaisheshika
Philosophy. According to this literature, motions are of five types as shown in the Fig.1.1.

Types of
Motion

Motion due General

Upward Downward Shearing
to Tensile type of
Motion Motion Motion
Strength Motion

Fig. 1. 1. Different types of motion in the ancient Indian text

1.1.2. Historical Concept of Energy in Science and Its Measurements

The word ‘energy’ is derived from the Greek word ‘energeia’, which first appeared in the 4th
century BCE works of Aristotle. ‘Energeia’ refers to as enaction that makes matter move and
embodiment. Energy is further categorized as potential energy and kinetic energy. The 'force'
gained by two falling bodies, one of mass m dropped a distance 4h, and another of mass 4m
dropped a distance h, led Leibniz to define vis viva. The rule of falling bodies was used by
Leibniz to demonstrate that an item with a mass m has twice the velocity of an object with a
mass 4m because it falls four times the distance. Because both bodies must be lifted with the

3
same 'power,' the value of vis viva should be linked to mv2 rather than mv. Furthermore, Leibniz
claimed that mass multiplied by velocity squared is preserved [2].

Around the start of the 18th century, systematic analysis of thermal energy began under the
auspices of Stahl's caloric theory that treated heat as a fluid ("phlogiston"), with no inkling of
course about the relation to mechanical energy. This did not stop Newcomen from inventing a
new steam engine in 1712 and Watt from improving it in 1763-1775 (he also introduced a unit
of power, "horsepower"). After Lavoisier's work on oxygenation (1783), the phlogiston theory
was modified into a caloric one, which remained in place until mid- 19th century. Carnot even
developed the basics of the theory of heat engines based on it (1824). In 1807, Thomas Young
was the first person to use the modern sense of the word ‘energy’ for the quantity of mass
multiplied by velocity squared. William Thompson, who later became Lord Kelvin, is credited
with introducing the concept of kinetic energy in 1849. We now associate the concept of an
object’s kinetic energy with the quantity of one-half of its mass multiplied by its velocity
squared. Gustave Gaspard Coriolis, in 1829, described kinetic energy in its modern sense, and
William Rankine coined the term potential energy in 1853.

Measurements of the mechanical equivalent of heat were first performed by Rumford in 1798.
In the 1840s, Joule extended the work of Rumford; this further led to the formulation of general
energy conservation law by Mayer in 1841. In 1850, Clausius reformulated Carnot’s work on
heat as energy, which led to the acceptance of heat as another form of energy. In 1851 Thomson
already could write that “heat is not a substance, but a dynamical form of mechanical effect,
we perceive that there must be an equivalence between mechanical work and heat, as between
cause and effect”. By the time the International System of Units (SI) and centimetres grams
seconds (CGS) system of Units were undergoing a major overhaul of units in 1860-1880s,
mechanical, thermal, and electric energies were treated uniformly. In the SI, energy is measured
in joules. One joule is equal to the work done by a one-newton force acting over a one-meter
distance.

1.1.3. Theory of Energy in Different Scientific Descriptions

Energy is described as the ability to perform work in physics. Potential, kinetic, thermal,
electrical, chemical, radioactive, and other forms of energy exist [3]. These different forms of
energy are briefly shown in Fig. 1.2. Heat and work (energy exchanged through one body to
another) are also involved. Once the energy has been transferred, it's often classified as per its
type. As an outcome, heat transferred could be turned into thermal energy, whilst effort

4
performed could be translated to mechanical energy. Other techniques of changing energy from
one form to another prevail. Many types of technologies, such as gasoline heat engines,
generators, batteries, fuel cells, and magnetohydrodynamic systems, create useful
electromechanical energy [4].

Heat

Light
Different Motion
Forms of
Energy Electrical

Chemical

Gravitational

Fig. 1. 2. Different forms of energy

All forms of energy are related to motion. Kinetic energy is present when one body is in motion.
A tensioned device, such as a bow or spring, has the ability to create motion even when it is at
rest; its arrangement incorporates potential energy. Because nuclear energy is generated by the
configuration of quantum particles inside an atom's nucleus, it is also known as potential
energy.

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only altered. This principle is known as the
conservation of energy, sometimes known as the first rule of thermodynamics. When a box
slides down a hill, the potential energy it has from being high on the slope is converted to
kinetic energy or motion energy. When the box comes to a halt owing to friction, the kinetic
energy from its movement is converted to thermal energy, which warms the box and the slope
[5].

1.1.4. Force, Energy, and Power

Force

Push and pull are the basic principles of force that we have studied. Whenever force is exerted
to an object, it affects its movement or structure.

Work

5
We consider any beneficial physical or mental labor to be work in our daily lives. Playing in a
park, conversing with colleagues, singing a song, going to the movies, and attending a function
are all examples of activities that are not often considered labor. What we consider to be "work"
is determined by how we define it. In science, we use and define the term "labor" differently
[6]. As a result, the work done by a force acting on an entity is equivalent to the force's
magnitude multiplied by the distance traveled in the force's direction. Work has no direction
and merely a magnitude.

W F d (1.1)

Energy

The capacity to do work is defined as Energy. Fig. 1.3 shows the various types of energy that
can be measured. The SI unit of energy is joule (J). As a result, an object's energy is calculated

Mechanical Energy Chemical Energy

Mechanical Wave Energy Ionization Energy
Thermal Energy Magnetic Energy

Types of Energy

Electric Energy Elastic Energy

Nuclear Energy Gravitational Energy
Radiant Energy Sound Energy

Fig. 1. 3. Different types of energy

based on its ability to perform work. 1 J is the amount of energy needed to perform one joule
of work. The kilojoule (kJ) is a greater unit of energy that is sometimes used. 1000 J is equal
to 1 kJ. The commercial unit of energy is watt-hour (Wh). The energy used in households,
industries, and commercial establishments is usually expressed in kilowatt-hours. For example,
electrical energy used during a month is expressed in terms of ‘units. Here, 1 ‘unit’ means 1
kilowatt-hour.

Power

Power is defined as the rate at which work is done. The SI unit of power is watt (W). 1 watt is
the power of an object, which does work at the rate of 1 joule per second.

6
1.1.5. Law of Conservation of Energy

Energy cannot be generated or destroyed, according to the rule of conservation of energy. It

can, however, be changed from one form to another. The overall energy of an isolated system
remains constant when all kinds of energy are considered. Moreover, it can be further
elaborated that energy remains constant for a closed system, i.e., isolated from its surroundings
when all the energy sources are considered. Some of the examples of the conversion of energy
are depicted in Fig. 1.4.

Fig. 1. 4. Examples of energy conversion and law of conservation

7
1.2.Impact of Energy on Society, Environment, and Climate

Fig. 1. 5. World’s population since 1960

For more information regarding the population data, please scan the QR code

In the past six decades, the world’s population has increased by twice than the
population recorded in 1960, as shown in Fig. 1.5. Due to the rising demands of the ever-
increasing population for a better quality of life, the consumption of energy is also on the rise.
This has led to new scientific innovations and inventions that have impacted society and the
environment in both ways, i.e., good and bad.

1.2.1. Impact of Energy on Society

The influence of energy on society is both beneficial and unfavourable. Humans benefit from
having access to plentiful, inexpensive, safe, efficient, and clean energy. However, energy
production, transmission, and consumption may have detrimental effects on a society's health,
ecology, and economy. Furthermore, reliance on energy imports might put a country's security
at risk. The consequences of energy expenditures are not the same for everyone. Because they
have a lower ability for adaptation and negotiating leverage than wealthy civilizations, poor or
disadvantaged cultures are more likely to face unfavourable effects of energy decisions. As a
result, advances in energy accessibility, safety, or cost can help vulnerable people significantly.

Human society's energy usage is influenced by social status and access to technology. As a
result, technological and societal change can help mankind utilize less energy [7]. Reduction

8
in energy use does not always imply a worsening in quality of life. Energy conservation may
improve the quality of life in many circumstances by reducing environmental hazards,
increasing economic and national security, and saving money. The structure of civilization has
been influenced by the availability of low-cost, reliable energy resources. The effects of fossil
fuels, which are used to create energy, have further defined societal structure since the
industrial revolution. Poor communities are typically willing to embrace inefficient energy
installations because they provide much-needed jobs. The consumption of energy across the
globe is depicted in Fig. 1.6.

Fig. 1. 6. World’s energy consumption since 1990

For the latest data on energy consumption, please scan the QR code

1.2.2. Impact of Energy on Environment and Climate

The energy consumption of the world has been on a constant rise in the last three decades
barring the year 2020, due to unforeseen circumstances of lockdown and restrictions. This has
led to more burning of fossil fuels which in turn have an adverse impact on the environment
such as global warming, acid rain, higher emission of greenhouse gases, etc. Moreover, this
higher rate of burning of conventional sources of energy (i.e., coal, oil, and petroleum) have
led to drastic climatic changes. Increasing pollutants and ecosystem deterioration are all part
of an ever-growing list of environmental issues that affect ever-larger regions. Energy supply
and use issues are linked to environmental concerns such as air pollution, acid rainfall, ozone

9
layer depletion, rainforest loss, and radioactive material emissions, in addition to global
warming. If mankind wants to attain a brighter future economy with minimum environmental
consequences, these concerns must be addressed concurrently. There is enough evidences to
show that if people continue to degrade the environment, the future will suffer. The worldwide
greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions have increased tremendously over the past few years,
causing the three most pressing environmental challenges for the world: acid precipitation,
stratospheric ozone depletion, and global climate change [9]. Fig. 1.7. represent the greenhouse
gases emission trend of the world since 1990 till 2018.

Fig. 1. 7. GHG emission of the world since 1990

For accessing the data regarding GHG emissions of the world, please scan the QR code

Renewable energy sources, energy conservation, and energy storage technologies, among
others, have recently emerged as promising answers to the present environmental concerns
connected with hazardous pollutants. The two most significant topics, sustainable energy
technology and energy conservation, will be discussed. Several countries think that wind, solar,
and other renewable energy sources are the key to a clean energy future, and they are working
hard to be the world's leader in inventing, producing, and implementing these techniques.

10
1.3.Introduction to Energy Systems and Resources

1.3.1. Types of Energy Resources

Mainly, energy sources are classified into two broad categories, non-renewable and renewable
energy resources. Non-renewable energy resources are conventional energy sources that cannot
be replenished over a period of time and can get depleted. These sources are derived from
fossils over a period of time under extreme pressure and temperature. Non-renewable energy
resources are oil, natural gas, coal, and nuclear energy.

Renewable energy sources are the ones that can be replenished naturally over a period of time
and can be utilized repeatedly. These sources include biomass energy (such as ethanol),
hydropower, geothermal power, wind energy, and solar energy.

Some of the positives of renewable energy are:

 Sustainable and will not run out very soon

 Environment friendly and low GHG emission
 Factors such as trade laws, territorial claims, and political instabilities do not impact
renewable energy sources
 Eventually leads to improved public health and happier lives
 Requires less maintenance
 Decrease the risk of energy crisis
 Reduce the risk of energy prices

Some of the disadvantages associated with renewable energy are:

 Affected by meteorological parameters thus not available round the clock

 Energy conversion efficiency of this technology is low
 Higher initial cost of investment
 Need to ample land to set up a renewable energy plant

1.3.2. Global Share of Conventional and Renewable Energy

The major energy consumption around the world is from non-renewable energy sources i.e.,
coal, oil and gases. The rest of the energy is consumed in the form of biomass and electrical
energy around the world. China consumes almost half of the world's coal consumption, and is
the only major user to see an increase in coal usage by 0.6%. Despite China's strategy of
reducing coal usage in primary energy, the country's demand for coal has still not hit its peak.

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 Energy
Resources

Non-
Renewable
Renewable

Coal Petroleum Natural Gas Solar Wind Geothermal Tidal

Fig. 1. 8. Types of energy sources

Whereas, in other nations, a drop in coal and other fossil fuels usage was observed due to
government initiative, awareness among people and the pandemic. Due to public and corporate
climate legislation, competition from cheaper gas-fired and renewable power generation, and
coal-fired power plant shutdowns, notably in the United States, the crisis has escalated the
declining trend in coal usage seen in previous years, as shown in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1. 9. Sources used for energy consumption of the world

To access the data of Fig.1.9, please scan the QR code

12
From the worldwide trend, generation from renewables (including hydro) is observed to
increase by over 6% in 2020, owing to continued expansion in wind and solar output, although
hydropower's proportion of the global power mix has remained relatively consistent at around
16% since 2000. The EU, the US, China, India, Japan, Chile, and Australia are all experiencing
a rise in renewable energy output, thanks to aggressive climate regulations and falling solar
and wind technology costs. Following a rising trend that began in the 2000s, the share of
renewable energy sources (including hydropower) in worldwide power generation is increased
by approximately 1% to over 29 percent in 2021 [8].

Fig. 1. 10. Coal and Lignite (major non-renewable source) for world’s energy consumption

For more information regarding Fig. 1.10, please scan the QR code

13
 Fig. 1. 11. Renewable energy share of the world

For more information regarding renewable energy share of the world, please scan the QR code

1.3.3. National Share of Conventional and Renewable Energy

The growth in energy demand, ever-increasing population, over-exploitation of fossil fuels,

and economic policies are the driving factors for RE in the Indian power sector. This led to the

setting up of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) in 1982 by the Indian

government to promote and form policies regarding energy generation using RE sources. The

total installed capacity of India considering central, state, and private sectors cumulatively is

at 399.497 GW as of 31st March 2022. The RE capacity of India constitutes about 35.10% of

the total installed capacity. Among the RE sources, SPV has the maximum installed capacity

of 53.997 GW followed by wind power with 40.358 GW, this accounts to major chunk of RE

in India at 13.5% for solar and 10.3% for wind. Small hydro and bio-powered energy are at

4.849 GW and 10.685 GW, respectively in India [10]. A glance of Indian power sector is

presented in Table 1 and Fig. 1.12. By 2030 India aims for achieving 40% of power from

renewables.

14
 Table 1.1 India’s power sector at a glance (GW)

Thermal Renewable
Nuclear Other
Coal Gas Diesel Hydro
Renewables

210.700 24.900 0.51 6.780 46.723 156.608

Fig. 1. 12. Indian power scenario

For latest information regarding Indian power scenario, please scan the QR code

The year-wise power generation growth in India is depicted, it illustrates the significant
progress of India, in the field of the power sector. The progressive growth in the field of power,
also explains the economic growth of the country.

15
 Fig. 1. 13. Electricity production of India since 1990

The electricity production data of India can be accessed by scanning the QR code

Table 1. 2 India’s Renewable energy sector at a glance (MW)

Waste to Energy 477

Bio-Power
Biomass 10206
Small Hydro 4849
Wind Power 40358
Solar Power 53997
Total 156608

For latest information regarding Indian renewable energy sector scan the QR code

1.4.Government of India Initiatives to Promote Renewable Energy

Government of India (GoI) in the recent years has taken major strides in formulating policies
and schemes to promote renewable energy in India. The National Electricity Plan [NEP]
framed by the Ministry of Power has proposed a ten-year action plan with detailed objectives
to light up every home, even in the remotest of villages in India. The Government of India has
also established Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI), an autonomous body for the
implementation of National Solar Mission, all across India effectively. The Government has
also set up National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE), which is an independent institute for

16
carrying out the latest research and development in the area of solar power energy and
coordinating the training programs. Some of the schemes and initiatives taken up by GoI are
[11-13]:

Table 1.3 Initiatives and Policies taken up by GoI for promoting RE

Biomass and Biogas

Scheme/Policy Period Salient Features
Biomass based 11.05.2018 to Financial Assistantship of 25 and 50 lacs for
Cogeneration in Sugar 31.03.2020 bagasse and non-bagasse cogeneration
Mills and other Industries
Biogas Power Generation 01.04.2017 to Subsidy from Rs. 12,500/- to Rs. 40,000/- for
and Thermal Energy 31.02.2021 setting up off-grid biogas-based power
Programme (BPGTP) generation plant.
Solar Photovoltaic
Development of Solar Upto 2022-23 The scheme envisages supporting the
Parks States/UTs in setting up solar parks at
various locations in the country with a view
to create required infrastructure for setting
up of solar power projects.
Jawaharlal Nehru 14.03.2016 to Funding of Rs. 5050 cr to be provided for
National Solar Mission 31.03.2019 installation of 5000MW grid connected solar
Phase II photovoltaic projects.
Grid Connected Solar Till 31.12.2022 Subsidy provided to residential/apartment
Rooftop Programme owners for setting up of domestic solar
photovoltaic on grid system.
Pradhan Mantri Kisan Till 31.12.2022 Support to agriculture sector and farmers for
Urja Suraksha evam utilizing and installing off-grid solar
Utthaan Mahabhiyaan photovoltaic based water pumps.
(PM-KUSUM)
Atal Jyoti Yojana Till 31.12.2020 Installation of 3,04,500 units of solar street
(AJAY) Phase II lights in UP, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, and
Assam

17
 Solar Study Lamp 30.09.2019 Lamps provided to student at Rs 100/- in
Scheme for School Going constituencies which have more than 50%
Children un-electrified households.

Wind
Wind Data Sharing 22.10.2016 NIWE has commissioned 50m, 80m, 100m
Policy (WDSP) and 120m height masts with multiple level
sensors to collect dedicated wind resource
data including wind profile along height.
National Wind Solar 14.05.2018 Promote large scale integration of hybrid
Hybrid Policy renewable energy sources for effective land
utilization and reduce power losses.
National Offshore Wind 06.10.2016 Already installed offshore wind energy
Energy Policy plants of 8.7 GW overall capacity in
countries around the world such as Germany,
Demark, Sweden, United Kingdom and
Belgium.

1.5.Introduction to Energy Sustainability and Environment

1.5.1. Energy Use Trend in Developing and Developed Countries

The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OCED) is an international

economic organization comprising of 38 countries. These countries have a high human
development index (HDI) and are regarded as developed nations. These nations have a 62.2%
share of global nominal GDP. Some member nations of OCED are the United States, United
Kingdom, Germany, France, Denmark, etc. The best four developing nations with relatively
higher HDI are Brazil, Argentina, China, and India. A comparison is presented in the amount
of metric tonnes of oil consumed by developed nations and developing nations.

From the trend, it can be seen that, developed nations on an average have consumed around
6300 Mtoe equivalent of oil for energy production in the last 30 years whereas, developing
nations have 2793 Mtoe. This pattern in recent years, especially last 3-4 years have seen
developing nations catching up the developed nations in the consumption of energy. China and

18
India of the developing nations are first and third around the globe in recent years energy
consumption data.

Fig. 1. 14. Energy consumption comparison of developing and developed nations

For the latest data of energy consumption, please scan the QR code

Fig. 1. 15. Per capita energy consumption of different countries

For the latest data of energy per capita, please scan the QR code

19
1.5.2. Per Capita Energy Consumption

Energy per capita [Wh] = Total population energy consumption [kWꞏh/yr] × 1,000 /population

The United States has the highest energy consumption per capita, followed by Russia. The
major developed nations have brought down their per capita energy consumption by
formulating eco-friendly policies and signing accords. Whereas, China is the country with an
increase of almost 300% in per capita energy consumption since the start of the millennium. In
2020, India's per capita energy consumption was 6437 kWh as against the world average at
19836 kWh.

1.5.3. Need for Sustainable Energy

One of the most important tasks of the twenty-first century is to tackle the energy issue. Perfect
solutions will be difficult to come by, not only because of worldwide variances in governmental
and mass support for a sustainable form of energy, but also because of the enormous knowledge
necessary to meet the various issues that the global energy environment presents.

Sustainable energy is defined as the energy that meets the energy requirements of the present
generation without compromising the energy demands and climate for future generations. The
most popular sources of sustainable energy, including wind, solar and hydropower, are also
renewable. Due to the widespread availability of oil, petroleum and coal some
government officials and public sentiment say these are sustainable kinds of energy, but this is
a contentious and debated position. However, most professionals in the energy business believe
that even some non-renewable energy sources may be sustainable if utilized in moderation.

1.5.4. Difference Between Sustainable and Renewable Energy

Even between industry specialists and veterans, the terms "renewable energy" and "sustainable
energy" are frequently confused. Most sustainable energy sources are also renewable, so there
is some common ground between the two. These two concepts, on the other hand, are not
synonymous. RE is not always sustainable, and vice versa. Energy must be effectively acquired
and supplied in order to be considered sustainable. However, even RE sources, such as
biomass, aren't always environmentally friendly. Biomass is renewable because it is
biologically generated material derived from natural sources that may be burnt for heat or fuel.
However, while biomass is self-renewing, using biofuel produces greenhouse gases, which can
harm the ecosystem and, as a result, future generations. As a result, unless this type of

20
renewable energy is properly managed to maximize energy output while reducing negative
consequences, it will not be sustainable.

• From sources that fulfill our • From natural sources that

Renewable Energy
Sustainable Energy

current energy requirement renew themselves at a

without compromising higher rate to meet our
future generations current demands
• This involves collection and • Not all RE sources are
distribution sustainable, improving
• Energy must be efficiently sustainability of renewable
acquired and distributed in and fossil fuels can have
order to be sustainable environmental benefits

An energy professional one should have an understanding of energy generation, distribution

and consumption and the factors that affect it. Such as:

 Where and how can we obtain energy in ways that provide for efficient use, reduce
environmental impact and remain cost-effective?
 How is energy distributed and ultimately consumed?
 How are the costs of creation-distribution-consumption measured against the rate of
adoption?

1.5.5. Waste to Energy

Organic trash, e-waste, hazardous garbage, inert waste, and other forms of waste are formed as
a result of our everyday or industrial operations. Organic waste is defined as trash that degrades
or is broken down with time by microbes. Organic wastes are all carbon-based substances, even
though they are diverse in composition and degrade at various rates. Organic waste accounts
for a major fraction of total waste creation in the industrial, urban, and agricultural sectors, and
hence may be utilized to generate energy. The organic waste can be further classified into
nonbiodegradable and biodegradable organic waste.

Following are the waste to energy technologies to recover energy from waste [14]:

21
 • Anaerobic digestion of organic material which converts into
biogas
Biomethanation
• By this process 20-25kg of cattle dung can generate about
1m^3 of biogas (equivalent to 2 units of energy)
• Complete combustion of waste with recovery of heat to
produce steam that rorates steam turbine for power
Incineration generation
• Succesful at commercial level in India to treat solid waste
like Municipla Solid Waste
• Limited amount of oxygen at high temperature to
decompose materials to produce synthetic gas, which can be
Gasification utilized for thermal or power generation
• High effeciency for <2MW plants
• Breaking down of combustible material in absence of
Pyrolysis oxygen.
• Main purpose is to miniize emission and maximize gains.

Fig. 1. 16. Various waste to energy technologies

1.5.6. World Energy Policy to Protect Environment

With encouraging signs that energy is becoming more sustainable and broadly available, the
world is making progress towards affordable and clean energy (i.e., Goal 7 of sustainable
development goals). In poorer nations, access to energy has risen exponentially, energy
production and efficiency is improving, and making significant progress in power sector.
Nonetheless, improving access to clean and safe cooking fuels and technology for 7.8 billion
people, expanding the use of renewable energy outside the power sector, and increasing
electrification in remote locations require more targeted effort. The collection of energy and
climate-related policies and measures that feed into our modeling is constantly updated and
expanded. Internationally power sector policies are being formulated to achieve sustainable
development goals. These policies are focused on

 Increased installation of renewable and sustainable energy

 Improve support for carbon capture, utilization and storage
 Stringent pollution emissions limits for industrial facilities above 50 MWth input using
solid fuels set at 200 mg/m3 for SO2 and NOX, and 30 mg/m3 for PM2.5
 Mandatory energy conservation construction rules, including a mandate for all new
buildings to have net zero emissions by 2030

22
  Policies promoting production and use of alternative fuels and technologies such as
hydrogen, biogas, biomethane and CCUS across sectors.

Some of the steps taken by countries related to electricity sector are listed below [15]:

Regions Initiatives
United States  100% carbon-free electricity by 2050 in 20 states
 30 GW offshore wind capacity by 2030
 Extension to renewable tax credit for solar and wind
 Nuclear compensated with zero emissions
Canada  By 2030 reach nearly 90% non-emitting renewables
 Stop power generation from coal-fired plants by 2030
European Union  Stop power generation from coal-fired plants in 16 nation
members
 Close nuclear power plants in Germany by the end 2022
 Strengthening national energy plans for offshore wind targets
China  Target 40% of electricity consumption from renewables
 Install over 1200 GW solar and wind energy systems by 2030
 70 GW nuclear generation by 2025
India  450 GW renewables capacity installed by 2030
 60% of total installed capacity from renewables by 2030
Southeast Asia  30% of capacity additions from new and renewable energy sources
 18 GW installed wind capacity by 2030
 Phase out installation of coal power plants

SUMMARY

In this unit, the general idea about energy, its history and technologies, and processes related
to energy resources have been discussed. The impacts of energy sources on society,
environment are also presented. Further, the role of energy in climate change and related issues
and how renewable energy resources are helpful in mitigating this important global issue are
also discussed. The development of any technology is based on the promotion of the
technologies by various stakeholders including the Government, therefore, the initiatives taken
by the government for the promotion of renewable energy are also taken care of.

23
Short and Long Answer Type Questions

1. Discuss the historical concept of energy in science and its measurements.

2. How can energy resources be classified?
3. What are the different forms of energy?
4. Discuss the merits and demerits of various renewable energy sources.
5. Discuss the Government of India’s initiatives to promote renewable energy resources.
6. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. Justify
7. All forms of energy are related to motion. Justify.
8. How scientific innovations and inventions have impacted society and the environment?
9. What are greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions? How does it impact the environment
and society?
10. What is the present per capita energy consumption of India, world average and
developed nations? What information can be extracted by knowing the per capita
consumption of a country?
11. What is the basic difference between renewable energy and sustainable energy?
12. What is world energy policy to protect environment?
13. What is waste to energy? Discuss different technologies involved in waste to energy
process.
14. Present the trend used of energy in developing and developed countries. How the
projected energy of any country be estimated?

