Science of the Total Environment 820 (2022) 153332

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Development of a sustainability technical guide for the Italian olive oil

supply chain
⁎
Luca Lombardo a, , Camilla Farolfi a, Sergio Tombesi b, Elisa Novelli c, Ettore Capri d
a
Department for Sustainable Food Process, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via Emilia Parmense 84, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
b
Department of Agronomy, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via Emilia Parmense 84, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
c
Oleificio Zucchi, Via Acquaviva, 12, 26100 Cremona, Italy
d
European Observatory on Sustainable Agriculture (OPERA), Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via Emilia Parmense 84, 29122 Piacenza, Italy

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Sustainability must increasingly be a cen-

tral point in olive oil production world-
wide.
• The definition of the key elements of “oil
total sustainability” is a complex process.
• A technical guide was developed to facili-
tate the switch to more sustainable pro-
duction systems.
• The pilot olive companies resulted to be
attentive to the issue of sustainability.
• Weaknesses and opportunities for im-
provement came out from the analysis.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Italian olive growing must aim at the transition to economically and environmentally sustainable management sys-
Received 20 November 2021 tems, linked to premium quality production and to a recognized and remunerated context of biodiversity conservation
Received in revised form 17 January 2022 in compliance with the provisions of the European Union New Green Deal and United Nations Agenda 2030. To assist
Accepted 18 January 2022
and facilitate companies in this step, a sustainability technical guide for the Italian olive oil supply chain has been de-
Available online 22 January 2022
veloped, with reference to the four pillars of sustainability. The guide, consisting of 42 requirements, was submitted to
Editor: Damia Barcelo 18 olive farms from 8 different Italian regions participating in this pilot study, to assess their level of total sustainability
and to receive feedbacks throughout the drafting process. Taken as a whole, the companies have proved to be virtuous
Keywords: in meeting the requirements provided, with percentages of compliance ranging from 86 to 96% according to pillar and
Sustainability from 70 to 100% according to company and showed a remarkable spirit of collaboration and involvement in the con-
Italian olive oil supply chain struction of the guide. In this regard, the text is aimed to represent a participatory standard for Italian institutions and
Olive companies for other olive countries.

1. Introduction “sustainability“ is quite complex and broad, having a series of case-

specific facets that can be analysed and interpreted from different perspec-
Sustainability has recently become a central theme in business orienta- tives (Diesendorf, 2000; Purvis et al., 2019; Kwatraa et al., 2020). More-
tion, in the planning of governments' strategies and in the motivation of over, the well-known (and extremely vague) definition of sustainable
purchasing decision around the globe. Nevertheless, the concept of development in the Brundtland Report (WCED (World Commission on
Environment and Development), 1987; “development that meets the
⁎ Corresponding author. needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L. Lombardo), [email protected] to meet their own needs”), explicitly links the adjective “sustainable” to
(E. Capri). economic growth, social equity, food security and natural resources

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153332
0048-9697/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
L. Lombardo et al. Science of the Total Environment 820 (2022) 153332

