Topic 1_Part 2:

Temperature, and kinetic theory

Prepared by: Dr Farhah
Topic 1: Temperature, heat and kinetic theory
▪ Atomic Theory of Matter ▪ Ideal Gas Law in Terms of
Molecules: Avogadro’s Number
▪ Temperature and Thermometers
▪ Kinetic Theory and the Molecular
▪ Thermal Equilibrium and the Zeroth
Interpretation of Temperature
Law of Thermodynamics
▪ Distribution of Molecular Speeds
▪ Thermal Expansion
▪ Real Gases and Changes of Phase
▪ The Gas Laws and Absolute
(Triple point)
Temperature
▪ The Ideal Gas Law
▪ Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas
Law
1-5 The Gas Laws and Absolute Temperature
Temperature and absolute temperature
•When gas is heated in an enclosed
space its pressure p increases.
•The following experiment plots pressure
p vs. temperature T in Celsius.
•We can extrapolate the graph.
•Now we repeat using different gases.
p 10 20
0 30

T (°C)
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
1-5 The Gas Laws and Absolute Temperature
Temperature and absolute temperature
•The lowest pressure p that can exist is zero.
•Surprisingly, the temperature at which any gas attains a
pressure of zero is the same, regardless of the gas.
•The Celsius temperature at which the pressure is zero
(for all gases) is -273.15 °C.

-273.15 °C

T (°C)
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
1-5 The Gas Laws and Absolute Temperature
Temperature and absolute temperature
•Because the lowest pressure that can exist is zero, this
temperature is the lowest temperature that can exist, and
it is called absolute zero.
•A new temperature scale that has absolute
zero as its lowest value is called the
Freezing
0° C 273 K
Kelvin temperature scale.

CELSIUS SCALE

KELVIN SCALE
p

-273.15 °C

Absolute
zero
-273°C 0K
T (°C)
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
1-5 The Gas Laws and Absolute Temperature
Converting between Kelvin and Celsius temperatures
•The simple relationship between the Kelvin and Celsius
scales is given here:
T(K) = T(°C) + 273 Kelvin and Celsius relationship
FYI •Note that there is no degree Freezing
0° C 273 K
symbol on Kelvin temperatures.

CELSIUS SCALE

KELVIN SCALE
EXAMPLE: Convert 100°C to Kelvin,
and 100 K to C°.

Absolute
zero
-273°C 0K
1-5 The Gas Laws and Absolute Temperature

• The concept of absolute zero allows us to define a third

temperature scale—the absolute, or Kelvin, scale.
• This scale starts with 0 K at absolute zero, but otherwise is
the same as the Celsius scale.
• Therefore, the freezing point of water is 273.15 K, and the
boiling point is 373.15 K.
• Finally, when the volume is constant, the pressure is
directly proportional to the temperature: P ∝T.
 1-5 The Gas Laws : Gay-lussac’s (pressure) law
• states : “The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant
volume is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.”

PT If V = constant
P P1 P2
= constant =
T T1 T2
where T1 : initial absolute temperatu re
T2 : final absolute temperatu re
P1 : initial pressure
P2 : final pressure

8
 a. P b. P

−273.15 0 T(C) 0 T(K)

Graphs of the Gay-lussac’s (pressure) law.

9
 1-5 The Gas Laws : Charles’s law
• states : “The volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant
pressure is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature.”
V T If P = constant
V V1 V2
= constant =
T T1 T2
where T1 : initial absolute temperatu re
T2 : final absolute temperatu re
V1 : initial volume
V2 : final volume

10
 a. V b. V

−273.15 0 T(C) 0 T(K)

Graphs of the Charles’s law.

11
1-5 The Gas Laws : Boyle’s law

states : “The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant

temperature is inversely proportional to its volume.”

1
P if T = constant
V

PV = constant OR P1V1 = P2V2

where P1 : initial pressure
P2 : final pressure
V1 : initial volume
V2 : final volume
12
 Graphs of the Boyle’s law.
a. P b. PV

T2 > T1
T2
T1
T2
T1
0 V 0 P
c. P d. PV
T2

T1 T2
T1

1
13 V
0 V 0
1-5 The Gas Laws and Absolute Temperature
Robert Boyle’s the volume of a gas is inversely P1V1=P2V2
Boyle law proportional to the absolute =constant
(1627– pressure applied to it when the
1691) temperature is kept constant

Jacques Charles’ the volume of a fixed quantity of V1/T1=V2/T2

Charles s law gas is directly proportional =constant
(1746– to the absolute temperature
1823) when the pressure is kept
constant.