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

1. A. Kumar, “Energy Generation Through Vedas,” International Journal of Science

Technology and Management, 5, pp. 294-304, 2016.
2. C. Smith, “The Science of Energy – a Cultural History of Energy Physics in Victorian
Britain,” The University of Chicago Press, 1998.
3. A.M. Helmenstine, “How Does Electrical Energy Work?”, Thought Co, 2020, URL:
www.thoughtco.com/electrical-energy-definition-and-examples-4119325.
4. Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopedia, “energy,” Encyclopedia Britannica, 2021,
https://www.britannica.com/science/energy. Accessed 28 May 2022.
5. M. Walker, “Chapter 2: Concept of Energy,” Centre of Daily Times, 1986 URL:
https://personal.ems.psu.edu/~radovic/Chapter2.pdf
6. NCERT Experts, “Chapter 11: Work and Energy,” Physics Book, NCERT, 2021

24
7. M. Kumar, “Social, Economic, and Environmental Impacts of Renewable Energy
Resources,” Wind Solar Hybrid Renewable Energy System, Intech Open Press, 2019.
8. IRENA, “Renewable capacity statistics 2021,” International Renewable Energy Agency,
Abu Dhabi, 2021.
9. United Nations, “Paris Agreement,” United Nations, Paris, 2016.
10. IBEF, “Renewable Energy Industry in India Report,” India Brand Equity Foundation, 2021.
11. Ministry of Renewable Energy, “Development of Solar Parks and Ultra Mega Solar Power
Projects,” Government of India, New Delhi, 2017.
12. Ministry of Renewable Energy, “Scheme for setting up of over 5000 MW grid connected
SPV power projects under IV of JNNSM PHASE II,” Government of India, New Delhi,
2019.
13. Ministry of Renewable Energy, “Grid Connected Solar Rooftop Programme,” Government
of India, New Delhi, 2019.
14. M. J. Rogoff, F. Screve, “Waste-To-Energy: Technologies and Project Implementation,”
Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2019.
15. United Nations, “Global Environment Outlook 6 (GEO6) – 2019,” New York, USA, 2019.

*****************

25
 2 Energy Sources

UNIT SPECIFICS

In this unit, the topics related to fossil fuels, various renewable energy resources, and storage
systems have been discussed.

 Different types of fossil fuels as energy sources

 Renewable energy resources
 Different energy storage systems

Here, in this unit, the main focus is to describe the various fossil fuels-based energy resources,
different renewable energy resources along with storage systems.

RATIONALE

This unit mainly focuses on energy sources for power generation. These energy sources include
fossil fuels and renewable energy resources. Different forms of storage systems are also
described here.

PRE-REQUISITES

Basic Knowledge of Energy and Environmental Science

UNIT OUTCOMES

List of outcomes of this unit is as follows

U2-O1: An overview of energy sources and energy systems.

U2-O2: Alternative to fossil fuels for environment-friendly power generation.

U2-O3: Sustainable and Environment trade-off of different energy systems.

U2-O4: Energy storage devices

26
 Unit EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES
outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6
U2-O1 3 3 1 - - -
U2-O2 2 2 3 - - -
U2-O3 2 1 2 - - 1
U2-O4 1 3 3 - - 1

2.1. Overview of Energy Sources

Energy is defined as the ability of the system to modify the state or condition of the other
systems. Energy exchange is the driving force behind all changes in nature. As a result, energy
constantly flows between systems and cannot be generated or destroyed.

An energy system is a system in which energy flows to execute certain specific tasks. In such
a system, the energy is converted from one form to another (i.e., the first law of
thermodynamics), and some portion is always lost in this conversion process (i.e., the second
law of thermodynamics). This measure of conversion efficiency is called as system efficiency.
The ratio between energy output and energy input is defined as system efficiency.

2.2. Sources, Transformations, Efficiency, and Storage

Energy is described as the ability to perform work in physics. The varied sources of energy are
such as petroleum, coal, sun, wind, and water. These sources, as previously mentioned, can be
further categorized as renewable and non-renewable sources. For the energy to be utilized in
the useable form, the energy from specific sources would be converted into other forms.

Energy Output 𝑒
𝜂 100
Energy Input 𝑒

Energy Input 𝑒 Energy loss 𝑒

𝜂 100
Energy Input 𝑒

This conversion from one form to another useable form is called energy efficiency. This is
shown in Fig. 2.1.

27
 Fig. 2. 1. Depiction of energy and its efficiency

The heat value of an energy source is the amount of heat released during its combustion. Also
referred to as energy or calorific value, heat value is a measure of a fuel's energy density and
is expressed in energy (joules) per specified amount. The conversion of input energy to output
energy flows from primary energy supply to final energy use, and eventually, useful energy
flows and provides services. This flow is shown in Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2. 2. Conversion of energy from the different sources into a useable form

2.3. Fossil Fuels

Oil, coal, and natural gas are examples of non-renewable fossil energy sources that originated
when prehistoric flora and fauna perished and were progressively buried by layers of rock.
Different forms of fossil fuels originated over millions of years, based on the combination of
organic matter present, how long it was buried, and the temperature and pressure conditions
that prevailed at the time.

Today, the fossil fuel industry drills or mines for these energy sources, then burns or refines
them for use as heating or transportation fuel. The combustion of fossil fuels accounted for
roughly three-quarters of all human-caused emissions during the last 20 years. According to
the data available on 31st March 2022, in India total electricity generation capacity from fossil

28
fuels contribute to 59.10% [1]. Fossil fuels are the energy sources formed after millions of year
of decay and decomposition. Unfortunately, they account for major carbon emissions and the
need of the hour is to reduce the dependence on these resources. In the present scenario,
scientists and engineers have a major role in devising alternatives for a cleaner and healthier
environment.

2.3.1. Coal

Coal is a flammable material that is generally black or brown in appearance. Coal is mostly
made up of carbon-based elements obtained from ancient plants, with some inorganic additives
thrown in for good measure. Coal's fundamental chemical element is carbon. Coal has a carbon
content of more than 70% by weight in most cases. Coal has a calorific value of between 25
and 35 MJ/kg. Lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite are the three basic forms of coal. The
best grade coal is anthracite, which has a carbon content of more than 90% and the highest
calorific value. Bituminous coal is one of the hardest varieties of coal in terms of physical
hardness, with a carbon concentration of 70–75 percent. Coal also contains sulphur and
nitrogen. Coal accounts for over 37% of the world’s electricity supply. Besides electricity,
another sector heavily dependent on coal is steel production. An exorbitant amount of 70% of
steel production depends on coal feedstock. The downside of burning coal is that it produces
14 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide. Thus, the development of ‘clean coal’ technologies appears
as an immediate solution to this problem.

Coal-fired power plants are still the greatest source of electricity generation and energy-related
CO2 emissions, posing a significant challenge for governments attempting to achieve net-zero
emissions while preserving energy security and affordability. Coal accounts for nearly a third
of worldwide energy generation, and it will continue to play an important role in sectors like
iron and steel until alternative technologies become available. Coal is the greatest single source
of CO2 emissions and the largest source of power generation, posing a particular challenge in
the transition to low-carbon energy systems. According to the Internation Electricity Agency’s
report on (IEA) Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario, all unabated coal production will cease
by 2040. Despite the fact that 20 nations have set deadlines for phasing out coal for electricity
production, coal is expected to remain an important part of many countries’ energy mix.
Governments and the coal industry must develop and implement less polluting and more
efficient technologies, such as Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage, in order for coal to
have a future as a cleaner energy source in the decades ahead. Since the Paris Agreement was

29
signed, 21 nations have committed to phase out coal-fired power production from their energy
grids, many by 2030. In 2020, these 21 nations accounted for 3.2 percent of worldwide power
output and 1% of total CO2 emissions [3]. The geographical breakdown of worldwide coal
consumption reveals that coal's future will be primarily determined in big Asian economies,
where energy demand is still expanding in many cases, and coal phase-out objectives have yet
to be established.

2.3.2. Oil

Oil here is normally referred to as crude oil and petroleum. These are considered fossil fuels
because they are hydrocarbon mixes generated from the leftovers of animals and plants
(diatoms) that have lived in a marine ecosystem since the prehistoric era. The remnants of these
creatures and plants were covered by layers of sand, silt, and rock over millions of years. The
residues were transformed into crude oil or petroleum as a result of the heat and pressure
exerted by these strata. Petroleum is short for "rock oil" or "earth oil. Post crude oil extraction
from the ground, transportation to the refinery takes place. Thereafter, it is processed into
usable petroleum products. Gasoline, distillates such as diesel fuel and heating oil, jet fuel,
petrochemical feedstocks, waxes, lubricating oils, and asphalt are examples of petroleum
products. More information may be found in Refining crude oil—inputs and outputs.

Fig. 2. 3. Petroleum-consuming countries in 2018

30
Approximately 40% of methane emissions are now attributed to oil production, with the
remaining 60% attributed to leaks across the natural gas value chain. More than three-quarters
of total emissions come from upstream oil and gas operations, with the downstream segment
accounting for the rest. Methane emissions declined by 5% in 2020, owing mostly to lower
energy production, however emissions are expected to increase in 2021. Methane emissions
fall quickly during the following 10 years under the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,
decreasing by 75% in 2030 compared to 2020 [4]. This is due to the quick implementation of
reducing emissions technology and methods that resulted in the complete removal of all
scientifically preventable methane emissions within this time frame.

In India, total petroleum product consumption in March 2022 stood at 19.41 million tonnes,
the highest since March 2019, data from the Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell of the oil
ministry showed. Diesel, the most widely used fuel in the country, saw demand rise by 6.7
percent to 7.7 million tonnes, accounting for about 40% of all petroleum product use. Petrol
sales increased by 6.1 percent to 2.91 million tonnes, surpassing pre-Covid levels a few months
ago.

2.3.3. Oil Bearing Shale and Sand

Shale oil differs from conventional crude in many respects. The former is also called ‘tight oil’.
It is found in smaller batches and deeper than conventional crude deposits. Its extraction
requires the creation of fractures in oil and gas-rich shale to release hydrocarbons through a
process called hydraulic fracking. An oil shale is a sedimentary rock that contains kerogen, a
petroleum-like liquid that is produced when the rock is heated. Tar sands are made up of clay,
sand, water, and a heavy hydrocarbon called bitumen. Tar sands' bitumen may be converted to
synthetic crude oil just like kerogen in oil shale. Oil shale and tar sands are referred to as
uncommon fuel sources since generating fossil fuels from these resources are unusual and more
complex than standard energy production, such as coal mining or oil and gas drilling. There
are two ways of extracting shale oil, neither of which has been shown to be feasible. These
methods of extraction are underground, open-pit, or strip mining, and Situ method. In terms of
global production of shale oil, Russia and the Us ranks as the largest producers in the world.
The large-scale production of shale oil in the US turned the country from an importer to a net
exporter of shale oil in 2019. Three factors have come together in recent years to make shale
gas production economically viable [5]:

 Technological advances in horizontal drilling

31
  Hydraulic fracturing
 Increase in natural gas prices in the global market.

Oil extraction from shale or tar sands is dirtier than coal extraction. This is especially true in
the case of oil shale development, because extracting a barrel of oil from stone requires a
tremendous amount of energy. In reality, each gallon of shale oil produced emits 50% more
CO2 into the environment than a gallon of conventional oil. This really is untenable at a time
when we need to drastically reduce, not double, our CO2 emissions. Fuel economy, public
transportation, improved urban planning, and a new generation of automobiles are all
preferable investments for reducing foreign imports over the next 30 years.

Fig. 2. 4. Conceptual illustrations of types of oil and gas wells

(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tight_oil)

2.3.4. Coal Gasification

Over the years, many gasification R&D facilities have been developed. Each facility attempts
to exploit the chemistry, kinetics, and thermodynamics of coal gasification. Some of these
processes have reached a commercial level. A common feature of all processes is that coal is
contacted with gasifying agents, mainly oxygen and steam, in a reactor at high temperatures,
mostly under a pressurized atmosphere. The solid coal loses moisture, volatile matter, and
residual char is gasified, leaving ash as the residue. Carbon dioxide and heat are produced in-

32
situ by the combustion reaction and further generated heat utilized to drive the endothermic
gasification reactions. The art of gasification lies in balancing the exothermic and endothermic
reactions while maintaining the required reactor temperature. Although the three main types of
gasifiers (i.e., entrained flow, fluidized bed, and moving bed) can be used to gasify coal,
gasifier efficiency and stability are ensured under a range of values of certain characteristics of
the coal.
The coal gasification technology has attracted increasing importance internationally due to the
low production cost of hydrogen and sustainability. In the United States, 95% of hydrogen is
produced by a reaction between a methane source, such as natural gas, and high-temperature
steam (700°C–1,100°C), referred to as steam methane reforming (SMR). About 4% is
produced through coal gasification, and 1% is produced from electrolysis. China, the biggest
producer of coal on the planet, also shares the highest production of hydrogen (20 million
tonnes per year), mostly from coal gasification. Currently, 70% of China’s hydrogen comes
from nearly 100 coal gasification plants installed in the country. The overall production cost of
hydrogen from coal in China is also lower ($0.95-1.90/kg H2) compared with the natural gas-
derived hydrogen ($1.27-2.37/kg H2) and green hydrogen ($3.94-5.54/kg H2) [6]. Despite the
low production cost, the emission of CO2 from the coal gasifier is huge. It is estimated that 8
kg of coal produces about 1 kg of hydrogen in China and emits 20 kg of CO2 in the
environment.

The Paris Accord in 2016 gave governments around the world, an opportunity to make and
implement commitments regarding reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Several nations in this
attempt made the ambitious commitment of achieving net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by
2040-2060, the other countries planned to reduce the emissions in a phase wise manner. These
commitments have been a part of clean production and decarbonization strategy. Besides public
sector, many private companies vouched to net zero goals between 2030-2050. To achieve
these targets, low-carbon looks like a viable solution for zero-emission energy services.

Energy cannot be generated or destroyed, according to the rule of conservation of energy. It

can, however, be changed from one form to another. The overall energy of an isolated system
remains constant when all kinds of energy are considered. Moreover, it can be further
elaborated that energy remains constant for a closed system, i.e., isolated from its surroundings
when all the energy sources are considered.

33
2.4. Past, Present, and Future

Fire has been utilized by humans for thousands of years, dating back to the late Stone Age.
Cave inhabitants kept their caverns warm with fires that were kept blazing continuously,
according to archaeologists. Fire was later employed for more complex purposes, including as
cooking, lighting, heating pottery, smelting metal, and creating glass. People used the energy
stored in their muscles to undertake activities such as hunting, gathering food, and constructing
a shelter in ancient times. To aid in these endeavors, simple tools were created. Wood was used
to make the first tools. They were afterward fashioned of metal. Human force was also
employed to construct the first boats, which were subsequently propelled by poles and oars.
Because some of the tasks were too tough to do with human strength alone, humans turned to
animals like oxen. Animals provided the energy needed to execute a variety of jobs, including
transportation, assisting in the carrying of large objects, plowing lands for agriculture, and
pumping water for irrigation. Plows have been pulled by animals for thousands of years; the
first plows date back to 4000 BCE in Mesopotamia [7].

It has been documented that the Chinese were using coal as early as 1000 BC. to bake porcelain.
Coal had gained prominence as a heating fuel by the 1600s. It was also utilized in breweries,
glass factories, brick factories, and a variety of other industries. Coal's popularity continues to
rise. It was first extracted from shallow near-surface deposits. As the coal was used, miners
proceeded to construct mine shafts in order to reach deeper into the earth, where there were
numerous coal resources. This brought about the Industrial Revolution, and in 18th century as
coal was utilized in tall furnaces.

The electromechanical devices were built to aid human civilization. To harness wind energy
along the coastlines, sailboats were invented for exports and trading purposes. In the seventh
century, windmill was designed to utilize wind power to do work on land. In the 20th century,
wind-powered grain mills and sawmills were phased out in favor of more efficient gear.
Windmills are still used by some farmers nowadays to draw water, clear floodwater, and pull
up groundwater for crop irrigation. Wind turbine generators, or high-powered windmills, are
being employed to generate energy. The first electric light was created by Sir Humphrey Davy,
an Englishman, in 1802. He operated with a battery and an electric spark between two
conductive materials. At the end of each conductor, he put a little charcoal rod. His device was
then placed inside a glass globe. Later on, Thomas Edison invented the modern bulb using a
very fine carbon wire to control the bulb’s glow. Inventors utilized this technology to illuminate

34
entire cities over the following few decades. In 1879 electric motors were first used as power
trains for energy production.

Energy has shaped human civilisation, and the usage of energy sources, particularly fossil fuels,
has had a significant impact on people's living situations. The range of human applications for
diverse energy sources has expanded to the point that modern life would be difficult to imagine
without them. To put it another way, human existence has become increasingly reliant on
energy consumption, yet the benefits it provides come at a high cost to the environment and
vulnerable groups. Energy is a driving force that promotes a range of desired results, such as
personal comfort and well-being, social welfare, economic growth and prosperity, and
technological, industrial, and sustainable development [8]. Energy technology provides
countless opportunities for scientific research and innovation, particularly when applied to
renewable and alternative energy sources. Trends to date indicate a positive step in developing

35
a more energy-efficient tomorrow. Some of the future trends for energy efficiency and
sustainable development are as shown in Fig. 2.5.

Fig. 2. 5. Future trends for energy efficiency with different sources

2.5.Remedies and Alternatives for Fossil Fuels

World energy demand is projected to increase exponentially by the year 2050 [9]. Continuous
resource depletion and rising greenhouse gases emission will necessitate the shift from fossil
fuels to renewable sources for energy consumption [10]. In order to ensure human welfare, the

36
world is advocating the use of renewable energy. The concept of sustainable development will
become a reality when human welfare and growth in the face of high energy consumption are
balanced with an environment devoid of carbon emissions. Renewable energy technologies
present the advantage of clean and abundant energy from self-renewing sources such as the
sun, wind, earth, and water. Renewable energy sources have a twin-fold advantage of
completing the world’s energy demand and providing energy security. The COVID-19
pandemic posed not only a health crisis but had a major implication on global economies,
energy usage, and CO2 emissions. In the first quarter of 2020, when most countries were under
severe lockdown, global coal demand was the hardest hit, and oil demand was hit strongly by
5% in the first quarter of 2020 [11]. However, IEA reports that the renewable energy sources
posted a positive growth demand of 1.5% in quarter 1 of 2020, driven by large installed capacity
and priority dispatch. Among the various regions in the world, Asia shows promising results
in terms of installed capacity of renewable energy, as presented in Fig. 2.6. In recent years,
India has paved a path for sustainable energy sources. India aims to attain 175 GW of renewable
energy, which includes 100 GW from solar energy, 10 GW from bio-power, 60 GW from wind
power, and 5 GW from hydropower plants by the year 2022.

Fig. 2. 6. Trends in renewable energy by region

37
 For more information regarding renewable energy trends in different regions, scan this

The subsequent section discusses details of various alternatives to fossil fuels such as solar
energy, wind energy, hydro energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy, nuclear energy, and
biomass energy.

2.5.1. Biomass

Biomass comprises organic matter originating from plants, trees, and crops, and is primarily
the collection and storage of the sun’s energy via photosynthesis. The energy produced from
biomass or bioenergy comes directly from the crops, or from residues generated through the
processing of crops for food or other products. Though biomass can be directly utilized to
produce energy, it can also act as a feedstock to be converted various liquid or gas fuels, also
known as biofuels. The recent strategy of governments to develop biorefinery to convert
biomass into clean energy biofuels is gaining popularity. The inter-conversion process includes
processes such as combustion, pyrolysis, gasification, and anaerobic digestion. The utilization
of biomass-related fuels has the capacity to fulfil energy demands and foster socio-economic
developments for several nations. In contrast to the benefits of biomass energy, such as reduced
dependency on fossil fuels, lower levels of greenhouse gas emissions, and reduced smog, there
are certain limitations to biomass-to-energy facilities [12]. Biomass fuels have low energy
densities and can emerge as a cost-prohibitive source.

38
 Fig. 2. 7. Illustration of biomass energy

Fig. 2. 8. Installed capacity transformed from heating or power generation from biomass from

2010-2020

39
 For more information on the installed capacity of biomass plants, scan this

Bioenergy currently accounts for around 10% of the global energy supply. Research suggests
that bioenergy has the potential to offer from 10% to more than 60% of the global energy
supply. It is estimated that by the year 2060, the production of bioenergy will expand from the
current level of 56 EJ to 145 EJ [11]. There are several sources of bioenergy, such as crops,
algae, and lignocellulosic biomass. Wood crops, sugar sources, and herbal plants are other
options considered for the production of bioenergy. The installed capacity of bioenergy is used
either for heating or for power generation from biomass- liquid biofuels, solid biofuels, biogas,
and renewable municipal waste.

2.5.2. Wind Energy

Wind energy is another highly useful source of energy obtained through the conversion of wind
energy by wind turbines into a useful form. Windmills are used for mechanical power, and
wind pumps are used for water pumping or drainage. The earliest use of wind turbines for
generating electricity was found at the beginning of the 20th century. Since then, the
technology has drastically improved, and in the 1990s, wind energy remerged as an important
renewable source. The process of generating electricity is such that the wind requires the kinetic
energy of the moving air, which is converted to mechanical energy and then to electrical
energy. The design of the wind turbine should be such that it maximizes the energy capture
over a range of wind speeds and minimizes the costs of wind energy, taking all parameters into
consideration. The wind turbines are onshore and off-shore technology. The onshore wind
turbines are at times grouped together into wind power plants, also called wind farms. The off-
shore technology is less common and less mature than the onshore one; it also incurs a higher
investment. However, the motivation for developing off-shore wind technology largely
includes- higher quality wind resources at sea and the ability to use larger wind plants and build
larger power plants.

In the early 80s, the United States excelled in establishing wind farms. The operation of setting
turbines took at a large scale, each generating energy between 80 to 200 kW. Among the
European nations, Denmark became the pioneer of wind energy. At the end of the twenty-first
century, Germany took the lead in producing wind energy. In the last few decades, governments
of several nations have invested heavily in generating energy through wind primarily because
it is a clean energy source and limits the need for fossil fuels. By the end of 2016, the world

40
capacity of wind energy was 487 GW. This was around 1.9% of the installed capacity of power
stations, including water, coal, natural gas, and nuclear. The world wind power production is
presented in Table 2.1. The global future of wind generation looks bright. IRENA estimates
global wind generation to be around 732 GW by 2020. In terms of onshore generation, IRENA
expects 100 GW more generation by 2021. However, building a profitable wind generation
depends on several factors, such as local geography, which decides wind capacity.

Fig. 2. 9. Components of a wind energy system

Table 2.1. World wind power production

Region/Country Installed rated power in GW

China 342
USA 139
Germany 64
India 42

41
 Spain 29
UK 26
Brazil 19
France 18

2.5.3. Solar Energy

The source of solar power is the sun, this energy is converted into thermal or electrical energy.
Solar energy is one of the cleanest and most abundant renewable energy sources available.
Solar technologies can harness this energy for a variety of uses, including generating electricity,
providing light or a comfortable interior environment, and heating water for domestic,
commercial, or industrial use. The most popular renewable energy source across the world is
solar energy; it uses the sun’s energy to produce electricity via solar photovoltaic systems. The
technology for solar energy has undergone momentous evolution, and this is evident in
numerous systems installed over the last decade. Solar energy can be harnessed using the two
most commonly used technologies such as solar thermal plants and solar photovoltaic systems.

Solar Energy

Solar
Solar Thermal
Photovoltaic

Concentrating Solar Heating Off Grid

On Grid System Hybrid System
Solar Plants and Cooling System

Fig. 2. 10. Classification of different forms of solar energy

Concentrating solar power (CSP) plants use mirrors to concentrate the sun's energy to drive
traditional steam turbines or engines that create electricity. The thermal energy concentrated in
a CSP plant can be stored and used to produce electricity when needed, day or night. Some
CSP configurations are parabolic trough, compact linear Fresnel reflector, power tower, and
dish engine. Solar heating and cooling (SHC) technologies collect the thermal energy from the
sun and use this heat to provide hot water, space heating, cooling, and pool heating for

42
residential, commercial, and industrial applications. These technologies displace the need to
use electricity or natural gas.

The solar photovoltaic (PV) systems perform the function of directly converting solar energy
into electricity. For this purpose, the building block of a PV system is the PV cell. Together the
PV cells make the PV module, ranging from 50 to 450 W. PV module, along with other
components such as inverters, batteries, and mounting system, form a PV system. The PV
systems are used to provide power as low as a few watts to as high as tens of megawatts. The
most popular solar PV systems are silicon-based. The non-silicon semiconductor materials and
film module are gaining importance. The PV systems come with many advantages. First, it is
a very modular technology, it can use direct sunlight and can also diffuse components of
sunlight, i.e., the PV system can produce power even when the sky is not clear. The PV systems
are classified into off-grid, grid-connected and hybrid PV systems as shown in Fig. 2.11. The
off-grid system has proven beneficial in unelectrified areas of developing economies, they are
widely being used for village electrification. The grid-tied PV systems use an inverter for
converting electricity from direct current to alternating current, thereafter supplying the
electricity to the grid.

• Standalone Systems
OFF‐GRID • Non‐grid interactive systems
• Ideally require a full load battery power backup
• Grid tied or grid connected systems
• Comprises of voltage source converters and
ON‐GRID
power conditioning units
• Supplies the excess power to the utility grid
• Operate in coordination with multiple power
sources
HYBRID
• Comprises of power sources such as diesel
generators and batteries most commonly.

Fig. 2. 11. Different types of solar photovoltaic systems

2.5.4. Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy is the energy in the nucleus, or core, of an atom. Nuclear energy can be used to
create electricity, but it must first be released from the atom. “Thermal” power plants convert
heat into electricity using steam. Nuclear energy is viewed as an extremely important

43
component of energy security and economic development. Considering the current world
energy needs, it is an important pillar, with 6 GW of additional nuclear capacity connected to
the grid in 2020. New projects of around 4.8 GW were launched to ensure long-term operations
in the countries. The advantages of providing high power supply capacity and low fuel levels
requirement make it a popular source for meeting world energy demands. Along the lines of
renewable energy sources, nuclear energy too can be considered a major source for the
decarbonization of economies because it is based on low carbon technology. Research also
highlights a significant correlation between the use of nuclear energy and managing climate
change [13]. Despite the benefits of actually reducing global warming, nuclear energy comes
with its downsides, such as radioactive waste generation and safety concerns. However, with
nuclear waste management regularly controlled and monitored by the International Atomic
Energy Agency, the risks are somewhat under control in the current scenario [14]. At nuclear
plants, nuclear fission takes place which involves the splitting of atoms, and subsequent release
of heat. Repetition of this process results in a chain reaction. For fission to happen, uranium is
used as a material. The generated boils water and creates steam, the steam turns the turbines.
The spinning of turbines turns the generator and the magnetic field produces electricity.

