ETHICS REVIEWER • To fully understand Aristotle’s ethics, we must take into

consideration the notions of virtue, telos, and good habit because

Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics these concepts will help us understand the true meaning of
Historical Background Aristotle’s notion of happiness or Eudaimonia.
• Virtue ethics is an ethical theory developed by Aristotle in his book On Happiness
Nicomachean Ethics. In this particular book, Aristotle offers moral • Aristotle’s concept of happiness differs from that of Socrates and
principles of conduct that would guide human actions in attaining Plato’s happiness because for Aristotle, happiness only consists in
the “good life”. virtuous activity.
• Aristotle was a student of Plato in the Academia, Athens who • Happiness or eudaimonia is the ultimate goal or end of human life.
founded his own school, the Lyceum, because of his intellectual This happiness or the ultimate end is genuinely desired for its own
differences with Plato. sake or without qualification.
• The formulation of virtue ethics is primarily grounded in the • So, actions which precede this end become the most valuable and
Greeks tradition, which demonstrates theories essential for the cannot be superseded by any actions driven by ordinary kinds of
moral development of the entire morally capacitated beings. ends.
Meaning of Virtue Ethics • Like Eudaimonia, pleasure is also good. That’s why, Aristotle does
• Virtue ethics is defined as an approach to ethics that emphasizes not condemn man for desiring pleasure because it is a significant
the person’s character in moral thinking. part in human flourishing.
• This theory further posits that the basic function of morality is the • But for Aristotle, the desire and actions that lead to pleasure only
moral character of persons. Rather than following a set of rules, presuppose limited value since its end is temporary. Hence, the
what must be cultivated instead is the character of the person. satisfaction that one gets from these actions cannot be truly called
• This means that “character” is essential to the person’s happiness.
achievement of the “good”. • For Aristotle, these actions which only lead humans into the pit of
• In any moral situations, virtue ethics does not provide the moral two opposing vices (either excess or deficiency), drive them away
agent specific principles to guide his/her actions. What virtue from the ultimate end.
ethics provides in attaining the good are simply ideal behaviors, The Concept of Virtue
traits, and characters. • For Aristotle, only virtuous acts can lead man toward living the
• Thus, for Aristotelian ethics, practical wisdom is a central category good life or happiness.
that can help individual become virtuous. • Virtue is defined as a behavior showing high moral standards or
• Practical wisdom is a moral skill that enables a person to discern the general quality of goodness in a person. It is categorically
what’s right from what’s wrong, to be able to know how to respond described as the opposite of vice.
to everyday moral situations. • Vices, according to Aristotle, are the two extremes of the spectrum
• Unlike consequentialist theories, which focus on the consequences – one is the excess and the other is the deficiency. It is for this
of one’s action as the definitive basis for the rightness or reason that virtues are the mean or the middle ground between the
wrongness of one’s actions, virtue ethics, on the other hand, excess at one side and the deficiency at the other.
emphasizes the person’s practical moral development which is key • A virtuous behavior means practicing moderation – that is avoiding
to the attainment of authentic happiness. excess and deficiency.
• For this reason, virtue ethics deals with broader questions like: • Aristotle calls this the doctrine of the mean. Doctrine of the mean
What kind of life should I live? What is the good life? How can I is a principle that suggests that a moral behavior is one that is in
be consistent in my moral actions? the middle of two extremes.
For example:
 o Between shameless and touchiness is MODESTY. • 2. Maria studies hard all the lessons in school because she wants to
o If a moral agent maintains patience or good temper (mean) and earn higher grades in all her subjects so that, later, she might
rejects irascibility (excess) or lack of spirit (deficiency), then he become a scholar.
is said to have possessed virtue. • If we examine these examples tightly, both demonstrate ends
which correspond to the desired good. So in this context, every
human person is directed toward a goal or end which is good
because such good is, most of all, the desired end.
• The end (telos) of the actions in these examples is simply viewed
as an ordinary end towards an ordinary good.
• In the first example, Mario opted to see his thesis advisor rather
than play basketball. For sure, choosing basketball is a lower end,
while choosing to see the advisor is a higher end, which other
higher ends are possibly attached (e.g. to finish his thesis and pass
the subject).
• In addition to the idea of hierarchy of ends, we may also talk about
Telos: The Ultimate End a series of ends. This statement is clearly manifested in the second
• The Greek word telos is translated as “result” or “end”. Its verb example whereby higher ends determines the extent to which lower
form teleo means “to come to an end”. end is worth pursuing. Thus, Maria’s desires for higher grades in
• Aristotle conveys two distinct notions of end, namely: order to achieve an honorable reward during the graduation
a. Telos as ordinary ends, which is composed of hierarchy ceremony becomes a springboard for another higher ends, such as
(lower and higher ends). landing on a good job in the future.
b. Telos as the ultimate achievement of human being (the final • In these series of ends, there is this pattern of relations between
end) lower and higher ends, which is also applicable to other modes of
• Ordinary ends signify a goal wherein accomplishments are simply action which involves desirable result.
viewed as byproducts of human beings’ common desire. This goal • But the series of ends cannot go on ad infinitum (toward infinity).
is the stopping point, but it is not really the final or the ultimate • For Aristotle, there must be an apex of the hierarchy which is also
one. known as the ultimate end or the highest good. This is because,
• Since it is ordinary, it entails only temporary fulfilment from one’s without the highest good as the ultimate end, there would be no
experience of an apparent good. At this juncture, telos is indeed the reason for a rational being to act morally.
point of completion of an activity that an individual wishes to • And again, for Aristotle, the highest good as the ultimate end of
achieve because of the foreseen apparent good. moral action is happiness without qualification.
