TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

TABLE CONTENTS

ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS.................................................................................. 1

FOREWORD ................................................................................................................ 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................ 4
1.2 Purpose .................................................................................................................. 4
1.3 Overall Objective .................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Target Users of the Training Manual ....................................................................... 4
MODULE 1: FACILITATION SKILLS ............................................................................ 5
MODULE 2: COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT .............................................................. 8
MODULE 3: GROUP FORMATION & DEVELOPMENT ............................................. 14
MODULE 4: LEADERSHIP AND GOVERNANCE ........................................................ 17
MODULE 5: CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN COMMUNITY GROUPS ........................ 22
MODULE 6: ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND DEVELOPMENT ....................................... 27
MODULE 7: PARTICIPATORY METHODS FOR DEVELOPMENT ............................... 33
MODULE 8: PROJECT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT ......................................... 37
MODULE 9: RESOURCE MOBILIZATION .................................................................. 40
MODULE 10: RECORD KEEPING AND MANAGEMENT ........................................... 43
MODULE 11: CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES ..................................................................... 45
ANNEXES .....................................................................................................................49
LIST OF TABLES ..........................................................................................................
Table 1 shows characteristics of Healthy and Unhealthy communities .......................
Table 2 lists some of the factors that contribute to the success or failure of groups..
Table 3: Summary of Characteristics of individual and group entrepreneurs ..............
Table 4 showing existing possible business opportunities ..........................................
Table 5: Types of records kept by Community Groups ................................................
Table 6: A simple cash book ........................................................................................
Table 7: A simple cash book for an IGA project ...........................................................
TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
ABBREVIATIONS &ACRONYMS

ABCD Asset Based Community Development

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome or Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome-
CD Community Development
CBO Community Based Organization
CDCs Community Development Committees
DSD Department of Social Development
DGSDCs District Gender and Social Development Committees
FBO Faith Based Organization
GALS Gender Action Learning System
GBV Gender Based Violence
GEs Group Entrepreneurship
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
IGAs Income generating
KIs Key Informants Interviews
LPO Local Purchase Order
MGCSD Ministry of Gender, children and Social Development
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
OVCs Orphans and Vulnerable Children
PAPoLD Participatory Analysis of Poverty Livelihoods and Environment Dynamics
PEP Exposure Prophylaxis
PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
PWSDs Persons With Severe Disabilities
PLWHIV Persons Living With Human Immunodeficiency Virus
PUA Urban Appraisal
PWDs Persons with Disabilities
TNA Training Needs Assessment
WEF Women Enterprise Fund
YEDF Youth Enterprise Development Fund

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

FOREWORD

The development of this Training Manual involved the revision of an earlier

manual that had been developed with the aid of a Community Development
Expert from the University of Nairobi. The content of the previous Training
Manual on Community Development was derived from an intensive Training
Needs Assessment (TNA) of staff of the Department of Social Development
(DSD), leaders of the then District Gender and Social Development Commit-
tees (DGSDCs) and other stakeholders engaged in community development
work in selected regions across the country.

The overall objective of this Manual is to secure a training tool that enhances
the capacity of trainers for efficient and effective leadership, management and
implementation of community development initiatives. It is a practical guide
for trainers in community development and promotes experiential learning
among adult learners.

The Training Manual builds on existing and on-going work on community development in the country and
experiences as shared by different community development actors and practitioners. It aims at equipping
community development trainers and practitioners, communities, groups and other stakeholders with relevant
knowledge and skills necessary for effective implementation and management of community development
projects for sustainable development.

The Manual contains ten substantive modules and an eleventh module which covers cross-cutting issues in
community development. The first module on Facilitation skills is aimed at equipping the Trainers with skills
and knowledge that need to be observed and or applied when training adult learners who learn more by shar-
ing what they already know. The other 9 modules include; Community Development; Group formation and De-
velopment; Leadership and Governance; Conflict Management; Entrepreneurship Development; Participatory
Methods; Project Management; Resource Mobilization; Record Keeping and Management and Cross-cutting
issues in community development.

This training manual will therefore be used as the basic reference material by community development practi-
tioners and trainers alongside other training manuals in the field of community development.

Phyllis J.K Kandie. (Mrs), EGH

Cabinet Secretary

Ministry of East African Community, Labour and Social Protection

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This Training Manual on Community Development has been developed through the
initiative and coordination of the Department of Social Development in the Ministry
of East African Community, Labour and Social Protection and the collaboration of
other stakeholders.
In developing the Manual, the Department of Social Development provided the
overall leadership and the expertise, coupled with the experiences gained through
implementation of community development programmes as well as one-on–one in-
teraction with communities, community groups/projects and relevant stakeholders.

I wish to recognize the Director for Social Development, Mrs. Josephine Muriuki
who constituted the Departmental Team and also the Head of the Community De-
velopment Programme, Mrs. Winnie Mwasiaji who provided the supervision and
technical support for the exercise.

My special appreciation goes to the Team led by Charity Kiilu and Susan Munguti comprising of Esther Ndiran-
gu, Elijah Song’ony, Florence Mburu, Grace Kenduiywa, Daniel Mulonzi, Stephen Mugo, Peter Murigu, Zablon
Mwangai, Charles Nerima, Lynnet Ochuma, Dorah Chovu, Agnes Juma, Alex Kaguti, Nathan Njagi, Ruth Gichu-
ki, Paul Radiak, Rose Muhuthu and Tina Mungatana; who committed themselves and devoted their time and
worked tirelessly in researching and putting together the content found in the various modules of the Manual.

It is also important to recognize Professor Preston O. Chitere, the Community Development Expert, who pre-
pared the first version of the manual that has been reviewed. Appreciation also goes to the Departmental Field
staff, individuals, groups and communities who provided information and relevant feedback in the process of
developing this Manual.

Finally, I wish to extend my sincere gratitude to the Secretarial team comprised of George Opiyo, Zaina Mo-
hammed, Tepla Sitati, Linnet Herenia and Eunice Wanjohi who worked tirelessly in typing, formatting and
organizing the document.

Through this Manual, the State Department for Social Protection is committed to empowering and building the
capacities of Trainers, Government staff, communities, community groups and projects, community develop-
ment practitioners and other relevant stakeholders to ensure effective delivery of the training and implemen-
tation of community development projects and programmes for improved livelihoods.

Susan Mochache, CBS

Principal Secretary

State Department for Social Protection

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background

This Manual has been developed to serve as a guide for Trainers of communities, community groups and
projects. Prior to the commencement of any training, the trainers are expected to conduct a Training Needs As-
sessment (TNA) to establish the appropriate content and methods to use depending on the target audience.
Trainers are encouraged to observe the principles of adult learning while conducting training. Trainers are also
encouraged to use participatory methods, techniques and tools that provide an opportunity for the trainees to
practice what they have learnt.

Trainers should note that the notes provided under each Module are summary highlights and are open for
further improvement or modification to suit specific training needs and the target audience.

1.2 Purpose

This manual aims at equipping communities, community leaders, groups and other practitioners with relevant
knowledge and skills for effective participation in socio-economic development.

1.3 Overall Objective

To provide a standard training tool that enhances the capacity of trainers for efficient and effective leadership,
management and implementation of community development initiatives.

1.3.1 Specific objectives

(a) To equip trainers and trainees with basic skills to plan and manage training sessions with various tar
get groups;
(b) To provide relevant content to the users for training of leaders in community development;
(c) To provide illustrations on various community development practices.

1.4 Target Users of the Training Manual

The users of this manual will include staff in Government Ministries involved in community development work,
Community Development Committees (CDCs) Community Groups, Development Agencies, Civil Society Or-
ganizations and other stakeholders.

