Applications of

Integration
Math for Electronics 1
Andrew Thangaraj
Electrical Engineering, IIT Madras
Area between curves
Area between f (x) and g(x) from x=a to x=b

Divide [a, b] into n regular intervals

f (x) of length Δ = (b − a)/n

Pick xi in the i-th interval

Riemann sum
Δ n−1
Rn = ∑(f (xi ) − g(xi ))Δ
i=0
g(x)
b
a=0 xi b x Area = lim Rn = ∫ (f (x) − g(x))dx
n→∞ a
When the curves cross....
b
∫ (f (x) − g(x))dx
a
will not work. Why?

Find intersection point c at

f (x)
which f (c) = g(c)

c
Area = ∫ (f (x) − g(x))dx
g(x) a
b
a=0 c b x + ∫ (g(x) − f (x))dx
c
Problems
Find the area of the regions specified below.

1. 1 ≤ y ≤ 4 − x, x ≥ 0 2. x2 ≤ y ≤ x 3. 1 − x ≤ y ≤ e−x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

4. y ≥ 0 and 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 − y 5. x ≥ 0 and 0 ≤ y ≤ min(x2 , 1 − x)

Length of arcs
Problem

f (x)

How to calculate distance along a curved How to find the length of an arc
path such as a running track? defined by a function f (x)?
Infinitesimal length of an arc

Example: semicircle

f (x) = 1 − x2
Δy = f (a + Δ) − f (a)
= f ′ (c)Δ, c ∈ [a, a + Δ]

Δy
Δ Infinitesimal length of arc:
hypotenuse length
Δ2 + Δ2y = 1 + f ′ (c)2 Δ
a a+Δ x
Riemann sum for length of arc of f (x) from x = a to x = b

Divide [a, b] into n regular intervals

of length Δ = (b − a)/n
f (x) Δ
Δy
Pick xi in the i-th interval s.t. infinitesimal
arc length = 1 + f ′ (xi )2 Δ

a x Riemann sum
xi b
n−1
Rn = ∑ 1 + f ′ (xi )2 Δ
i=0
b
Arc length = lim Rn = ∫ 1 + f ′ (x)2 dx
n→∞ a
Examples: Find arc length

1. f (x) = x from x = 0 to 5.

2. f (x) = x2 from x = 0 to 5.

3. f (x) = ex from x = 0 to 5.

In most cases, integration will require

numerical computation.
Perimeter/Area of a circle,
The number π , Improper
integrals
Perimeter of unit semicircle and the number π

f (x) = 1 − x2 Perimeter
1
∫ 1 + f ′ (x)2 dx
−1
1
1
=∫ dx
1−x2
−1

1 import scipy as sp
2 import numpy as np
3 sp.integrate.quad(lambda x: 1/np.sqrt(1-x**2),-1,1)
x
3.14159265 ⋯

1 1
Perimeter of 1 1
π≜∫ dx = 2 ∫ dx
unit semicircle −1 1−x2
0 1−x2
Improper integral for π
1 f (x): unbounded in [−1, 1]
f (x) = 1−x2
How to define integral? Improper integral

Improper integral: limit of "proper" integral

0
1
lim ∫ dx
s→(−1)+ s 1−x 2

For every s > −1, the integral above exists.

Extend to s = −1 by taking limits.

1 0 t
1 1 1
∫ dx = lim ∫ dx + lim ∫ dx
1−x2 s→(−1)+ s 1−x2 t→1− 0 1−x2
−1

Both the above limits exist. So,

x improper integral exists.
Examples of improper integrals
Unbounded function
2 2 2
1 1
∫ dx = lim ∫ dx = lim 2 x = lim(2 2 − 2 s ) = 2 2
0 x s→0 s x s→0
s
s→0

Unbounded limit of integration

∞ t t
1 1 −1 −1
∫ 2
dx = lim ∫ 2
dx = lim = lim ( + 1) = 1
1 x t→∞ 1 x t→∞ x 1 t→∞ t

This may not succeed always!