protection. The practical application of this open definition, implying the described to increase under intensification of planting, albeit with some ex-
reconciliation of economics and ecology (despite sharing the same Greek ceptions, because of the greater biomass produced in response to the higher
etymological root οἶκος: home/family/family's properties), still remains volumes of water employed for irrigation (Mairech et al., 2020). Eventu-
the great challenge of the 21st century. One further problem is that while ally, in a comparative study on Water Footprint (WF) intensive and
chemical and physical phenomena concerning sustainability are generally superintensive olive orchards had a lower water demand per hectare and
quantifiable, the measurement of qualitative data like some social, cultural, lower values for each of the three components of WF, than those recorded
environmental and landscape issues (immaterial values) may be subjective in a traditional orchard (Pellegrini et al., 2016).
(Koo et al., 2009) and can be affected by particular local conditions. Italian olive oil industry counts 220 companies and over 4000 olive
Regarding the Italian olive-oil sector, the extreme fragmentation of the mills. Therefore, 90% of oil mills process less than 1000 tons of olives,
production structure, the different farming systems, the vast national olive equal to 44% of oil production (ISMEA—Institute of Services for the
germplasm and the prominent economic, cultural (from gastronomy to Agricultural and Food Market, 2020a). On the other hand, the capillary
medicine, from art to mythology and history), social and environmental presence of olive mills ensures fast olive processing and therefore the
value of olive, make it difficult to generically define an univocal model of hygienic-nutritional quality of olive oil (given the correct management of
sustainability. The Italian olive sector includes about 825,000 farms the previous phases), as well as the production of many oils linked to the
(ISMEA—Institute of Services for the Agricultural and Food Market, territory. This may represent an additional value especially in tourist
2020b), most of them (97%) are sole proprietorships employing about areas. Supporting local companies and safeguarding autochthonous culti-
95% of supply-chain workforce, but generating only 30% of the olive sector vars for premium quality products play a great importance for consumers
turnover (~4.5 billion euros; ISMEA—Institute of Services for the as the on-farm or on- mill purchases account to 26% of the total oil sold
Agricultural and Food Market, 2020a). 81% of the farms have a size of in Italy (ISTAT—Italian National Institute of Statistics, 2021). Despite
less than 2 ha (55% less than 1 ha) corresponding to 38% of the total this, since Italy is the world's leading olive oil importer, “100% Italian”
olive grove area (Ismea, 2020a). These data are also linked to the hindering olive oil represents less than 30% of total bottled production (ISMEA—
orographic situation of olive groves mostly cultivated in hilly (67%) and Institute of Services for the Agricultural and Food Market, 2020a). In
mountainous (11%) areas (ISTAT—Italian National Institute of Statistics, assessing the sustainability of this “international” oil, the environmental
2012), where the olive tree represents an integral and characteristic ele- impact due to transport must therefore also be considered. Furthermore,
ment of the territory as well as one of the few crop options for agriculture part of this imported olive oil comes from North-African countries with a
and environmental conservation (Tiò, 1996). weaker system of environmental laws (allowing for instance looser use of
Italian olive growing can be generally split between a majority (63%) of agrochemicals), than those enforced in Europe. To date, EU trade agree-
nonprofessional small-holder farms and a smaller, but significant, number of ments do not provide particular sustainability requirements for imported
professional farms, competitive at the international level (ISMEA—Institute goods (Fuchs et al., 2020), insofar as European Commission is about to pres-
of Services for the Agricultural and Food Market, 2020b). The former repre- ent a legislative proposal regarding a Carbon Border Adjustment Mecha-
sents a traditional, rainfed, poorly mechanized and low input olive growing nism (CBAM), namely a carbon tax applied to imports of certain goods
often practiced in complex orographic contexts, characterized by steep from outside the borders of the European Union.
slopes and terraces, in which workforce is provided by family members In this scenario, the identification of the high number of variables
and olive oil is generally destined for self-consumption (accounting approx- that must be taken into consideration in the sustainability assessment/
imately for 4% of the total oil produced). In this sense, these companies have self-assessment process for both the agricultural and the processing phases
a preeminent environmental, landscape, historical, cultural and anthropolo- represents a crucial point for a correct definition of actions and policy. The
gical significance, by preserving local traditions and biodiversity (local vari- drafting of a “total” sustainability technical guide is part of this perspective,
eties) and preventing severe soil erosion (Beaufoy, 2001; Loumou and as it was intended as an operational support for the enhancement and pro-
Giourga, 2003; Brunori et al., 2018). From a sustainability point of view, motion of a sustainable olive-oil supply chain by representing a point of ref-
they have a low environmental impact with high social value, but they are erence for olive oil companies in the definition of a sustainability model and
generally unprofitable (i.e. they are based on the undervalorization of family in the systematic implementation of improvement processes. At the same
worktime), although the earnings are often shared within small communi- time, it can be a useful tool for policy makers to define the areas of eco-
ties and families for which they represent an important (if not the only) nomic intervention in supporting olive companies in a context of environ-
source of income (Duarte et al., 2008; Palese et al., 2013). Notwithstanding, mental and cultural heritage protection, premium quality production, fair
extensive, rainfed olive groves in dry areas have been forecasted as the most income distribution, respect for workers' rights and profitability. Addition-
vulnerable to future climate changes (Mairech et al., 2021). ally, a sustainability technical guide can represent an aid for small farms in
Competitive farms are represented either by small but strongly market- the transition to sustainable forms of agronomic and/or business manage-
oriented companies with niche productions or by large companies with in- ment in order to access national or European fundings that are traditionally
tensive and in (sporadic cases) super-intensive production systems. These more commonly requested by and granted to large farms.
latter systems have been proven to be economically more sustainable
than traditional olive groves due to higher yields per hectare and lower op- 2. Methods
erating costs per kg of product (Godini et al., 2011). However, the increase
of plant density emphasize the use of agrochemicals, irrigation and mecha- 2.1. Development of the technical guide
nization with a consequent greater environmental impact on a per-area
basis compared to traditional systems (Beaufoy, 2001; Tous et al., 2014; The goal of the technical guide was to obtain a highly inclusive text
Russo et al., 2016; Ben Abdallah et al., 2021). Similarly, some studies report based on a limited number of requirements whose degree of compliance
a reduction of biodiversity of vascular plants (DRAPAL – Direção regional would have allowed for a general but accurate and comprehensive picture
da agricultura, 2009) and avifauna (Solomou and Sfougaris, 2015; Bouam of an olive farm/company sustainability level, taking into account the pecu-
et al., 2017; Morgado et al., 2020) in response to intensification, as well liar characteristics of the Italian olive oil supply-chain. It has been con-
as a reduction of fish variety and habitat diversity, in water courses in the ceived as a practical guide for olive farms/companies for improving the
immediate vicinity of intensive olive groves (Matono et al., 2013). From a awareness of their own level of sustainability at the environmental, nutri-
social point of view, a direct linkage between intensification and the notion tional, social and economic level by considering tangible and intangible as-
of de-territorialization has been proposed, whereas intensive farming sys- sets, for supporting companies in defining a sustainability plan and,
tems are less rooted to traditional knowledges, peculiarities and regional consequently, for stimulating a constant process of improvement. In this
ecologies of the territory and community (Silveira et al., 2018). On the sense, the sustainability technical guide may serve as a reference in the
other hand, the carbon sequestration potential of olive orchards has been self-assessment/external evaluation process to verify the consistency and

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L. Lombardo et al. Science of the Total Environment 820 (2022) 153332

effectiveness of the improvement approach over time through the defini- were invited to participate and the ones who accepted were met face to
tion of specific verifiable objectives, and periodic review. As it was thought face, one by one, for answering to the different requirements transposed
of as a starting point for the many companies not involved in sustainability in questions as usually done in the common standard of certification. The
issues, expensive indicators, potentially discouraging small companies, fifth phase was in practice, the validation phase of the requirements
have been excluded at this first stage. Nevertheless, the use of footprint screened in the whole participatory activity carried out.
indicators for the quantitative monitoring of the progress and company
efforts in terms of sustainability is planned in a second phase of the project. 2.3. Administration of the technical sustainability guide to several Italian olive
As such, this guide is aimed at representing a first step towards the develop- companies
ment of a unique standard of sustainability for the olive oil supply-chain
which can be easily conveyed to all the subjects involved. The text has gone through a validation phase with the participation of 15
An imminent practical application of this text may come from the intro- Italian olive farms, a processing company, a benefit corporation -with 9 con-
duction of “eco-schemes” in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) post- ferring partners- and a cooperative -constituted by 15 farms- operating in the
2020 reform, a fully EU funded instrument in support of selected agricultural olive oil sector, to test the effectiveness of the requirements and to build a
practices (European Commission, 2021) to accompany farmers in the switch constructive dialogue. Furthermore, this allowed us to outline an assessment
towards more sustainable management systems in accordance with the of the sustainability status of the companies involved. The administration of
“Farm to Fork” and “Biodiversity” strategies that the European Commission the technical guide took place in the form of vis-à-vis interview so to intro-
adopted, in May 2020, in implementation of the so called New Green Deal. duce the requirements and to answer any possible questions in real time.
Eventually, it may serve as a touchstone for other countries. Indeed, The companies, set up in the form of “company of persons” or “company
considering that over 90% of olive growing is practiced in the Mediterra- of capitals” (according to the Italian legislation), are located in 8 Italian re-
nean basin and, more generally in a rather restricted area (traditionally be- gions and constitute a rather exhaustive picture of the different types of
tween the 30th and 45th parallel North and -marginally- South) it is likely olive companies that make up the Italian olive oil scene (Table 1). Aim of
to suggest its application, with small “customizations” on a case-by-case this phase was to see the participation of a sufficient number of Italian
basis, in the olive oil supply chains throughout the rest of the world. olive companies, representing the Italian olive oil supply chain in its en-
Production processes of the agricultural and the olive mill phase have tirety and the 18 companies that agreed to participate allowed us to meet
been characterized in terms of environmental sustainability, landscape pro- this goal (as in Table 1), despite a greater number of olive companies was
tection, food safety and quality, ethically and socially responsible behav- invited to participate to this pilot stage. Actually these 18 companies rely
iour, olive biodiversity and cultural heritage protection, profitability, fair on a higher number of olive farms (including conferring partners and coop-
price and the sharing of value on the territory and among stakeholders. erative members) which have been directly involved for the verification of
This also implied studying the complex network of interactions and rela- the requirements. Furthermore, their different localization (from 8 different
tionships the company entwines with the stakeholders involved at different regions) allowed us to consider the possible different characteristics of local
levels (suppliers, customers, local community, distributors, etc.). This as- olive growing. In particular, 9 companies are located in the three most im-
pect is particularly important in evaluating the transparency and rigor im- portant Italian olive regions (Apulia, Calabria and Sicily accounts for about
plemented during the production processes, especially where several 75% of total olive oil production) while the others were chosen for the par-
independent companies are involved. ticular added value acquired by the olive oil produced in these regions
Reference was made to national and regional regulations (in particular (Tuscany, Umbria, Emilia Romagna, Marche and Abruzzo).
to the National Integrated Production Quality System -SQNPI-), good agri- The surfaces of the farms varies between less than 1 and 300 ha of olive
cultural and environmental practices, scientific evidence derived from the groves. Particular mention is deserved by the involved cooperative (Goel
available bibliography, the ISO 26000: 2010-social responsibility standard, bio) formed by companies that oppose to ‘ndrangheta -the organized
the SA8000 standard and the VIVA certification for wine sustainability crime of Calabria- that for this reason have been subjected to intimidation
and attacks over the years. It is a further testimony of the difficulties that
2.2. Participatory stage practicing agriculture can have in some areas of the country.