Nuclear plants have a complex working mechanism. The plant consists of a containment
structure that holds the reactor. The plants have a deep pool for containing nuclear fuel when
not in use. Nuclear plants are designed to produce electricity from steam. This steam is utilized
in different ways, either with a Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) or Boiling Water Reactor
(BWR). The splitting of atoms also results in radioactivity. Radioactivity management is an
essential part of nuclear plant safety management.

2.5.5. Hydropower energy

Hydropower is the energy source derived from the energy of moving water. The energy is
captured and converted through the use of turbines. The most common form of hydropower is
through dams, although harnessing energy from waves and tides is gaining popularity. The
flow of water in rivers, driven by gravity to move from higher to lower elevations, is utilized
to generate hydropower. Hydropower plants are categorized into three types- Run-of-River
(ROR), storage reservoir, and pumped storage plants. A ROR plant mainly draws energy from
the flowing river [16]. The general profile of the plant varies according to the local river flow
conditions, and significant daily, monthly or seasonal variations may occur. The storage
hydropower plant differs from the former as it stores water for later consumption, reducing its

44
dependency on the inflow. Pumped storage plants are not energy sources, rather are storage
devices, where water is pumped from a lower reservoir to an upper one, usually during off-
peak hours and during the daily peak load period, the flow is reversed to generate electricity.
The pumped storage plant has the capability to provide large-scale energy storage system
benefits and is the largest capacity form of grid energy storage, widely used by various
countries. Hydropower energy is one of the best conversion renewable energy sources.
Electricity generation from hydropower has shown promising results. It accounted for around
17% of the total electricity generation globally between 2010 and 2016 [17]. With the rise in
electricity consumption, the absolute value of electricity from hydropower also increased.

2.5.6. Tidal and Wave Energy

Tides and waves are two examples of environmental phenomena occurring in the ocean. While
they share a connection to bodies of water, their capacity to produce energy differs in a number
of ways, including production, power, and dependability.

The term "tides" refers to the rise and fall in sea level brought on by the moon's and the sun's
gravitational pull on the planet. They may happen in other systems whenever a gravitational
field is present and are not only restricted to the seas. Additionally, while the majority of the
earth is subject to the sun's gravitational pull, this is less obvious in water. Given that it is far
closer to the earth than the sun, the moon itself has a more noticeable impact on the tides. A
diurnal or semi-diurnal tide, consisting of one or two high and low tides per day, is experienced
by shorelines. The two primary forms of tidal energy are 1) kinetic energy, which is derived
from the currents of changing tides, and 2) potential energy, which is derived from the
variations in height between high and low tides. One benefit of using tides as a source of energy
is that they are more dependable since they are dependent on the moon's gravitational pull and
can therefore be anticipated. However, the drawback of tidal energy is that it is not a continuous
source of energy, with energy provision of 6-12 hours at a time. This intermittent nature of
energy reduces its reliability to a large extent. The other disadvantage is that harnessing the
energy can disrupt the habitats of marine animals. Often, turbines used for energy generation
have been a cause of the loss of aquatic life. Having said this, the ability of tidal energy as a
source of electricity is a cleaner option than using fossil fuels.

The definition of wave energy, commonly referred to as ocean energy, is the energy obtained
from ocean waves. Waves are regarded to be the force that is traveling over the ocean's surface
as a result of the wind, which also causes surges of energy from these waves. Since there are

45
no land masses to withstand the force of the wind, they produce wind waves that are most
effective on ocean surfaces. These waves, which can be classified as capillary waves, ripples,
seas, or swells, are frequently visible on the ocean's surface but also freely occur on lakes,
rivers, and canals. The shape of the waves formed is determined by the changing patterns of
the speed and duration of the wind. The motion of the oceanic waves contains kinetic energy,
this is captured by the current wave technologies. The wave energy is harnessed using off-
shore and on-shore systems. Off-shore systems work in a way that they utilize either pumps or
hoes for collecting energy through rotating turbines. Whereas, onshore systems are built along
shorelines and harvest energy from the waves. Wave energy comes with the advantage of being
replenishable and sustainable. With the use of appropriate technology, the energy harnessed
can be made available to the nearby communities. However, the efficiency of wave energy
remains in question often. Thus, equipments should be built in a way that they withstand
corrosion from saltwater and other damages. Most technologies related to wave energy have
found to be cost-effective, however, it is not as cheap when compared with other energy
generating systems.

2.5.7. Hydrogen Energy

It is a known fact that the energy produced from carbon-containing sources will lead to
environmental pollution. On the alternate front, there are renewable energy sources, in
particular solar, wind, and tidal sources. However, the application of these sources is limited
by the duration and nature of natural phenomena. Therefore, a source that ensures an
uninterruptible energy supply is required. Metal-ion batteries, redox batteries, and hydrogen
cells have exhibited promising results. Fuel cells (FC) produce energy through the process of
oxidation of hydrogen-containing fuels by oxygen. Several researchers consider it a renewable
source because hydrogen utilized here is generated by biomass conversion or alcohol. The
benefit of FCs is that they are environmentally friendly and efficient. In order to reduce carbon
emission, the use of hydrogen supply to generate electricity, especially for remote and isolated
areas. In the current scenario, the global demand for hydrogen is around 115 million tons per
annum. This demand is for various purposes, such as ammonia production and oil refining.
Among these, the share of final energy consumption is around 3%. It is estimated that the global
demand may increase almost six times, to 700 million tons, by 2050. The share of hydrogen
for final energy consumption is predicted to reach 24% from the current levels [18]. This rise
in demand will primarily be in the transport sector and for electric generation.

46
2.6. Sustainability and Environmental Trade-Offs of Different Energy Systems

Energy, as we know, is used to provide energy services of various types which include
provision of electricity, heating, cooking, transportation and industrial purposes. The complete
cycle of energy is complex and includes obtaining energy from various sources which include
the renewable and non-renewable sources. Most certainly, energy services allow for a good
standard of living and promotes overall development.

The energy sector is witnessing multiple challenges on the economic, political, and
technological fronts. These challenges are due to widely increasing demands which can be
linked to the different dimensions of a sustainable energy system which include environmental
sustainability, security of energy supply, and economical sustainability. The debate between
the environment and the economy has been ongoing for a long time. Different stakeholders
have different viewpoints. Making the energy sector greener is a viable option for achieving a
win-win situation in terms of environment and economy. It is also a priority agenda for
governments across the world and has been achieved somewhat by the developed economies.
Balancing trade-offs is a key challenge when forming energy policies. The ‘common but
differentiated responsibilities’ principle was coined at the Earth summit in 1992 had been in
question for a long time, particularly by the developing economies. Thus, after much
deliberation, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change passed the ‘common
but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities’ that acknowledges the different
capabilities and different responsibilities of the countries to deal with climate. Turning towards
the greener option in the energy sector is a step in this direction. Despite this fact, several
countries are using energy in an unsustainable manner. Apart from the economic and
environmental challenges, there is a societal challenge involved in achieving energy
sustainability. A few of the challenges include societal inequities, over consumption of
resources, climate change and high prices of energy or limited energy affordability. There is a
lack of uniformity when it comes to the pricing of energy, the prices are skewed by taxes and
incentives. In addition, the standard of living, rising population and level of urbanization affect
energy sustainability to a large extent. Considering the ongoing development with limited
wealth, education and technology, this challenge is bigger for developing nations.

Thus, a larger emphasis needs to be placed on clean energy fuel considering the trade-offs
between environment, economic and social factors. There are several ‘co-benefits’ of clean
energy systems [19]. Clean energy will eventually limit the impacts of climate change, make

47
countries resilient to deal with man-made or human-induced disasters. A direct benefit would
be reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This in turn would help manage the adverse effects of
global warming. Well-planned energy efficiency programs can reduce energy use, promote
clean energy and cut consumers’ energy bills, translating into greater financial resilience to
future shocks. However, energy sustainability is not without its own challenges. In order to
strike a balance between environment and energy, the primary step is a comprehensive and
meaningful assessment of the environmental and ecological impacts. For this the overall life
cycle of the energy systems need to be considered, it starts with the harvesting and processing
of energy to its utilization to its ultimate disposal. Researchers use the concept of life-cycle
assessment to study various systems including energy processes.

Table 2. 2. Description of different sources of energy and corresponding fuel

2.7. Possibilities for Energy Storage and Regeneration

The growing use of renewable energy sources leads to a growing need for energy storage
facilities that store energy for later use. More and more sun and wind are becoming key sources
of energy. In mountainous regions, the most cost-effective method is to use water reservoirs as
batteries, other regions must find a different way. Hence, for effectively utilizing the generated

48
energy using various sources at specific requirement, storage and regeneration is of utmost
importance. Some of the systems incorporating energy storage are discussed as follows:

2.7.1. Pumped Storage Hydro Power Projects

In the present scenario, pumped-hydro storage (PHS) and battery storage can be considered as
the front-runners PHS. They are often termed as the oldest and most mature large-scale storage
technology, accounts for 96% of the installed global energy storage capacity. Data indicates
that around 169 GW of pumped storage capacity is installed worldwide. Among the various
countries, China is leading with 32.1 GW followed by Japan and USA at 28.5 GW and 24.2
GW, respectively. PHS is an advanced technology based on pumping water to an upstream
reservoir during off-peak or the times that there is redundant electricity produced by renewable
energy sources (RESs). This stored electricity is released through the hydro turbines when
required. The working of PHS plants is such that they use two interconnected reservoirs with
one at a higher elevation than the other. In times of surplus energy, water is pumped to the
upper reservoir and, in times of excess demand, water from the upper reservoir is released.
Thereafter, electricity is generated as the water passes through reversible Francis turbines on
its way to the lower reservoir. This whole process goes through a repetition with an overall
cycle efficiency of about 80%. In the case of fixed-speed pumped storage plants, power
regulation happens while the plant is generating electricity, on the other hand, with the state-
of-the-art variable speed technology, power regulation in specific ranges is possible while
generating and while pumping, providing additional flexibility to support the grid stability. The
technology of PHS is well suited for large-scale applications, allowing to cope with the
intermittency of RESs.

Scan this for more information

49
 Fig. 2. 12. Depiction of a pumped hydro storage plant

The benefits of PHS are shown in Fig. 2.13.

Fig. 2. 13. Benefits of pumped hydro storage system

2.7.2. Superconductor-Based Energy Storages

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) is another simple energy storage system
which makes use of the dual nature of electromagnetism. The mechanism of SMES is such that
the electric current creates a magnetic field followed by changes in the magnetic field which
then creates an electric field and voltage drop. The magnetic flux plays an important part as it
is a reservoir of energy. Superconducting wires do not deliver energy when conducting a
current, so a coil made with those materials maintains the current, and the magnetic flux can

50
be stored. The magnetic flux is a reservoir of electrical energy. The energy is stored/delivered
when a controller changes the current, increasing or reducing it, a voltage appears in the
terminal, which is regulated by the rate of change of the current, and can be adjusted by the
regulator delivering or catching energy to or from the external circuits. Typical power
generation ranges from 100 kW to 10 MW with an efficiency of 95%. Some of the main
applications of SMES are voltage control and reactive power compensation, improve transient
stability of the grid, and uninterruptable power supply (UPS).

SMES offers several advantages when compared to other technologies, namely:

 High round trip efficiency: 90-95%.

 Long lifetime: 30 years
 High power, only limited by electronics and electrical isolation.
 Ready to operate: in a few ms.
 Very robust: can be overloaded as much as the electronics allows.
 Very flexible for hybridization: can be included in an electronic buffer with any other
large capacity energy storage system improving their availability speed and their peak
power.
 Symbiosis: SMES can take advantage of external resources such as cooling in industrial
polygons, hospitals, liquid nitrogen carriers, etc. It allows for reducing the cooling and
HTS wire investment cost and enhancing its efficiency.
 Environmentally friendly: specific geometries drastically reduce the stray field bellow
any determined level. SMES does not use materials complex for recycling.
 No critical raw materials which are not dispersed and can be recovered after 30 years
of service.

2.7.3. High-Efficiency Batteries

Batteries are frequently used as energy storage. Batteries must be kept in a state that allows for
longer-term storage since they provide their own set of difficulties. The batteries often drain
since they self-discharge and might become inactive after a prolonged time of storage. High
humidity is another element that contributes to battery degeneration. There are three main
battery kinds that may be used by consumers. They are lithium ion, nickel metal hydride, and
alkaline. Each has distinct advantages and disadvantages. Zinc serves as the negative electrode
and manganese dioxide serves as the positive electrode in an alkaline battery. The battery
discharges, consuming both chemicals. Alkaline batteries are, therefore, disposable, single-use

51
batteries. They cannot be securely recharged after being discharged. On a per-unit basis,
alkaline batteries are the least expensive. They deliver dependable performance from beginning
to end. In other words, when an alkaline battery is totally depleted, there is a noticeable
decrease in power. The recycling of alkaline batteries is a never-ending task.

The cost of NiMH batteries is higher than that of alkaline batteries. Before it runs out, a
standard battery may be charged roughly 500 times. The performance of these batteries
diminishes with discharge, and with time, there is a noticeable loss of power, which is another
drawback. Additionally, NiMH batteries require far longer charging times than conventional
batteries.

Li-ion batteries, lithium-ion batteries are the most recent of the three primary types of batteries.
These batteries are rechargeable in nature and are used in portable gadgets. Li-ion batteries are
most frequently seen in mobile phone batteries. Although Li-ion batteries are the most costly
of the three, their main benefit is that they often pay for themselves relatively rapidly. The
number of recharges for a decent Li-ion battery is twice as many as for a NiMH battery. The
continuous power output of lithium-ion batteries is another benefit. Performance is unaffected
while the battery drains. The typical recharge time for lithium-ion batteries is between one and
three hours. The added benefit of Li-ion batteries is that they are 30% lighter than alkaline and
NiMH batteries, making them ideal for portability.

Although they are not actually a new kind of battery, smart batteries are worth highlighting.
The internal circuit boards of smart batteries have chips that enable them to interact with the
laptop and track battery life, output voltage, and temperature. Due to their higher efficiency,
smart batteries often operate 15% longer and provide a computer with far more precise "fuel
gauge" capabilities for calculating how much battery life is available before the next recharge
is necessary.

SUMMARY

In this unit, the general idea about the different fossil fuel-based technologies and renewable
energy for sustainable power generation is discussed. The data related to these sources is also
provided in this unit. The environmental impacts and sustainability in terms of power
generation are also described in brief. Further, the role of renewable energy-based technologies
in climate change and related issues is also discussed. The possible utilizations of various
energy storage systems are also described to bridge the gap when renewable power generation
is not available to fulfil the demands.

52
Short and Long Answer Type Questions

Q1. Describe in brief fossil fuels. What are the advantages and disadvantages of fossil fuels?

Q2. Enlist the various renewable energy sources and give their advantages and disadvantages.

Q3. Describe in detail any four conventional energy sources.

Q4. Discuss in detail the significance of nuclear energy in the present scenario and also give
its environmental impact.

Q5. Discuss the functioning of the pumped hydro storage plant.

Q6. What are different renewable energy sources? What is the present status of the
development of these resources in India? Present their advantages and disadvantages.

Q7. Why do we consider biomass as the source of energy, especially in developing countries
like India?

Q8. Write in brief about biomass resource development.

Q10. What is the potential of biogas development in India?

Q11. Why do we call hydrogen as a secondary source of energy?

Q12. What are the various basic issues in the introduction of hydrogen as an energy source?

Q13. Discuss the potential available of wave energy in India and the world.

Q14. How are the ocean waves produced?

Q15. How the wind energy potential is assessed at a site according to its wind characteristics?

Q16. Write a short note on wind energy development in India and in various leading countries
in the world.

Q17. Discuss the past and future trends in energy supply.

Q18. Discuss the role of new energy sources in the context of present-day energy crisis.

Q19. How does wind energy be converted into electrical energy?

Q20. Discuss the future prospects of solar energy use.

Q21.Explain the term co-benefits in terms of energy usage.

53
 Q22. Discuss sustainability and environmental trade-offs of different energy systems.

Q23. Discuss different types of batteries and their relative merits and demerits.

Q24. What is superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)? List several advantages
offered by SMES when compared to other technologies.

Q25. What are smart batteries? Discuss their advantages.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

[1] Generation Capacity of India at a Glance, Ministry of Power, Government of India.

https://powermin.gov.in/en/content/power-sector-glance-all-india
[2] IEA, “Coal-Fired Power”, IEA, Paris, 2021. https://www.iea.org/reports/coal-fired-power
[3] IEA, “Phasing Out Unabated Coal: Current Status and Three Case Studies,” IEA, Paris, 2021.
https://www.iea.org/reports/phasing-out-unabated-coal-current-status-and-three-case-studies
[4] IEA, “Methane Emissions from Oil and Gas,” IEA, Paris, 2021. https://www.iea.org/reports/methane-
emissions-from-oil-and-gas
[5] A. K. Jain, and R. Ram, “Shale Gas in India: Challenges and Prospects” NITI Aayog
[6] Ministry of Coal, “National Coal Gasification Mission,” Ministry of Coal, Governent of India, 2021.
https://coal.gov.in/sites/default/files/ncgm/ncgm21-09-21.pdf
[7] R. Curley, “Energy: Past, Present and Future- Fossil Fuels,” Britannica Educational Publishing, 2012.
[8] R. Curley, “Energy: Past, Present and Future- Renewable and Alternative Energy,” Britannica
Educational Publishing, 2012.
[9] P. Moriarty and D. Honnery, “What is the global potential for renewable energy?,” Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 16, no. 1. 2012. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.151.
[10] O. Eseosa and A. E. Ejiroro, “Challenges and Way Forward of Renewables in Developing Energy
Economy: Today and Tomorrow,” International Journal of Recent Engineering Science, vol. 7, no. 4,
2020, doi: 10.14445/23497157/ijres-v7i4p103.
[11] R. A. Rather et al., “Bioenergy: a foundation to environmental sustainability in a changing global
climate scenario,” Journal of King Saud University - Science, vol. 34, no. 1, 2022, doi:
10.1016/j.jksus.2021.101734.
[12] P. Duarah, D. Haldar, A. K. Patel, C. di Dong, R. R. Singhania, and M. K. Purkait, “A review on global
perspectives of sustainable development in bioenergy generation,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 348.
2022. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2022.126791.
[13] International Energy Agency, “Renewables 2020 – Analysis - IEA,” Iea, 2020.
[14] D. S. Siqueira, J. de Almeida Meystre, M. Q. Hilário, D. H. D. Rocha, G. J. Menon, and R. J. da Silva,
“Current perspectives on nuclear energy as a global climate change mitigation option,” Mitigation and
Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, vol. 24, no. 5, 2019, doi: 10.1007/s11027-018-9829-5.
[15] R. Prăvălie and G. Bandoc, “Nuclear energy: Between global electricity demand, worldwide
decarbonisation imperativeness, and planetary environmental implications,” Journal of Environmental
Management, vol. 209. 2018. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.12.043.

54
[16] A. Kuriqi, A. N. Pinheiro, A. Sordo-Ward, M. D. Bejarano, and L. Garrote, “Ecological impacts of run-
of-river hydropower plants—Current status and future prospects on the brink of energy transition,”
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 142. 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2021.110833.
[17] M. Bilgili, H. Bilirgen, A. Ozbek, F. Ekinci, and T. Demirdelen, “The role of hydropower installations
for sustainable energy development in Turkey and the world,” Renewable Energy, vol. 126. 2018. doi:
10.1016/j.renene.2018.03.089.
[18] S. P. Filippov and A. B. Yaroslavtsev, “Hydrogen energy: development prospects and materials,”
Russian Chemical Reviews, vol. 90, no. 6, 2021, doi: 10.1070/rcr5014.
[19] B. K. Sovacool, “Cobenefits and Trade-Offs of Green and Clean Energy: Evidence from the Academic
Literature and Asian Case Studies,” ADB Economics Working Paper Series, No. 502, 2016.

*****************

55
 3 Energy and Environment
UNIT SPECIFICS

In this unit, the following topics have been discussed for basic understanding related to energy
and the environment.

 Energy efficiency and conservation

 Clean energy technologies
 Carbon footprint
 Economics of energy
 Influence of the use of energy on the environment, economy, and trade

Here, in this unit the main focus is on energy and its impact on the environment, economy and
trade. Growth in the economy resulting in trade expansion and have a direct impact on the
environment also. These days the entire focus globally is on the replacement of fossil fuels.
Power generation and automobiles have been the major source of carbon emissions. Here in
this unit, carbon footprint, clean energy technologies, and linkages between the economy and
environment with energy are discussed.

RATIONALE

This unit introduces the concepts of the impacts of the use of energy on the environment, trade,
and economy. Energy conservation and efficiency mean a reduction in energy consumption but
without making any sacrifice in the quality or quantity of production. Therefore, energy
conservation, directly or indirectly, is related to the environment, trade, and economy. Energy
efficiency, on the other hand, involves using technology that requires less energy to perform
the same function. This unit also discusses how future energy use can be influenced by the
economy, environment, trade, and research policy.

PRE-REQUISITES

Basic Knowledge of Environmental Science and Energy

UNIT OUTCOMES

56
List of outcomes of this unit is as follows

U3-O1: To understand the basic concept of energy efficiency and energy conservation.

U3-O2: Basic idea about the importance of clean energy in sustainable development.

U3-O3: An awareness about carbon footprint and clean energy technologies.

U3-O4: To understand the relationship among energy, environment, trade and economy.

U3-O5: A brief idea about research policy on future energy use.

Unit EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6
U3-O1 3 1 3 1 - 3
U3-O2 1 1 3 - - 3
U3-O3 1 1 3 - - 2
U3-O4 1 1 3 - - 2
U3-O5 1 1 3 - - 2

3.1.1. Environment and its Quality

"Environmental Quality" refers to a group of environmental traits that have an impact on people
and other living things, whether they are general or specific. It is a gauge of how well an
environment meets the needs of one or more species, as well as any human need or goal.
Environmental factors, including air, water purity or pollution, noise, and the possible
implications these features could have on both mental and physical well-being are considered
together with the constructed environment. Whenever we talk about environmental quality, we
do not mean the surrounding ecosystems; we also mean the quality of our entire surroundings.
The health of the environment (including the plants and animals it sustains) and the impact it
has on the physical and emotional well-being of its inhabitants are measured by environmental
quality. We can all agree that people's daily environments have an obvious impact on their
health, and environmental issues are readily apparent. However, the main challenge is coming
up with socially and politically acceptable remedies. We all have a duty to develop solutions
to deforestation, pollution, and global warming since environmental issues are caused by social
institutions, social conduct, and cultural ideas.

57
3.1.2. Energy and Environment

The twentieth century saw the emergence of public and scientific knowledge that human
activity had negative consequences on the natural environment, including human health and
welfare. During this time, industrialization advanced even more quickly than population
expansion. These repercussions included increased pollution of air, water, and land by
industrial wastes, irreversible loss of native biodiversity due to changes in the estuarine and
coastal environment. Infrared-absorbing particles, mostly CO2 but also nitrous oxide and
methane, are more concerning global pollutants that are inexorably building up in the
atmosphere and threatening to upset the earth's thermal radiation equilibrium with the sun and
space. The majority of scientists now hold the view that this disequilibrium will result in an
increase in the average atmospheric surface temperature, which is likely to have unfavorable
climatic effects [1]. The continued emission of CO2 into the atmosphere poses a problem that
can only be managed on a global scale because it is formed ineluctably in the combustion of
fossil fuels, which generate the majority of the current and anticipated future energy use.
Carbon dioxide is also known to accumulate in the atmosphere for centuries.

Governments around the world took steps to reduce the rate of these emissions by requiring
technological advancements to pollutant sources because the extent of environmental harm
increased in direct proportion to the rate of emission of air and water pollutants, which
themselves reflected the rising level of industrial activity. As a result, even while energy and
material consumption were rising, ambient air and water pollution levels were progressively
declining in the most advanced industrialized countries by the century's conclusion. However,
alarming evidence of the cumulative impacts of industrial waste disposal, including the
acidification of forest soils, the pollution of marine sediments with urban waste sludge, and the
poisoning of aquifers with drainage from hazardous waste dumps, became apparent.

Fossil, nuclear, and hydroelectric fuels are the main energy sources for modern societies.
Biomass, wind, geothermal, solar thermal, and photovoltaic energy all make up a minor
fraction of the world's current energy output. Fossil fuels, like other mineral reserves, are not
evenly distributed around the world; rather, they are concentrated on the borders of continents
that historically produced a lot of biomasses. Before they can be used for energy generation,
they must be found, removed, and often treated. At present levels of consumption, existing and
anticipated deposits would seem to endure for a few decades.

58
3.1.3. Air Pollution, Stack emissions

Due to the modernization of national businesses, virtually all metropolitan areas in the
industrialized world suffered phases of air pollution that were hazardous to human health.
Today, this sort of deterioration has expanded to developing nations' metropolitan centers. The
combustion of fossil fuels both within and outside of metropolitan areas is the main cause of
urban air pollution. The extent of this pollution can reach rural areas some distance from the
pollutant sources in large quantities, such that contaminated zones of continental size can even
include places where there is no local energy consumption. Although urban smog is severe, it
is hypothetically possible to bring it down to safe levels by restricting the emission of the
chemical species that damage the atmosphere. The main pollutants make up a relatively tiny
percentage of the materials treated, and they may be reduced even more, but at a cost. In
developed nations, the expense of reducing urban air pollution represents a very small portion
of a country's overall economic output.