1.5 Training Sessions

The training sessions comprise of ten substantial modules and an eleventh module which covers cross-cutting
issues in community development. Some of the substantial sessions may be divided into sub-sessions for
effective coverage and in-depth consideration.

1.5.1 Modules
1. Facilitation Skills
2. Community Development
3. Group formation and Development
4. Leadership and Governance
5. Conflict Management Entrepreneurship Development
6. Participatory Methods
7. Project Management
8. Resource Mobilization
9. Record Keeping and Management
10. Cross-Cutting Issues

A community group facilitation session

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

MODULE 1: FACILITATION SKILLS

2.1 Training Objectives

At the end of the session, participants will be able to:

a. Define the concept of facilitation
b. Explain facilitation skills
c. Describe adult learning principles and techniques
d. Explain the role of a facilitator
e. State the qualities of a good facilitator

2.2 Contents

a. Defining the concept of facilitation skills

b. Facilitation techniques
c. Principles of adult learning
d. The role of a facilitator
e. Qualities of a good facilitator

2.3 Methodology: Brainstorming, lectures, group exercises, case studies, roleplay/social drama.

2.4 Duration: 3 hours

2.5 Materials: Felt pens, masking tape, flipcharts, flipchart board, scissors, newsprints, pins audio
visual posters etc.

2.6 Guidelines for Trainers

Step 1: Facilitator defines concept of facilitation skills and facilitation techniques.

Step 2: Facilitator asks participants to brainstorm on the principles and techniques of adult learning.

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Step 3: Facilitator clarifies important principles and techniques in adult learning.
Step 4: Facilitator divides participants in groups and asks them to discuss the role of the facilitator and pres
ent in plenary.
Step 5 The Facilitator guides participants to identify topics and present role plays on facilitation skills
Step 6: In Plenary, facilitator asks participants to describe the qualities of a trainer as seen in the role play
and wraps up by giving additional input

2.7 Notes for Trainers

Introduction
Facilitation skills enhance the learning process by guiding the participants to understand and perform certain
tasks and responsibilities. It helps participants to learn and take increased responsibility for their own learn-
ing. It is a process of self- development through experiences which enables all involved to change behavior
and attitudes about themselves and others, modify institutional work contexts and initiate more participatory
processes and procedures in activities. Facilitation can be seen as part of the Bottom Up approach to develop-
ment, which promotes active participation amongst the participants.
Facilitation is an act or a process that helps a group of people to understand their common objectives and
assist them to plan how to achieve these objectives. Facilitation is not teaching and a facilitator does not take
a particular position in a discussion.

Principles of Adult Learning

Practical Knowledge: use existing knowledge of the participants-learning from a particular experience occurs
when a person takes time to reflect back upon it, draws conclusions and derives principles for application to
similar experiences in future.

Relationship with what Adults Know: Relates the learning to what the participants know. This is experiential
learning and the most effective learning from shared experience.

Respect: Adult learners like it when their contributions on experience and knowledge is appreciated.

Participation: Active participation in the learning process helps learners share information and experiences
including collaboration. Adult learners like to be given the opportunity to use their existing knowledge and
experiences and apply it to their new learning experiences. Adult learners learn by doing.

Adult learners are motivated and self-directed. They desire to achieve and learn for their own purposes.

Adult learners are goal oriented. They become ready to learn when they experience a need to learn it in order
to cope more with real life problems and tasks.
Relevance – learners want to know the relevance of what they are learning to what they want to achieve.

Learn by Doing: This is reflective learning; learners remember more from what they see and do than what they
hear.

Role of a Facilitator
• Guides the discussion but remains neutral
• Prepares facilitation materials
• Keeps the group focused on the content of the discussion
• Monitors how well the participants are communicating with each other (who has spoken and who
has not spoken)
• Gives group tasks
• Manages discussions to avoid many interruptions
• Uses questions to help make the discussions more productive
• Reserves adequate time for closing discussion (wrap Up)
• Wraps up on a positive note (concluding talk)
• Provides time for evaluation of the group process

Facilitation Techniques
• Talks and presentations by trainer and other facilitators. They introduce discussion topics and clarify
or sum up issues raised in the course of discussions. They are brief and to the point. They are meant to
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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
stir the training process while at the same time keeping the trainer(s) or facilitators’ role to a minimum and
that of participants to a maximum.
• Discussions should be informal and allow participants to express their opinions freely on a given topic.
They should take place in small groups with a discussion leader. By making statements, describing a prob-
lem or raising questions, the group leader draws the group into consideration of the subject.
• Role-play is a group situation or life experience presented by various members of the discussion group
who play certain assigned roles. It is sometimes known as social drama and is not rehearsed in advance.
Each member interprets his/her role as he/she sees fit. It can be used by large or small groups. It focuses
attention on the group processes at hand and hence provides good learning opportunities for prospective
discussion leaders.
• Community maps and pictures could include drawing of a village map which engages trainees in a cre-
ative, self-directed experience. It generates a lot of discussions and even enjoyment.
• Flexi flans are figures cut out of light card board with movable joints that can be manipulated on a flannel
board to tell a story, identify a problem, or analyze possible solutions.
• Story with a gap -open ended stories.
• Brainstorming – sharing of ideas by participants in plenary.
• Buzz groups – small groups of 2 -3 hold brief discussions and share with the rest of the participants.
• Other techniques include: Case studies, Study visits, Storytelling, Lectures, Drawings and pictures.

Qualities of a Good Facilitator

• Good listener- communicates interest and attentiveness.
• Respects opinions-encourages participation; believes in everyone’s knowledge, expressions, strengths
and ideas.
• Provides feedback-responds to issues raised without judgment.
• Poses questions-through probing to elicit the thoughts/ideas of participants.
• Recognizes body language-through observation of participants’ behavioural changes.
• Good sense of humour-ability to catch participants’ interest on the subject.
• Sense of time-observes punctuality and manages sessions well.
• Tactful-handles participants without hurting their feelings.
• Sensitive to people’s feelings- recognizes body language.
• Conversant with subject area-understands the topic under discussion and the scope of the subject.
• Resourceful and creative-thinks on his feet, able to adapt to different situations.
• Takes responsibility of any situation that may arise during training.

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

MODULE 2: COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

3.1 Training Objectives

In this session, the participants will be able to:

a. Define and explain the concepts in community development
b. State and explain the principles in community development
c. Explain approaches in community development
d. Describe characteristics of a healthy and unhealthy community
e. List and explain the assumptions in community development
f. Describe the challenges in community development
g. Define and explain participatory methods for development

Community Members Participate In A Development Activity

3.2 Contents

Introduction

a. Concepts in community development

b. Characteristics of healthy and unhealthy communities
c. Assumptions in community development
d. Principles in community development
e. Approaches in community development
f. Challenges in community development

3.3 Methodology: Group discussions, brainstorming, case studies, exercises, video shows,
role plays
3.4 Duration: 4 hours
3.5 Materials : Assorted stationery, photographs, projector, computer, visual aids, drawings etc.
3. 6 Guidelines for Trainers

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Step 1: The trainer forms small groups of participants and assigns each of them a concept to discuss
Step 2: Groups present in plenary
Step 3: Trainer provides input on the relevance of each concept in community development
Step 4: Trainer presents to the participants photos and asks them to bring out the indicators of a healthy and
unhealthy community for discussion
Step 5: Trainer takes participants through assumptions, principles and approaches in community development
Step 6: Trainer asks participants to brainstorm on challenges in community development
Step 7: Trainer provides input on challenges in community development

3.7 Notes for Trainers

Introduction

For community practitioners to be effective in their work, they need to understand some of the key concepts
used in community development. The concepts include: community, development, mobilization, participation,
empowerment, sustainability, social change, integrated development, culture, volunteerism and philanthropy.
This session introduces participants to these concepts which are important in the performance of their roles.