A participatory stage before meeting the companies envisaged the con- 3. Results and discussions
tribution of referenced representatives of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Forestry, the Ministry of Ecological Transition and Oleificio Zucchi, for an 3.1. Technical guide: general characteristics
ongoing sharing of inputs, intentions and knowledge and the creation of a
network of highly engaged stakeholders. A mixed methodology based on The technical guide has been developed on the basis of a paradigmatic,
previous experience (Campling et al., 2021) was applied. Face to face meet- ideal company covering the entire production cycle, from farm gate to
ings, workshops and remote webinars were scheduled in five steps. The first point-of-sale; consequently, it can be even administered to olive farms exclu-
phase was the drawn of the list of the technological needs and the socio- sively dealing with the agricultural phase, olive mills dealing with the stages
economic and environmental issues for producing sustainable olive oil: following primary production and companies exclusively dedicated to bot-
this was discussed in one workshop at regional level where scientists such tling, packaging and marketing, despite they cannot be considered the nat-
as pedologists, agronomists, genetists, food engineers, ecotoxicologists ural recipients of the guide, as they fall outside most of the provisions. For
were invited in the dialogue. All of them were involved in the project of this reason, the non-applicability of a specific requirement is contemplated.
the EU Rural Development Plan called Terre d'Olivo. Secondly we met the The text has undergone some changes according to comments and sug-
officers of the Sustainable Development Department of the Ministry of Eco- gestions of the companies involved, that were therefore not only passive
logical Transition and of the European agricultural ministries of the envi- subjects of this pilot study.
ronment and agriculture respectively. In this phase the political goals for The specification is divided into 42 requirements catalogued according
the sustainable development planned in the national strategies (e.g. the Na- to the four pillars of sustainability: Environmental (20), Food Quality/
tional Plan of Resilience and Recovery) were identified, in compliance with Safety (6), Social (10) and Economic (6). However, a requirement may
the European strategies. The third phase provided the involvement of single have several implications, thus falling into more than one pillar/category.
representatives of the olive oil industry such as cooperatives of producers, Mandatory actions and indications of (voluntary) good practices are envis-
farmers and millers: a mixed approach of meetings and webinars was ap- aged for each requirement; a requirement is met when all of its provided
plied for discussing and listing the requirements and relative benchmarking mandatory actions are met. The answer options are in the “yes”/”no”/
of the sustainability reliable for the national olive oil production. The fourth ”not applicable” form in reference to the mandatory actions only. The tech-
phase was the field phase including the survey: a large sample of producers nical guide administration took place in person during the visits to the

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Table 1
List and characteristics of the olive companies participating in the study.
Company Region Type of company Products

Azienda Agricola Bononi Emilia - Romagna Olive farm with jointly owned oil mill producing EVOO under its own brand Organic certified EVOO
Azienda Agricola Podere la Torre Emilia - Romagna Agricultural farm without oil mill producing EVOOs under its own brand 100% Italian EVOOs
Nursery with oil mill, conferring partner for the Consortium EVOO “Brisighella” (as Consortium)
CO.N.VI. Emilia - Romagna
POD and olive miller for third parties (oil mill authorized for organic production) POD certified EVOO “Brisighella”
Agricultural farm without oil mill conferring partner for the Consortium EVOO (as Consortium)
Azienda Agricola Le Battole Emilia - Romagna
“Brisighella” POD POD certified EVOO “Brisighella
(under several brands for associated
Company dedicated to collection, packaging and marketing of EVOOs conferred
companies)
from about 10 thousand producers (individual companies, cooperatives and
Finoliva Global Service Apulia -POD certified EVOOs
associations of producers) of Italian origin only.
-Organic certified EVOOs
Packaging of EVOOs for own brands and for Private Labels.
-100% Italian EVOOs
Azienda Agricola Fazio Michele Apulia Agricultural farm with oil mill producing EVOOs under its own brand Organic certified EVOOs
Azienda Agricola Fazio Giovanni Apulia Agricultural farm with oil mill producing EVOOs under its own brand Organic certified EVOOs
Azienda Agricola Gaetano Schiavone Apulia Agricultural farm without oil mill producing EVOOs under its own brand −100% Italian EVOOs
Azienda Agricola Zappa Gianluca Abruzzo Olive farm without oil mill producing EVOOs under its own brand 100% Italian EVOOs
Azienda Agricola Lungarotti Umbria Agricultural farm without oil mill producing EVOOs under its own brand POD certified EVOO “Colli Martani”
Società Agricola Rocca delle Macie Tuscany Agricultural farm without oil mill producing EVOOs under its own brand Organic certified EVOOs
Tenuta di Collina Tuscany Agricultural farm with oil mill producing EVOOs under its own brand Organic certified EVOOs
-100% Italian EVOOs
Frantoio Agostini Marche Oil mill with agricultural farm producing EVOOs under its own brand -Organic certified EVOO
-PGI certified EVOO
Goel Bio Calabria Cooperative with associated oil mills Organic certified EVOOs
Organic certified EVOO with local
Azienda Agricola Virzì Sicily Agricultural farm without oil mill producing EVOOs under its own brand
development brand “Nebrodi - Sicily”
Azienda Agricola Sallicano
Sicily Agricultural farm without oil mill producing EVOOs under its own brand Organic certified EVOO
Marianna
Benefit corporation (integrating in its corporate purpose, in addition to profit
Boniviri Sicily objectives, the aim of having a positive impact on society and the biosphere) with 9 Carbon neutral EVOO
conferring partners and associated oil mills producing EVOO under its own brand
(as OP)
Agricultural farm without oil mill, member of the Agrisana organization of 100% Italian EVOO
Azienda Agricola Agrisana Sicily
producers (OP) and conferring partner for oleificio Zucchi Organic certified EVOO
PGI certified EVOO