Joseph Gay- at constant volume, the absolute P1/T1=P2/T2=con

Gay- Lussac’s pressure of a fixed quantity stant
Lussac law of a gas is directly proportional to
(1778– the absolute temperature
1850)

**accurate for real gases only as long as the pressure and 𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
density of the gas are not too high, =
**the gas is not too close to liquefaction 𝑇1 𝑇2
1-5 The Gas Laws and Absolute Temperature (In details)
 1-6: Equation of state for an ideal gas
• An ideal gas is defined as a perfect gas which obeys the three
gas laws (Boyle’s, Charles’s and Gay-Lussac’s) exactly.
• Consider an ideal gas in a container changes its pressure P,
volume V and temperature T as shown in Figure.

P1 P2 P2
2nd stage
V1 1st stage V' V2
T1 T1 T2
16
 – In 1st stage, temperature is kept at T1 ,
Using Boyle’s law :
P2V ' = P1V1 P1V1
V '= (1)
P2
– In 2 stage, pressure is kept constant at P2 ,
nd

Using Charles’s law :

V ' V2 V2T1
= V '= (2)
T1 T2 T2
– Equating eqs. (1) and (2), thus
P1V1 P2V2 PV
= OR = constant (3)
T1 T2 T

Initial Final
17
• Consider 1 mole of gas at standard temperature and pressure
(S.T.P.), T = 273.15 K, P = 101.3 kPa and Vm = 0.0224 m3
➢ From equation (3),

R=
( )
PVm 101.3  10 3 (0.0224 )
=
T 273.15
−1 −1
R = 8 .31 J K mol
where R is called molar gas constant and its value is the
same for all gases.
➢ Thus PV
m
=R where Vm : volume of 1 mole of gas
T
PVm = RT
• For n mole of an ideal gas, the equation of state is written as

PV = nRT
➢ where n : the number of mole of gas
 m where
n= m : mass of a gas
M M : molar mass of a gas
OR
N where
n= N : number of molecules
N A N : Avogadro' s constant
A
= 6 .02  10 23 mol −1
– If the Boltzmann constant, k is defined as
R
k= = 1.38  10 − 23 J K −1
NA
then the equation of state becomes

19
PV = NkT
1-6 The Ideal Gas Law
A mole (mol) is defined as the number of grams of a
substance that is numerically equal to the molecular
mass of the substance:
1 mol H2 has a mass of 2 g
1 mol Ne has a mass of 20 g
1 mol CO2 has a mass of 44 g
The number of moles in a certain mass of material:
1-7 Ideal Gas Law in Terms of Molecules:
Avogadro’s Number

The Avogadro constant

•It turns out a mole of carbon (12 g) and a mole of
phosphorus (31 g) has the same number of atoms.
•This means that 30.973762 g of P has the same number
of atoms and 12.011 g of C.
•That number NA is given here:
NA = 6.021023 molecules. the Avogadro constant
EXAMPLE: How many atoms of P are there in 31.0 g of it?
How many atoms of C are there in 12.0 g of it?
SOLUTION:
1-7 Ideal Gas Law in Terms of Molecules:
Avogadro’s Number

The Avogadro constant

NA = 6.021023 molecules. the Avogadro constant
•To find the number of atoms
in a sample, simply convert
sample to moles, then use
the conversion
1 mol = 6.021023 molecules.
EXAMPLE: How many atoms
of P are there in 145.8 g of it?
SOLUTION: It is best to start with the given quantity.
1-7 Ideal Gas Law in Terms of Molecules:
Avogadro’s Number

The Avogadro constant

•To find the number of moles n in a sample containing N
atoms, use this formula:
n = N / NA the molar ratio
EXAMPLE: A sample of carbon has 1.281024 atoms as
counted by Marvin the Paranoid Android.
a) How many moles is this?
b) What is its mass?
SOLUTION: It is best to start with the given quantity.
1-8 Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law
Differences between real and ideal gases
•The properties of an ideal gas:

•The kinetic theory of gases is, of course, a model.