3.7.1 Definition of concepts

Community

The term “Community” can be defined as People living together in a defined geographical area sharing cul-
ture, norms, values and social economic activities. A community can also be defined based on ethnic, occu-
pation or religious grounds.

Development – The act or process of growing or causing something to grow or become large or more ad-
vanced.

Sustainable development - Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the abil-
ity of future generations to meet their own needs.

Community Development - Is the process where community members come together to take collective ac-
tion and generate solutions to common problems.

Mobilization – It is the process of marshaling, organizing and coordinating people and resource for a purpose.
In essence, it is the process of bringing people together to identify, plan and implement programmes and
activities that improve their livelihoods.

Empowerment- It is a process of increasing people’s opportunities to access information and resource.

Social Change - Refers to any positive or negative alteration over time in behavior, cultural values and norms.

Culture - Is a way of life of a group of people representing their behaviors, believe, values and symbols that
they accept generally without thinking about them and that are passed along by communication and imitation
from one generation to the next.

Participation - Refers to joined consultation in decision making, goal setting, profit sharing team work and other
measures in an attempt to foster collective ownership in achieving their objectives.

Sustainability - The ability of a project to maintain its operations, services and benefits during its projected
lifetime.

Integrated Development - This is development which is holistic and coordinated and meets a number of inter-
related needs of communities or target groups.

Social Development - It is about improving every individual in the society so that they reach their full potential.

Extension - The practice of extension is based on an important philosophy of “learning by doing”—that is, pro-
viding adults a chance to practice whatever they have learnt as soon as possible so that they can remember it.
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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

A Community Committee Meeting

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Volunteerism - is an activity where an individual or group provides service for no personal gain, intended to
promote goodness or to improve human quality of life.

Volunteers in a clean-up exercise

Philanthropy - Is the desire to promote the welfare of others through generous donations to good courses.

3.7.2 Principles in Community Development

The theoretical conceptions and practice of Community Development (CD) are based on a number of princi-
ples which are outlined below: -
a. Empowerment: Increasing the ability of individuals and groups to influence issues that affect them
and their communities
b. Participation: Involving people in decision making and implementation of community initiatives
c. Inclusion: Equality of opportunity and nondiscrimination-recognizing that some people may need addi-
tional support to overcome barriers they face.
d. Self-determination: The self-drive to participate in making own choices
e. Partnership: Recognizing that many agencies can contribute to community development.

3.7.3 Approaches in Community Development

There are various approaches in community development which community development practitioners and
development agents can adopt to implement community development programmes and activities. The follow-
ing are some of the approaches: -

Rapid Approach: This is a decision-making tool that can help in assigning clear and specific roles when a
decision has to be made. The rationale of this being moving fast to save a situation.

Community Need Assessment: The goal of community need assessment is to identify the aspects of
the community and determine potential concerns that it faces. The rationale is sustainability of community
initiatives.

Participatory Development: seeks to engage local populations in development projects. The aim is to
give the poor a part in initiatives designed for their benefit in the hopes that development projects will be
more sustainable and successful if local populations are engaged in the development process. It is often
presented as an alternative to mainstream “top-down” development. The rationale is to create ownership.

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Self - Help Movement: This is based on the philosophy whereby individuals who share like problems or
situations work together to understand and/or improve their situations. The member-owned and - operated
groups offer participants experiential knowledge, information, education, and emotional support. Leader-
ship comes from the group’s membership. These leaders are not paid, and membership is free or nominal.
Groups may also provide material aid and/or social advocacy. The rationale is pooling resources together.

3.7.4 Elements of Community Development

Active Participation: Getting everyone involved in a way that is productive and inclusive. It involves cre-
ating the right atmosphere from the beginning and it is important to ensure that community members feel
comfortable discussing their ideas with others.

Self Sufficiency: This is the state of not requiring any aid, support, or interaction, for survival; it is therefore
a type of personal or collective autonomy. The term self-sufficiency is usually applied to varieties of sustain-
able living in which nothing is consumed outside of what is produced by the self-sufficient individuals.

Collective Decision Making: this is a situation faced when individuals are brought together in a group
to solve problems. According to the idea of synergy, decisions made collectively tend to be more effective
than decisions made by a single individual. However, there are situations in which the decisions made by a
collection of individuals are riddled with error, or poor judgment.

Collective Responsibility: This is a concept or doctrine, according to which individuals are to be held re-
sponsible for other people’s actions by tolerating, ignoring, or harboring them, without actively collaborating
in these actions.

3.7.5 Healthy and Unhealthy Communities

A healthy community is where people come together to make their community better for themselves, their
families, friends and neighbors.
Unhealthy Community is one that is not able to attain basic needs or participate in furthering their own devel-
opment.

Characteristics Healthy Community Unhealthy Community

Services Services are better and avail- Services are poor or not avail-
able able
Participation Inclusive and active, supportive Exclusive, passive and sabotage
and ownership
Sense of community People feel wanted, belonging People feel alienated, lonely and
and support each other individualistic
Human resource capacity People have capacity to think People lack capacity, are pas-
critically, question themselves sive, helpless and indifferent
and their situations and effec-
tively manage their affairs
Self-Governance A self-governing entity with Dependent, disorganized, op-
effective local institutions, pressed, poor self-governance
groups, leaders and there are cliques, cartels,
factions and excessive com-
petition
Level of cooperation A lot of cooperation since People have not developed
people know themselves and capacity to work together for
understand their situation, their own betterment
their past and have a vision
Wealth status Affluence, rich Poor and desperate

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Characteristics Healthy Community Unhealthy Community
Indicators of well- being UN indicators such as low UN indicators are far from
infant and maternal mortality being achieved
and high school enrolment
achieved
Sanitation Very good Poor
Shelter Permanent and Shanty houses
semi-permanent residential
units in good state
Food security Plenty and nutritious Scarce and nutritionally poor
Education High enrolment, decent facili- High dropout and poor facili-
ties and record performance ties and performance
Security There is safety, peace, order and There is disorder and insecurity
discipline

3.7.6 Challenges Facing Community Development

• Ineffective leadership by political, community and religious leaders

• Inadequate political good-will from the leaders who are currently in office and out of office
• Conflicts, infighting and splinters within groups
• Conflict of interest by leaders, government officers, donor agencies, development partners and other
stakeholders
• External interference from technical officers, local and political leaders
• Mismanagement and misappropriation of community project resources
• Inadequate resources
• Dependency syndrome
• Inadequate organizational and management capacity
• Poor governance
• Low level of community participation and contributions
• Poverty
• Retrogressive culture
• Hostile natural factors
• Poor policy framework
• Clannism/nepotism/tribalism
• Illiteracy
• Language barrier
• Top – down approach to development
• Differences in socio economic status
• Dominance by influential community leaders (pioneer syndrome)
• Differences based on gender and discrimination

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

MODULE 3: GROUP FORMATION & DEVELOPMENT

4.1 Training Objectives

By the end of this session, the participants will be able to:

a. Define key concepts in group development
b. Identify types of groups
c. Explain why people join groups
d. Explain the process of group formation registration and development
e. List key components of a group constitution
f. Explain factors contributing to success and failure of groups

A group training session.

4.2 Contents

a) Concepts in group development

b) Types of groups
c) Reasons for joining groups
d) Process of group formation and development
e) Factors contributing to success, cohesiveness and failure of groups
f) Components of a group constitution/By-laws-Vision, Mission and Objectives/Strategies/Goals

4.3 Methodology: Group discussions, brainstorming, lectures, case studies, exercises, visual aids etc.

4.4 Duration : 6 hours

4.5 Materials : Assorted stationery, flipchart board, computer, projector, blackboard

4.6. Guidelines for Trainers

Step 1: The trainer divides participants into small groups to define the concepts
Step 2: Group presentations on concepts
Step 3: Trainer asks the participants to brainstorm on reasons for forming groups
Step 4: Trainer asks the participants to brainstorm on factors contributing to success and failure of groups
Step 5: Trainer divides participants into small groups to brainstorm on the components of a group
constitution
Step 6: Trainer wraps up by providing input

4.7 Notes for Trainers

Introduction

Community groups are important vehicles for community development work. This session is aimed at assist-
ing the communities understand how groups are formed, registered and managed.