1 ∞
1 1
∫ dx, ∫ dx
0 x 1 x
The above do not converge to a finite value.
Perimeter of a circle of radius r
Semicircle Perimeter of semicircle
r
x2 + y 2 = r2 or f (x) = r2 − x2 ∫ 1 + f ′ (x)2 dx
−r
x = −r to x = r
r
r
=∫ dx
2
r −x 2
−r
r
Substitute u = x/r
1
1
= r∫ du = πr
1−u2
−1
−r r

Perimeter of radius-r π : ratio of perimeter to

circle = 2πr diameter of any circle
Area of circle
Area of quarter unit circle
Quarter unit circle 1
A=∫ 1 − x2 dx
f (x) = 1 − x2 , x = 0 to 1 0

1
−x − 1 − u2
Substitute u = 1− x2 du = dx = dx
1−x2 u

1 1
u2 1 − (1 − u2 )
A=∫ du = ∫ du
1−u 2 1−u 2
0 0
0 1 1 1
1
=∫ du − ∫ 1 − u2 du
Area of unit circle 0 1−u2
0
π
4A = π A
1
π 2
Area of radius-r circle A=∫ 1− x2 dx =
0 4
2
πr
Problems
Evaluate the following integrals.
∞ ∞ ∞
1. ∫ e dx−x
2. ∫ −x
xe dx 3. ∫ −x2
xe dx
0 0 0

∞
1
1 1
4. ∫ dx 5. ∫ 5
dx
−1
3
x2 1 (x + 5)
Volumes
Cylinder, Cone, Hemisphere
Volume of cylinder

Divide [0, h] on z -axis into n regular

intervals of length Δ = h/n
r
Infinitesimal volume = πr2 Δ

Riemann sum
h Δ n−1
Rn = ∑ πr2 Δ
i=0

Volume
h
lim Rn = ∫ πr2 dz = πr2 h
n→∞ z=0
Volume of cone
Divide [0, h] on z -axis into n regular
intervals of length Δ = h/n
zi : sampling point in i-th interval

r
Infinitesimal volume = π(zi2 r2 /h2 )Δ

Δ zi zi r/h Riemann sum

n−1
h Rn = ∑ π(zi2 r2 /h2 )Δ
i=0

Volume
h
1 2
lim Rn = ∫ π(z r /h ) dz = πr h
2 2 2
n→∞ z=0 3
Volume of hemisphere
Divide [0, r] on z -axis into n regular
intervals of length Δ = r/n
zi : sampling point in i-th interval
r
Infinitesimal volume = π(r2 − zi2 )Δ

zi r2−
zi 2 Riemann sum
n−1
Δ
Rn = ∑ π(r2 − zi2 )Δ
i=0
r
−r
Volume
r
2 3
lim Rn = ∫ π(r − z ) dz = πr
2 2
n→∞ z=0 3
Solids obtained by revolution
f (x) = x − 0.5x2 + 0.1x3 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 5
y
f (x)
x Revolve the region
below curve about
x-axis

Many interesting shapes can be generated

by revolving regions defined by a curve.
How to compute volume?
Volume of solid of revolution Divide [0, 5] on x-axis into n regular
intervals of length Δ = 5/n
xi : sampling point in i-th interval

Infinitesimal volume = πf (xi )2 Δ

f (xi )
xi Riemann sum
n−1
Rn = ∑ πf (xi )2 Δ
Δ i=0

Volume
5
lim Rn = ∫ π f (x)2 dx
n→∞ x=0
Problems
Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving
the following regions about the x-axis.

1. 0 ≤ y ≤ min(2x, 1 − x), 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

2. 0 ≤ y ≤ 1/x, 1 ≤ x ≤ 3
Logarithm function
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II
Theorem
Let f be integrable on [a, b]. For x ∈ [a, b], let
x
F (x) = ∫ f (u)du.
a
Then, F is continuous on [a, b]. If f is continuous at x0 ∈ [a, b], then
F ′ (x0 ) = f (x0 ).