The global environment senses an unchecked increase in greenhouse gases, those contaminants
that are thought to cause the average surface air temperature to rise and climate change. This
is happening while industrialized countries struggle with urban and regional air pollution, with
some success, and developing nations lose ground to the intensifying levels of harmful urban
air contamination. Contrary to urban pollutants, which are often removed from the environment
by precipitation a few days after they are released, greenhouse gases remain in the atmosphere
for decades or even centuries [2]. Carbon dioxide, which is emitted when fossil fuels are burnt,
is the most prevalent greenhouse gas. It will be extremely challenging to minimize global
carbon dioxide emissions while still giving adequate energy to the world's nations for the
development of their economies. This is because it is impossible to use all of the energy that
fossil fuels have to offer without producing carbon dioxide. Although technology is being
developed or is already available that would allow for significant reductions in global carbon
dioxide emissions, the cost of implementing such control programs will be far higher than that
of reducing urban air pollution.

3.1.4. Cooling tower impacts, Aquatic impacts

Research has shown that the entire energy consumption of process chains is mostly driven by
economic activities involving water. In the context of sustainable manufacturing, it is critical
to focus on such processes. The so-called water-energy nexus is a term used to explain this
reciprocal relationship between water and energy in an industrial setting. Cooling towers (CT)

59
are an integral part of a technical building. These towers are thermodynamically open systems
used to moderate the temperature and humidity of the regional environment. These have warm
water which is cooled down at ambient air, by transferring heat and evaporated water to the
environment. Climate conditions are predicted to have a substantial influence on CT since they
are technological equipment that are in close touch with the environment [3]. The essential
components of an industrial CT are depicted in the following Fig. 3.1.

Fig. 3. 1. Elements of industrial cooling towers

A cooling tower is a piece of equipment that uses heat that is extracted from water leaving a
condenser and released into the atmosphere to lower the temperature of a water stream.
Evaporation is used in cooling towers, where a portion of the water is evaporated into flowing
air and then released into the atmosphere. There are different types of cooling systems and
towers. They are shown in Fig. 3.2.

60
 Types of Cooling
Systems and
Towers

Open or Once
Closed System Mixed System
through system

Water Cooling Air Cooling

Cooling Ponds Cooling Towers Direct Dry Indirect Air

Natural Draft Mechanical Draft

Fig. 3. 2. Different types of cooling systems

3.2. Energy Efficiency and Conservation

Energy conservation (EC) and energy efficiency (EE) are related concepts and frequently
overlapping or complementary approaches to minimizing or avoiding energy usage. Energy
conversion, consumption, and building material technical performance are all covered under
the umbrella term "energy efficiency." Reducing the usage of energy by the consumer is a
common component of energy conservation. Installing energy-efficient lighting, for instance,
falls under the EE category, but shutting off lights when not in use—either manually or
automatically using timers or motion sensor switches—is under the EC category. Table 3.1
presents the difference between energy conservation and efficiency.

61
Table 3.1. Differences between energy conservation and energy efficiency

Energy Conservation Energy Efficiency

Energy usage is reduced. Energy usage is done efficiently and is
further minimized if implemented properly.
It brings about a behavioral change to save This process automates the system and uses
energy. less energy to carry out a similar task.
The pre-existing appliances and/ or materials An additional component is required, along
are used in an economical way. with pre-existing or new appliances.
Turning off electrical appliances, using Replacing lighting load with LEDs to reduce
natural light, etc. the consumption of energy.

3.2.1. Motivation for energy conservation

Energy conservation helps in

 Lowering electricity bills

 Improves the rate of return on electrical appliances
 Improves the environment
 Reduces pollution and other greenhouse gases emissions
 Protects the environment
 Promotes alternative low carbon emission sources

3.2.2. Principles of Energy Conservation

The law of conservation of energy states that “Energy can neither be created nor destroyed
but can only be converted from one form to another”. According to the law of conservation
of energy, the total energy of an isolated system remains conserved over time.

3.2.3. Energy Conservation in Planning

The energy conservation planning is done in six steps given in Fig. 3.3.

62
 •Step 1: The amount of energy utilized everyday for
Energy Baselining operations.

•Step 2: Calculate savings from the energy

Savings Calculations conservation measures this will help guide the steps
required for implementation

•Step 3: Start by considering the business's energy

Equipment Selection efficiency goals and focus on areas that need an
upgrade

•Step 4: Time to design, install and verify that the

Design, Construction And energy conservation measures have been installed
Verification as designed

•Step 5: Performance is monitored on an ongoing

Implement Operations, basis, routine maintenance is conducted and facility
Maintenance And Monitoring staff is trained on how the equipment operates

•Step 6: A measurement and verification plan is

Measurement And essential for ensuring that the projected energy
Verification savings are realized

Fig. 3. 3. Energy conservation planning

3.2.4. Energy Conservation in day-to-day life

 Adjust your day-to-day behaviors to turn off devices and appliances when not in use.
Purchase devices and appliances which consume less energy.
 Adapt smart power strips: These smart power strips will help to cut down on phantom-
load costs and save energy.
 Designing a building to use maximum daylight.
 Perform regular home energy audits.
 Refrigerators are one of the main appliances that consume power. Keep the setting of
the refrigerator low to save energy.
 Install LED bulbs to save energy. Regular incandescent and CFL bulbs consume more
energy than LEDs.
 Proper insulation of the rooms or premises to enhance cooling and fixing air leaks.
 Clean or replace air filters as recommended. Cleaning or replacing air filters in air
conditioners improves efficiency and consumes less energy.

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  Operate washing machines in a full load to get the most energy-saving use from each
run cycle.
 Using a laptop instead of a desktop computer can save considerable energy.
 Install water-saver showerheads to help with conserving hot water and save power.
 Use a slow cooker, toaster oven, or microwave oven over a conventional oven. Also,
use utensils made of ceramic and glass.
 Cycling is the best way to save fuel.
 Walking instead of driving also saves energy.
 Skip the dryer on breezy day and dry clothes on the clothesline.

3.3. Introduction to clean energy technologies and their importance in sustainable

development

Clean energy is defined as energy generated using renewable, non-polluting, zero-emission

resources and includes energy which is conserved through energy-saving practices. Clean
energy and green or renewable energy sources have some overlap, but they are not the same
thing entirely. It is important to grasp what it really implies in order to recognize the difference.

The power produced from resources that are continuously renewed is known as renewable
energy. Unlike fossil energy and gas, these renewable energy sources, which include wind and
solar energy, won't run out. Despite the fact that most green forms of energy are renewable, not
all green energy comes from renewable sources. For instance, hydropower is a renewable
resource, yet some might suggest that it’s not environmentally friendly due to the deforestation
and industrialization associated with the construction of hydro dams. Green energy and
renewable energy, including solar and wind energy, combine to provide the ideal clean energy
combination.

The different types of energy and their associativity with different sources can be seen as
follows:

 Clean energy is equivalent to clean air

 Green energy is equivalent to natural sources
 Renewable energy is equivalent to recyclable sources

The advantages of clean energy as a component of the future world's energy are its most
significant feature. Clean, renewable resources not only protect the planet's mineral resources
but also lessen the likelihood of ecological catastrophes like fuel spills or the issues brought on

64
by natural gas leaks. It is feasible to generate dependable power supplies to improve energy
security, ensuring there is enough to fulfill our demands, through diverse power plants
employing different energy sources and fuel diversity.

Feed in tariffs, early

Past Early Stimulus

production
obligations, tax
benefits

Present Economic
Competitveness
Centralized network,
consumer bargain

Integrating High CO2 reduction,

Future Clean Energy

Levels
flexible clean energy,
demand
management, storage

Fig. 3. 4. Evolution of clean energy policy and markets

In recent decades, clean energy technology has grown very quickly. Although there has been
substantial progress, many want to see it accelerate in order to meet the many issues facing the
world today, such as national defense, alleviating poverty, environmental destruction, dealing
with climate change, and wealth creation. The adoption of wind and solar technologies was
ramped up by early clean energy regulations, including feed-in tariffs, rebate/incentive
programs, and renewable energy mandates [4]. Early deployment that was successfully allowed
for cost savings and more technological advancement. Policymakers were encouraged to raise
clean energy goals as a result, and they are currently developing market reforms to include
significant amounts of wind and solar energy into the power grid. The transportation or heating
and cooling sectors, however, have not benefited as much from early stimulus initiatives as
they could have, and more aggressive follow-up policies and market planning have not yet
followed. A lot of power plants are being forced to retire early as a result of competition from
cheap sustainable energy. In order to balance renewable energy supplies that are getting farther
away from energy consumption, markets run by centralized network operators are expanding
as a result of the more decentralized structure of the energy supply. Conventional capital-
intensive energy balancing areas are being replaced by this. Low-cost renewable energy
technologies are also boosting energy customers' bargaining power as they organize and
encourage fresh investment through direct contracts with clean energy suppliers.

65
Fig. 3. 5. Sustainable development goals linked with clean energy technologies

(For more details, please scan )

In order to handle the dynamic nature of a high-clean energy system, clean energy enabling
methods and resources will be crucial in the future. In order to handle the unpredictable supply
caused by high wind and solar penetration, this includes obtaining more flexibility for the
energy system through generation resources, demand, and storage. By consolidating and
enlarging the boundaries of the power market, early levels of wind and solar fluctuation are

66
being controlled. Another very inexpensive source of adaptability for the penetration of
renewable energy is to rely on the scalability of current conventional and clean energy facilities.
Storage solutions and better demand-side technology will be required as renewable energy
usage increases. For technology researchers, these domains provide intriguing opportunities to
facilitate and quicken the move toward the future. The sustainable development goals
associated with clean energy and the environment are given in Fig. 3.5.

3.4. Carbon Footprint

It is the sum of greenhouse gas emissions and removals in a product system, expressed as CO2
equivalents and based on a life cycle assessment using the single impact category of climate
change. The concept of carbon footprint can be traced back to 1996 when it was under the
subset of “ecological footprint” [5]. The usage of carbon footprint eventually spread
organically, albeit in a slightly different form, as the subject of global warming gained
importance on the international environmental agenda. The idea of a carbon footprint has been
around for a while, but it is often referred to as the possibility for life cycle impact categories
to indicate global warming. As a result, the current version of the carbon footprint may be seen
as a hybrid, taking its name from the phrase "ecological footprint" and theoretically serving as
a possible indication of global warming. Despite the current nexus around it, there aren't many
studies that measure carbon footprint in terms of world hectares.

The choice between direct and embedded emissions is not consistently applied. Direct
emissions are those produced immediately as a process moves forward. An industrial boiler
that burns gasoline produces direct emissions, such as the CO2 that is produced during
combustion. On the other hand, no direct emissions will be seen in a boiler that is heated by
electricity. The quantity of CO2 emitted during the production and transmission of the units of
energy used in the boiler, however, is known as the embodied or secondary emission if it came
from a thermal power station where the boiler's electricity was produced. Since it becomes
difficult to account for all potential emissions, most studies simply provide direct or first order
indirect emissions.

3.4.1. Calculation of Carbon footprint

Some countries have created their own carbon footprints accounting guidelines, such as the
Department of food and rural affair (DEFRA) and Carbon trust in the UK, Environment
Protection Agency (EPA) in the US. The USA also has California Climate Registry and World
Wildlife Fund Climate Servers. These bodies themselves have formulated their own

67
methodologies based on the guidelines provided by World Resource Institute (WRI) and
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

Table 3.2. Global warming potential of some GHGs (please scan for more details )

GHG Global warming potential

CO2 1
CH4 25
N2 O 298

The process for calculating carbon footprints is based on life cycle assessment (LCA)
methodology and life cycle thinking. The amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs) created
throughout the course of a product's life cycle is referred to as its "carbon footprint." Using
100-year global warming potentials, greenhouse gas emissions are translated into carbon
dioxide equivalents. All of the greenhouse gas emissions stated by the IPCC are accounted for
in the carbon footprint scenario estimates in this document.

The quantity of GHGs released, withdrawn, or embodied over the life cycle of the product must
be calculated and summed in order to calculate carbon footprint. The term "life cycle" refers to
the entire process of creating a product, from the procurement of raw materials through final
packaging, distribution, consumption, and usage to the last steps of disposal. Cradle-to-grave
analyses are another name for life cycle analysis. With regard to the production of air
pollutants, water use and wastewater generation, energy consumption, GHG emissions, or any
other comparable parameter of interest and cost-benefit measures, life cycle assessment (LCA)
generates a full picture of inputs and outputs. This analysis is frequently referred to as an
environmental LCA. Key steps for estimating carbon footprint are presented in Fig. 3.6.

68
 Collection of
Select GHGs
•Top Down •Embodied GHGs Data
Approach emissions
•Type of carbon •Real time
•Bottom Up footprinting •Onsite emissions measurements
Approach •Indirect emissions
•Activity for which •Estimation models
assessment is done
Life Cycle Setting
Assesment Boundries

Fig. 3. 6. Stages of performing carbon foot printing

3.4.2. Importance of Carbon foot printing

A company's energy and raw material consumption inefficiency or inadequacies can be found
via a carbon footprint analysis. This information is crucial for a company to guarantee that
knowledgeable decisions can be taken to overcome such adversities in light of rising electricity
prices and expected shortages of water and other natural resources. Carbon foot printing does
not need to be resource-expensive since it leverages information that has already been gathered
by a company, such as energy bills and trip expenditure claims. However, improving a
business's access to this crucial demographic is more than just a checkbox exercise. As was
already said, it aids a company in finding methods to save costs and risks.

Promotes awareness for

environment

Reduce reliance on fossil fuels

Promotes low carbon emiting

sources

Estimates impact of GHGs

Saves money for businesses

Fig. 3. 7. Benefits from carbon foot printing

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Some examples of reducing carbon footprint are listed below:

 In general, single-family homes utilize more electricity per inhabitant than multifamily
housing, including apartment complexes. However, there are measures you can
undertake to lower the quantity of energy your residence uses and so lessen your carbon
impact, regardless of where you reside.
 A smart thermostat dynamically adapts the temperature in your house according to the
time of day. Your carbon footprint decreases when your apartment's energy system is
operating well because it wastes less energy.
 Appliances with the Energy Star label are more energy efficient. To save energy,
money, and the environment when buying new appliances like a fridge, gas cooker,
toaster, or air conditioning system, seek for the Energy Star label.
 Composting benefits the environment by preventing food and yard waste from entering
landfills and by promoting organic gardening techniques. Your carbon impact is lower
if you compost at home.
 If you often consume organic food, you have a reduced carbon footprint because raising
natural foods is less stressful on the planet.
 Cars that receive regular maintenance use less energy. Make sure the air filter is
changed frequently and that the tires are constantly filled appropriately.
 Recycling is good for the environment because it keeps excess waste out of landfills
and trash incinerators. If you recycle on a regular basis, your carbon footprint is smaller.

3.5. Introduction to the economics of energy

The study of how people use energy resources and commodities, as well as the effects of such
use, is known as energy economics. Energy is the ability to perform labor, such as lifting,
accelerating, or heating material, in the language of physical science. According to economic
language, "energy" refers to any goods and resources that include a considerable quantity of
physical energy and may be used to accomplish work. Energy services for human activities
like lighting, space heating, water heating, cooking, motive power, and electronic activity can
be provided by energy commodities like gasoline, diesel fuel, natural gas, propane, coal, or
electricity. Energy commodities can be produced by harvesting energy resources such as crude
oil, natural gas, coal, biomass, hydro, uranium, wind, sunshine, or geothermal deposits.

Energy economics examines the factors that motivate economic actors—firms, people, and
government agencies, providing energy resources, transform those resources into various

70
forms of usable energy, transfer those resources to consumers, use those energy sources, and
dispose of the waste products. It examines how these activities are impacted by various market
and regulatory arrangements, as well as their effects on economic inequality and the
environment. It examines issues that lead away from economic efficiency in the provision and
use of energy commodities and resources.

3.5.1. Cost analysis of production and consumption

The overall expense paid by a company to create a particular amount of a good or provide a
service is referred to as the cost of production. Costs associated with production may include
labor, raw materials, or consumable supplies. The costs paid to acquire the components of
production—such as labor, land, and capital—necessary for a product's manufacture are
referred to as the cost of production in economics. The costs linked to various electricity
production strategies can be broken down into three broad categories: 1) wholesale expenses,
or all expenses incurred by utilities in the purchase and distribution of electricity to customer;
2) retail costs incurred by purchasers; and 3) external costs, or externalities imposed on society.

Table 3.3 define some of the cost metrics that are readily used.

Table 3.3. Cost metrics associated with electricity production and consumption

Name Description
Levelized Cost of Minimum constant price at which electricity must be sold in
Electricity (LCOE) order to break even over the lifetime of the project
Levelized Cost of Storage Analogous to LCOE, but applied to energy storage
(LCOS) technologies such as batteries
Levelized Avoided Cost This metric considers some of the shortcoming of LCOE as it
of Electricity (LACE) takes into account the dispatchability of a resource as well as
the existing energy mix in a region
Value Adjusted Levelized This metric is introduced by International Energy Agency, and
cost of Electricity includes both the cost of the electricity and the value to the
(VALCOE) electricity system
Cost Factors
Capital Cost Minimum for gas and oil power stations, moderate for PV and
wind turbines and high for coal based thermal plants

71
 Fuel Costs High for fossil fuels, low for nuclear power and negligible for
renewable sources
Operations and O&M costs include marginal costs of fuel, maintenance,
Maintenance Cost operation, waste storage, and decommissioning for an
electricity generation facility.

The major finding of the research continues to be the growing competitiveness of low-carbon
technologies for energy generation. This is true for flexible low-carbon producers like
hydropower and nuclear energy in addition to intermittent renewable sources like wind and
solar PV. Coal that has not been treated has lost its competitiveness, even at a low carbon cost
of USD 30 per tonne of CO2 [6]. Due to the extremely low gas costs, gas-fired power generation
is still competitive in several regions, particularly OECD North America. To be competitive,
CCUS would need carbon prices that are far higher than those seen in the majority of markets
now.

Some of the key terms associated with the economics of energy are explained in Fig. 3.8.

Fig. 3. 8. Key term associated with energy economics

72
3.5.2. Linkages Between Economic and Environmental Outcomes

The distribution and use of environmental resources are taken into account in the context of
their financial cost and benefit. Economics is used to examine supply and demand, gains and
losses, and the equilibrium of environmental resources. Numerous environmental ideas have
emerged as a result of the incorporation of economic theories. Input-output models,
environmental cost analysis, environmental policy, environmental pricing, environmental
budgeting, environmental fiscal analysis, and environmental resource planning are a few of
these. Natural resource scarcity is a major issue for emerging nations. In the setting of finite
natural resources, economists can provide environmental analysis guidance to satisfy desires
to the greatest extent possible. Environmentalists can use economics to help them determine
how to maximize benefits or minimize losses. Pollution issues can be described using economic
language.

Fig. 3. 9. Economy Environment Linkages

Economic issues have environmental causes, while environmental concerns have economic
causes. There are environmental solutions for economic issues as well as economical solutions
for environmental issues. The same holds true for economic theories, which are necessary for
both environment theories and economic theories. This association between economy and
environment is given in Fig. 3.9. Water pollution and air pollution are mostly caused by home
and industrial waste. Land contamination is caused when contaminated water is absorbed by
the land. This can be resolved through economics. According to economics, public goods,
including air, land, water, rivers, and oceans, transmit pollution. Controlling these

73
contaminated public commodities is necessary. Economics demonstrates a number of ways and
means to address environmental issues through input-output analysis, cost-benefit analysis,
pollution taxes, and environmental subsidies. The majority of environmental issues are caused
by people, and economics offers solutions. The overuse of natural resources should be avoided.
We should establish some fundamental guidelines for the usage of natural resources.

The Empirical Kuznet Curve (EKC) illustrates the empirical trend that, at relatively low
average income per capita values, pollution level (and intensity) rises initially with growing
income, reaches a maximum, and then declines. It is shown in Fig. 3.10. As a result, the EKC
demonstrates that there is an inverse U-shaped link between pollution and economic
development.

Fig. 3. 10. The Empirical Kuznet Curve [7]

Particularly in emerging nations with a rapidly expanding population and widespread poverty,
the clash between economic progress and the environment is more acute. The emerging nations
are attempting to strike a compromise between their desire for rapid economic expansion and
environmental concerns related to maintaining their natural resources. Environmental
degradation is a result of the adoption of a development plan focused on industrialization,
energy-intensive technologies, and biochemically based agriculture technology. The idea of
"sustainable development" has been proposed in light of the connections between the natural
environment and development. Today's sustainable development aspires to enhance human
well-being on a broad scale, encompassing economic prosperity, social fairness, and
environmental conservation. Additionally, it mentions cultural, social, political, and economic
factors.

74
3.5.3. Impacts on Energy Use by Economic, Trade, and Research Policy

Energy consumption and economic trade are related, although the intensity of the relationship
varies among locations and economic development phases. The relationship between economic
trade and energy consumption is significantly influenced by the level of economic development
and the standard of living of the population in a particular area. Advanced economies with high
living standards require a lot of energy per person, yet they also frequently have constant or
gradual changes in per capita energy usage. Modern appliances and motorized personal
transportation devices are widely used in industrialized nations. When money is spent on
energy-intensive products, it frequently entails replacing the outdated capital stock with new
equipment. Due to the fluctuation in global GDP growth, some nations consistently lead their
respective regions in that regard. The patterns and impact of these nations, especially China,
India, Brazil, and South Africa, will be crucial in determining not only the electricity, financial,
and environmental issues mitigation trends of the developing world, but also those of the
remainder of the world. These nations' massive energy infrastructure investment requirements
over the coming decades will open up a rare window of opportunity for the development of
green, low-carbon energy. They will also still have to contend with the difficulties of
maintaining economic development and eradicating poverty.

In addition to making a significant number of locations available for frequently contentious

renewable power facilities and yearly training a large number of energy staff at all levels, the
route to environmental stewardship will require nearly US$2 trillion in investment, primarily
from the private sector. Generally speaking, innovation-supporting government institutions are
unprepared to handle this task. Large, risk-averse firms with vested interests in maintaining
their cozy status quo and history of underinvesting in innovation are likewise dominant in the
energy industry. Current studies to support climate-friendly development have their attention
focused on the growing significance of investment flows to encourage technology. The private
sector, whether through company R&D, venture capital or asset finance agreements, or money
obtained in public markets, accounts for the bulk of global investment and technological
dissemination. Accordingly, studies evaluating technology transfer and dissemination in
developing nations have found that trade openness is an essential condition for effective
transfer. Given the significance of the R&D effort for creating new low-emission technologies
and the observed decline in activity, it is likely that the government will continue to play a role
in this field. Governments have a three-fold role that goes beyond energy research and
development. First, they support knowledge creation in general (through education,

75
international science and technology cooperation, and information exchange); second, they
support basic and applied energy technology R&D through direct public R&D expenditures;
third, they create and maintain the right incentives for private sector R&D. Finally, they support
market deployment incentives and compensation.

Summary:

In this unit, a relationship between energy, environment, trade, and economy and the impacts
of the use of energy on these three important components, environment, trade, and economy,
are discussed. The importance of energy efficiency and energy conservation are also explained.
Carbon emissions are the major source of pollution in the environment. Carbon foot printing
and clean energy technologies are also discussed in length. The significance of the R&D effort
for creating new low-emission technologies and the role of the government to support R&D,
venture capital or asset finance agreements, or money obtained in public markets, which
accounts for the bulk of global investment and technological dissemination are also discussed
in this unit.

Short and Long Answer Type Questions:

1. What is the necessity to limit carbon emissions to environment?

2. Name the various stack emissions.
3. Explain Empirical Kuznet Curve (EKC).
4. What are particulates? What are their harmful effects?
5. Name the various cooling tower impacts. What are the harmful effects of cooling tower
emissions?
6. Name some energy conservation measures in industries.
7. How can energy conservation be done in agriculture?
8. Discuss some energy conservation measures for household and commercial sectors.
9. How do CO2 emissions affect environment?
10. How does energy supply affect international relations?
11. What is the greenhouse effect?
12. What are the various environmental problems associated with energy supply and use?
13. What are the various efforts which countries must undertake for sustainable energy
development?
14. Write a note on linkages between economic and environmental Outcomes
15. What is economics of energy? Explain cost analysis of production and consumption

76
References and suggested readings:

1. A. R. Hoffman, “Water, Energy and Environment – A Primer,” IWA Publishing,

London, 2019.
2. J. A. Fay, D. S. Golomb, “Energy and The Environment,” Oxford University Press,
New York, 2002.
3. C. Schulz, B. Raabe, C. Herrmann, S. Thiede, “Environmental Impacts of Cooling
Tower Operations-The Influence of Regional Conditions on Energy and Water
emands,” Life Cycle Engineering Conference, vol. 69, pp. 277-282, 2018.
4. S. Dahlke, J. Sterling, C. Meehan, “Policy and market drivers for advancing clean
energy,” Advances in Clean Energy Technologies, Academic Press, Elsevier, pp. 451-
485, 2021.
5. M. Wackernagel, W.E. Rees, “Our ecological footprint: Reducing human impact on the
earth, Gabriola Island,” New Society Publishers, 1996.
6. IEA, “Projected Costs of Generating Electricity,” 2020, IEA, Paris
https://www.iea.org/reports/projected-costs-of-generating-electricity-2020
7. G.M. Grossman, A.B. Krueger, “Economic Growth and the Environment”, Quarterly
Journal of Economics, vol. 110, pp. 353-377, 1996.
*************************

77
 4 Civil Engineering Projects
Connected with Energy Sources

UNIT SPECIFICS

In this unit, the following topics have been discussed related to civil engineering projects
connected with energy sources:

 Technologies used to develop infrastructure to build power plants

 Coal Mining Technologies
 Oil Exploration Offshore Platforms
 Underground and under-sea oil pipelines
 Solar Chimney Project
 Coastal Installations for tidal power plants
 Wind towers
 Civil infrastructure for building hydropower plants

RATIONALE

This unit introduces the infrastructure and related civil work required to build different types
of power plants. The use of technologies has made it easy, efficient, and convenient for workers
to develop energy infrastructure underground, under the sea, and over the sea. Different
technologies used in coal mining, oil exploration, offshore platforms, under–ground and
undersea oil pipe lines have been discussed and presented here.

PRE-REQUISITES

Basic knowledge of energy related projects & infrastructure used

UNIT OUTCOMES

List of outcomes of this unit is as follows

U4-O1: To know about the infrastructure & technologies used in the supply of different energy
sources.

78
U4-O2: To know about the coal mining technologies and construction of a solar chimney.

U4-O3: To be familiar with oil exploration technologies.