different companies. We interfaced with olive orchard owners, agronomists 3.2.1. Adoption of good agronomic and environmental practices
responsible for the agronomic management of the farms, managers of the With regards to good agronomic and environmental practices, ad-
olive oil production line and company figures responsible for personnel herence to regional integrated production regulations is required.
management, risk management process and relationship with suppliers These regional technical standards indicate the agronomic and pest
and customers. Each requirement has been described in detail -and eventu- management practices to be adopted to reduce the impact on humans
ally clarified- from the administrator of the questionnaire and each re- and the environment, but which allow for economically sustainable pro-
sponse was reasoned and commented with the interlocutors. Participants duction, taking into account the territorial and vocational characteris-
were asked to provide data and documents to prove their answers as listed tics of the area. In particular, the rules on integrated production
in the guide, or (at this stage) at least to ensure that they are in possession of concern: the choice of the cultivation environment and its suitability;
the documentation, to avoid subjective bias or misinterpretation of the re- management of the agro-ecosystem; the choice of varieties and propa-
quirements. Nevertheless, as this guide was meant to be part of a future sus- gating material, soil, water and plant management; agrochemical use;
tainability certification, thereupon, recognized certifiers will be responsible waste management. This requirement is considered fulfilled whenever
for verifying the truthfulness of the declarations. To facilitate its use and the farms/companies possess the SQNPI or organic certification. The
compilation, definitions and evidences are reported for each requirement, SQNPI is a certification scheme recognized at community level (EC
as well as data sources where to find the requested information. The user Reg. 1974/2006) that aims to enhance the sustainable agricultural pro-
is therefore step by step driven through an overall user friendly self- ductions in compliance with regional integrated production regulations.
assessment system. According to this implementation approach, a company Since 2016, 826 olive farms have joined the SQNPI, for a total area of
is put in the condition of being able to use this guide in autonomy with the about 30,000 ha, which corresponds to an average surface of 36 ha,
mere goal to test/improve its environmental performance, or to be evalu- far above the national average. A collateral objective is therefore also
ated by a third party professional, whereas the development of a sustain- to raise awareness of sustainability certifications among small and
ability certification will be realized. medium-sized companies.
As for organic certification, there are over 37,000 organic-certified olive
farms, covering about 22% of the entire Italian olive-growing area for an
3.2. Environmental pillar
average surface of 6.5 ha; however, the share of organic oil produced in
Italy corresponds to less than 10% of the total (~28,000 Mg; Sinab,
The requirements of the environmental pillar concern the management
2020). This is due to the reduced presence of oil mills authorized for or-
of the agronomic and mill phases in such a way that they have a positive or
ganic production, but also to the failure to deliver the product to the mill
neutral impact on the environment. Basically, the requirements can be
(organic certification gives the right, with some restrictions, to access to
classified into 4 categories (Fig. 1):
European Union funding) and marginally to the lower yield of organic
Adoption of good agronomic and environmental practices; olive groves. A limit could be represented by the possibility of labeling as
Biodiversity and cultural heritage protection; organic, only olive oils belonging to the virgin and extra virgin categories
Landscape protection; (European Commission, 2019). The paradox is that Italy imports about
Improvement processes. 18,000 Mg of organic oil per year, almost exclusively from Tunisia.

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L. Lombardo et al. Science of the Total Environment 820 (2022) 153332

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the requirements provided for the environmental pillar.

Adherence to the technical sustainability guide could represent an incen- Woods and forests protection is foreseen by Legislative Decree 3 April
tive for increasing this percentage. 2018, n. 34 in which the woodland and forest heritage is recognized
Possession of other private (e.g. UNI 11233:2009, Integrated production as “an asset of significant public interest to be protected and enhanced
systems in agricultural food chains) and regional sustainability standards for the stability and well-being of present and future generations” (art.
was provided too. 1). Similarly, Legislative Decree 3 April 2006, n. 152 provides measures
Further agro-environmental requirements regard the employment of for the protection of water bodies.
eco-friendly materials and protection of woods, vegetated areas and water Cover cropping has been proven to be the most suitable soil-
bodies possibly present in the olive grove as well as cover cropping in the management practice to protect the soil surface from erosion, to
inter- and intra-row and roadside during autumn and winter, optimization preserve the environment and to reduce production costs in olive
of pruning (performed at least every two -maximum three- years), identifi- groves. Cover cropping facilitates root development, improves soil
cation, density and distribution of the most suitable pollinizers, and the drainage, stimulates microorganisms' activity and diversity (Sofo
monitoring of the eventual onset of symptoms attributable to the principal et al., 2014; Lombardo et al., 2019a) as well as arthropod diversity
olive phytopaties, with particular reference to olive quick decline syndrome (Carpio et al., 2019), limits the need for external nutritional supple-
(OQDS). ments by preventing the leaching of nitrates and by increasing the
organic matter availability in the top layer of the soil caused by the con-
The employment of eco-friendly materials represents one of the possible stant renewal of roots of the turf (Kladivko, 2001; Arias-Giraldo et al.,
strategies to limit the production of inorganic waste in oliviculture and 2021) with all the associated positive effects on soil fertility -and, as a
to speed up the transition towards a sustainable production system. possible consequence, plant productivity-. Accordingly, Toscano et al.