4.7.1 Definition of concepts

Group-A collection of two or more people who perceive themselves to be united with common objectives or
goal.

Dynamics-Effects/changes/forces arising from interaction between two or more people

Group Dynamics-Refers to the sum total of actions arising from social interaction of members as they work
towards meeting their predetermined goal

Development-Aspect of positive change and growth

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Self-help Group-People who have voluntarily come together and pooled their resources to address common
felt needs.
Constitution-Is a social contract that guides inter-personal relationships within a group as they strive to achieve
the stated objectives.
By laws-a set of rules and obligations that bind members in carrying out the agreed tasks for the achievement
of their objectives.
Committee- Refers to the elected individual members of a group who take charge of group affairs on behalf of
the group members/Community Members.

4.7.2 Types of Groups

Groups can be classified into three types. These are:

1. Community service groups-Water projects, Cattle Dips, Health Facilities etc.
2. Socio-economic groups-Table banking, Investment, Salons, poultry farming etc.
3. Welfare groups- For psycho social support e.g. funeral, dowry etc.

Why do people Join/Form Groups

People join or form groups for various reasons such as: -

Security: Few people would want to stand alone. People get reassurances from interacting with
others and being part of a group.
Status: Belonging to a group that is viewed as important by others provides recognition and status
for its members.
Self-esteem: Groups can increase people’s feeling of self-worth.
Power: Groups are a vehicle for fulfillment for people with high power need.
Goal achievement: Pooling of talents, Personal Economic growth, Management of community
resources, Problems solving, knowledge and power to accomplish a task/goal where an individual
cannot.
Psycho social support- support for the emotional and social aspects of a person’s life so that they
can live with hope and dignity.

4.7.3 Process of Group Formation and Development

In community development work, self-help groups have been found to emerge, form, operate and cease to
exist either after achieving the objectives or due to other unforeseen factors.

Groups emerge from one or several persons who recognize the need to form a group to address the com-
mon felt needs or a community problem. The idea of forming the group can also be suggested by a commu-
nity worker or any other development agent. This means that the idea for forming the group can come from
within (endogenous), or from outside (exogenous).
Groups are like an organism as they develop from one stage to another. They pass through a standard se-
quence of four stages: -
• Forming: This stage is characterized by uncertainty about purpose, structure and leadership. At this level
the group should come up with a vision, a mission, goals and objectives that explain the purpose of
coming together as a group. Once the group has been formed there is suspicion, confusion and politely
guarded comments as members are engaged in testing to determine what types of behavior are accept-
able. At this stage, members should focus on basic information; determine and clarify individual roles
and responsibilities; develop broad norms and strategies. The stage ends when members start to think
of themselves as part of a group.
• Storming: At this stage, members accept existence of the group but with some resistance to the
control the group imposes on individuality. The stage ends when there is a relatively clear hierarchy of
purpose and leadership within the group.
• Norming: At this stage the group members develop close relationships and they begin to demonstrate
cohesiveness, sense of group identity, assimilation of a common set of expectations as to what defines
correct member behavior.
• Performing/Fruition Stage: At this stage the group is fully functional and focused on tasks at hand.
The group is able to enjoy profits and share losses.
• Decline stage/Graduation: This is the stage where a group ceases to function either after achieving its
objective or due to other unforeseen factors. Groups that live longer are those that are able to manage

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
their affairs well or frequently make changes to continuously meet their members’ interests. Where de-
cline leads to death of a group, in some cases a new group is formed by some of the members. A group
may also graduate to a CBO, Association, Co-operative Society, Company, etc.

4.7.4 Group Registration Process

The registration process involves the following:

• Community mobilization and sensitization
• Capacity Building
• Identify group name/Develop Vision/Goals
• Formulate group Constitution/By-Laws
• Carry out Elections for office Bearer
• Seek registration Certificate from relevant registering office (SCSDO in Huduma Centre) upon payment
of the registration fee.
• Issuance of group certificate

4.7.5 Factors Influencing the Success and Failure of Groups

Table 2 shows some of the factors that contribute to the success or failure of groups.

Success Factors Failure Factors

Effective leadership Poor leadership

Clear vision/objectives Unclear vision/ objectives

Cohesiveness Poor interpersonal relationship

Effective communication Poor communication
Clear definition of tasks Undefined tasks

A good and comprehensive constitution/by-laws A weak constitution /by laws

Adherence to constitution/by laws Non-adherence to constitution
Clear mechanisms on sharing benefits and liabilities Lack of mechanisms on sharing benefits
Effective participation Poor participation
Strong conflict resolution and transformation mech- Weak conflict resolution and transformation mecha-
anism nism

Continuous acquisition of new skills Unwillingness to acquire new skills

Strong interpersonal skills for team building Weak interpersonal skills for team building

4.7.6 Components of a Group Constitution

The following are some of the key components that should be included in a constitution. Heading of the
Constitution such as Nairobi-Mraru Self Help Group Constitution

Article 1: Name – Indicate name of group and contact details and physical location
Article 2: Objectives –State the vision/objectives of the group
Article 3: Membership –Indicate the conditions for membership, resignation, reinstatement and the next of
kin
Article 4: Office bearers –Indicate officials of the group
Article 5: Functions of office bearers – Indicate roles and responsibilities of each office bearer
Article 6: Tenure of office bearers – Indicate the term of office
Article 7: Finances – Indicate sources, management and utilization of funds
Article 8: Meetings – Indicate type of meetings and quorum
Article 9: Elections – Indicate procedure and mode of electing office bearers for example, secret ballot,
mlolongo (lining up), show of hands, acclamation, etc.

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Article 10: Record keeping–Indicate the group records that will be kept and managed
Article 11: Discipline–Indicate the dos and don’ts and the sanctions
Article 12: Amendment of the constitution – indicate the process to follow to effect amendment to the con-
stitution
Article 13: Audit – Indicate the procedures and frequency for carrying out the audit for activities and finances
Article 14: Dispute resolution–Indicate methods of reporting disputes and mechanisms for resolving the
disputes and appoint an arbiter.
Article 15: Dissolution of group – Indicate the procedures to be followed to dissolve the group, handling of
assets and liabilities.
Article 16: Adoption of constitution – Indicate the procedures for adoption of the constitution, for example
through a meeting.

MODULE 4: LEADERSHIP AND GOVERNANCE

5.1 Training Objectives

By the end of this Session, the participants will be able to

a) Define the concepts in leadership and governance;
b) Describe leadership styles and their effects;
c) Explain qualities of a good leader;
d) Describe characteristics of good governance;
e) Describe common problems in leadership and governance;
f) Describe ways of solving common problems in Leadership and Governance

5.2 Contents

a) Introduction
b) Definition of concepts
c) Leadership styles
d) Qualities of a good Community Leader
e) Characteristics of good governance
f) Common challenges in leadership, management and governance
g) Ways of solving common problems in Leadership, management and Governance

5.3 Methodology: Group discussions, lecture, video show, case studies, exercises, role plays
etc.

5.4 Duration: 6 hours

5.5 Materials: Assorted stationery, video, flipchart board, computer, LCD projector, black-
board, etc.

5.6 Guidelines for Trainers

Step 1: The trainer asks participants to brainstorm on the meaning of concepts

Step 2: The trainer provides input on definition of concepts
Step 3: The trainer divides participants into small groups to list and discuss various leadership styles, why
it is used, when it is used and effects on the group and the qualities of a good leader
Step 4: Group presentations in plenary
Step 5: The trainer provides input on the leadership styles and its effects
Step 6: The trainer asks participants to brainstorm on the characteristics of good leadership and governance
Step 7: The trainer provides input on characteristics of good leadership and governance
Step 8: The trainer asks participants to brainstorm on common problems in leadership and Governance and
how to solve them
Step 9: The trainer provides input on common problems in leadership and Governance
Step 10: The trainer provides inputs of solving common problems in Leadership and Governance

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5.7 Notes for Trainers

Introduction

This session brings out the aspects of leadership and governance in groups. In any community, there are
leaders and followers. This session will highlight the concepts; leadership, governance, qualities of leaders
and leadership styles. It also highlights common problems in leadership and governance and ways of solv-
ing those problems.