U4-O4: To know about windmill towers and related infrastructure.

U4-O5: To understand the civil work required in building a hydro power plant.

Unit EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6
U4-O1 1 1 2 3 - -
U4-O2 1 1 1 3 - -
U4-O3 - 1 1 3 - -
U4-O4 - 1 1 3 - -
U4-O5 - 1 2 3 - -

4.0 Coal Mining Technologies

Introduction
Coal is the most accessible fuel in India. Coal-fired power stations fulfill 60% of India's
electricity needs. After China, India is the world's second–largest producer of coal. Coal is
derived from organic compounds such as wood. When vast parts of the forest are hidden in
deep sedimentary rocks, the wood burns and decomposes as a result of hot air from the ground
and pressure from the outside environment. The process produces coal but takes generations to
accomplish. Based on its carbon content, coal is categorized as lignite or brown coal,
bituminous coal or black coal, anthracite, and peat. Each category of coal has a unique
collection of physical properties that are primarily influenced by humidity, high volatility
content, and carbon content. Anthracite is the finest quality coal, with the maximum calorie
content and a carbon content ranging from 80 to 95%. It has a slow blue flame and is found in
relatively small amounts in the regions of Jammu and Kashmir. Bituminous coal has a low
water content, 60 to 80% carbon content, and an increased caloric content. Bituminous reserves
can be found in Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh. Lignite
contains 40 to 55% carbon and is usually brown in color with a high-water content, producing
fumes when combusted. Lignite deposits can be found in Rajasthan, Assam, and Tamil Nadu.
Peat is the initial stage of the wood-to-coal conversion process, with low-calorie content and
less than 40% carbon content.

79
4.1 Coal Mining Technologies
Mining activities and related activities provide a significant amount of energy. As earlier as the
12th century AD, humans extracted coal by choosing and scraping and utilized it for warming,
preparing food, rituals, and ceremonies. Coal was first employed commercially in traditional
crafts in the 14th century. Surface reserves have been mined on a small level for a long time.
In the early 1800s, coal was mined in America, and commercial mining began around 1730 in
Midlothian, Virginia. Coal mining in India began in 1774 in coal mines in Bengal. Jharia,
Raniganj, Singareni, Talcher, Neyveli, Singrauli, Nagpur, and Chandrapur are the major coal
domains in India. Jharia coal field (JCF) is India's foremost storage facility of prime coking
coal, feeding a large portion of our industrial production. JCF is primarily a producer of
bituminous coal. The JCF currently has about 35 large underground and opencast mines.
In the 1880s, coal-cutting machines were created. Prior to this discovery, coal was extracted
from the ground using a pick and shovel. Surface mining was done with steam shovels intended
for coal mining by 1912.
Coal mining has evolved significantly over the years, from men digging a tunnel, and
individually retrieving coal on carts to large open–cut and long–wall mines.
Surface mining and underground mining are the two main types of coal seam mining. The
classification of coal mining methods is displayed in Fig. 4.1.

4.1.1 Classification of coal mining methods:

Fig. 4.1 Categorization of coal mining methods

80
Surface Mining Method:
Surface mining is responsible for 40 percent of the world's coal supply. When the coal seam is
close to the surface and the depth is less than 50 meters, this method is used. As a result of the
fact that all coal seams are mined. This method can recover a greater percentage of the coal
deposit than underground mining. In fact, this method can recover at least 90 percent of the
coal.
Explosives are first used to break up the overburden of soil and rock, and then either draglines
or shovels and trucks are used to remove it from the site. After the coal seam has been
uncovered, it is drilled, fractured, and then mined in strips using a systematic approach. Large
trucks or conveyors are utilized to load the coal for transfer to either the coal preparation facility
or directly to the location where it will be used.
Huge opencast mines may cover an area that is several square kilometers and employ extremely
giant pieces of equipment, such as draglines, power shovels, large trucks, bucket–wheel
excavators, and conveyor systems. The various steps involved in the coal mining process are
shown in Fig. 4.2.

Fig. 4.2. Layout for coal mining processes

(a) Strip Mining:
Open–cut mining is another name for strip mining. It is often used in coal and mineral mines
that are close to the surface and not very deep. It uses very big machines like draglines, shovels,

81
and dump trucks to move soil, dig up coal or other minerals, and move them to a place where
they can be processed. This type of large-scale mining works best with thick horizontal coal
seams that are not too far below the surface. In strip mining, the resource or ore is taken out by
digging, drilling, and/or blowing it up. Often, there is an "overburden" or waste rock that must
be removed before the real resource can be mined. The ratio of overburden to coal can be as
low as 1:12 up to a depth of 50 feet or as high as 1:15 when the overburden is about 90 feet
deep. If the overburden is only a few feet thick and the conditions are right, bulldozers can be
used to strip the land. Open-cut coal mines are cleaned up in stages over the course of their life.
Rehabilitation is a requirement of both the mining lease and the approval for development. It
is often done in the USA.
(b) Slice Mining: Slicing is commonly applied to that method of mining in which the ore is
extracted by a series of timbered slices, beginning at the capping; the slice is caved, bringing
down the capping to the floor of the slice; the succeeding lower slices are mined up to the
overlying mat or gob, consisting of an accumulation of timber from the upper slices and broken
capping, which follows the mining progressively downward. The timbers are blasted out,
bringing the capping down to the floor, succeeding slices being driven alongside those already
caved.
(c) Horizon Mining: It is a way to mine coal that has more than one level. Level roads are
driven into the rock to open the coal seams. This method can be useful in places where there
are a lot of rocks and a lot of coal seams are known to be. This method is used in places where
there has been a lot of damage and the coal seams have been folded and faulted. It is often done
in Germany, France, and Belgium.
Deep Underground Mining: Underground mining is used to get 60% of all the coal in
the world. Most mines use the Bord and Pillar method, the long wall method, or the short wall
method. In the Bord and Pillar method of coal seam mining, a series of narrow headings are
driven into the seams in a line. These headings are linked by cross-headings to make pillars
that can be taken out in whole or in part later. The pillars should be square, but sometimes they
are rectangular or rhombus-shaped, and the galleries around the pillars are always square. The
method works best on flat coal seams that are only 1.8 to 3 m thick and are close to the surface.
4.1.2 New Technologies used for Coal Mining
With so many new advancements in technology in mining companies, it is no surprising fact
that this sector is expected to keep expanding and enhancing its mechanisms. Many current
mining technologies are anticipated to have an ongoing impact on the sector in the coming
years, including:

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  Automation
 Artificial intelligence
 3D modeling
 GIS.
 Drones.
 Virtual reality.
In relation to all these active mining alternatives, there are numerous developments that will
frame the mining industry's future.
Digitalization and Big Data
To improve its efficiency, the mining sector will continue to use data. Industries will be able
to analyze data using automated techniques to make the most educated decisions about the
process of production, schedule activities, mine situations, and inventory management, to name
a few. Greater insight leads to better analytics, safety, and operational efficiency.
Sustainability and Waste Prevention
Sustainable development is one tendency that is intended to have a significant impact on
mining methods in the future. Waste recycling and fuel efficiency are crucial aspects of the
sustainability movement.
Future mining machines and techniques that are used optimally can significantly reduce the
amount of water and emission levels. Furthermore, mining companies will work to minimize
their environmental footprint in sensitive or environmentally challenging areas.
Internet of Things
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a collection of physical items such as hardware, sensors, and
data sources. All networking devices that are integrated can communicate with one another,
exchange data, and act in concert. They facilitate low-cost network establishment in the mining
industry while collecting actual information from mining machines and equipment. Industries
can use this information to aid judgment, perform integrated control and planning, and consider
different operational units. The application of IoT technology in the coal mining process is
illustrated in Fig.4.3.

4.2 Oil exploration offshore platforms

An oil platform, also called an offshore platform, is a huge building with equipment to obtain
oil and natural gas from the foundation of rocks under the sea floor and process them. The
personnel has their rooms on the premises of separate platforms. The platform is attached to
the main platform by means of a bridge. Many oil platforms operate on the inland shelf, but

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they can be operated in ponds, close to shore waters, and inland oceans. The platform may be
set on the ocean floor in some circumstances. Also, there are places for storing refined oil in
many cases. Flow lines and umbilical connections can also be used to link subsea wells that

Fig. 4.3. IoT application in coal mining

away from a platform. These subsea solutions can include one or more subsea wells or one or
more manifold centers for multiple wells.

Both the hydrocarbons that are made and the materials that are used during offshore drilling
are bad for the environment. The ongoing US offshore drilling debate is one example of a
conflict.
Types of offshore platforms
1) Fixed platforms
The legs of these platforms are made of concrete, steel, or both. They are anchored directly to
the seabed and hold up the deck, which has space for drilling rigs, production facilities, and
living quarters for the crew. Because these platforms cannot move, they are made for very long-
term use (for instance the Hibernia platform). Structures like steel jackets, concrete caissons,
floating steel, and even floating concrete are used. Steel jackets are made of tubular steel
members and are usually piled into the seabed.
2) Compliant towers
These platforms are made up of thin, flexible towers and a pile foundation that holds up a
standard deck for drilling and production. These are made to withstand large sideways

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movements and pressure exerted on them. They are generally employed in water depths
between 370 and 910 meters.
3) Semi-submersible platform
Semi-submersible platforms have casings that are light enough to float but heavy enough to
keep the structure standing straight. Semi-submersible platforms can be moved from one place
to another, and their weight can be changed by changing how much water is in their buoyancy
tanks. During drilling and/or production, they are usually kept in place with a combination of
chain, wire rope, polyester rope, or both. They can also be kept in place with dynamic
positioning. Semi-submersibles can go into the water as deep as 60 to 6,000 meters (200 to
20,000 ft).
4) Jack-up drilling rigs
Jack-up Mobile Drilling Units, also called "jack-ups," are rigs that can be lifted above the water
using legs that can be lowered like jacks. Most of the time, these Mobile Offshore Drilling
Units are employed in water up to the depth of 120 m, but few models can dive to depths of
170 meters. They must move from one position to another before anchoring themselves by
placing their legs on the ocean floor and using a rack and pinion gear system on each leg.
5) Drillships
A drillship is a ship that is linked with equipment to be drilled. It is typically used to locate
new oil or gas wells in water depths. It is usually employed for technical purposes. Traditional
forms of such drillships were built with a modified tanker hull that had been changed, but today
they are made from scratch. Most drill–ships have a dynamic positioning system that helps
them stay in place over the well. They can drill up to 3,700 m down into the water.
6) Floating production systems
FPSOs are the most common types of floating production systems. FPSOs are large structures
with a single hull that are usually shaped like ships and have processing facilities. These
platforms stay in one place for long periods of time and do not drill for oil or gas. These systems
are utilized for storing purpose and requires few components. This is one of the best places to
get production that floats.
7) Tension-leg platform
TLPs are floating platforms that are tethered to the seabed in a way that keeps the structure
from moving up and down. TLPs are used in water that is about 2,000 meters deep or less. The
"normal" TLP is made up of four columns and looks like a semi–submersible. The Sea star and
MOSES mini TLPs are proprietary versions. They are relatively cheap and are used in water

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depths between 180 and 1,300 meters. Mini TLPs can also be used as platforms for utilities,
satellites, or early production for larger discoveries in deep water.
8) Spar platforms
Spars are moored to the seabed like TLPs, but where a TLP has vertical tension tethers, a spar
has more traditional mooring lines. Spars have been made in three different ways so far: the
"conventional" one-piece cylindrical hull, the "truss spar," in which the middle section is made
up of truss elements connecting the upper buoyant hull (called a hard tank) with the bottom
soft tank containing permanent ballast, and the "cell spar," which is made up of multiple
vertical cylinders. The spar is more stable than a TLP because it has a large counterweight at
the bottom and does not rely on the mooring to keep it standing. It can also move horizontally
and place itself over wells far from the main platform by adjusting the tension of the mooring
lines using chain-jacks attached to the mooring lines.

(for more information about oil exploration offshore platforms, please scan
4.3 Underground and under sea oil pipe lines
4.3.1 How are subsea gas pipelines built
Sea can go several kilometres deep. Putting a pipe down at the bottom is hard. On the bottom
of the North Sea, however, there are 6,000 kilometers of pipelines, some of which have been
there for 40 years. Solitaire is the biggest ship in the world. It is 300 meters long and 40 meters
wide. The Nord Stream gas pipeline is being built with the help of this ship. The working of
oil pipe lines under the sea is portrayed in Fig. 4.4.

Fig. 4.4 structure of under–sea oil pipe–lines

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4.3.2 Searching for obstacles
Subsea gas pipelines are responsible for 45 percent of the natural gas that is sent to Europe.
Before putting the gas pipeline down, the seabed is carefully surveyed along the whole route.
Specialists must find all possible problems, such as sunk ships, ammunition, or just big rocks.
These problems are either taken care of or worked around. At this point, experts also figure out
where the pipelines should be buried or covered up. All pipes that will be used in future gas
pipelines have to go through a special process. On the inside, they have a coating that prevents
friction, which makes them easier for gas to move through. Pipes are covered on the outside
with a coating that prevents corrosion and then with a coating that makes the pipe sink.

1) Floating houses

Pipes are laid on the seabed by ships that are made for that purpose. Pipelaying vessels are big,
floating platforms that can hold a lot of people at once. Most of the time, pipe laying involves
more than one ship. Special barges keep sending pipes to a ship that is laying pipes. A ship that
is watching the seabed comes before the pipe-laying ship. The pipes are unloaded directly onto
the deck of the ship that is laying the pipes. They should have enough pipes for a 12-hour shift.

2) How pipes are laid

A special conveyor is built into the pipelaying vessel, which is also where the pipes are welded.
Then, each weld is checked for flaws using ultrasonic waves. After welding, an anticorrosion
coating is put on all the joints. Over the conveyor, welded pipes are moving towards the back.
Here is Stinger, a special boom that is at an angle in the water and over which the pipes are
slowly lowered to the seabed. It says how much the top part of the gas pipeline needs to bend,
which keeps the metal from getting bent out of shape. Pipes usually rest on the seabed because
they are heavy enough to do so. They do not need to be fixed because, after the concrete coating
is added, each pipe weighs several tonnes. Pipes are laid in special trenches and backfilled with
the ground only in some locations, e.g., at landfalls, to ensure the stability of the pipe.

3) From sea to shore

Most of the time, putting in a subsea gas pipeline does not start on land, as you might think,
but in the water. A gas pipeline can be made up of several sections that are built from different
ships at different times and then joined together. For different parts of a gas pipeline to be able
to handle different pressures, pipes with different wall thicknesses are used.

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When the work on the subsea section is done, pipes are slowly brought to shore with the help
of a special winch that is set up on solid ground and connected to the pipe with steel ropes. The
pipeline is then tied in with the part of it that is on land.

The gas pipeline must be tested for water leaks. To do this, the pipeline is filled with water
under the right amount of pressure and left for a while to look for any problems. After the gas
pipeline is put into service, its condition is also carefully watched. In this process, special
electronic tools are used to check the pipes from the inside.

4.4 Solar chimney and sustainable architecture

A solar chimney, also known as a thermal chimney, is a way to enhance air circulation in
structures by convection of air warmed by sun's electricity. A solar chimney is simply a
longitudinal shaft that utilizes the sun's rays to improve natural stack air circulation through a
tower. The solar chimney has been utilized for centuries, most notably by the Persians in Asia,
and by the Romans in Europe.

In its most basic form, the solar chimney is a black-painted chimney. Sunlight heats up the
chimney and the air inside it throughout the day, causing an airstream of air in the chimney.
The vacuum generated at the base of the chimney can be utilized to oxygenate and cool the
structure below. In most regions of the world, harnessing wind energy for air circulation, such
as with a windcatcher, is simpler, but on warm low wind times, a solar chimney can provide
airflow where there would otherwise be none.

There are, however, several types of solar chimneys. A solar chimney's basic design
components are as follows:

The solar collector area: This can be situated at the top of the chimney or throughout the
shaft. This element's alignment, ceramic coating type, insulation, and thermal characteristics
are critical for harnessing, preserving, and leveraging solar heat gain.

The main ventilation shaft: This building's location, length, cross–sectional area, and thermal
characteristics are also critical.

The inlet and outlet air apertures: The dimension, placement as well as aerodynamic
prospects of such components are crucial.

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Solar chimneys, also known as heat chimneys or heat stacks, can be employed in architectural
settings to reduce the amount of energy consumed by mechanical systems. Air–conditioning
systems and mechanical ventilation have been the classic method of climate control in several
types of buildings, particularly offices, in developed countries for years. Polluted air and the
redistribution of power generation have led to a fresh environmental method for building
design. Technological innovations are usually coupled with bio–climatic fundamentals and
common design methodologies to develop new and possibly effective conceptual designs. The
solar chimney is one of these ideas that researchers and developers are actively researching,
primarily through experiments and research. The process of heat exchange in a solar chimney
is shown in Fig. 4.5.

Fig. 4.5 Schematic of the solar chimney

A solar chimney can be used for a wide range of uses. Direct sunlight warms the gases within
the chimney, causing it to ascend and draw air in from the bottom. This air drawing can be
utilized to oxygenate a house or office, to draw air through a geothermal heat exchange, or to
vent only one area, such as a composting toilet.

Fresh air can be achieved by installing vents in a building's upper level that let hot air circulate
by convective heat transfer and fleeing to the outside world. In the meantime, time, cold air
can be pulled in through a lower-level ventilation system. Plants on that portion of the structure
could be cultivated to provide shadows for the cooler outside air.

A solar chimney can help to supplement the naturally ventilated procedure. The chimney must
be significantly high than the upper levels and built on a side facing the direction of the sun's
rays. Heat absorption from solar radiation can be enhanced by placing a coated surface on the

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sun-facing side. On the opposite side, a heat-absorbing substance can be utilized. The diameter
of the chimney is less essential than the dimensions of the heat-absorbing surface. A large area
of the surface enables more effective energy transfer with the air, which is required for solar
radiation heating. The heat from within the chimney will increase convection and, thus, air
circulation through the chimney.

(for more information about a solar chimney, please scan ):

4.5 Wave Energy Caisson

The wave energy caisson is made up of a bottom box that measures 23.2m x 17m x 3m high
and supports a 12m high Compartment with a curtain wall in the front and guide walls on both
sides to allow waves to enter. A dual cubic curve concrete drone 10m x 7.75m at the bottom,
lessening to a 2.0 m diameter circle at the top and 3m high, supports the power module. The
caisson top is +5.00m above the still water level.

4.5.1 Design Parameters

1) Operating condition:

The structure is predicted to produce a peak power of 150 kW at a wave height of 1.52 m and
a design wave period of 10 seconds.

2) Design extreme conditions:

The structure non-breaking and breaking wave heights were approximated to be 7.0 m. with a
period of 10 s predicated on wave data collected off the coast of Trivandrum.

4.5.2 Estimation of wave forces

It is difficult to estimate wave forces on large rectangular or square caissons. Unlike in the case
of cylindrical cylinders, the incident wave orientation has a substantial impact on the forces.
Because the OWC caisson has an opening on one side, estimating wave forces becomes
difficult due to the complex fluid flow and wave oscillations inside.

All recognized processes for estimating non-breaking wave force were tried, and the proposed
method by Isaacson was finally utilized. The maximum wave force equals 14000 kN.
Eventually, the framework was created to withstand 15000 kN of force.

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The front lip wall is an important component of the caisson. As per Minikin, the average total
dynamic pressure at SWL due to a breaking wave amplitude of 7m is 1.18 MPa, and the lip has
been planned for this. The overall breaking wave force is approximately 30000 kN. Extensive
metrics from an experimental framework and large model research in the research lab are
required for future models to evaluate breaking wave forces.

4.5.3 Scour Protection

Scour Protection modeling at the Ocean Engineering Centre demonstrates that scour is a linear
function of current velocity, with the greatest scour occurring at points 45 degrees to the
direction of flow. The combination of waves on current causes a 20% to 62% rise in scour
depth. The currents were discovered to be extremely low at the caisson place.

4.6 Coastal Installations for Tidal Power

By employing a variety of techniques, tidal power or tidal energy is converted into usable types
of power.

Tidal energy can provide power in the future even if it is not now regularly utilized. Compared
to the wind and the sun, tides are easier to forecast. Tidal energy is one of the renewable energy
sources that has historically been bound in accessibility resulting in high cost and lack of places
with high enough tidal amplitude or flow velocities. Nevertheless, numerous latest
developments and enhancements, both in architecture (such as dynamic tidal power and tidal
lagoons) and turbine engineering (such as new axial turbines and cross-flow turbines), suggest
that the total availability of tidal power may be much higher than previously supposed and that
financial and environmental expenses may be reduced to comparable levels.

In history, tidal mills were employed on the Atlantic coast of North America and in Europe.
When the tide runs out, it rotates waterwheels that employ mechanical energy to grind grain.
The incoming water was held in enormous holding ponds. The oldest examples can be found
in medieval literature or even in Roman literature. In the 19th century, electricity was first
produced in the United States and Europe using falling water and rotating turbines.

Tide mills have traditionally been used on both the European and North American Atlantic
coasts. The onrushing water was held in large capacity pools of water, and as the tide went out,
it turned waterwheels that milled grain using mechanical energy. The oldest happenings can be
traced back to the medieval period or even to the Roman era. In the nineteenth century, falling
water and twisting wind turbine were used to generate energy in the United States and Europe.

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In 2018 and 2019, maritime technologies are expected to provide an additional 13% and 16%
of the world's electricity, respectively. To further reduce costs and advance on a wide scale,
R&D-promoting policies are required. France's Ranke Tidal Power Station, which started
operating in 1966, was the first significant tidal power facility in the world. Up until Sihwa
Lake Tidal Power Station in South Korea opened in August 2011, it was the greatest tidal
power station in terms of output. Sea wall defense obstacles with ten turbines producing 254
MW are used at the Sihwa station.

Oceanic tides on Earth are used to generate tidal energy. The periodic fluctuations in the
gravitational attraction that celestial bodies exert lead to tidal forces. In response, the oceans of
the planet experience comparable movements or currents. As the Earth spins, this causes
regular fluctuations in sea levels. Due to the predictable rhythm of the Earth's rotation and the
Moon's orbit around the Earth, these changes occur with a high degree of regularity and
predictability. This motion's size and variability are caused by the shifting relationships
between the Moon and Sun and the Earth, the impacts of the planet's rotation, and the regional
topography of the seabed and coasts.

The energy inherent in the orbital parameters of the Earth-Moon system, and to a lesser amount
in the Earth-Sun system, is exclusively used by tidal power as a source of energy. Solar, wind,
biofuel, wave, and other natural energies that are used in human technology all derive directly
or indirectly from the sun, as do fossil fuels and traditional hydroelectric power. While
geothermal energy makes use of the Earth's interior heat, which is a combination of leftover
heat from planetary accretion (approximately 20%) and heat created via radioactive decay
(80%), nuclear energy uses the Earth's mineral resources of fissionable components.

Electricity is produced using a tidal generator by converting the energy of tides. The potential
of a location for tidal energy generation can be greatly increased by more tidal variation and
higher tidal current velocities.

Tidal power is regarded as a renewable energy source since it is almost limitless and is
ultimately caused by gravitational interaction with the Moon, Sun, and Earth's rotation. The
Earth-Moon system loses mechanical energy as a result of tidal movement because of the
pumping of water over physical barriers along coasts and the subsequent viscous dissipation at
the bottom and in turbulence. In the 4.5 billion years since the Earth's creation, this energy loss
has led to a slowing of the planet's rotation. The Earth's period of rotation (the length of a day)
has risen from 21.9 hours to 24 hours over the past 620 million years; during this time, the

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Earth-Moon system has lost 17% of its rotational energy. Despite tidal power will consume
more energy from the system, the impact will be insignificant and will not be evident soon.

(for more information about tidal power, please scan ):

4.7 Wind towers

The windmill is a device that utilizes sails or blades called vanes to convert wind energy into
rotational energy in order to grind grain (gristmills), while the name is also used to refer to
wind pumps, wind turbines, and other applications. Such machines are commonly regarded as
wind engines.

The horizontal or panemone windmill initially arose in Greater Iran in the ninth century, while
the vertical windmill was first presented in northwest Europe in the 12th century. Windmills
were utilized throughout the high medieval and early modern periods. Nowadays in the
Netherlands, there are about 1,000 windmills, which are acknowledged as symbols of Dutch
culture.

4.7.1 Horizontal windmills

The earliest practicable windmills were panemone windmills, which used sails that revolved in
a horizontal plane around a vertical axis. Such windmills were employed to crush grain or draw
up water. They were constructed of six to twelve sails wrapped with reed matting or textile
material. Based on the caliph's talk with a Persian slave builder, a medieval story claims that
windmill technology was employed in the Arab region under the rule of Umar ibn al-Khattab.
The fact that the story about the caliph Umar was only documented in the tenth century casts
doubt on its veracity. During the ninth century, the Persian geographer Estakhri wrote that
windmills were employed in Khorasan. Similar windmills were widely used in the Middle East
and Central Asia before being exported from those regions to Europe, China, and India. The
vertical-axle windmill began to spread to Southern Europe by the 11th century, covering the
Iberian Peninsula and the Aegean Sea. Following Yelü Chucai's visit to Turkestan in 1219, a
horizontal windmill with rectangular blades of a similar design that was used for agricultural
purposes was also discovered in the thirteenth–century in China. The layout of a horizontal
windmill is shown in Fig. 4.6.

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In Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries, vertical-axle windmills were erected in modest
numbers, such as Fowler's Mill in Battersea, London, and Hooper's Mill in Margate, Kent. The
above first recent systems do not appear to have been independently created by 18th-century
engineers, but rather to have been directly influenced by the vertical-axle windmills of the
medieval era.

In Europe during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, vertical-axle wind turbines were
constructed in tiny groups, such as Fowler's Mill in Battersea, London. Such early medieval
case studies appear to have been independently invented by 18th-century engineers rather than
being certainly impacted by the medieval vertical-axle windmills.

Fig. 4.6. Layout of the horizontal windmill

4.7.2 Vertical windmills

The vertical windmill is a 12th-century invention that was initially utilized in the triangle
formed by northern France, eastern England, and Flanders. Its name comes from the plane on
which its sails rotate. It is unknown if the horizontal windmill's introduction to Southern Europe
in the century before had any bearing on the development of the vertical windmill.