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L. Lombardo et al. Science of the Total Environment 820 (2022) 153332

(2004) observed that organic matter (OM) content in cover cropped region, where the infection first appeared in 2013, causing the felling of
soils raised up to 122% compared to tilled ones. However, adequate her- thousands of olive trees and huge losses in oil production) and to the pos-
baceous species should be chosen to ensure a more balanced nutrient sibility for pathogenic insect vectors of Xylella fastidiosa subsp. pauca,
availability; in fact cover crops could compete with olive trees for min- strain CoDiRO (Philaenus spumarius, P. italosignus and Neophilaenus
erals, water and fertilizer if they are not well managed. In this regard, campestris) to be “hitchhiked” over long distances (Lombardo et al.,
the use of seasonal species or harrowing in the spring and summer to 2021a).
bury the manure and to eliminate weeds, could optimize water
Compliance with these last three requirements has obviously also posi-
resources during the growing season, limiting the loss of water already
tive economic repercussions.
infiltrated (Pastor et al., 2001). Although several studies report no sig-
As regards the oil mill phase, the requirements provide for preferential
nificant differences in yield between bare and cover cropped soils in
supplying of raw materials from the neighboring area and from companies
both rainfed and irrigated olive orchards (Gómez et al., 1999; Toscano
respecting the regional integrated production regulations and the exploita-
et al., 1999; Hernández et al., 2005; Vignozzi et al., 2018), others high-
tion of olive mill wastewater and/or wet pomace for agronomic purposes as
light a marked reduction in production due to spontaneous permanent
fertilizers for the nutrients contained therein (Lacolla et al., 2019; Muscolo
cover cropping in mature (Rodrigues et al., 2011; Ferreira et al., 2013;
et al., 2019). The advantages derive from the reduced environmental foot-
Correia et al., 2015) and young olive trees (from 3 to 7 years after plant-
print linked to transport, from the possibility of processing the olives more
ing) under deficit irrigation (Gucci et al., 2012). Thus the choice and
quickly, thus ensuring the freshness of the product and from the recycling of
correct management of cover crops are key points to avoid the possible
processing waste that should otherwise be disposed of with additional
reduction of the harvest. There is some evidence that spring/summer
costs.
mowing of cover crops is an effective choice to avoid yield reduction
(Palese et al., 2014; Sastre et al., 2016), while the employment of
cover crop with self-reseeding annual legume species resulted in higher 3.2.2. Biodiversity and cultural heritage protection
yields compared to ordinary tillage (Rodrigues et al., 2011). Requirements related to olive biodiversity and cultural heritage provide
Optimization of pruning is necessary to maximize the productivity of that the farm is committed to protection of monumental olive trees (accord-
olive by favoring aeration, lighting, photosynthesis and fruiting. Annual ing to article 7 of National Law 14/01/ 2013 no. 10 and to regional law
pruning allows lighter and faster interventions and is recommended (R.L.) 06/04/2007 n. 14 of the Apulia Region “Protection and enhance-
where particular forms of farming are implemented, but over the ment of the landscape of monumental olive trees in Apulia” and the R.L.
years it implies higher costs of specialized labor. The 2–3 year limit ap- 30/10/2012 n. 48 of the Calabria Region “Protection and enhancement
pears acceptable. In fact, pruning carried out every 2 or 3 years at the of the olive-growing heritage of the Calabria Region”) and to cultivation
most does not seem to have negative effects on production and oil and valorization of local cultivars closely linked to the territory, with partic-
yield (Rodrigues et al., 2018), while longer pruning intervals result in ular reference to cultivars at risk of extinction, falling under Protected
heavier operations causing significant production drops and significant Designation of Origin (PDO) or Protected Geographical Indication (PGI)
reduction of riparian vegetation and the hosted avifauna. Vigorous reju- regulations or included among/linked to Traditional Agrifood Products
venation pruning must be carried out to recover non-productive mature (TAPs). Italy possesses the largest olive germplasm heritage in the world
plants. The removal of suckers and watersprouts must be done annually and has the highest number of PDOs (42 for extra-virgin olive oils
to avoid unnecessary competitions for resources. Moreover, properly -EVOOs-, and 4 for olive tables) and PGIs (7), and 75 TAPs (23 olive oil
grinded pruning residues left on the soil's surface have been shown to or olives-based typical dishes, 19 cultivars and 33 EVOOs). The consequent
represent an efficient way to increase the olive groves OM content cultural importance of this cultivation is also evidenced by the national
and to diminish CO2 emissions (Rodríguez-Lizana et al., 2008; Nieto association “City of (olive) Oil” to which 375 Italian public bodies adhere,
et al., 2010). aimed at promoting the dissemination of the culture of olive oil. Addition-
Pruning must be carried out in late winter-early spring, when the re- ally 5 olive landscapes have been inserted in the “National Register of rural
serve substances have already been allocated and to avoid the risk of landscapes of historical interest, agricultural practices and traditional
damage from freezing and in non-rainy periods to reduce the risk of knowledge” established with Decree n. 17070 of November 19, 2012.
spreading diseases through wounds. About this topic, it should be emphasized that agricultural biodiversity
Identification, density and distribution of the most suitable pollinizers is protected by the European directive 2008/62 / EC (“In order to ensure in
are fundamental factors for achieving increased yields. In fact, olive is situ conservation and the sustainable use of plant genetic resources, landraces
an andromonoecious anemophilous species whose most varieties display and varieties which are naturally adapted to local and regional conditions and
high levels of self-sterility and a certain degree of inter-incompatibility threatened by genetic erosion (conservation varieties) should be grown and
(Lombardo et al., 2019b; Moreno Sanz et al., 2020). Also, the effective- marketed even where they do not comply with the general requirements as
ness of pollination was found to be maximum within a radius of 30 m regards the acceptance of varieties.”) and that super-intensive systems have
(Ayerza and Coates, 2004; Sibbett and Osgood, 2005). Moreover, consid- a detrimental effect on olive biodiversity itself, as they are based, to date,
ering that fruit set percentage is generally very low (around 10% of the only on three foreign varieties, even if some Italian cultivars have been pro-
flowers will bear fruits; Spinardi and Bassi, 2012), the -even small- in- posed as suitable (Lombardo et al., 2021b).
crease in this percentage generated by the right choice and distribution Regarding the agro-ecosystem biodiversity defense, mandatory actions
of pollinizers would lead to considerable higher productions, especially provide protection of olive groves of high ecosystem value, autochthonous
in monovarietal cultivation conditions, also in presence of self-fertile cul- spontaneous flora (according to the “Habitats” Council Directive 43/92/
tivars (Farinelli et al., 2006; Sgromo et al., 2006; Seifi et al., 2015). This EEC, implemented by Presidential Decree 8 September 1997 n. 357 and
choice must take into account the synchronism of the respective subsequent amendments, and to R.L. n. 47 of 7 December 2009 of the
flowering phases, and the adaptation of the plants to the given Calabria Region “Protection and enhancement of monumental trees and
pedoclimatic conditions of cultivation. The identification of pollinators spontaneous native flora of Calabria”), and threatened and/or protected
(as well as of cultivated varieties) already present in the olive grove can species that may be present in the olive grove and protection of the settle-
take place either through the use of molecular markers, or through bio- ment of pollinating insects in favor of entomophilic pollinated plant
agronomic characterization. In the case of newly planted plants, farmers species. A further requirement is the prohibition of harvesting/pruning at
must possess the regulatory plant passport provided by the nursery. night, in particular for super-intensive olive systems where these operations
The monitoring of the eventual onset of symptoms attributable to the have caused the death of millions of birds sheltering in olive crowns
OQD is an extremely contingent activity due to rapid advancement of (Da Silva and Mata, 2019); this is in line with the provisions of Directive
the outbreak front in Apulia (the most important Italian olive producing 2009/147/EC on the conservation of wild birds.