5.7.1 Definition of Concepts

Community Leadership - is a process by which a community leader influences others to accomplish an ob-
jective and directs the community in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent.
Management-this is the act of organizing and coordinating resources to accomplish desired goals and objec-
tives.
Governance-is the process of decision-making and by which decisions are implemented or not implemented.
It also represents the way rules, norms and actions are structured, sustained, regulated and held account-
able.

Leadership styles
The following are some of the leadership styles a leader may apply:
1. Commanding
2. Dominating
3. Passive
4. Participative
5. Transformative

1. Commanding Style
• Makes all decisions and announces to members
• Members of the group are supposed to follow orders
Why/When used:
• During emergency situations
• Members are unwilling to do certain tasks
• A leader is imposed
• To instill discipline

Effects:
Positive
• Protects the group from outside interference
Negative
• Complaints
• No new ideas
• Disinterest
• Sub groups develop

2. Dominating Style
• Keeps on talking to members
• Does not give members a chance
Why/When Used
• Has high opinion of him/herself
• Seeks personal power
• Encouraged by traditions
• Leader lacks experience
Effects
Negative
• Boredom
• Infighting
• No new ideas
• Factions develop

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3. Passive Style
• The leader is withdrawn
• The leader has little influence
Why/When Used
• Lack of self-confidence/Has self confidence
• Lacks skills, experience, interest/Has skills experience, interests.
• Many strong/experienced members
• Desire to find out member’s opinion
Effects
Positive
• Provides room for substitute leadership
• Motivation
Negative
• Project activities fail
• Competition for leadership
• Delayed decisions
• Low self-esteem by members

4. Participative Style
• Involves everyone in decision making process
Why/When Used
• Confidence in the ability of other members
• Needs to build support
• Need to share tasks
• Fear blame for failures
Effects
Positive
• Teamwork
• Cooperation
• Less conflicts
• High participation
• Shared satisfaction for success/failure
Negative
• Delayed decision making/ Decision implementation

5. Transformative Leadership
• A leader works with subordinate to identify needed change
• Creates a vision to guide the needed change through inspiration
• Executes the change in tandem with committed members of a group.
Effects
Positive
• Conveys a sense of trust and meaningfulness that leads to greater wellbeing of the people
• Promotes participation and teamwork
• Transforms people from the state of ill-being to state of well-being
• Creates synergy and self-esteem in members
• Provides opportunities for sharing the achievements
Negative
• Creates anxiety
• Unwillingness to embrace the change from people who want to maintain the status quo.

Styles selected by any leader will be determined by: -

• The type of group he/she leads.
• The type of activity/activities being undertaken.
• The traditions of the group the society and the prevailing situation in which it exists.
• The beliefs, experiences and confidence of the leader.

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Qualities of a good Community Leader
An effective leader is expected to possess the following attributes:

(a) Knowledge about: Aspiration of the community

• Challenges and limitations of the community (levels of income, poverty, production).
• Community felt needs e.g. Socio-economic needs of the community
• Socio –Cultural issues
• Internal and external Environmental condition of the area
• Policy issues affecting the community

(b) Skills
• Effective communication
• Interpersonal
• Networking
• Negotiation
• Lobbying and advocacy
• Resource mobilization
• Conflict resolution and management

(c). Behavior
• Exemplary
• Presentable
• Compassionate
• Avoids use of bad language
• Committed
• Time conscious
• Approachable
• Honest, fair and just
• Empathy
• Integrity above reproach
• Altruism (Desire to do good to mankind)

Functions of Management

Management operates through various functions classified as planning, organizing, staffing, leading/direct-
ing, and controlling/monitoring and motivation.

• Planning - The process of thinking about and organizing the activities required to achieve a desired goal.
• Organizing - Setting out modalities and structures through which to implement the plans.
• Staffing – The process of job analysis, recruitment and deploying staff for appropriate jobs.
• Leading/directing - Determining what needs to be done and getting people to do it.
• Controlling – Verification of activities to ensure that resources are utilized as planned.
• Supervision and Monitoring – Continuous assessment of utilization of activities as planned.
• Motivation - is the desire to do something. If motivation does not take place in an organization, then
employees may not contribute to the other functions.

Governance
Good governance is critical in community development and it entails the following characteristics:

Participation- A key cornerstone of good governance, strives to achieve equitable and meaningful participa-
tion by both men and women. This could be either direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions or
representatives. It is important to point out that representative democracy does not necessarily mean that
the concerns of the most vulnerable in society would be taken into consideration in decision making. Partic-
ipation needs to be informed and organized. This means freedom of association and expression on the one
hand and an organized civil society on the other hand.

Transparency- Means that decisions taken and their enforcement are done in a manner that follows rules
and regulations. It also means that information is freely available and directly accessible to those who will be

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affected by such decisions and their enforcement.
It also means that enough information is provided in easily understandable forms and media.

Responsiveness-Good governance requires that institutions and agreed processes try to serve all stakehold-
ers within a reasonable timeframe.

Consensus oriented-There are several actors and as many view points in a given society. Good governance
requires mediation of the different interests in society to reach a broad consensus in society on what is in
the best interest of the whole community and how this can be achieved. This can only result from an under-
standing of the historical, cultural and social contexts of a given society or community.

• Equity and inclusiveness-A society’s well-being depends on ensuring that all its members feel that they
have a stake in it and do not feel excluded from the mainstream of society. This requires that all groups,
but particularly the most vulnerable, have opportunities to identify their felt needs and improve or main-
tain their well-being.
• Effectiveness and efficiency - Institutions produce results that meet the needs of society while making
the best use of resources at their disposal.
• Accountability-Must take responsibility for consequences arising from individual or group actions, deci-
sions and policies.
• Adherence to rules/regulations-Good governance requires that established rules, procedures/regulations
are followed by those entrusted with performance of various functions/tasks.

The diagram below shows the 8 characteristics of good governance (group the diagram)

Participatory Adherence to
Transparency Accountability
rules/regulations

GOOD GOVERNANCE

Equity &
Responsive Consensus Effectiveness &
Inclusiveness
Efficiency

Common challenges in Leadership, management and governance

Personal challenges:

a) Accepting too many responsibilities

Solution:
• Delegate
• Nurture successors

b) Desire for status and recognition

Solution:
• Consider others
• Accept other people’s ability
• Avoid showing off

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
c) Identifying with particular groups for example denomination, political group (party),
clan, educational or social group, age group, gender.
Solution:-
• Serve all equally
• Impartiality

d) Personal interest, gains or benefits.