Proof idea x0 +h Since f is continuous at x0 ,

F (x0 + h) − F (x0 ) 1
= ∫ f (u)du f (x0 ) − δ ≤ f (u) ≤ f (x0 ) + δ
h h x0
for u ∈ [x0 , x0 + h] with
→ f (x0 ) as h → 0
δ → 0 as h → 0.
This theorem can be used to define some
special functions with desirable properties.
Logarithm: Function whose derivative is 1/x

f (t) = 1/t
x
1
log(x) ≜ ∫ dt for x > 0
1 t

Properties
1. log(1) = 0
2. log(x) > 0 for x > 1
3. log(x) < 0 for 0 < x < 1 t
1
4. log (x) = for x > 0
′
x
5. log(x) monotonically increasing
As x → ∞
f (t) = 1/t
x
1
log x = ∫ dt
1 t
Area under 1/t from 1 to x

1/2 How to get an easy lower

1/3 1/4
bound?
0 1 2 3 4 5 ⌊x⌋ x t

x
1 1 1 1
For x > 2, log(x) = ∫ dt ≥ + + ⋯ +
1 t 2 3 ⌊x⌋

As x → ∞,
lim log(x) = ∞
x→∞
As x → 0+ 1
1
− log x = ∫ dt How to get an easy lower
1/x x t
bound?
⌊1/x⌋ Area under 1/t from x to 1

f (t)=1/t
For x < 1,
4 1
1 1 1
1/4 − log(x) = ∫ dt ≥ (1 − x) + ( − x) + ⋯ + ( − x)
t 2 ⌊1/x⌋
3 x

1/3 1 1
=1+ +⋯+ − x⌊1/x⌋
2 2 ⌊1/x⌋
1/2
1
1 As x → 0+,

0x 1 t lim log(x) = −∞
x→0+
Logarithm is inverse of Exponential
y
′ 1 x
(log(e )) = x e = 1
x
e y = ex
log(ex ) = x + c

Put x = 0 to get c = 0 y0 = ex0

x0 = log y0
log(e ) = x
x
y0 (x0 , y0 )

elog(x) = x

0 x0 x
Plots of Logarithm and Exponential functions
y = ex

y=x

y = log x
Reflect y = ex about x = y line
to get y = log x
Antiderivative using log

Suppose f (x) = u′ (x)/u(x), u(x) =

 0. The anti-derivative of f is
Af (x) = log ∣u(x)∣ + c.

Proof
1
If u(x) > 0, A′f (x) = u′ (x) = f (x).
u(x)

1
If u(x) < 0, A′f (x) = (−u′ (x)) = f (x).
−u(x)
More properties
Proof
Multiplication log ab = log a + log b log ab = log elog a elog b
a 1 = log elog a+log b
log = log a − log b log = − log b
b b = log a + log b

Power log ab = b log a ab = (elog a )b = eb log a

ax , a > 0 ax = ex log a (ax )′ = ax (log a)

Limits lim x−α log x = 0, α > 0 Put u = log x.

x→∞
lim e−αu u = 0
log x goes to ∞ slower than any u→∞

positive power of x
Logarithm to the base a, a > 0
ax = ex log a
log x

log x: inverse of e . What is the inverse of a ?

x x So, a log a = elog x = x

log x
: inverse of ax
log a

Logarithm to the base a, written loga x, is defined as

log x
loga x ≜
log a

log x: written as loge x or ln x, called log to the base e or natural logarithm

Popular bases: 2, 10
Problems
Evaluate the following limits.
1. lim
a n
x log x 2. lim (1 + ) 3. lim
log(1 + x) 2n0.1 + log n
4. lim
x→0+ n→∞ n x→∞ log2 x n→∞ n0.1 + 1

Find derivatives of the following.

1−x x6 (x + 1)3 (x + 2)2
1. log 2. x log x + (1 − x) log(1 − x) 3. 4. x2x log x
1+x (x + 3)2 (x + 5)10

Evaluate the following integrals.

5 5 5 5 5
x ex dx
1. ∫ 2
dx 2. ∫ dx 3. ∫ 4. ∫ 2x dx 5. ∫ log x dx
2 1 + 4x 2 1 + 4ex
2 x log x 2 2

5 5
dx
6. ∫ 7. ∫ x2x (1 + log x)dx
2 x log2 x 2