In Yorkshire's historic village of Weedley, which was perched on the southernmost point of
the Wold and overlooked the Humber Estuary, the oldest known mention of a windmill
(assumed to be of the vertical variety) dates to 1185. There have also been a variety of early,
less precisely documented 12th-century European references that mention windmills. Cereals
were crushed at these first mills. The layout of vertical windmills is shown in Fig. 4.7.

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(for more information about windmill towers, please scan ):

Fig. 4.7. Layout of the vertical windmill

4.8 Underground and aboveground hydro power stations
4.8.1 Underground hydro power stations
An underground power station is a form of hydroelectric power station that is built by digging
the main parts from a rock as opposed to the more usual surface-based building techniques
(such as the machine hall, penstocks, and tailrace).

The decision to build a power station underground is influenced by one or more considerations.
A surface power plant may not be feasible in gorges or steep valleys, and thus, the topography
or geology surrounding a dam is properly considered. It could be cheaper expensive to build a
power plant underground than on loose soil at the surface. A surface station is frequently
impossible in valleys that are vulnerable to avalanches. Large hydroelectric power plants were
more frequently buried after World War II to shield them from bombings. One of the
underground hydro power stations is shown in Fig. 4. 8.

Some notable underground power stations are:

One example of an underground pumped storage plant is Kazunogawa Power Station in Japan
which generates 1,200 MW of electricity. It is made up of four 400 MW power plants. The
underground station's chamber is 500 m below ground. It measures 210 m elongated, 54 m in
height, and 34 m in width. The height of the head is 714 m.

The second largest underground power station is in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. It
has 11 turbines that generate 5,428 MW. The powerhouse is 232 m long, 148 45 m tall, 19 m

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wide, and 330 m underground. The length of the two tailrace tunnels is 1691.64 m. The net
head measures 312.42 m.

Fig. 4.8. Underground hydro power station

4.8.2 Aboveground hydro power station

Electricity produced from hydropower is known as hydroelectricity or hydroelectric power

(water power). Nearly 4500 TWh of electricity will be generated by hydropower in 2020, which
will be greater than nuclear power and all other sources of renewable energy included. This
represents one–sixth of the world's electricity production.

One of the most important components of developing safe and reliable electrical supply
systems is hydropower, which can deliver significant volumes of low-carbon electricity on
demand. Since the quantity of energy generated may be raised or decreased in response to
changing electricity demand, a hydroelectric power plant with a dam and reservoir qualifies as
a flexible source. Once built, a hydroelectric complex does not generate any trash directly and
nearly always generates less greenhouse gas than electricity facilities that use fossil fuels.
However, significant volumes of greenhouse gases may be released if buildings are built in
lowland rainforest regions where part of the forest is submerged.

The loss of agricultural land and population displacement are the two main environmental
effects of the construction of a hydropower complex. Furthermore, they disrupt the river's
natural ecology by exacerbating silting and sedimentation styles, as well as changing
ecosystems and biodiversity. While dams can decrease stormwater runoff, they also pose the
possibility of a major collapse. The biggest power-generating facility of any sort in the world
is the Three Gorges Dam in Central China. One of the aboveground hydro power stations is
shown in Fig. 4.9.

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(for more information about hydroelectric power plants, please scan ):

Fig. 4.9. Aboveground hydro power station

4.9 Dams, Tunnels and Penstocks

4.9.1 Dams

A dam is a natural wall that halts or inhibits the movement of groundwater. Dams create storage
tanks that can be used for a variety of purposes, which would include flood protection,
agriculture, public consumption, manufacturing use, fish farming, and navigation. Dams and
hydroelectric power are regularly used in conjunction to make power. A dam can collect or
store water that can be evenly distributed between regions. While some other frameworks, such
as dikes, are utilized to regulate or prevent river flow into geographical regions. Dams are
frequently employed to store water. The world's oldest dam is the Jordanian Jawa Dam, which
goes back to 3,000 BC. The term dam may be found in the names of numerous historic cities,
including Amsterdam and Rotterdam, and can be traced back to Middle English and Middle
Dutch earlier.

Kinds of dams

Dams can be formed by individual interaction, natural occurrences, or by the participation of

animals. Typically, human-made dams can be categorized based on their height, intended use,
or structural design.

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Dams are categorized as conveniently constructed without materials, arch-gravity,
embankment, or masonry dams, with various subtypes, depending on the construction and
material utilized.

4.9.2 Tunnels
A tunnel is a corridor that has been carved through the soil, rock, or other surrounding material.
It is enclosed, save for the entrance and exit, which are often located at either end. Even while
some modern tunnels were built using immersed tube construction techniques rather than
conventional tunnel boring techniques, a pipeline is not a tunnel.

A tunnel may be used for canal flow, rail traffic, or foot or vehicle traffic on the road. Typically,
the tunnel is where the core of a rapid transit system is located. Some tunnels are utilized as
aqueducts or sewers to deliver drinking water or to power hydroelectric plants. Utility tunnels
are employed to join buildings for easy movement of people and components, as well as to
route steam, chilled water, electrical power, or communications cables.

Secret tunnels are constructed by civilians or the military for the transportation of persons,
contraband, or weapons. To securely allow wildlife to traverse obstacles established by
humans, special tunnels like wildlife crossings are constructed. Tunnel networks are structures
that link tunnels. The recently built tunnel at Pragati Maidan, New Delhi, is shown in Fig. 4.10.

Fig. 4.10. Tunnel at Pragati Maidan, India

4.9.3 Penstocks

A penstock is a sump pit, gate, intake configuration, or sealed transit point that controls water
flow and provides water to hydropower plants and drainage systems. The word is a holdover
from previous watermill and mill pond technologies.

Penstocks for hydroelectric plants often have a surge tank and a gate mechanism. Depending
on the application, they may consist of a variety of parts, including anchor blocks, drain valves,
air bleed valves, and support piers. Flow is controlled by the functioning of the turbines, and it

98
is zero when the turbines are not in use. Because penstocks are used in dirty water systems,
they must be preserved through heated water washing, manual washing, wear–resistant
coatings, and evaporation.

The phrase is also employed to describe the pathways that lead to and from high-pressure sluice
gates in agricultural dams.

Penstocks are also employed in the building of mining tailings dams. The penstock is typically
constructed utilizing penstock rings and placed very near the sediment dam's center. These
regulate the volume of water, allowing the slimes to float to the surface. A penstock pipeline
is then used to transport this water back to the plant under the tailings dam.

In order to manage the water flow through the mill wheel, penstocks are frequently employed
at mill sites.

In water management systems like surface water drainage and unclean water sewers, penstocks
are frequently employed. Penstocks offer a way to isolate flows and control the flow of water
as it is sent to landfills or power plants
Summary
In this unit, technologies and associated tools used to develop infrastructure to build different
types of power plants are discussed. Civil construction required to related with coal mining, oil
exploration, offshore platforms, underground and under-sea oil pipelines, solar chimney,
coastal installations for tidal power plants, wind towers and infrastructure for building
hydropower plants are discussed in brief and limited to the electrical engineering point of view.
Short and Long Answer Type Questions:
Q1. Discuss different coal mining methods and tools required during the process of mining.
Q2. What may be the common obstacles in laying down the oil or gas pipe line in the seabed?
Q3. Discuss technologies and tools used to lay down the subsea gas pipelines?
Q4. What is a solar chimney? With the help of a neat sketch, discuss the different components
of a solar chimney.
Q5. Discuss wave energy caisson and its design parameter.
Q6. Discuss the merits and demerits of the design of horizontal–axis and vertical–axis wind
turbines.
References and suggested readings
1) R. D. Singh, “Principles and Practices of Modern Coal Mining,” New Age International
(P) Ltd.
2) Rahman M.M. “Cold Inflow Free Solar Chimney Design and Applications,” Springer.

99
3) Robert Gasch, Jochen Twele, “Wind Power Plants: Fundamentals, Design, Construction
and Operation,” Springer.
4) Bikash Pandey, Ajoy Karki, “Hydroelectric Energy, Renewable Energy and the
Environment,” CRC Press.
********************

100
 5 Building Structure for Nuclear
Power Plants

UNIT SPECIFICS

In this unit, the following topics have been discussed related to building structures for nuclear
power plants:

 Structural components of a nuclear power plant.

 Design and construction constraints of the reactor.
 Testing of reactor containment buildings
 Requirements in the ultimate limit state, deformations, and vibrations.
 Safety aspects for the storage of nuclear fuel
 Waste disposal in a nuclear power plant

RATIONALE

This unit introduces the infrastructure and related civil work required to build a nuclear power
plant. Due to the use of radioactive material as a fuel in nuclear power plants, designing and
construction of a nuclear reactor are full of challenges to make the use of the plant safe under
normal conditions as well as under natural and war tragedies. Designing, construction
constraints of the reactor, testing of reactor containment buildings, safety aspects for the storage
of nuclear fuel, and waste disposal in a nuclear power plant are discussed in this unit in detail.

PRE-REQUISITES

Basic Knowledge of Nuclear power plants & infrastructure used

UNIT OUTCOMES

List of outcomes of this unit is as follows

U5-O1: To know about the infrastructure & technologies used in nuclear power plants

U5-O2: To know about the designing and construction of nuclear reactors.

U5-O3: To be familiar with the testing of reactor containment buildings.

101
U5-O4: To know about the safety aspects of the storage of nuclear fuel.

U5-O5: To understand waste disposal in a nuclear power plant.

Unit EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6
U5-O1 - 1 1 - 3 -
U5-O2 - - - - 3 -
U5-O3 - - - - 3 -
U5-O4 - 1 1 - 3 -
U5-O5 - - - - 3 -

5.0 Introduction
A nuclear power plant is a thermal power station in which a nuclear reactor acts as its main
energy source. A nuclear reactor is a device that is used to start a chain reaction. In a thermal
power station, the heat produced by a chain mechanism generates steam, which pushes a steam
turbine linked to an electric generator, which holds the responsibility of generating electricity.

5.1 Structure of a Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) and its components

The heat stored is transformed into mechanical energy by a steam turbine. In a nuclear power
plant, the generator transforms the kinetic energy delivered by the turbine into electricity. The
cooling method eliminates heat from the fuel rods and transmits it to a different area of the
plant where it can be used to generate power or perform other valuable work.

Fig. 5.1. Structure of Nuclear Power Plant

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Safety valves can be used in case of emergencies to protect pipelines from ruptures or the
reactor from bursting. The feed water mechanism regulates the level of water in the steam
generator and nuclear reactor. Most nuclear power plants necessitate two different off-site
power sources to support transformers that are kept separate in the station's switchyard and can
receive power from numerous power lines.

Uranium is employed as fuel in nuclear reactors to initiate the chain of reactions. Uranium is a
metallic element that is predominantly observed in seawater and rocks. The working of nuclear
power plants is discussed in Fig. 5.1.

The important component of a nuclear power plant includes:

1) Nuclear Reactor: A nuclear reactor is a critical component of nuclear power stations. The
primary function of a nuclear reactor is to start and regulate a long-term nuclear chain
reaction.
2) Steam Generators: Steam generators transform excess heat in a nuclear reactor core into
feedwater. They are placed between the primary and secondary coolant loops in pressurized
water reactors.
3) Pressurizer: A pressurizer is a distinct vessel attached to the main circuit and partly full of
water heated to the saturation temperature for the required pressure by underwater electrical
heating systems thereby maintaining pressure in the main circuit. The temperature inside
the pressurizer is kept at 345 °C which results in a subcooling margin of 30 °C.
4) Reactor Coolant Pumps: Primary coolant pumps are utilized to circulate primary coolant
around the primary circuit. These pumps are strong, consuming up to 6 MW each, and can
be used to heat the main coolant prior to the reactor starting.
5) Safety System: As per the policy framed by United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission,
the primary goals of nuclear reactor safety mechanisms are to close the reactor, keep it
closed, and protect radioactive particles from being released. Reactor safety mechanisms
are made up of the following components:
1) Reactor Protection System
2) Essential service water system
3) Emergency core cooling systems
4) Emergency power systems
5) Containment systems
6) Turbine: A steam turbine is a device that utilizes heat energy extracted from superheated

103
 steam to perform mechanical work.
7) Generator: A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.
8) Condenser: A condenser is a heat exchanger that compresses steam from the turbine's final
stage.
9) Condensate-Feedwater System: Condensate-Feedwater Systems serve two primary
purposes. To supply sufficient high-quality water to the steam generator and to boil the
water to near-saturation temperatures.

(for more information about components of nuclear reactors, please scan ):

5.2 Requirements in the Designing of the Reactor Containment

5.2.1 Containment structure design basis
The reactor containment framework, such as connection holes, cavities, and the containment
heat extraction structure, must be developed so that the containment framework and its internal
containers can cater to the determined temperature and pressure conditions resulting from
postulated accidents without surpassing the design discharge percentage and with sufficient
margin. This margin must account for (1) the effects of potential energy sources that were not
considered when determining peak conditions, (2) the limited experience and experimental data
available for defining accident phenomena and containment responses, and (3) the conformism
of the computational framework and input variables.

5.2.2 Fracture prevention of containment boundary

The outer boundary of the reactor containment must be intended with enough margin to ensure
that (1) its components work in a nonbrittle fashion under functioning, maintenance,
experimenting, and hypothesized accident circumstances, and (2) the possibility of quickly
proliferating rupture is reduced. The design must consider the temperatures and other
requirements of the containment border substances during the procedure, conservation, testing,
and presumptive accident conditions, as well as the instabilities in deciding (1) properties of
materials, (2) lingering, stable, and transitory stresses, and (3) flaw dimensions.

5.3 Requirements in the ultimate limit state, deformations, and vibrations

A structure may become inadequate for usage not only when its breakdowns but also when it
interrupts the usability necessities of rebounds, vibrations, cracks due to weakness, erosion,
and fire.

104
The structure of the steel should be made in such a way that it must fulfill basic requirements
such as stability, firmness, strength, usability, brittle fracture, fatigue, fire, and robustness. The
structures must encounter the subsequent necessities:

a) Remain fit with satisfactorily reliability and capable of withstanding all kinds of loads.

b) Have acceptable resilience under regular maintenance.

c) Do not endure total damage or implode disparately as a result of unintended occurrences

such as eruptions, vehicle impact, or the outcomes of human discrepancy to the level that it
exceeds local damage.

5.4 Testing of reactor containment buildings

A containment is a structure made of armoured steel and cement that surrounds a nuclear
reactor. It is intended to prevent the escape of radioactive particles or gas to a maximum
pressure of 275 to 550 kPa in the event of an emergency. The final and fourth hindrance to
radioactive leak follows the fuel ceramic itself, the metal fuel cladding tubes, and the reactor
vessel and coolant system.

Each nuclear power plant in the United States is built to withstand specific conditions, which
are referred to as "Design Basis Accidents" in the Final Safety Analysis Report (FSAR). The
FSAR is typically visible to the audience at a city library near the nuclear plant.

The containment structure is typically an impenetrable steel frame that encloses the reactor,
which is usually encased from the external environment. The steel can either stand alone or be
attached to the concrete missile shield. In the United States, federal regulations govern the
construction and width of the containment and missile shield, which must be sufficient to
withstand the effect of a fully loaded airliner without bursting.

While containment is essential for the most serious nuclear reactor fatalities, it is only intended
to hold or condense steam in a brief time, with long-term removal of heat supplied by other
processes. The containment pressure boundary was maintained in the Three Mile Island
accident, but due to insufficient cooling, radioactive gas was deliberately released out of the
structure by workers to avert high pressurization. During the accident, close to 13 million curies
of radiation were emitted into the surroundings.

105
5.4.1 Types

Nuclear power reactor containment systems can be distinguished by their dimensions,

structure, metals employed, and fire suppression system. The type of structure used is defined
by the reactor types, reactor production, and particular plant requirements.

Suppression systems are essential to provide a shield to the system and have a large impact on
containment shape. Suppression is the process of condensing steam after it has been removed
from the cooling system due to a major interruption. Because deterioration warm air does not
dissipate easily, a long-term process of suppression is required, which could simply be heat
transfer with the ambient environment on the wall of the containment. Based on safety
purposes, containments are classified as "large-dry," "sub-atmospheric," or "ice-condenser."

1) Pressurized water reactors (PWR)

The containment of a PWR includes the steam generators and the pressurizer, as well as the
whole reactor building. The missile shield that surrounds it is usually a tall cylindrical or
pyramidal structure. Because the containment strategy during the leakage design basis accident
encompasses getting enough for the steam/air mixture that ultimately resulted from a loss-of-
coolant-accident to expand into, limiting the ultimate pressure reached in the containment
building, PWR containments are usually big.

Initial prototypes by multinational companies featured a can-type structure which is made of

concrete material. Because concrete has a compression ratio strength than the tensile strength,
this is a conceptual model for construction materials because the exceptionally heavy upper
section of the confinement imposes a huge pressure gradient that hinders some tensile stress if
the confinement pressure suddenly rises. Numerous spherical-shaped containment models for
PWRs have been built as reactor designs. This appears to be the most conceptual model, based
on the material used, because a sphere is the best foundation for merely comprising a large
pressure. Many modern PWR models combine the two, with a cylindrical bottom section and
a half-spherical top. The schematic of pressurized water reactors is shown in Fig. 5.2.

106
 Fig. 5.2. Working of Pressurized Water Reactor
2) Light water graphite reactors (LWGR)

LWGR are created by USSR only. Secondary containment-like constructions were used in
RBMK designs. The upper plate of the reactor is one of the parts of the defensive structure.
During the Chernobyl disaster, the plate experienced pressures that exceeded the expected
bounds and raised up. The functioning of light water graphite reactors can be understood with
the help of Fig. 5.3.

Fig. 5.3. Working of light water graphite reactors

107
3) Boiling water reactors (BWR)

The containment strategy in a BWR is slightly different. The confinement of a BWR is

comprised of a drywell (DW), which houses the reactor, related freezing devices, and a wet
well. The DW is significantly lesser than a PWR containment in size but has utmost
importance. During the conceptual discharge design limits accident, the coolant in the DW
flickers to steam and hence speedily pressurizing it. Vent pipes from the DW direct the steam
underneath the wet well's water level, compacting the steam and restricting the pressure
eventually attained. Throughout normal operating conditions and refueling, the DW and the
wet well are surrounded by a secondary containment dome and kept at a slight sub-atmospheric
level. The working of boiling water reactor is displayed in Fig. 5.4.

Fig. 5.4 Working of Boiling Water Reactor

5.4.2 Design and testing requirements

Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 50, Appendix A, General Design Criteria
(GDC 54-57) or some other design basis provides the basic design requirements for the
separation of boundaries perforating the containment wall in the United States. Isolation valves,
configured in accordance with Appendix A, are installed on each large pipe that enters the
containment, such as steam lines. One on the inside and one on the outside for smaller lines.
Developers configure isolation vents where large and high-pressure lines exit containment to
allow for relief valves and maintenance. These vents close quickly in the case of spills in the
high-pressure piping trying to carry the reactor coolant, preventing radioactive particles from
entering the reactor. Usually, vents on routes for standby systems perforating containment are
sealed. Other signals, such as the containment increased pressures generated during a high-
energy line break, may cause the confinement isolation valves to close. The concrete structure
needs to serve to encompass the steam pressure, but such an interruption at a pressurized water
reactor usually has no radiation exposure.

108
During normal operating conditions, the confinement is tightly sealed, only with marine-style
airlocks providing access. Increased ambient temperature and core radiation restrict the amount
of time individuals can spend inside confinement whereas the power station is working at full
power. In the occurrence of a catastrophic emergency, the containment is intended to wrap off
and encompass a meltdown. Although superfluous systems have been installed to avoid a
meltdown, it is assumed that one will occur, necessitating the need for a containment dome.

(for more information about nuclear reactors, please scan ):

5.5 Safely aspects for the storage of nuclear fuel

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) defines nuclear safety as "the attainment of
appropriate operating environment, the avoidance of fatalities, or the remediation of fatality
risks, arising in the safeguarding of workers, the public, and the surroundings from inordinate
radiation risks." Nuclear security is defined by the IAEA as "the mitigation, sensing, and
reaction to stealing, subvert, illegal access, illegal transfer, or other harmful behaviour
involving nuclear materials, other radioactive elements, or their related facilities."

This includes nuclear power plants and other nuclear facilities, nuclear material transportation,
and the utilization and collection of nuclear materials for healthcare, energy, market, and
military operations.

The nuclear power industry has continued to improve reactor efficiency and safety while also
proposing fresh and more secure nuclear plants. However, complete security cannot be assured.
Due to human error and external factors with a bigger influence than expected are possible
sources of issues: the creators of the reactor designs at Fukushima in Japan did not realize that
a tsunami produced by a seismic event would deactivate the backup power that was purported
to stabilize the nuclear power plant after the seismic events. Terrorist attacks, battle, insider
subvert, and cybersecurity threats are all possible disaster situations.

For varied purposes, such as confidentiality, nuclear weapon security, and armed services
research involving nuclear materials are usually managed by authorities separate from those in
charge of civilian safety. Terrorist groups procuring nuclear bomb-making substance is still a
source of anxiety.

109
Nuclear safety procedures occur in a variety of circumstances as of 2011, such as:

 Use of fission reactions in power stations, submarines, and ships.

 The extraction, collection, and usage of fuels such as uranium-235 and plutonium-239
 Nuclear waste, the radioactive waste residue of nuclear materials
 Continuity of uranium supplies

Except for thermonuclear weapons and exploratory fusion investigations, all nuclear power
safety concerns originate from the requirement to restrict physiological take-up of committed
dose and external beam radiation dosages due to radioactive material.

(for more information about safety issues, please scan ):

5.6 Waste disposal in a nuclear power plant

In the absence of a recycling process, spent fuel is strongly rejected and must be kept in a
separate plant for complete removal. Furthermore, the waste stream generated by spent-fuel
recycle should be discharged. Many nuclear countries have investigated waste treatment
techniques and geomorphologic places, but no lasting management of waste is currently
available that is being used anywhere on the globe. All spent nuclear fuel and packaged waste
are stored in refrigerating pools or aboveground storage barrels awaiting approval and building
of disposal facilities.

5.6.1 Waste conditioning

Spent fuel should be secured in canisters that are estimated to survive for hundreds of years.
However, no perpetual waste disposal is fully active, the basic method for preparing spent fuel
for waste is presumed to stay the same. The fuel pins are to be eliminated from their
components after one to five years of aboveground storage. End manifolds and fuel assembly
elements that do not include fuel will be eliminated, and the pins will be resealed into a closely
packed structure and arranged in a highly corrosive stainless-steel compartment. A cover will
be soldered on, and the compartment will be protected by an overpack. The steps involved in
the conditioning of waste in a nuclear power plant is described in Fig. 5.5.

Each year, some effluents are is produced as a result of the fission-product solution that results
from removing impurities. One glass manufacturing procedure for classifying these wastages
is commercially available in France, the United Kingdom, and Japan, and has been examined

110
in numerous other countries. The disposal solution is entirely disappeared, abandoning the
fission products in a solid residue that is warmed until each of the component nitrate salts has
been turned to oxides. These oxides are then placed in a glass-forming cooker and blended with
ingredients to produce borosilicate glass. As the glass forms, the fission-product oxides
disperse. The molten glass metal is then immersed into a steel cylinder that measures 200-400
mm in diameter and 1 meter in height, where it reinforces. The solid canister-like component
is prepared for waste after being encased with an overpack of bentonite clay.

(for more information about waste conditioning, please scan ):

Fig. 5.5 Typical layout for waste conditioning

5.6.2 Risks of nuclear waste disposal

When viewed holistically, the dangers of nuclear waste disposal appear exceptionally low;
however, among the wider populace, these dangers are one of the most dangerous attributes of
the nuclear fuel cycle. Nuclear waste preserves its high level of radioactive material over
several hundred years, but after a thousand years, the leftover radioactive waste is comparable
to that of an equal amount of natural uranium ore. This divides the safety issue into two periods
of time the first millennium, throughout which rigid preservation of the waste products in the
storage site is critical, and the second millennium, throughout which it is only necessary to
make sure that any discharge that happens is tiny and safe.

111
The perforation of underground water into the buried disposal facility, accompanied by the rust
of the waste casings, releasing of waste products, and the release of the sample solutions to the
surroundings, is one possible path for the onset of nuclear waste to the exterior. On the other
hand, water relocates slowly in most rock formations, and, contrary to common belief, even in
the most extreme scenarios, only decreased amounts of pollutants are anticipated.

5.7 Waste Disposal and Safety Aspects in Nuclear Power Plants in India

Any enterprise asset management causes the production of waste. The nuclear industry is not
an exception, and the occurrence of radiation radiating nuclear material that may have a
negative consequence for living creatures and are expected to be passed down to future
generations is what distinguishes nuclear or radioactive wastes from other traditional toxic
waste. The other distinct characteristic of nuclear waste is the degradation of radioactive
material over time. This reality is profitably misused by nuclear waste management teams.

In the Indian context, radioactive waste management encompasses all kinds of radioactive
waste produced throughout the nuclear fuel cycle, from uranium mining to fuel manufacturing
to reactor procedures and successive spent nuclear fuel upcycling. Because spent fuel is used
again in order to retrieve and reprocess the U and Pu generated, the fuel cycle is referred to as
'closed,' as opposed to other nations where spent fuel is preserved as waste. Fig. 5.6 shows all
the operations in India's closed fuel cycle, as well as their interconnection. Radioactive waste
is also produced as a result of the utilization of radioactive elements in healthcare, market, and
scientific studies.

Before the final storage/disposal, radioactive waste products must be differentiated,

categorized, managed, handled, accustomed, and supervised. Radioactive wastes can be solid,
liquid, or gas, and have a wide range of physical and chemical characteristics. Radioactive
wastes are divided into three categories based on their radioactivity level: exempt waste, low
and intermediate level waste, and high-level waste. Fig. 5.7 illustrates the categorization of
radioactive waste as advised by the IAEA.

112
 Fig. 5.6 Nuclear Fuel Cycle

Fig. 5.7 Classification of the radioactive waste

Exempt wastes have radioactivity levels that are too low for regulators to be concerned about.
These can be discharged in the surroundings without harming the environment.