Solution: -
• Selflessness
• Change of attitude

Challenges for members

a) Competing for attention

Solution:
• Clear laid down rules that encourages participation by all
• Division of labour/tasks

b) Competing for benefits

Solution:
• Equitable distribution of resources/gains
• Clear guidelines on inclusion
• Set clear guidelines on rewards and sanctions

c) Social Cultural and Political influences

Solution:
• Know the people you are leading
• Understand external forces you work with
• Find out who supports who
• Adopt a neutral position
• Respect cultural diversity

MODULE 5: CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AND RESOLUTION IN COMMUNITY GROUPS

6.1 Training Objectives

At the end of this session, participants will be able to:

a. Define conflict
b. State and explain causes of conflict
c. Identify sources of conflict
d. Identify and understand the effects of constructive and destructive conflict
e. Understand and apply ways of managing conflict

6.2 Contents

a) Introduction
b) Meaning of conflict
c) Causes of conflict
d) Sources of conflict
e) Constructive and destructive conflict
f) Ways of managing conflict

6.3 Methodology: Group discussions, lectures, brainstorming, exercises, case studies,

Stories, audio-visual aids etc.

6.4 Duration: 4 hours

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6.5 Materials: Felt pens, masking tape, flipchart, scissors, flipchart board, newsprints, black-
board, chalk, posters, computer, projector

6.6 Guidelines for Trainers

This is a practice session

Step 1: The trainer in plenary asks the participants to brainstorm on the meaning and causes of Conflict in
groups
Step 2: The trainer provides input
Step 3: The trainer divides participants into small groups to identify and discuss sources, advantages and
disadvantages of conflict in groups.
Step 4: Group presentations in plenary and trainer provides input
Step 5: In small groups, the trainer asks participants to discuss ways of managing conflict
Step 6: Groups presentation in plenary and trainer provides input with emphasis on the various conflict man-
agement styles

6.7 Notes for Trainers

Introduction

Social life has two aspects: Cooperation and conflict. In cooperation, people agree, share ideas and help
each other at home, work or other places. In conflict, people individually or in groups differ and feel angry,
hurt, bitter or defensive. While cooperation builds relationships, conflict modifies or seriously damages rela-
tionships.

6.7.1 Definition of Concept

Conflict- a disagreement, opposition, or struggle between two or more individuals or groups resulting from
incompatible actions between them over scarce resources and opportunities owing to differences in their
interests

Conflict management -focuses more on mitigating or controlling the destructive consequences that emanate
from a given conflict than on finding solution to the underlying issues causing it.

Conflict resolution-is based on mutual problem-sharing between the conflict parties. Resolution of a conflict
implies that the deep-rooted sources of conflict are addressed, changing behavior, so it is no longer violent,
attitudes so they are no longer hostile and structures that are no longer exploitative.

6.7.2 Causes of Conflict

Causes of conflict include;

• Struggle over control of resources
• Disagreement over needs, goals and priorities
• Poor communication between group members and leaders
• Lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities
• Different attitudes, values or perception
• Lack of clear goals and objectives
• Uncooperative members

6.7.3 Sources of Conflict

De Souza (2010) has explained six sources of conflict outlined below:

• Perceptual differences between groups/individuals which makes them see the world differently and act
on the basis of the perception which may not be reality itself;
• Value differences arise over differences in religious, moral, ideological and philosophical outlooks and
cause conflict owing to issues which they find hard to change.
• Role behavior entails certain responsibilities and expectations about what their counterparts should or
should not do and are irritated when this does not happen.
• Divergent goals arise as leaders work for personal rather than group goals leading to competition be-
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tween them for available resources.
• Threat to self-esteem or status arise because a leader is often regarded as knowing the most and feel
his/her status threatened when others express good ideas.
• Personality clashes arise when people with diverse values find themselves in the same situation. Trou-
blesome individuals and bullies because of their hostile nature are more predisposed toward conflict and
are not tolerated by others. Similarly, individuals with low self-esteem compensate for this weakness by
hostility toward others.
• Weak constitution/by-laws. Conflicts arise among groups that have no clear stipulated constitution or
by-laws

Constructive and Destructive Conflict

Constructive
Where conflict is constructive or positive, it will help:
• Highlight problems that require attention;
• Clarify issues involved;
• Compel leaders to look for a permanent solution;
• Direct group efforts toward finding solution;
• Overcome lethargy (passiveness) that often characterizes self-help groups;
• Produce better ideas and force people to search for new approaches;
• Challenge old habits and restore creativity that may have existed during the formative stage of the
group; and
• Increases tension, interest and stimulate creative thinking about affairs of the group
• Creates synergy, output in group members
• In decision making situations, confrontation between people permits sharing of ideas and making of
correct choices, likely positive changes within the group include;
• There will be increased cohesiveness between members as external threats or common enemies force
them to pull together, overlook their internal differences and become more loyal to each other;
• Members become more task-oriented as they become less concerned with individual interests owing to
the urge to get work done;
• Leaders become more directive because of the danger sensed by the group and which requires quick
and often unilateral decisions;
• There will be increased emphasis of formal structure through clear definition of members’ duties.
• Group norms, rules and regulations are strengthened and members are expected to conform.

Destructive

• Where conflict is destructive or negative, it will:

• Slow down decision making in a self-help group as members reject each other’s ideas;
• Increase instability of groups;
• Lead to suffering emotional and physical stresses, psychosomatic disorders, inability to perform tasks
they used to perform very well and resorting to use of drugs and/or alcohol as coping mechanisms;
• Leads to a waste of time, energy and other resources in putting out fires rather than resolving the con-
flict. As a result, goals of the organization suffer as more attention is paid to resolving more immediate
problems.
• An atmosphere of suspicion and mistrust develops.
• Reduces contact between people and some stop communicating with each other.
• Lead to resistance, passivity and pursuit of own self-interest.
• Can lead to total collapse of a group.
• Can lead to protracted legal tussle among group members.
• Leads to embarrassment and demoralization and feelings of defeat among some members.
• Leads to some members leaving the organization and thereby weakening it.
• Negative attitudes and hostility towards others increase as the group’s perception becomes negative,
sees its rivals as enemies and develops negative stereotypes about them;
• Communication between the groups decreases as relation with enemy is viewed as unnecessary and
punishable;
• Selective perception leads to distortion where a group views itself favorably and ignores strengths of
opponents;
• Monitoring of rival’s activities increases and helps to substantiate their negative stereotypes.

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6.7.3 Ways of managing conflicts
There are two main factors that determine how conflict can be managed.
• How assertively a group chooses to act depending on how they consider their relationship with the
other party.
• Or whether they choose to act responsively.

Styles in Managing Conflicts

1. Dominating style: This is high on assertiveness and low on responsiveness. Here persons exert their
viewpoints at the expense of others often through open competition and a win-lose- situation. Domi-
nance occurs when one party wins by having more power. For example, where two committee mem-
bers cannot reach an agreement, they may take the matter to the chairperson for resolution. Such
authoritative resolution is often faster and sometimes the only way out of bitter disagreement. Here the
members recognize and accept authority of a higher leader to resolve the conflict—they may not agree
with the decision but learn to live with it. But because the decision is imposed, their commitment to
observe it can be low.

Dominance (force) is often used in situations of:

• Emergencies
• When organizations want to implement unpopular courses of action
• When both parties are in an adversary relationship and no other approach seems possible
The problem is that the approach can evoke bitterness and hostility in the losing party. It also makes the
parties to become submissive to and depend upon authority to resolve disagreements.

2. Accommodating or smoothing style: This is the opposite of the dominating style and the parties seek
to resolve issues each of them presenting its views in a forceful way. When parties are avoiding open
conflict, leaders often use this style by emphasizing areas of agreement and de-emphasizing those of
difference. They limit discussion to only those matters where the parties can agree and which are usually
positive. In both interpersonal and intergroup conflict, this style is useful in that when one party is in
agreement, the other tends to be more receptive.

3. Avoiding/withdrawing style: This is low both in assertiveness and responsiveness in the sense that peo-
ple deal with conflict by avoiding it. In intergroup conflict, the parties avoid each other or if meetings are
necessary, they engage in pleasantries or evasions to avoid confronting the problem. The avoider seems
to be indifferent or detached to the conflict situation and their retreating from the conflict can be useful
for:
• A cooling-off period
• Postponing issues until a better time
• Preventing disputes over unimportant issues when there appears a chance to win.
• Likely damage from confrontation.