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3.2.3. Landscape protection phenols, tocopherols approved by EFSA and contained in the Commission
The guide requires the maintenance of olive groves with high envi- Regulation (EU) No 432/2012.
ronmental value, located in complex orographic contexts, characterized
by steep slopes, where they represent an integral part of the landscape 3.4. Socio-economic pillar
and play a key role in the stabilization of the hydrogeological structure
of the land. Furthermore, companies are requested to maintain terraces For the socio-economic pillar, most of the requirements derive from the
and dry stone walls as shelter for plant and animal species and a useful ISO 26000: 2010-Social Responsibility Standard and the Territory indicator
means to preserve soil structure (Santilli et al., 2011) and to evaluate (Luzzani et al., 2021) of the VIVA certification for sustainable wine
the visual impact the construction of new buildings and ancillary struc- (Dammaro et al., 2021). Concerning this last point, there is an invitation
tures will have on the landscape. In accordance with Council Regulation contained in the decree-law of 19/05/2020 n.34, art. 224-ter. of the Minis-
(EC) 1257/99 on support on rural development (article 22), “the try of Agricultural, Food and Forestry Policies to extend this sustainability
conservation of high nature value farmed environments which are under threat” certification to other agri-food chains. The obligations concern: (Fig. 2b):
and “the upkeep of the landscape and historical features on agricultural
• monitoring of accidents and injuries during working hours;
land” shall be recipients of support, nevertheless this provision lacks
• monitoring of the recruiting methods, contractual and working condi-
specific implementing decrees.
tions of employees;
• hours of training provided;
3.2.4. Improvement processes
• relationships with all the involved stakeholders, with particular reference
Monitoring of water, agrochemicals, energy and fuel consumption,
to the choice of suppliers and distributors;
waste production and application of improvement plans are required
• identification of cases of non-compliance with regulations and/or volun-
steps as well as the analysis of the bottling, packaging and distribution pro-
tary codes regarding the impact on the health and safety of products in
cesses and implementation of improvement plans. The farm must draw up
the post-sale phase;
an adequate irrigation plan based on the water balance of the crop and the
• employment of not misleading communications;
use of efficient irrigation distribution techniques. In this sense, while irriga-
• contribution to the economic and social development of the local commu-
tion has a positive effect on yield, as irrigation levels increase, the free acid-
nity and valorization of the territory and its food and cultural heritage.
ity of the oil and the emission of suckers increase, while the total phenol
content and resistance to lower temperatures decrease (Dag et al., 2008; Newly added requirements are related to the harmonization of volun-
El Yamani et al., 2020). tary declarations on sustainability and to attribution of a fair price during
Consistency and effectiveness of the approach must be verified over the sale or purchase phase.
time, through a self-assessment process based on the definition of specific Regarding the former issue, Legislative Decree 254/16 (implementing
verifiable objectives and periodic reviews. the EU Directive 2014/95) provides for the obligation for specific compa-
nies and large groups to draw up an individual non-financial statement re-
3.3. Food quality/safety pillar garding (Article 3) environmental, social issues relating to personnel
money laundering and respect for human rights. The Decree extends
Regarding the food quality/safety pillar, management of the harvest (on (Article 7) to all other companies the possibility of submitting a voluntary
farm phase) and post-harvest phase and traceability and nutritional quality non-financial declaration containing information regarding (Article 3, par-
of EVOO (olive mill phase) have been considered (Fig. 2a). The first re- agraph 2): a) the use of energy resources, distinguishing between those pro-
quirement regards harvesting at an early stage of drupe veraison. Whereas duced from renewable and non-renewable sources, and the use of water
there are other methods to identify the correct olive drupes harvesting pe- resources; b) greenhouse gas emissions and polluting emissions into the
riod (Tombesi and Tombesi, 2007; Camposeo et al., 2013), harvesting at atmosphere; c) the impact, where possible on the basis of hypotheses or re-
an early stage of veraison represents a simple and effective strategy to safe- alistic scenarios even in the medium term, on the environment as well as on
guard the quality of the oil, as olives not fully ripened have higher levels of health and safety, associated with environmental and health risk factors;
total polar phenols and tocopherols (Bouaziz et al., 2010; Menz and d) social aspects; e) respect for human rights. As there are a multitude of
Vriesekoop, 2010; El Riachy et al., 2019; Kafkaletou et al., 2021), among environmental certifications, it is not always easy to interpret the real in-
the main responsible compounds for the health properties of olive oil, volvement of companies in sustainability issues, so that the risk of green
and consequently greater resistance to oxidation. The other on farm re- washing is real. The scope of the requirement is to sensitize companies to
quirements provide indications on harvesting materials and methods, stor- a harmonization of voluntary declarations on sustainability to introduce a
age and transport of harvested olives. For the olive mill phase, the adhering single standard aimed at consolidating the criteria for declaring the sustain-
company must ensure quality, hygiene, safety and traceability along all ability of EVOO covering environmental, nutritional, social and economic
stages from post-harvest to transport of the finished product. Specifically, aspects.
a proper management of the post-harvest phase (storage of olives, materials The issue of the attribution of a fair price in the olive oil sector was first
employed, respect of hygienic conditions and multi-residual analysis limits) addressed at the Community level in 1966 with Regulation No 136/66/EEC
in order to ensure the safety and organoleptic quality of the olive drupes is of the Council of 22 September 1966 reporting that: “the marketing of Com-
described. The drupes must be processed within 24–maximum 48 h from munity crops of these products must ensure producers a fair income, the level of
harvest to minimize oxidation and avoid the increase of acidity (Rotondi which may be determined by a production target price in the case of olive oil
et al., 2021). The olive mill must apply the regional integrated production […] whereas the difference between these prices and prices acceptable to the con-
regulations during processing, packaging, storage and transport phases. In sumer represents the subsidy which should be granted to attain the desired objec-
case of different production lines (e.g. organic and traditional products), tive” and (article 10) “Where the production target price is higher than the
separate production spaces with dedicated storage areas or processing cy- market target price ruling at the beginning of the marketing year, a subsidy
cles set up at different times must be implemented. The produced EVOO equal to the difference between these two prices shall be granted to producers of
must respect the product classification and the company must guarantee olive oil extracted within the Community from olives harvested within the
the distinctive characteristics of: origin, organoleptic profile, composition Community”. However, it is still a current problem, so that the requirement
and health-nutritional value, through declarations on the label. EVOO bot- imposes the attribution, during the sale or purchase phase, of a fair price
tles must be properly stored as the quality level is maintained only if the that can guarantee a fair profit to the olive grower, the miller and the
storage conditions minimize the oxidative processes due to oxygen and other actors in the supply chain, in compliance with product quality and en-
light (Lanza and Ninfali, 2020). Lastly, olive companies are encouraged to vironmental and worker standards that takes into consideration the produc-
exploit the extra virgin olive oil-related health claims (regarding polar tion context, production and transport costs and intangible values.