Low and intermediate level wastes are further classified as either short or long-lived wastes.
Radiological risk connected with short-lived wastes (30 years half-life) are drastically
decreased by radioactive decay over a few 100 years. High-level waste includes both short-
and long-lived radioactive particles, necessitating strict exclusion from the biodiversity and, in
most cases, treatment of waste into profound geological formations. High level waste typically
creates heat due to the release of a considerable amount of energy in the radiation form.

113
During the reuse or recycling of spent nuclear fuel, high level radioactive liquid waste (HLW)
is generated, which contains most of the radioactive material in a whole fuel cycle.
Furthermore, hull waste is produced as solid HLW after the spent fuel is dispersed for reuse or
recycling.

Presently, the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) oversees all NPPs in India.
As a result, any conversations about NPPs in India will be about it. NPPs in India are not only
secure, but are also well-regulated, with appropriate radiation safety for workers and the
general public, frequent monitoring, measurements, standard specifications maintenance and
operation methods, a well-defined waste management technique, and suitable, well-
documented, and offer regular emergency preparedness and disaster management strategies.
The NPPs have occupational health policies that include periodic health checks, measurements,
and bioactivity, and they are supported by properly equipped Personnel Decontamination
Centres staffed by doctors with Occupational and Industrial Health certifications. Furthermore,
they have received specialized training in dealing with radiological emergencies.

In all operations, safety is given the utmost importance. All nuclear facilities are positioned,
constructed, built, procured, and functioned in full compliance with stringent safety and quality
requirements. All nuclear facilities and their systems/components are designed with defense in
depth, failover, and diversification in mind. The country's regulatory structure is strong, with
the individual Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) having the authority to structure
guidelines, establish security guidelines and requirements, and supervise and enforce all safety
provisions.

The AERB shall exercise state oversight through a staged licensing scheme. As a result, India
has an outstanding safety record in over 277 reactor years of operation of power reactors.

The Atomic Energy Act of 1962 governs the creation of nuclear power. The Atomic Energy
Act incorporates all atomic energy-related operations, which include power production.

(for more information about the safety of NPP in India, please scan ):

Summary:

In this unit, construction and components of a nuclear power plant are discussed. Generating
power from a radioactive material like uranium and its allies is a challenging task as it involves

114
radiation of dangerous radioactive participles. Safety aspects in the construction of a nuclear
reactor and disposal of waste produced in the process of power generation are the key
challenges. The focus of this unit has been on the designing and construction of a safe nuclear
power plant. Testing procedures for reactor containment buildings are also discussed.

Short and Long Answer Type Questions

1. Enumerate the basic factors to be considered in the design of nuclear reactor.

2. What are the special facilities required for a nuclear power station with respect to
fabrication of fuel elements and handling of radioactive material?
3. How waste is disposed-off in a nuclear power plant? What arrangements are made on
the site of a nuclear power plant for safe disposal of the waste?
4. What important considerations are required in the design of reactor containment
structure’s border?
5. How can nuclear power reactor containment systems be classified?
6. Write a note on safety aspects defined by International Atomic Energy Agency.
7. Discuss the testing procedures for reactor containment buildings.

References and Suggested Readings

1) Amelia Frahm, “Nuclear Power: How a Nuclear Power Plant Really Works,” Nutcracker
Publishing Company.
2) Rüdiger Meiswinkel, Julian Meyer, Jürgen Schnell, “Design and Construction of Nuclear
Power Plants,” Wiley.
3) Christine Honders, “Nuclear Power Plants: Harnessing the Power of Nuclear Energy:
Harnessing the Power of Nuclear Energy,” The Rosen Publishing Group
*****************

115
 6 Engineering For Energy
Conservation
(Green Building and Green Architecture)

UNIT SPECIFICS

In this unit, the following topics have been discussed for basic understating related to energy
conservation in buildings from structural, architectural, and material points of view:

 Concept of green building and green architecture

 Materials for building from a green energy point of view
 Designing and Building Orientations to meet the concept of green architecture
 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
 Embodied Energy Analysis and tools used

RATIONALE:

Energy conservation in buildings, especially high-rise commercial buildings, is essential in all

countries. About 15 to 20 % savings in energy are possible if buildings are designed from a
green architectural point of view. The concept of green energy, green architecture, and
structural material required that lead to savings in energy and help in protecting the
environment is described in this unit. Embodied Energy Analysis and tools used are also
discussed.

PRE-REQUISITES

Basic Knowledge of Environmental Science and Energy

UNIT OUTCOMES

List of outcomes of this unit is as follows

U6-O1: To know the basic concept of energy conservation in buildings.

U6-O2: To understand the concept of green building and green architecture.

U6-O3: To be familiar with LEED ratings.

U6-O4: An idea about energy related enterprises.

116
U6-O5: Knowledge about embodied energy analysis and tools used.

Unit EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6
U6-O1 1 - 1 1 - 3
U6-O2 1 1 1 1 - 3
U6-O3 - - - - - 3
U6-O4 - - - - - 3
U6-O5 - - - - - 3

6.1.Concept of Green Buildings

The creation and maintenance of buildings have a significant direct and indirect influence on
the environment. Large quantities of energy and natural resources are used by buildings, along
with trash and environmentally hazardous pollutants. In previous decades, typical structures
were major consumers of both fossil fuels, which release greenhouse gases, and
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), which weaken the ozone layer. To satisfy the expectations for new
and rebuilt buildings that are safe and healthy while reducing negative environmental
consequences, designers and builders confront a growing challenge as economies and
populations grow. Every industry has the ability to contribute to the drive for more productive,
energy-saving business and production processes, particularly in the building industry.

Buildings already account for more than 30 percent of India’s electricity use, and two-thirds of
the buildings that will exist in India by 2030 are yet to be built [1]. There is a huge waste of
energy in such buildings due to a lack of awareness about the efficient use of energy, untrained
manpower, or just negligence. There is a substantial consumption of electrical energy in
buildings, especially considering Indian scenarios like air conditioners, lighting, computers,
fans, motors for water pumping, etc. The majority of these structures utilize energy
inefficiently, produce a lot of trash during their creation and usage, they release a lot of
pollutants and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Unlike traditional structures, green
buildings aim to utilize land and energy effectively, preserve water and other resources,
enhance the quality of the air both inside and outside, and use more recycled and renewable
materials. Green buildings still make up a very small portion of all existing structures, but their
numbers are growing quickly.

117
According to Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines green building as follows [2],
“the practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible
and resource-efficient throughout a building’s life-cycle from siting to design, construction,
operation, maintenance, renovation and deconstruction. This practice expands and
complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and
comfort. Green building is also known as a sustainable or ‘high performance’ building.”

A few keywords associated with green building and its material resource efficiency are

 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

It is a method used to perform complete environmental accounting of the impact of the
building considering the material used in its construction.
 Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA)
This measures the actual financial profits of a certain particular material, its life span,
replacement cost, maintenance cost, and performance on the basis of economics.
 Embodied Energy Analysis
Embodied energy is the complete energy used for the creation and transportation of the
materials used in buildings. This energy usually accounts for 15% to 20% of a
building’s total energy use during a 50-year period. Thus, having low embodied energy
implies a reduced life cycle carbon footprint.

Some of the key features of the green building are given in Fig. 6.1.

118
 •Reducing consumption from planning, design and
construction
Energy Saving •Reduce waste of resources and completes
construction with minimal resources

•Site selection considers the nearby surroundings and

impact of construction on it
Environmental
•Tries to control/limit the damage by incorporating
Protection various ecofriendly aspects such as ventilation,
drainage and lighting.

Quality of •These building try to create better and more suitable

living environment including artificial and natural
Living environemnt

Fig. 6. 1. Salient features of green buildings

6.1.1. Material for Buildings

The green building materials are chosen on the basis of specific criteria. The various objectives
of green buildings are the driving factor for the material selection, and these objectives are
shown in Table 6.1. There is the different life cycle of phases associated with the building
material throughout the life cycle of the buildings, which is depicted in Fig. 6.2.

Table 6.1. Key objectives of green buildings to select appropriate building material

Process Objectives Description

Waste Reduction To make the production process more
efficient by reducing the amount of scrap
Manufacturing Process
(Pre-Building Phase)

material.
Pollution Prevention Reduced the air, water, and soil pollution
associated with the manufacturing process
Reduced Embodied Energy Revision to a manufacturing process that
saves energy reduces the embodied energy
of the material

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 Recycled Incorporation of waste materials from
industrial processes or households into
usable building products
Natural Materials Use natural materials such as wood as they
are nontoxic and less processing to the
environment
Energy Efficiency Reduce the amount of artificially generated
power that must be supplied to the building
site
Water Treatment and Reducing the amount of water that must be
Conservation treated by municipal septic systems
Building Operations
(Building Phase)

Nontoxic Avoid the usage of adhesives and other

materials that emit dangerous fumes and
are toxic to workers and occupants
Renewable Energy Source Replace traditional building systems that
promote daylighting and passive solar
heating and are dependent on the off-site
production of energy
Longer Life Use materials with longer life to prevent
frequent replacement
Biodegradable Potential to naturally decompose when
(Post-Building Phase)

discarded
Waste Management

Recyclable To be used as a resource in the creation of

new products
Reusable Can be easily extracted and utilized in other
new buildings once the building is
decommissioned

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Fig. 6. 2. Three phases of the building material life cycle

Some of the green building materials commonly used are

 Fly Ash Concrete

 Natural clay
 Corrugated metal
 Wheatboards
 Plywood
 Recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
 Natural cork
 Wool and wool blends
 Fiberglass batts
 Limestone
 Steel
 Aluminum
 Bricks and Tile

6.1.2. Designing and Building Orientations

A green building is a long-lasting, practical, and creative approach toward sustainability. These
buildings incorporate knowledge, tradition, and a collaborative design process with modern
science and technology. Building a solid green building project team with design expertise is
essential for design success. Designers with experience in green construction methods, such as
solar design and sustainable site planning, include experienced house designers, architects,
landscape architects, and interior designers. They are able to develop a vision that takes the

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project's objectives and financial constraints into account. The designing of a green building
involves the following:

 Proper selection of site location

 Environment suitability
 Cost-effective infrastructure
 Affordable and compact design
 Proximity to basic services
 Walkable neighborhoods
 Incorporate passive solar design
 Reduce the heat island effect
 Proper building orientation
 Passive cooling (using false ceilings)

One of the main aims of the design of green buildings should be making the building more
affordable, and to achieve that, the following steps are taken:

 Designing buildings with smaller footprints

 Optimizing the size and orientation of the building
 Natural daylighting provisions
 Square dimensions are more resource efficient than rectangular ones
 Eliminating hallways from the floor plans

Environmental consciousness is the foundation of the contemporary global construction

paradigm and also the green building concept, which necessitates the use of sustainable
building orientation and construction methods. Sustainability can easily accommodate in the
built environment by a basic component like orientation depending on terrain, angle of
exposure, and climate. Enhancing the building's sustainability may be done in large part by
controlling how the sun and wind interact with its façade. A building receives extra points from
the Indian Green Building Council (IGBC) for not having to rely extensively on thermostats
and air conditioners to manually control the temperature. Let's look at the many construction
components you need to take into account, in accordance with IGBC guidelines, to effectively

utilize solar gains (for more information about IGBC, please scan ):

 East/West axis alignment

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 The primary façade of the building should be oriented within a 15-degree range of either
the eastern or western axis. Green buildings are intended to absorb as much sunlight as
possible; hence, they would ideally be rectangular, with the east and west faces shorter
than the northern and southern ones. The southern half of the earth receives the sun for
the majority of the day.
 Southern exposure
To allow south-facing windows to capture solar heat during even the coldest winters,
the building's southern face should be positioned within 20 degrees on each side of the
true south. The heating and cooling of the interiors of the buildings would deviate
further with each degree over the 20 degrees of true south.
 Surface areas of windows
The biggest windows in a structure must be those facing south; ideally, their surface
areas should be around 50% more than those facing east and west combined. Overhangs
and other architectural elements should assist the south-facing windows in dissipating
some of the summertime noon heat. The lowest surface area windows should be those
facing west since they are overexposed to intense solar heat during summer sunsets and
are of little use for capturing solar heat in the winter.
 Orientation with respect to topography
Due to the gradient and geography, the orientation of the building's location is crucial
in determining the angle of incidence of radiation from the sun. The incident solar
radiation is minimized in the summer and increased in the winter if the landscape
slopes. As a result, the site selection should take into account the latitude, the amount
of incoming solar radiation, and the slope of the ground. A southern slope is the hottest
during the winter since it directly faces the winter sun.

6.2.LEED Ratings

LEED stands for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design. LEED is a credit-based
certification system developed by the United States Green Building Council (USGBC) to
certify green and sustainable buildings. LEED-based green design has the following positives:

 Improved public and environmental health

 Reduced operating costs
 Promoted building and organizational marketability
 Improves occupants’ productivity

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  Create a sustainable future

Fig. 6.3 depicts the performance of the LEED rating system in six key areas of human and
environmental health.

Sustainable
Sites

Innovation & Water

Design Efficiency

LEED
Ratings

Indoor
Environe‐ Materials and
mental Resources
Quality

Energy and
Atmosphere

Fig. 6. 3. Key performance areas recognized by LEED certification

LEED certification shows the commitment to sustainability by meeting the highest

performance standards. LEED-certified buildings and sites have the following benefits:

 Utilization of important resources efficiently

 Contribute to a healthier work environment
 Promote productivity and comfort
 Improves assets value over time
 Promote new building innovation, materials, and equipment
 Qualify for government and international incentives
 Establish leadership in building industry and marketplace

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LEED certification is given after the successful submission of the application compliance with
the necessary requirements of the rating system, along with the registration and certification
fees. Points received, pending, and rejected are noted in a Preliminary LEED Review document
released by the USGBC. After receiving the preliminary evaluation, the project team has 30
days to make adjustments and/or additions to the application. Within 30 days of receiving the
resubmission, the USGBC performs a Final LEED Review of the application and proposes a
final application score to the LEED Steering Committee. Within two weeks of receiving the
suggested final application score, the LEED Steering Committee approves or rejects it and
notifies the project contact of the LEED Certification. The project team has 30 days after
receiving notice of the LEED certification to accept or dispute the designation. The LEED
Certification is final after the project has been approved or if an appeal against the rating has
not been filed within 30 days. A LEED Certified Green Building may then be used to describe
the undertaking. A certificate and a metal LEED plaque denoting the certification level are
given to the project team by the USGBC. Each appealed credit is subject to a $500 charge. The
certification is provided on the scoring of the above-mentioned categories in Fig. 6.3. These
scores/credits determine whether the buildings qualify for certification. A total of 69 credits
are given, depending on the score obtained following certification is provided:

 Certified: 26 to 32 credits
 Silver: 33 to 38 credits
 Gold: 39 to 51 credits
 Platinum: 52 to 69 credits

Further, the breakup of LEED rating system credits are mentioned in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2. LEED Rating System

LEED Categories Points Contribution

Sustainable Sites 14 20%
Water Efficiency 5 7%
Energy and Atmosphere 17 25%
Materials and Resources 13 19%
Indoor Environmental Quality 15 22%
Innovation and Design Process 5 7%
Total 69 100%

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There are 10 different LEED Rating programs for different types of constructions, namely

 New Construction
 Existing Building
 Commercial Building
 Core and Shell
 Schools
 Retail-New Construction
 Retail and Commercial Interiors
 Healthcare
 Homes
 Neighborhood Development

6.3.Identification of Energy Related Enterprise

Modern society consumes a large amount of energy globally. The demand for energy is
growing day by day. We cannot imagine, the growth of a country and the life of a person
without the use of energy resources. Therefore, energy related sectors are one of the most
important sectors of any country. The energy industry includes companies involved in the
exploration and development of oil or gas reserves, oil or gas drilling, coal mining, nuclear
fuels, generating power, manufacturing different components used in power plants, etc. The
energy sector includes companies that are primarily involved in the business of supplying
energy, such as fossil fuels or renewable.

The companies within energy sectors are classified as companies based on how the energy that
they produce is sourced. They may be classified as non-renewable and renewable energy
sources.

Non-renewable

Petroleum and oil

Natural gas

Diesel

Coal

Nuclear

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Renewable

Hydro power

Solar

Wind

Biofuels

The energy industry also includes secondary sources such as electricity. Generation,
transmission, and distribution of electricity and all related companies involved in the
manufacturing of different parts used in energy-related activities. In 2021, in the USA,
petroleum was the most consumed energy source at 36%, followed by natural gas at 32%,
renewable energy sources at 12%, coal at 11%, and nuclear at 8%. In India, coal is the country's
top energy source, with a share of 44% in 2021, followed by oil (24%) and biomass
(22%). Natural gas covers 6%, and primary electricity (hydro, nuclear, solar, and wind) is 4%.

Role of energy sector:

The energy sector plays a crucial role in the economy of a country. Apart from powering homes,
transport, and factories, energy sources are also a component of various companies. Energy
sectors may also be classified as energy equipment & services, Oil, gas, and consumable fuels.

Various subsectors are:

Oil and gas drilling

Oil & gas equipment & services

Oil & gas exploration and production

Oil and gas storage & transportation

Coal and consumable fuels

Mining of nuclear fuels

Utility companies, on the other hand, provide electricity, water, and other public utilities to
their consumers. There are also many energy related exchange traded funds that can give retail
investors exposure to the energy industry. The energy industry is more diversified and
extensive than merely the oil and gas industry. In the future, it is expected that renewable

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energy sources have the potential to play an important role as the demand for electric vehicles
continues to grow.

The energy industry comprises:

 The fossil fuel industries, which include petroleum, coal and the natural gas industries.
 The electric power generation, transmission, distribution and sales industries.
 The nuclear power generation associated companies.
 The renewable energy sectors
 Corporates involved in selling of energy and its products.

Top 10 Energy Companies in India

1. Adani Power Ltd.

2. CESC Ltd.
3. Gujarat Industries Power Company Ltd.
4. Indraprastha Power Generation Company Ltd.
5. NHPC Ltd.
6. NTPC Ltd.
7. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd.
8. Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd.
9. Rattan India Power Ltd.
10. Tata Power Company Ltd.

World top Energy companies by Market Capitalization

Saudi Aramco Saudi Arabia

ExxonMobil United States
Chevron Corporation United States
Shell United Kingdom
Total Energies France
NextEra Energy United States
ConocoPhillips United States
PetroChina China
Equinor ASA Norway
BP United Kingdom
6.4. Embodied Energy Analysis

The majority of the time, embodied energy analysis is more concerned with the energy used to
sustain a consumer, and therefore, all energy depreciation is attributed to the user's end demand.
To determine the amount of energy that is incorporated in the goods and services provided by
nature and human civilization, many approaches employ various data sizes. International
agreement on the suitability of data scales and methodology is still awaited. For any particular

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material, the embodied energy levels might vary greatly depending on this challenge.
Embodied energy calculations may omit crucial information if there is no comprehensive
global embodied energy public dynamic database. Examples of this include the rural
road/highway construction and maintenance required to move a product, marketing,
advertising, catering services, non-human services, and the like.

The embodied energy is the energy needed to build and operate the structure. For instance, the
energy needed to produce the bricks, transport them to the construction site, lay them out,
plaster them, then (if necessary) paint and replaster them over the wall's lifespan. Best practices
would also incorporate recycling and demolition energy estimates. Embodied energy in
residential structures generally makes up between 30 and 100 percent of the overall life cycle
energy consumption [3]. However, the significance of embedded energy is typically more than
these numbers suggest. The units of energy used to describe embodied energy are typically MJ
or GJ. The amount of primary energy used to power the resource processes, as well as its
effectiveness, will determine how this corresponds to carbon emissions. For instance, an
aluminum product from a smelter powered by hydro power will have a high energy content,
but relatively low embodied carbon. The intention is to cite both values, although it should be
stressed that an exact estimate of carbon emissions is currently more challenging to make and
more variable. Only the supplied material data can guarantee the accuracy of the embodied
energy model.

Most embodied energy figures for specific materials are quoted using a “cradle to gate”
boundary. Consumers must also consider transport, assembly, maintenance, and demolition
components of embodied energy. In addition, care should be taken to ensure that primary
energy consumption is calculated, not delivered energy (which will understate the real energy
cost). A stepwise breakdown of embodied energy analysis is shown in Fig. 6.4. The cradle to
gate method, or all the energy necessary to get the product to the factory gate so it can be
transported to the building site, often defines the most significant components of embodied
energy. The complexity of embodied energy might be quite high, even within a "cradle to gate"
computation.

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Fig. 6. 4. Breakdown of embodied energy calculations

The embodied energy analysis and a building's environmental effect are mostly done using the
SBTool, UK Code for Sustainable Homes, and USA LEED. Because there are so many factors
to consider, scientists have not yet established exact universal numbers for the idea of embodied
energy, but most believe that items may be contrasted to determine which has more and which
has less embodied energy. Energy Returned on Energy Invested (EROEI) provides a baseline
for calculating embodied energy.

1
𝐸𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 1
𝐸𝑅𝑂𝐸𝐼 1

Given an EROEI amounting to eight, e.g., a seventh of the final energy corresponds to the
embodied energy.

Some Examples regarding embodied energy are given in Table 6.3.

Table 6.3. The embodied energy content of a few items

Item Description Embodied Energy

Volkswagen Golf A3 with petrol engine 18000 kWh = 65.4 GJ
Volkswagen Golf A4 with Turbo 22000kWh = 81.75 GJ
charged petrol engine
Road construction 1/18 of fuel consumption
Buildings Approx 30% of all energy consumed in lifetime
Fuels 14.3% of the fuel EROEI consumed

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 For more information and to download the data, please scan

6.5.Tools for Measuring Sustainability

Industry advancement is now primarily measured by sustainability, and effective company

strategies are taking this into account. Advancement in operations, assessing performances,
monitoring progress, and process evaluation are just a few of the demands for sustainability
assessment. There are certain steps and framework to be followed to develop a proper
sustainability factor. This framework is presented in Fig. 6.5.

1. Defining a system

• A proper system boundary is drawn for further analysis.

2. Elements of the system

• The working conditions, process parameters and

characteristics are defined in this step.

3. Selection of indicators

• The indicators is selected of which measurement has to be

done.

4. Measurement and assesment

• Proper assessing tools are used and tests or experiments are

performed for the pre‐defined indicators to give a value for
the indicators measurement.

5. Analysis and review

• Proper analysis and interpretation is done and tools are used

to improve and revise the processes present in the system

Fig. 6. 5. Framework for sustainability measurement

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Sustainability is measured on the basis of four categories; these are environmental care, natural
depletion, societal wellbeing, and economic wellbeing [4]. The summary of the assessment
tools for the measurement of sustainability is presented in Table 6.4.

Table 6.4. Various sustainability assessment tools

Assessment Tool Summary

Cascadia Scorecard [5] An easy-to-use evaluation instrument that has to be reviewed
annually to identify changes in seven themes that are relevant to
a particular geographic area. The evaluation tool might be used to
determine a housing project's long-term viability even though it
was designed to demonstrate patterns in the US Pacific North
West. This tool's usage of data that is widely accessible is one of
its benefits. It was developed in the USA.
One Planet Living OPL offers a blueprint that may be used globally to handle the
(OPL) diversity of sustainability issues. The use of performance metrics,
goal-oriented indicators, and aggregate indices is combined.
There are ten different topic sections. Targets are given for short-
For more information, , medium-, and long-term time spans. OPL makes it possible to
use presently accessible measurements to address some broad
sustainability categories, while in other cases, it necessitates the
please scan
development of location-specific data. This tool was developed in
the UK.
Sustainable Project This framework was developed by the UK. Reviewing and
Appraisal Routine maximizing sustainable opportunities is the aim. SPeAR has the
(SPeAR) potential to address several sustainability-related issues. 22
thematic categories often employ performance measurements;
For more information, however, these can be increased or decreased based on
significance. Since the units of measurement are so broad, they
might skew how sustainable success is seen (for instance, "great"
please scan
is defined as "targeted or inventive" or "holistic" or "gaining an
award").
VicUrban This evaluation tool offers a fundamental foundation to aid in the
Masterplanned design and creation of sustainable communities in new mixed-use

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 Community Assessment complexes with at least 500 homes. It typically employs 11
Tool theme-based performance metrics. This tool was developed and
put forth by Australia.

The above tools utilize indicators to inform public and policy makers of the sustainability
governance process. These indicators provide in-depth knowledge of and the relationship
between environment and socio-economic growth. Some of these indicators are listed below:

 Environmental Sustainability Indicators

 Global Warming Potential
 Ozone Depletion Potential
 Waste Treatment
 Aerosol Optical Depth
 Energy Resources
 Economic Indicators
 Gross Domestic Product
 Trade Balance
 Local Government Income
 Profit, Value and Tax
 Investment
 Social Indicators
 Equity
 Education
 Housing
 Community Cohesion
 Social Security
 Employment Generated
 Health and Safety

Summary

In this unit, the concept of energy conservation and its importance in buildings is discussed.
The concept of green building and green architecture, the structural design aspects, and the
materials required to make an energy-efficient building are discussed. Key performance areas
recognized by LEED certification, LEED rating programs for different types of constructions,
and benefits to LEED-certified buildings and sites have been described. The embodied energy

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and its analysis, which is the energy needed to build and operate the structure, is also discussed
in this unit. The sustainability which is measured on the basis of four categories, environmental
care, natural depletion, societal wellbeing and economic wellbeing are discussed and the
summary of the assessment tools for the measurement of sustainability is presented.

Short and Long Answer Type Questions

1. List a few key words associated with green building and its material resource efficiency.
2. What are the objectives of green buildings? On what specific criteria, the green building
materials chosen?
3. List some of the green building materials commonly used.
4. What are the important criteria involved in the designing of a green building?
5. What are the key performance areas recognized by LEED certification?
6. Describe the concept of daylighting.
7. Write a short note on embodied energy analysis.
8. On what basis the sustainability of building from energy point of view is measured?
9. What makes products green? How can I verify the manufacturers’ performance claims?
10. What questions are to be asked when taking on a green building project?
11. What can be done to make sustainability and green building cost-effective?
12. What does the future of sustainable building look like?
13. How is energy-efficient building affecting interior air quality?
14. How do you introduce and apply green methods in remote areas with weak economies
and basic infrastructure?
15. What is the most effective way to enhance people awareness toward energy
consumption in their buildings?