Despite this, the style is ineffective for achieving a long-term solution to serious matters. It reflects failure to
address important issues and a tendency to remain silent when parties need to take a position. The avoid-
ance undermines a relationship and leads to a chilly distance called “ice-o-lation”. Withdrawal often becomes
a continuous retreat from the opportunities of reaching an agreement.

4. Compromising: This style stands half-way between assertiveness and responsiveness. Compromise
searches for solution that satisfies both parties. It is a give-and-take process which seeks mutually
acceptable solutions that partially satisfy both parties.The word “compromise” suggests weakness
and lack of commitment to a position. It may also suggest lack of principle and pursuit of short- rather
than long-term solutions. However, the strategy is useful and is used by organizations when continued
conflict is likely to be more costly than partial agreement. There may be no clear loser or winner. A main
weakness in this is that once initiated as a process it tends to slow down a search for satisfactory solu-
tions. One of the tactics used in this style is bargaining which consumes a lot of time but often produces
second best solutions. In compromise, the goal is to reach an agreement that ends the conflict even if it
is not the best solution.

5. Collaborating style: This operates with both high assertiveness and high responsiveness. Here the par-
ties confront each other to reach a solution that satisfies the concerns of each of them.

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6. Confrontation provides the first step in seeking constructive resolution and it entails:
• Sharing relevant facts and feelings.
• Openly admitting differences.
• Clarifying issues and needs of the opposing parties and their current feelings.

6.7. 4 Steps in Conflict Management

Step 1 Exploring
• Assess the problem situation and identify the problem.
• Explore, define and clarify the actual problem. (The more clearly a problem is understood, the more able
we are to see what needs to be done to solve it).
• In this stage, you are able to assess the driving forces (negative/positive).
• Consider how to increase the positive and reduce the negative.

Note: At this stage the group needs to be curious, open, participatory and attentive

Step 2: Goal Setting

• Define goal, analyze forces, generate strategies and select appropriate strategy.
• This is a decision to do something (set a goal) to help solve a problem.
• You need to define a goal (make it smart).
• Collect, organize and analyze relevant supportive data to form a basis for your plan.

Step 3: Taking Actions

• Write work plan, implement and evaluate.
• Write a work plan, identifying activities necessary to carry out your chosen strategy.
• List tasks, order them, and allot responsibility, state deadlines.
• Implement and evaluate the plan.

6.7.5 Methods of Conflict Management and Resolution

Mediation-Is a dynamic, structured, interactive process where a neutral third party assists disputing parties
in resolving conflict through the use of specialized communication and negotiation techniques. All partici-
pants in mediation are encouraged to actively participate in the process.
It is also a process that it is focused primarily upon the needs, rights, and interests of the parties. The medi-
ator uses a wide variety of techniques to guide the process in a constructive direction and to help the parties
find their optimal solution. A mediator is facilitative in that s/he manages the interaction between parties
and facilitates open communication. Mediation is also evaluative in that the mediator analyzes issues and
relevant norms (“reality-testing”), while refraining from providing prescriptive advice to the parties
Arbitration-Is a proceeding in which a dispute is resolved by an impartial third party whose decision the par-
ties to the dispute have agreed, or legislation has decreed, will be final and binding. There are limited rights
of review and appeal of arbitration awards. The arbitrator is officially appointed to settle disputes.
Negotiation-Is a dialogue between two or more people or parties intended to reach a beneficial outcome
over one or more issues where a conflict exists with respect to at least one of these issues. This beneficial
outcome can be for all of the parties involved, or just for one or some of them.
Reconciliation-Is an alternative dispute resolution process whereby the parties to a dispute use a conciliator,
who meets with the parties both separately and together in an attempt to resolve their differences. They do
this by lowering tensions, improving communications, interpreting issues, encouraging parties to explore
potential solutions and assisting parties in finding a mutually acceptable outcome.

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MODULE 6: ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND DEVELOPMENT
7.1 Training Objectives

At the end of this session, participants will be able to:

a. Define key concepts in entrepreneurship
b. Identify characteristics of individual and group entrepreneurship
c. Types of enterprises
d. Explain advantages and disadvantages of individual and group entrepreneurship
e. Explain the benefits of training group entrepreneurs

7.2 Contents

a) Introduction
b) Key concepts in entrepreneurship
c) Types of entrepreneurs
• Individual entrepreneur
• Group entrepreneurship

d) Characteristics of individual and group entrepreneurs

e) Stages of Entrepreneurial Process
f) Advantages and disadvantages of group entrepreneurship
g) Training of Entrepreneurs
h) Types of enterprise opportunities
i) Tips on starting an enterprise

7.3 Methodology: Group discussions, lectures, brainstorming, exercises, case studies, stories, au-
dio-visual aids, role plays, games, visits to successful group enterprises (GEs).

7.4 Duration: 4 hours

7.5 Materials: Felt pens, masking tape, flipcharts, scissors, flipchart board, newsprints, blackboard, chalk,
posters, ICT equipment etc.

7.6 Guidelines for Trainers

This is a practical session

Step 1: The trainer, in plenary, asks the participants to brainstorm on key concepts of entrepreneurship

Step 2: The trainer divides the participants in small groups and asks them to discuss individual and group
entrepreneurs and their characteristics and later presents reports.

Step 3: Using reports of assignments in Step 2, trainer using a lecture highlights group entrepreneurship
and engages participants in outlining their advantages and disadvantages giving examples.

Step 4: The trainer concludes by presenting possible enterprise opportunities and offering tips on starting an
enterprise.

7.7 Notes for Trainers

Introduction
Entrepreneurship is one of the means for fighting poverty, especially when promoted among communities
and groups and supported by training and funding programmes. Entrepreneurship is a key component in
poverty reduction and socio economic empowerment of communities.

7.7.1 Key Concepts in Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship may be defined as the practice of starting a new business or reviving an existing business
in order to capitalize on new found opportunities. It is the capacity and willingness to conceive, initiate,
organize, and manage a productive venture (enterprise) while in search of profit as a reward despite inherent
risks.

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Enterprise refers to creating of a need in response to an existing opportunity amongst people or a commu-
nity for a specific service or product. It is the provision of something of value (service or product) to others
at an agreed upon cost.

Entrepreneur is an individual who owns a firm, business, or venture, and is responsible for its development.
This is an enterprising individual who builds capital through risk and/or initiative.

Group entrepreneurship: This is a number of persons who work together on some enterprise, often aided
by a link organization which could be government or non-governmental agency. Unlike individual entre-
preneurship, group entrepreneurship (GE) can help persons to undertake mass-based activities in a viable
manner.

Backward and forward linkages: These are economic operations which have to be carried out in relation to
the market both in terms of inputs and outputs.

Primary producer: a person or a group that is involved in the extraction of products consisting of raw mate-
rials, as in farming, fishing, forestry, hunting, or mining

Secondary Producers: is a person or organization involved in value addition by use of raw materials pro-
duced by primary producers.

Primary productive activity: This is the economic activity that is carried out by people.

Primary and secondary linkages: These are activities among the forward and backward linkages that have
to be carried out. While some activities such as supply of raw materials are primary linkages, others such as
marketing and public relations are secondary linkages.

Supporting agency: This is the agency which is either governmental or non-governmental which assists
entrepreneurs.

Trader, middleman, and moneylender: These are the persons who take care of the forward and backward
linkages that put the primary producer in contact with the market. Traders often function as money lenders
at the same time.

7.7.2 Types of Entrepreneurs

There are two types of entrepreneurs: Individual and group entrepreneurs.