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L. Lombardo et al. Science of the Total Environment 820 (2022) 153332

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the requirements provided for the food quality/safety (a) and socio-economic (b) pillars.

3.5. Identification of strengths and critical points of the companies participating in the subject were recurring reasons for refusal. This was symptomatic of
in the study in terms of sustainability how widespread a certain indifference or misinformation towards the
broader meaning of sustainability is and how much it is only partially
A collateral starting point for reflection was provided by the 12 farms/ understood. Institutions should pay particular attention to this aspect/
companies that, when personally contacted, -legitimately- refused to join indication, and promote specific interventions such as targeted funding
this study. Possession of environmental certifications and lack of interest and training courses.

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L. Lombardo et al. Science of the Total Environment 820 (2022) 153332

The farms that participated in this pilot study, despite not always having However it should be emphasized that this guide was conceived as an inte-
clear sustainability-oriented strategies, globally showed virtuous behav- grative tool in a future sustainability certification process together with
iours towards the four pillars of sustainability with percentages of compli- footprint measurements and, as such, compliance with all the meetable re-
ance with the requirements ranging from 86 to 96% according to pillar quirements in the mandatory provisions, will be mandatory. Consequently,
(Fig. 3a) and from 70 to 100% according to company (Fig. 3b). The percent- all the requirements have been foreseen to have the same relevance.
ages reported in Fig. 3 contain a two-level information: 1) the degree of a Analyzing the results more specifically, 11 out of 18 companies had
company's total sustainability and 2) where the company should intervene organic certification (Table 1), while the others turned out to comply
to improve its global sustainability level. This latter aspect is particularly with regional integrated production regulations. No farm resulted to be
important as the primary objective of the technical guide, at this stage, SQNPI certified for olive groves. Possession of other certifications has also
was to represents a mean to increase the self-awareness of companies' sus- been registered. All the farms cultivated local varieties (6 of them had
tainability, to identify the major weaknesses and eventually to understand POD or IGP certifications) and declared to protect monumental olive
how to ameliorate their sustainability performances, in a continuous im- trees, woods, native flora, endangered species, vegetated areas and areas
provement process. For this reason, a limited but exhaustive (corroborated of high ecosystem value -where present- and to practice cover cropping
by accurate studies and bibliographical research) number of requirements between tree rows. This last issue is provided among the potential agricul-
within every company's reach (whose satisfaction did not imply excessive tural practices that eco-schemes could support (European Commission,
efforts and costs on the part of companies) was chosen to reach this goal. 2021). A derogation from this requirement was naturally granted to the

Fig. 3. Percentage of compliance with the requirements at global (a) and company (b) level.

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L. Lombardo et al. Science of the Total Environment 820 (2022) 153332