References and Suggested Readings

1. S. Itkelwar, D. Tewari, B. Natarajan, and S. Kumar, “Residential Energy Data

Management: Alliance for an Energy Efficient Economy,” Shakti Foundation, Delhi,
2020.
2. Green Buildings, Environmental Protection Act
3. R.H. Crawford, R.J. Fuller, G.J. Treloar, B.D. Ilozor, “Embodied energy analysis of the
refurbishment of a small detached building”. In Proceedings of 36th Annual Conference
of the Australian and New Zealand Architectural Science Association (ANZAScA):
The Modern Practice of Architectural Science from Pedagogy to Andragogy, 2002.

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4. E. Karol, and J. Brunner, “Tools for Measuring Progress Towards Sustainable
Neighborhood Environments,” Sustainability, vol. 1, pp. 612-627, 2009.
5. Northwest Environment Watch, “Cascadia Scorecard: Seven Key Trends Shaping the
Northwest,” Slightline Institute, Seattle, US, 2004.
********************

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 7 Engineering For Energy
Conservation
(Energy Auditing, Efficiency & Energy Conservation)

UNIT SPECIFICS

In this unit, the following topics have been discussed for basic understating related to energy
auditing, energy efficiency, and energy conservation:

 Concept of energy auditing and need for energy auditing

 Different types of energy auditing
 Case studies on energy auditing
 Concept of energy efficiency

Here, in this unit the main focus is to gain knowledge about the conservation of energy. In the
present scenario, the demand of energy is increasing on day-to-day basis. To meet energy
demand, a lot of measures at individual, society, and government levels are required.
Generated energy should not just meet our needs, but simultaneously it should also not have
any adverse impact on our environment. Energy has also become as essential as air and water.
Therefore all efforts should be made to conserve energy. Energy auditing is one of the methods
that suggest how we can use energy efficiently. Energy auditing methods and a few case studies
are presented in this unit to understand the basic concept of efficient use of energy. An energy
audit helps us to understand how the energy is used and helps in identifying areas where the
waste of energy can occur and where the scope for improvement exists.

RATIONALE

This unit introduces the concepts of energy auditing and energy efficiency in the context of
energy conservation. Energy conservation and efficiency may be related, but they have distinct
definitions in the energy world. Energy conservation means a reduction in energy consumption
but without making any sacrifice in the quality or quantity of production. Energy conservation
involves using less energy by adjusting your behaviors and habits. Energy efficiency, on the
other hand, involves using technology that requires less energy to perform the same function.

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PRE-REQUISITES

Basic Knowledge of Environmental Science and Energy

UNIT OUTCOMES

List of outcomes of this unit is as follows

U7-O1: To understand the basic concept of energy efficiency and energy conservation.

U7-O2: To understand the basics of energy auditing.

U7-O3: To classify and identify the types of energy auditing.

U7-O4: To know the best practices for efficient use of electrical energy.

U7-O5: To analyze the different factors responsible for energy management and its economics.

Unit EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6
U7-O1 1 - 2 - - 3
U7-O2 - - 1 - - 3
U7-O3 - - - - - 3
U7-O4 1 - 2 - - 3
U7-O5 1 - 2 - - 3

7.1. Energy Auditing

Energy auditing is a judicious and effective use of energy to maximize profits and improve
competitive positions. This involves inspections, surveys, and analysis of energy flows for the
identification of energy saving opportunities in a built infrastructure. In other words, it can be
said that it is a process implemented in a building or a system to reduce the amount of energy
input into the system without adversely impacting the output. Energy Auditing is a step-by-
step approach for decision making in the field of energy management. As per the Bureau of
Energy Efficiency India, the comprehensive definition of energy auditing is similar to energy
management as follows [1],

“The strategy of adjusting and optimizing energy, using systems and procedures so as to reduce
energy requirements per unit of output while holding constant or reducing total costs of
producing the output from these systems”

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As per the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, Energy Audit is defined as “the verification,
monitoring and analysis of use of energy including submission of technical report containing
recommendations for improving energy efficiency with cost benefit analysis and an action plan
to reduce energy consumption”.

Fig. 7. 1. Need for Energy Auditing

Energy analysis and auditing would provide a helpful direction for operations that are essential
for manufacturing and utility operations, such as reducing energy costs, preventative
maintenance, and quality control. It will assist in maintaining attention to fluctuations in energy
prices, the availability and dependability of the energy supply, choosing the right energy mix,
identifying energy-saving technology, retrofitting for energy-saving equipment, etc. The
requirement of energy auditing is depicted in Fig. 7.1.

7.2. Types of Energy Auditing

There are different types of energy audits that can be performed. These depend on the following
factors such as

i. Type of industry
ii. Functioning of industry
iii. Depth of the final audit that is required
iv. Potential benefits desired from the audit

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The auditor will identify the energy-consuming areas and create a comprehensive list of
energy-saving strategies. Thus, after careful assessment of the above factors, three types of
energy audits can be performed [2], namely

i. Preliminary Energy Audit

ii. Targeted Energy Audit
iii. Detailed Energy Audit

7.2.1. Preliminary Energy Audit

A preliminary energy audit is also known as a ‘walk through energy audit’, where a simple
survey is conducted by the auditor to investigate energy consumption of the organization. It is
the easiest and shortest form of audit and the initial stage in the auditing process. It is
concentrated on the main area of energy usage. This type of energy audit requires significantly
lesser time span. The qualified energy manager, certified auditor, or professional engineer
completes the walkthrough audit. Finding an energy-saving solution requires more information
than this type of audit can provide. The auditor can operate with high precision and profitability
in less time. This kind of energy audit provides the auditor with all the information about an
organization that is required for a more thorough energy audit. The scope of the preliminary
energy audit are:

 Evaluate the energy consumption and scope for saving

 Minimal interaction with the organization personnel
 Identify the most likely and easiest areas of concern
 Identify immediate (especially/low cost) improvements
 Analyze pre-existing data or easily obtained data
 Develop a brief layout for an in-depth/detailed study

7.2.2. Targeted Energy Audit

The findings from the preliminary energy audit report are utilized in a targeted energy audit.
This type of energy audit is focused on a specific and certain objective of the project. The
approach and methodology are variable and depend on the type of structure and industry the
audit is done. The outcomes are the recommendations provided by the auditor that need to be
implemented for energy saving. This report is concise, clear, and includes a plan of action for
improving energy efficiency. The scope of this type of audit includes:

 Minimal interviews with organization personnel

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  Relate energy consumption with the type of organization
 Specific area is to be covered during this audit
 Find methods for improving energy efficiency and conservation
 Suggest the easy ways to achieve the goals

7.2.3. Detailed Energy Audit

This audit is often referred to as an extensive or investment-grade energy audit. A thorough

investigation of potential capital-intensive improvements, including modeling and simulation,
may be required for the audit of the detailed energy. For high accuracy, a complete energy audit
may require data gathering over a lengthy period of time. It will produce precise energy
consumption records and detailed savings reports, making it simple for contractors to
understand what specific solutions to implement. Since it assesses all significant energy-using
systems, a thorough audit offers a business a clear strategy for implementing an energy project.
The most precise calculation of energy savings and costs is provided by this kind of audit. It
measures the energy consumption of all significant equipment, takes into consideration the
interacting impacts of every project, and provides thorough projections for energy cost savings
and project costs. The energy balance is one of the crucial components of a thorough audit.
This is based on measurements of energy usage, an inventory of systems that utilize energy,
and assumptions about how things operate right now. The costs on a utility account are then
compared to this projected utilization. The detailed energy audit is carried out in three phases:
pre-audit phase, audit phase, and post-audit phase.

 Pre-Audit Phase

The energy auditor organizes and arranges the energy audit during the pre-audit stage. A formal
interview is held with the Chief Executive Officer (CEO), plant manager, energy manager, and
production manager at this phase. In this step, a brief meeting is also arranged with all kinds of
heads and the affected person. The energy auditor or qualified energy auditor plans to do the
following actions during the pre-audit phase. A pointwise summary of the actions performed
by energy auditor in pre audit phase are:

o Discussion with senior management

o Discussion on guidelines related to the economy of the organization
o Analyze consumption patterns with concerned personnel
o Collect site drawings and layout of major components
o Complete tour of the premises with the site engineer

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  Audit Phase
This phase is the next stage of a comprehensive energy audit. This phase entirely depends on
the simplicity and the nature of the site, as it can take from days to months. This audit phase
considers working hours as well as non-working hours and nights to ensure consideration of
every detail and aspect in every sense. This stage of detailed energy audit performs surveys
and collects data of each energy consuming and generating system. Thus, gathering in depth
knowledge about the organization or specific site or a department. To make sure nothing is
missed, checks of plant operations are made whenever feasible over long periods of time,
including evenings, weekends, and regular working hours. During this phase an auditor carries
out the following actions:
o Collect data about the different sources of energy powering the site
o Analyze the previous electricity bills and tariff data
o Collect information about the loads
 The information about load is critical in determining accurate energy
auditing report. The load information generally includes the type of
loads, ratings of the loads, power factor and current intake of the
loads, the time of usage of loads, purpose of loads, etc.
o Review and propose changes in the existing energy management program
o Energy flow diagram
 Post Audit Phase
For the evaluation of a capital budgeting decision, a set of procedures must require after the
fact. The plan of action for the post-audit phase is implementation and follow-up. The result is
to assist and implement energy conservation (ENCON) recommendation measures and monitor
the performance.

7.3. Instruments required for energy auditing

To measure the energy consumption, quantification and identification for an energy audit
required different instruments. These instruments should be portable, durable, easy operability
and relatively inexpensive. These instruments mostly involve the measurement of electrical
quantities such as voltage, current, power factor, active power, reactive power, demand, energy
consumption, frequency, etc. In addition to these other important parameters are temperature,
heat flow, radiation, air and gas flow, revolutions per minute, total dissolved solids, pH, relative
humidity, flue gas analysis, etc.

Table 7.1. Key instruments required for specific types of systems for energy audit [3].

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 Voltmeter
Power meter
Electrical Systems
Ammeter
Multimeter
Surface Pyranometer
Portable Electric
Thermometer
Temperature Measurement
Thermocouple Probe
Infrared Thermometer
Infrared Camera
Ultrasonic Leaks
Steam System/Compressed Air Detectors
Steam Trap Tester
Manometer
HVAC Systems Psychrometric
Anemometer
Light Meter
Measuring Tape
Building Thermal Image
Camera
Lux meters
4-20Ma Loggers
0-10V Loggers
Data Loggers Digital Loggers
Vibration Loggers
Light Loggers

7.4. Software used for Energy Auditing:

Simprosys: It is helpful for mass transfer, design projects, courses in unit operation, heat,
and mass balance calculation.

Road pollution: It is helpful for the installation of road lighting and the assessment of the
environmental impact due to light pollution.

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 MATLAB: MATLAB is an advanced simulation software where any job such as
automation, lighting, layouts, engineering, and mathematics functions can be performed.

Piping System Fluid Flow: Piping system fluid flow can be used for accurate simulation
of network performance before a network design or modified a network

IHAT: Indoor humidity assessment tool (IHAT) software is used to check the humidity
level in a building, which includes the use of an energy recovery ventilation (ERV) system.
eQUEST: Energy Quick energy simulation (eQUEST) software is a user-friendly and
freeware tool that is used to predict energy use, building layout, HVAC requirement, hourly
weather data, and energy cost.
DIALux: DIALux is used for advanced lighting study and energy efficiency
measures for roads, areas, buildings, and offices.
Easy Audit: Easy Audit doesn't require internet access. It is designed for use on tablets
with a stylus but runs on any computer or device that runs MS Excel.
PSAT: The pumping system assessment tool (PSAT) is used for the measurement of pump
efficiency and pressure drops.
SSAT: Steam system assessment tool (SSAT) is used to measure the performance of the
steam system

7.5.Economic Analysis

Economic viability frequently ends up being the deciding factor for management approval.
Numerous techniques might be used to carry out the economic analysis. As an illustration,
consider the Pay Back Method, Internal Rate of Return Method, and Net Present Value Method.
Payback is often enough for minimal investment, short-term actions with appealing economic
viability that use the simplest of techniques [4]. Fig. 7.2. shows the worksheet for economic
feasibility.

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 Annual Operating
Investment Annual Savings
Cost

• Equipements • Cost of Capital • Thermal Energy

• Cicil works • Maintenance • Electrical Energy
• Instrumentation • Manpower • Waste Disposal
• Auxiliaries • Energy • Raw materials
• Depreciation

Fig. 7. 2. Parameters for the economic feasibility of the energy audit

Fixed cost
• Cost which is dependent on maximum demand and units
generated

Semi fixed cost

• Charges levied on the installed capacity of the plant and are
independent of the elctrical energy output of the plant

Running cost
• These cost depend on the number of hours the plant is in
ooperation or upon the number of units of electrical energy
generated.

Fig. 7. 3. Different types of costs of electrical energy

The cost of procurement and electricity prices for different states in India vary due to
geographical conditions, consumer base, etc. Hence, the following factors are considered for
energy management and its economics

 Price at source and transport cost

 Transport type
 Quality of fuel
 Calorific value of fuels
 Energy charges
 Time of use charge

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  Peak demand charges
 Power factor charges
 Tariff rates
 Slab rate cost and its fluctuations

Table 7.2. represent a brief description about the various types of tariffs incurred for electrical
energy. Tariffs include the cost of investment, operation, and equipment on a particular project.

Table 7.2. Types of tariffs (For further information, scan )

Type Description
Flat demand tariff It is the charge paid by the consumers.
Energy charges Rs A. x where x is load connected in kW and A is
the flat rate per kW
Simple tariff This is used when there is a fixed rate per unit of energy consumed.
Annual fixed cost Annual operating cost
Cost per kW
Total units supplied per year
Flat rate tariff Types of consumers are grouped and are charged at different rates.
This considers load factor and diversity factor.
Step rate tariff The cost of 1kWh is not fixed but decreases in steps as the energy
consumption increases.
Block rate tariff When given amount of energy is charged at a specified rate and the
succeeding lots of energy are charged progressively at reduced rate.
Two-part tariff Charged on the basis of maximum demand of the consumer and the
units consumed.
Maximum demand Applied to bulk supplies and large industrial consumers
tariff
Power factor tariff Makes distinction between charge per unit to be covered from two
types of consumers i.e. good power factor and bad power factor
Off-peak tariff Charged during off peak hours and night.
Time of Day tariff Specific times have been defined by the electricity regulatory bodies
as peak hours and off-peak hours. The consumers will be charged
more for energy consumption during peak hours and less during off-
peak hours.

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Net Savings
Rs⁄Year Annual Savings annual operating costs 7.1
Year

Payback period in months Investment⁄Net Savings⁄Year 12 7.2

Current year s produciton

Production factor 7.3
Reference year s production

Reference year Current year

Plant energy performance 7.4
Reference year s production

Above are some of the equations used for calculating the economic feasibility of the project
after the energy audit. Based on the type of energy audit and analysis of the site, the outcome
may be defined in three main categories:

 Low cost - high return

 Medium cost - medium return
 High cost - high return

Normally the low cost - high return projects receive priority. Other projects have to be
analyzed, engineered and budgeted for implementation in a phased manner. Table 7.3
represents the priority guideline of the project depending upon the techno-economic feasibility.

Table 7.3. Project priority guidelines

Priority Economic Feasibility Technical Feasibility Risk

A: Satisfactory Low cost – high return Existing technology is No Risk, most
adequate feasible
B: May be Medium cost – medium Updation in technology Minor Risk,
return required may be feasible
C: Held Medium cost – medium Existing technology is not Doubtful
return adequate
D: No High cost – low return Major overhaul required Not adequate

7.6.Case Study

To perform a detailed energy audit Table 7.4 shows a step-by-step methodology for conducting
the energy audit.

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Table 7.4. Methodology for detailed energy Audit

Case study on an energy audit of household appliances is considered in this example. As in

homes and buildings, the main power and energy consuming components are

 Lighting: Bulbs, Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLS), Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
installed for indoor and outdoor illumination
 Cooling: Fans, Air Conditioners (ACs), Refrigeration units for cooling purposes
 Heating: Geysers, microwaves, induction tops for cooking and heating purposes
Entertainment: Televisions (TVs), music systems, computers for everyday need
 Other Appliances: Mixers, washing machines, Juicers, etc

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Calculation of energy consumption per day for a 2BHK flat with typical area of 900 ft2

Device Power Rating Quantity Usage hours Energy consumption

(W) (hours) (kWh)
Lighting
Tubelight (LED) 18 05 10 0.9
Bulbs (LED) 8 10 05 0.4
Cooling
AC 1750 01 06 10.5
Fans 70 03 06 1.26
Fridge 100 01 24 2.4
Heating
Geyser 2000 01 0.5 1
Induction top 1200 01 0.5 0.6
Entertainment
TV 25 01 02 0.05
Computer 200 01 02 0.4
Laptop 80 01 02 0.16
Miscellaneous
Mixer 750 01 0.25 0.19
Washing Machine 400 01 1.5 0.6
Total Energy 18.46

Thus, the per month energy usage of the above considered scenario is 18.46 x 30 = 553.80 kWh

Considering the tariff rates as given below (these rates are inclusive of fixed per kW meter
charges)

Units Tariff Rates (Rs./kWh)

0-100 1.65
100-200 3.00
300-500 5.50
500-800 7.35
800 + 9.00

The monthly billed amount for the above scenario will be

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(100x1.65+100x3+200x5.5+53.80x7.35) = Rs. 1960.43

For more information on case study pls scan

Fig. 7. 4. Energy consumption by different loads of household

Some recommendations for low power consumption in homes

 Take advantage of sunlight and leave lights off during the day
 Replace choke tubelights and CFLs with LEDs
 Turn of the electrical appliances when not in use
 Try to implement sensors for automation of lighting loads and ACs
 Replace fans with low wattage fans such as fans with BLDC motors
 Buy new electronic appliances considering energy star rating
 Refrigerator should be kept almost 0.5 feet away from the wall for optimum cooling
 ACs should be operated in optimum temperature range from 22 to 24 deg Celsius
 Replace CRT TVs with LED TVs

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The purpose of the above case study is to verify, monitor, and analyze usage of energy. It also
involves submitting a technical report with suggestions for increasing energy efficiency, along
with a cost-benefit analysis and an action plan to do so. Every person has a social responsibility
to save energy. In this section, we've examined the wattage usage of several gadgets, offered
replacement recommendations, and demonstrated net savings.

According to this research, if we utilize energy-efficient equipment, we may save a lot of the
power that is now being wasted by our gadgets without affecting their output and use it for
other devices. Utilizing energy-efficient technology allows us to conserve energy, lessen power
shortages, and control power price inflation.

7.7.Concept of Energy Efficiency

Once the optimization of energy usage and different energy sources is achieved, the next stage
is effective operation of the equipment through the best practices as well as judicious
technology adoption. Some of the pre-requisites for an energy efficient equipment are:

 Use of efficient semiconductor converters

 Deploy variable speed drivers
 Improve the power factor
 Using single-phase or three-phase semiconductor converters in rural applications
 Enhance the quality of power supply
 Mitigate air leakages in compressors
 Use fuel additive for improvement
 Clean fan blades for exhaust and cooling systems
 Use of proper thermal insulation and double-glazing techniques
 Regular defrosting to reduce energy consumption

The importance of electrical energy efficiency and conservation are:

 The exponential rise in demand of electrical power can be met by conserving power
and making electrical systems more efficient
 Electrical power is majorly consumed by various electrical drives
 Sufficient energy can be saved by these efficient and rigid types of electrical drives

7.8.Some examples of energy efficiency and energy conservation

Some of the key techniques to improve energy efficiency and conservation are listed below:

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Electrical drives

 Using special type of electrical machines with high power factor

 Deploy a phase advancer on the shaft of the induction motor to supply exciting current
to the rotor of the machine
 Promote installation of static capacitors

Household appliances
 Refrigerator should be maintained 37F - 400F and freezer sector at 50F with
moisture control
 The item to be place in fridge should be cooled to room temperature
 Use dim light in galleries, lobbies; balconies etc.
 Lamps should be put in those corners of the rooms where they can reflect many light
surfaces instead of one.
 Regular cleaning of filter in air conditioning systems and cleaning of condenser
conserve energy.

Community level

 Shifting of controllable load from peak demand hours to non-peak demand hours
 Integrate renewable sources of energy
 Installation of photoelectric controls or timers should be used to make sure that outdoor
lighting is sufficient during the day.
 Environmentally sustainable transport will promote more mileage less pollution by
greenhouse gases.

Industry level

 Regular monitoring and audit of energy consumption.

 Thermal insulation of fuel tanks, ceramic furnaces, etc.
 Old factories should now employ process modification
 Shifting to LEDs for lighting load to reduce power consumption

Summary:

In this chapter basic understanding of energy conservation, energy efficiency and energy
auditing are discussed. With suitable examples preliminary and detailed energy auditing and
types of energy auditing are presented. A list of equipment required to conduct energy auditing

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of a building, industry or commercial sector is also presented in the chapter. Advantages of
energy conservation and energy auditing, economics analysis of energy auditing are also
explained through simple examples. Concept of energy conservation at individual and
industrial level are also presented to understand the efficient use of energy.

Short and Long Answer Type Questions

Q1. Explain the importance of energy audit and energy conservation.

Q2. Identify the energy conservation measures that are important in a manufacturing industry.

Q3. Explain the various reasons for increased emphasis on energy conservation.

Q4. What are the various objectives of energy audit? Discuss the different steps for detailed
energy audit in an academic institution.

Q5. Write short notes on energy conservation in agricultural sector.

Q6. What different instruments are required for conducting an energy audit of a college
building?

Q7. Why an individual should opt for energy auditing of his premises?

Q8. Define and illustrate energy audit, energy efficiency and energy conservation with the help
of suitable example

Q9. Briefly discuss the various energy efficient lighting controls in respect of building energy
management.

Q10. Discuss some energy conservation measures for house hold and commercial sectors.

Q11. How can the benefits of energy conservation measures be evaluated? Explain

Q12. How can energy audit lead to energy conservation?

Q13 How can energy conservation be promoted in small scale industries?

Problem 1:

Determine the cost associated if you replace all the incandescent lamp and fluorescent/CFL of
your home/typical home with the appropriate rating of LEDs lamp. You may assume any
appropriate data; in case the data is not available. Also, determine the payback period to recover
the cost of replacement.

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Assume the following parameters. The requirements of illumination level are: Common Room:
35 Lux; Bed Room: 35 Lux; Reading Room: 250 Lux.

Type of Lamp
Parameter (s)/Specification (s)
LED Incandescent Fluorescent/CFL
Luminous Efficiency/Efficacy (lm/W) 70 15 45
Electrical Energy Cost (Rs.) per kWh 6.0
Average bulb life (Hours) 50,000 1,000 8,500
Cost of Lamp Rs. 300 Rs. 10 Rs. 100
Operating Hours/day 10 10 10
Assume the missing data, if any.
Problem 2:
Estimate the monthly energy consumption of your home/apartment/typical home according to
the following table. Also determine the monthly electricity bill and compare it with your
existing bill (If possible).

Total Number of Electrical Energy

Description of Rating Quantity
Power operating Consumption
Load (W) (Numbers)
(W) Hours (kWh)
Air Conditioner
Refrigerator
Freezer
Oven
Microwave
Toaster Oven
Built-In
Dishwasher
Portable
Dishwasher
Washing Machine
Dryer
Coffee Maker
Vacuum Cleaners
Blender

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Food Processor
Rice Cooker
Juicer
Coffee Grinder
Popcorn Machine
Deep Fryer
Iron
Water
Heater/Geyser
Space/Room
Heater
Ceiling Fan
Incandescent Lamp
Fluorescent/CFLs
LEDs Lamp
Others (if any)
Others (If any)
Other (If any)

Problem 3:
Determine the electrical energy cost for 50000 hours and average cost in 20 years period for
the following lamps and fill the blank data in the below table.
Type of Lamp
Parameter (s)/Specification (s)
LED Incandescent CFL
Wattage (Rating) 10 W 60 W 15 W
Electrical Energy Cost (₹) per kWh
(0-200 units) – ₹ 3.00/kWh; (201-400 units) – ₹ 4.50/kWh; (401-800 units) – ₹ 6.50/kWh;
(801-1200 units) – ₹ 7.00/kWh; (above 1200 units) – ₹ 8.00/kWh

Electrical Energy Cost (₹) for 50,000 hours ------ ------ ------

Average bulb life (Hours) 50,000 1,000 8,500

Cost of lamp ₹ 200 ₹ 10 ₹ 120
Operating Hours/day 10 10 10

Average Cost (₹) in 20 years period ------ ------ ------

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References and suggested readings

1. B.L. Capehart, W.C. Turner, W.J. Kennedy, “Guide to Energy Management,” The
Fairmont Press, 4th Edition, 2003.

2. W.J. Kennedy, “How to Conduct an Energy Audit,” Proceedings of the 1978 Fall AIIE
Conference, Institute of Industrial Engineers, Atlanta, GA, 1978.

3. Energy Audit Handbook, Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, Dublin, Ireland, 2015.

4. Energy Conservation Through Effective Energy Utilization, National Bureau of Standards,

Washington, USA, 1976.

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About the Book

Energy Science and Engineering

This book has been designed for second-year students of undergraduate students in the
engineering program. It will prove to be a valuable source for practicing engineers and faculty
members. The book is divided into seven units and provides all the necessary information on
an introduction to energy systems and renewable energy resources, with a scientific
examination of the energy field with an emphasis on alternative energy sources, their
technology, and applications.

This book will provide an opportunity to explore society’s present energy needs and future
energy demands, examine conventional energy sources and systems including fossil fuels and
nuclear energy. More focus of this book is on renewable energy sources, sustainability, and the
environment. Clean energy technologies and their importance in sustainable development,
carbon footprint, energy and environment, trade and research policy, future energy use that can
be influenced by the economics, linkage between economic and environmental outcomes are
discussed by including the latest available statistical data. This book also covers topics on civil
project development for creating energy infrastructure. Concepts of green building and green
architecture, energy auditing and energy enterprises with some practical examples are
presented in easy language to understand the fundamental concepts. It is important to note that
in all the units, dynamic QR codes are provided to collect additional knowledge on the specific
topic.

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