•As such, it doesn’t apply perfectly to real gases.
1-8 Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law

Differences between real and ideal gases

• the properties of a real gas.

FYI
•Real gases are often polyatomic (N2, O2, H2O, NH4,
etc.) and thus not spherical.
•Ideal gases cannot be liquefied, but real gases have
intermolecular forces and non-zero volume, so they can
be liquefied.
1-8 Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law
Useful facts and definitions: Standard condition
• Standard temperature and pressure (STP)
T = 273 K (0°C)
P = 1.00 atm = 1.013 × 105 N/m2 = 101.3 kPa
• Volume of 1 mol of an ideal gas is 22.4 L
• If the amount of gas does not change:

• P is measured in Pascals or Nm-2.

• V is measured in m3.
• T is measured in K.
1-8 Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law

Volume of one mole at STP. Determine the volume of

1.00 mol of any gas, assuming it behaves like an ideal gas, at
STP.

The value of 22.4 L for the volume of 1 mol of an ideal gas at STP
is worth remembering, for it sometimes makes calculation simpler.
1-8 Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law
Differences between real and ideal gases
1-8 Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law
Helium balloon. A helium party balloon, assumed to be a perfect sphere, has a
radius of 18.0 cm. At room temperature (20°C), its internal pressure is 1.05
atm. Find the number of moles of helium in the balloon and the mass of helium
needed to inflate the balloon to these values.
1-8 Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law
Equation of state for an ideal gas
1-8 Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law

Equation of state for an ideal gas

•For an ideal gas use pV = nRT.

1-8 Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law

Equation of state for an ideal gas

1-8 Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law
Sketching and interpreting state change graphs
1-8 Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law
Hydrogen atom mass. Use Avogadro’s number to determine
the mass of a hydrogen atom.
1-9 Kinetic Theory and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature
• kinetic theory→The analysis of matter in terms of atoms in
continuous random motion .

Assumptions of kinetic theory (ideal gas):

• large number of molecules, moving in random directions
with a variety of speeds
• molecules are far apart, on average
• molecules obey laws of classical mechanics and interact
only when colliding
• collisions are perfectly elastic (molecule or wall)
1-9 Kinetic Theory and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature
Calculate quantitatively the pressure a gas exerts on
its container in terms of microscopic quantities.
1. imagine that the molecules are inside a
rectangular container (at rest) whose ends have
area (A) and whose length is (l)
2. pressure exerted by the gas on the walls of its
container is due to the collisions of the molecules with
the walls.

• Newton’s third law (one molecule strike the wall, the

wall exerts an equal and opposite force back on the
molecule)
• Newton’s second law, magnitude of this force on the
molecule is:
Assuming the collision is elastic, only the x component
of the molecule’s momentum changes,

∆𝑇, the time it takes the molecule to travel across

the container and back again, a distance (x
component)=2l
1-9 Kinetic Theory and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature
To calculate the force due to all the molecules in the container, we have to add the
contributions of each.

The average value of the square of the x component of velocity is

1-9 Kinetic Theory and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature
We know that the square of any vector is equal to the sum of the squares of its
components (theorem of Pythagoras). Thus

Since the velocities of the molecules in our gas are assumed to be random, there
is no preference to one direction or another. Hence

Combining Eqs

Then Substitute into

1-9 Kinetic Theory and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature

The pressure on the wall is then

This equation tells us that the average

translational kinetic energy of molecules
in random motion in an ideal gas is
directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas.
1-9 Kinetic Theory and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature
The kinetic model of an ideal gas
1-9 Kinetic Theory and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature

Problem Solving: Molecular kinetic energy. What is the

average translational kinetic energy of molecules in an ideal
gas at 37°C?
1-9 Kinetic Theory and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature
We can invert this to find the average speed of molecules in a gas as a
function of temperature

Speeds of air molecules. What is the rms speed of air Molecules (O2 and N2)
at room temperature (20°C)?
1-10 Real Gases and Changes of Phase
A PT diagram is called a phase diagram; it shows all three phases of
matter. The solid-liquid transition is melting or freezing; the liquid-vapor
one is boiling or condensing; and the solid-vapor one is sublimation.

Phase diagram
of water

The triple point is the only point where all three phases can
coexist in equilibrium.