cooperative members who carry out the mechanical tillage of the soil as it mills preferentially confer the pomace for the production of biogas, while
hinders the spread of fire in an olive grove, having been several times vic- only in one case it is used for fertilization purposes. This is part of a circular
tims of arsons. economy plan, in which waste is considered as a resource. Similarly, the
A main strength that can be extrapolated from the responses of the com- burying of shredded pruning residues is widely practiced; only rarely they
panies was directly related to the high quality of the product. All the inter- are burned in situ.
viewees, in fact, agreed in ensuring an excellent quality of the produced Difficulties arise when farmers were asked for certifications or certain
EVOOs with typical organoleptic profiles and made with the highest identification of cultivated varieties as most companies cultivate groves be-
hygienic-quality standards throughout the agronomic and transformation longing to their families over several generations, with mature olive trees
stages. Accordingly, all companies answered to have never been notified commonly older than 50 years of age. This is in keeping with the national
of any non-compliance cases. Above-average managerial skills have data, according to which 61% of the olive surface is made up of trees
emerged: the companies, even if family-run, asserted to manage to charge older than 50 years; this is even due to national law prohibiting the felling
a fair price for the sale of their EVOOs and to guarantee a fair price for of more than five olive trees every 2 years, except for serious phytosanitary
their suppliers in the purchase of raw materials. Fair compensation for em- reasons. A direct consequence is that about 48% of the farms have less than
ployees was a direct consequence, as well as a selling price of EVOOs even 5 140 trees per hectare, 47% between 140 and 399 trees and only 4% over
times higher than the average of the Italian market. Only one company, 400 trees per hectare (Eurostat, 2021).
complained a weak bargaining power in the definition of the sale price Other weaknesses were represented by the lack of control on energy,
because of the competition with other producers. This latter is a real water, fuel and agrochemicals consumption and by the failure to prepare
common threat for the sector, as small producers are exposed to aggressive and periodically revise improvement plans. Some uncertainty was under-
competition from national large olive oil importers and international pro- standably highlighted regarding the knowledge of protected or endangered
ducers. This is why strongly market-oriented companies with niche produc- species; this aspect must necessarily be part of the farms' improvement pro-
tions, betting on quality and the link with the territory, are able to have cesses as agriculture together with aquaculture is a major threat for
significant revenues. In fact, in marginal realities, it may happen that ~13,000 of the ~23,000 endangered and critically endangered species in-
farmers derive most of their income off the farm. Accordingly, the territo- cluded in the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN
rial and dimensional marginality of these farms results in an economic mar- International Union for Conservation of Nature, 2021) “Red List”.
ginality, that, together with the increasing aging of landowners (about half Although all the companies declared the produced extra virgin olive oils
of the company owners are over 65 years old; ISMEA—Institute of Services to fall within the expected parameters, only one of them answered to report
for the Agricultural and Food Market, 2020a), has often led to scarce inno- the pertinent EFSA health claims on their labels and, in any case, only for
vation capacity, reduction of investments, drastic reduction of expensive the content of polyphenols. Really, some companies were not aware of
cultivation practices (pruning, fertilization, tillage) with associated loss of the possibility to use EFSA approved health claims for extra virgin olive
production, increased summer fruit drop, marked phenomenon of “on” oil. In general, in the face of good environmental performances, communi-
and “off” years, and, in extreme cases to the abandonment of olive groves. cation of the applied good practices and the obtained results (namely com-
As a proof of this, on average (2008–2018 period) the percentage of prod- munication of sustainability) seems to be a weak point for most of the
uct left in the orchard corresponds to 7% of the total yield -this datum companies consulted. An exception was represented by the benefit corpora-
drops to 2.8% for the total agricultural production- with peaks of 12–14% tion Boniviri which periodically prepares a quality and sustainability proto-
(CREA, 2020), and olive oil production that just halved in the last 20 col shared with its members. Precisely in this mean the guide can represent
years (from 672.600 Mg in the 200-2005period to 313,000 Mg in the an effective and zero-cost tool in an extensive self-assessment and improve-
2016/2021 years) (IOC—International Olive Oil Council, 2021). Eventu- ment process and a concrete help in the drafting and standardization of sus-
ally, these are the conditions in which it is easier to resort to undeclared tainability reports for a clear and thorough communication with the
work and in which the hygienic-sanitary rules during olive harvesting stakeholders.
and oil production are not always respected, with negative repercussions
on the quality of the product. For all these reasons, the efforts that the
4. Conclusions
interviewed companies make to focus on quality and sustainable products
must be appreciated and recognized even more.
Sustainability is a consolidated decision-making lever for consumers,
Returning to the results of the evaluation, all of the companies have
who are increasingly attentive to environmental, social and food quality is-
been shown to be attentive to personnel management, to comply with the
sues. These aspects are particularly strategic in the case of extra virgin olive
relevant regulations in this regard and to have never resorted to undeclared
oil, where the nutritional value, the link with the territory, the environment
work. Most companies are involved in organizing training courses for em-
and social responsibility are added values and a marketing tool to attract
ployees, but only a few organize specific courses on sustainability issues.
and protect consumers. However, the definition of the key elements of sus-
As might be expected, the larger companies resulted to be more prone to
tainability declined in economic, environmental and social terms is subject
participate to the economic and social growth of the local community
to the identification of a high number of variables depending on production
through donations and financing of works and initiatives.
sector, company size and characteristics, environmental conditions, techno-
As for the defense against the onset of symptoms attributable to the
logical level, national and regional regulations, local traditions and culture,
Olive Quick Decline Syndrome, the farms implement a generic system for
number of stakeholders involved etc.
controlling the phytosanitary state of the plants, but, apart from one case,
In this sense, the drafting of a sustainability program for the olive-oil
they do not implement specific controls against Xylella fastidiosa, which is
supply chain is aimed at providing a technical support for the Italian olive
indeed seen as a non-contingent problem in the other regions other than
growers during the switch to environmental, socio-economic and cultural
Apulia.
sustainability practices. In particular, this technical regulation is proposed
An opportunity is represented by olive tourism, even if at the moment it
as:
is not considered a central element for most companies, which only occa-
sionally organize olive oil tasting experiences or activities linked to the A means of obtaining an accurate representation of the degree of sus-
local food and wine heritage. Nevertheless, they all agreed in seeing in tainability of an Italian olive company;
the experiential tourism a key factor for the enhancement of the olive oil A support for companies in defining a sustainability plan and to draft a
supply chain, with a nod to the value that the tourism sector has in Italy. sustainability report;
Companies have proved to be inclined to a process of harmonization of A first step towards a “total” sustainability certification based on indica-
voluntary sustainability declarations, so as to provide clearer and more uni- tors for the measurement of relevant benchmark established by the re-
form information and to reduce confusion for consumers. Companies with sponsible decision makers.

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Of course the future policy implementation should state the need for The Total Environment 755 (2), 142971. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.
142971.
further exchange of information and data between the various sindacate, Camposeo, S., Vivaldi, G.A., Gattullo, C.E., 2013. Ripening indices and harvesting times of dif-
politicians for the enforcement of instruments and structures to supply de- ferent olive cultivars for continuous harvest. Sci. Hortic. 151, 1–10.
velopment in fields. New meetings and workshop have been planned in Carpio, A.J., Castro, J., Tortosa, F.S., 2019. Arthropod biodiversity in olive groves under two
soil management systems: presence versus absence of herbaceous cover crop. Agric. For-
the Italian Parlamient and Agricultural Ministry to reach this objective. est Entomol. 21, 58–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/afe.12303.
The different types of companies participating in this phase of a step- Correia, C.M., Brito, C., Sampaio, A., Dias, A.A., Bacelar, E., Gonçalves, B., Ferreira, H.,
wise approach, representative of the complex olive oil production chain Moutinho-Pereira, J., Rodrigues, M.A., 2015. Leguminous cover crops improve the prof-
itability and the sustainability of rainfed olive (Olea europaea L.) orchards: from soil bi-
described in the introduction, turned out to be quite adherent to the provi-
ology to physiology of yield determination. Procedia Environ. Sci. 29, 282–283.
sions contained in the technical guide and strongly aware of the importance CREA, 2020. L’AGRICOLTURA ITALIANA CONTA 2019. CREA, Council For Agricultural Re-
of “sustainable thinking” in this particular historical phase. From this per- search And Economics. https://www.crea.gov.it/documents/68457/0/ITACONTA
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spective, they probably do not fit into the profile of most part of olive
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odology LL, CF, EC, ST, EN; Project administration EC; Supervision EC; and water regime on the yield and quality of “Moroccan Picholine”virgin olive oil. OCL
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ject during the participation and engagement phases. Scientific and techni- Ferreira, I.Q., Arrobas, M., Claro, A.M., Rodrigues, M.A., 2013. Soil management in rainfed
olive orchards may result in conflicting effects on olive production and soil fertility.
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