• Consider these two examples as guides:
• 1. Mario decides to play basketball. Most likely, he wants to solely
experience pleasure by playing the game itself or by winning it, or
to maintain a healthy body, or something else which prompts and KANT’S MORAL THEORY
motivates him to play the game. However, when he is about to play
basketball, he remembers that he has an appointment with his  In Kant’s view, the morality of an action should not be determined
thesis adviser on the same time. Consequently, he cancels the game by its outcome.
and proceeds immediately to his adviser. a. Human persons do not have full control over the outcome of their actions.
 (Even when the human person acts rationally, he/she does not o Duty is the motive behind a moral act.
achieve the intended outcome due to some uncontrollable circumstances.) o The moral worth of an action is possible only
b. If the morality of an action is to be based on its intended outcome, then when the human person acts for the sake of duty,
morality becomes conditional. and not just because of the potential good results
(Since human persons are motivated by different ends, they may he/she may get out of her actions.
find an action as “good” or “bad” relative to their ends.)  Kantian ethics is often called deontological, that is, duty-based.
 The Kantian ethics is in opposition to the moral theories of  Acting for the sake of duty vs. Acting in accordance to duty
consequentialists who conditioned the morality of their action on a. Acting for the sake of duty means acting for the sake of the law, that is,
its end or outcome. with absolute respect to the moral law, which dictates what a rational being
 Kant’s morality is governed by practical reason, grounded in ought to do
something that is unconditionally good, that is, good without b. Acting in accordance to duty means acting simply to conform to the law.
qualification . o When the human person acts simply to conform
 “Good” does not merely refer to anything that the human person to the law, the motive of her actions may be
can think of as good. influenced by certain desire for an expected
 There are many things that may appear as good, but are outcome.
not truly instrinsically good. o Kant is not saying that an action is done in accordance with duty is
 Example: intelligence, wit, judgment, courage, wrong because it still conforms to the law.
perseverance o It simply has no moral worth because it is
 Even happiness for Kant is not good at all if that happiness is not motivated by inclinations or desires.
deserved. o The motive, therefore, of any moral action must
 Infidelity and cheating are relatively good. be duty, not desires.
 Kant’s point is that, if something is good without qualification, o TO BE HONEST
that something is not merely good as means to an end and bad in
o TO PRESERVE ONE’S LIFE IS A DUTY
another.
o TO BE BENEVOLENT IS A DUTY
 It is absolutely good in itself and universally good in every
instance. o TO BE HAPPY
 Kant says: “Nothing can possibly be conceived in the o TO LOVE
world, or even out of it, which can be called good without o “Duty is the necessity of an action from respect for the law.”
qualification except a goodwill.” Kant’s Categorical Imperative
(Kant, Fundamental Principles of Metaphysics of Morals)  The moral law is absolutely binding and does not accept any
 Simply put, the only thing that is unconditionally good is a good exception (categorical), and at the same time, directs how human
will. person ought to act (imperative).
o The moral worth then of an action is determined only by  Kant calls this moral law the “Categorical Imperative.”
the motive or the will that is behind that action.  The Categorical Imperative can be discussed in these two (2)
o All those actions that people think of as good can become formulations:
extremely worse if the will to make use of them is bad. a. “Act only on that maxim whereby you can at the same time will
When can the human person claim that he/she definitely possesses a that it should become a universal law” (Kant, 1952).
goodwill? b. “So act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in
 According to Kant, when the sole impetus of the human person’s that of another never as a means but always as an end.”
action is that of moral obligation or moral duty.
  A maxim, according to Kant, is the principle on which the moral
agent acts. It is the principle of actions.
 After the human person determines a principle of action or maxim,
he/she must ask herself whether it is possible for everyone to act in
accordance with that maxim.
 Based on the principle of humanity.
 The categorical imperative dictates that rational beings must treat
each other as ends in themselves and never as means to some
further ends.
 If we use another rational being as means to another end, then we
have reduced that rational being to a thing.
Test for Universalization of the Maxim
To know whether a maxim can be universalized, it must undergo the
following steps:
1. Identify the action to be tested.
o Formulate the maxim (personal rule: “When I ..., I
shall ...”)
o EXAMPLE: Borrow money without intending to pay
[false promises]
“When I need money, I shall borrow it from someone without intending to
pay it back.”
2. Test for universalizability: imagine the maxim were a universal law, is
there a self-contradiction?
o Suppose everyone were obligated to follow this maxim,
as if it were a universal law: “EVERYONE OUGHT TO
BORROW MONEY WITHOUT INTENDING TO PAY,
WHEN THEY NEED MONEY.”
o NO ONE WILL LEND MONEY, “WHO ARE YOU
FOOLING, YOU OUGHT NOT PAY IT BACK”:
MONEY-LENDING LOSES ITS MEANING (self-
contradictory)
3. Conclude by articulating the duty
o Therefore, do not borrow money without
intending to pay.