Individual entrepreneurship
These enterprises are operated by individual entrepreneurs. Examples include: Value addition, Tailoring, cy-
cle and motorcycle repairs, selling of second hand clothes, groceries, stationery, photography among others.
Funding for these enterprises can be drawn from individual or group, community savings, grants, loans,
donations and government.

Group Entrepreneurship (GE)
Group entrepreneurship (GE) is undertaken by a group of people. This could be people who live in the same
locality or share the same economic interest.
Funding for these enterprises can be drawn from individual or group, community savings, grants, loans,
donations and government funds.

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7.7.3 Characteristics of Individual and Group Entrepreneurs
.
Table 3: Summary of Characteristics of individual and group entrepreneurs

Individual Entrepreneurs Group Entrepreneurs

It is the venture of one individual who fulfils all man- It is a group venture in which people initially fulfill
agement functions, forward and backward linkages. functions in which they are specialized while other
Features of entrepreneurship are manifest in his/her functions and forward and backward linkages are
personality taken care of by a supporting organization
It can be undertaken mostly by those who are Provided there is a supporting organization, a Group
literate and numerate and who have their own mini- Entrepreneurship Project (GEP) can be undertaken
mum initial capital by people with less education, underprivileged and
the poorest of the poor
It helps diversify the local economy by introducing It can strengthen the local economy by activating
new trades and services enterprises or traditional crafts with which the
people are familiar but which are in danger of being
displaced by the market
Benefits, profits or losses go to the entrepreneur Benefits go to the group and partly to the support-
who takes the risk ing agency. Members of the group may get some
minimum wage and in some cases profits or losses
The middleman is eliminated and does not play any Supporting agency temporarily assumes the role
role. It slowly spreads from individual to individual of middleman. Once the idea is understood by the
and does not grow into a movement people, it can grow into a mass movement provid-
ed sufficient number of supporting agencies can
play the role of temporary middlemen till the stage
of full-fledged and self-supporting cooperatives or
companies is reached
Source: Bogaert and Das, 1989, page 28

7.7.4 Stages in the Entrepreneurial process.

The four steps or stages in the entrepreneurial process are:

1. Spotting and assessing the opportunity

Opportunity identification is the process by which the group comes up with a prospective idea for a new
venture. Identification takes research, exploration, and evaluation of current needs, demands, and trends
from consumers and others

2. Drawing up a business plan

Business plan development is an integral piece for submitting a proposal for any business. The group devel-
ops a description of the future direction of their business including cost benefit analysis.

3. Resources mobilization.
The entrepreneurial process calls for securing financial and non-financial resources. Financial resources
include start-up costs while Non-financial resources may include human skill.

4. Running the enterprise

Running the enterprise means examining operational issues throughout the implementation of the entire
business.

7.7.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Entrepreneurship

1. Advantages of Individual Entrepreneurship

(a) It gives a great amount of freedom.

If you start your own business, you will be able to make your own decision and set your own schedule.

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(b) It can be exciting.
Entrepreneurs considering their ventures highly creative and enjoyable.
c) It allows you to set your own earnings.
As an entrepreneur, one is able to make their own investment and enjoy the earnings from the business.
d) It offers flexibility.
As an entrepreneur, you can schedule your work hours around other commitments, including quality time
one would spend with their family.

ii) Disadvantages of Individual Entrepreneurship

a) It requires you to dedicate a huge amount of time.
One big challenge in starting your own business is the amount of time you have to dedicate to it. However,
even if you are able to enjoy flexibility in your work schedule when your venture does become successful,
you will still have to dedicate a substantial amount of time to growing the business.

b) It can be difficult to compete with other businesses.

It is very important for an entrepreneur to stay competitive. This means that you have to differentiate your
business from others in your niche in order to build a solid customer base and, finally, become profitable.

c) It does not guarantee 100% success.

Entrepreneurship would make your dreams come true, which does not often happen with traditional employ-
ment, but you need to make some sacrifices to make it happen. You should know that this type of venture
does not guarantee 100% success.

d) It comes with unpredictable work schedules.

One major drawback of being an entrepreneur is that more work and longer hours will be required from you
than being an employee. While you want to become your own boss, you must first know the amount of
effort, time and investment to make your venture successful. Even though there is a lot of reward coming
from it, it also has certain downsides.

iii) Advantages of Group Entrepreneurship

a) Helps reach the poorest of the poor.
b) It helps the whole group, not necessarily to become rich, but to earn a better and a more assured
income from its produce.
c) It spreads basic management skills amongst the group members.
d) It spreads risk.

iv) Disadvantages of Group Entrepreneurship

If the venture fails, a whole group may lose their livelihood.
—a. The group enterprise may be killed by vested interests. It entails high level of dependency among
members.
—b. Conflict may arise among members on management of the enterprise.

7.7.6 Training of Entrepreneurs

Skills development for entrepreneurs is very critical for initiating and managing the enterprises. However, in-
culcating the entrepreneurial skills to individuals or groups can be challenging and a long process. The three
key skill areas identified for entrepreneurship include;
1. Personal enterprise skills, which has to do with self-awareness and self-assessment of our abilities/
strengths and weaknesses. It is the ability to examine and analyze problems and identify creative/innova-
tive solutions. It is important that an entrepreneur has Literacy, numeracy people, and time management
skills.

2. Enterprise development skills: This has to do with knowing the needs of the market and the ability to
make decisions, find out facts, opinions and identify possible solutions (information seeking). This will
involve systematic planning (setting realistic step by step strategies to achieve targets and influence
strategy), networking (convincing others through use of influential people to solicit support, funds, and
recognition etc.).

3. Enterprise management skills: This involves financial management, budgeting, accounting and cost con-

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trol. It includes record keeping, product promotion, and marketing, selling skills, resource mobilization
and management.

Additionally, an entrepreneur needs to understand the climate within which his/her enterprise can thrive. Key
factors include the following;
• Availability of inputs/resources within the immediate environment: A business for which resources are
within the village will be easier to run since the owner or owners will not have to spend much time and
money on travelling. Organizing and planning the purchase or resources from a distant location can be
difficult.
• Availability of customers for the product/service is nearby or if the customer is an institution, it will be
easier for a business to succeed. Direct selling to the customers, without spending much time and mon-
ey on travelling is ideal. It also offers the opportunity to stay in contact with the markets and to ensure
that the customers are satisfied with the quality and the price of the products.
Physical factors that affect location of enterprises such as; -
• Culture- creation of perceptions that only some communities can engage in certain enterprises e.g. the
Somalis with marketing khat (miraa)
Gender-some communities discourage certain gender from undertaking some enterprises
Religion e.g. Islam with sale of pork
Environment –refers to site, for example accessibility, security.

7.7.7 Types of Enterprises

Table 4 shows existing possible business opportunities
Type Activities
Agriculture & Nutrition related • Dairy farming
• Bee keeping
• Fruit farming
• Trade in domestic animals (buying and selling)
• Sugar cane growing
• Trade in farming inputs e.g. Pesticides, fertiliz-
ers/manure
• Fish Farming
• Pig farming
• Poultry farming
• Goat rearing
• Rabbit farming/rearing

Educational related • Establishing a nursery school kindergarten

• Bookshop
• Establishing a village polytechnic
• Consultancy services
• Establishing of private colleges

Tailoring and dress making Basket weaving

Screen e.g. Maridad fabricsin

Housing and General construction • Masonry

• Brick-making
• Block-making
• Quarry activities and stone excavation
• Hardware
• Sand harvesting
• Tiles making
• Building rental houses
• Carpentry and joinery

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Environment and energy related • Tree nursery

• Energy saving jikos/stoves
• Firewood trade
• Wood carving
• Timber trade
• General Carving
• Charcoal Production
• Garbage collection and recycle
• Public toilets
• Water kiosks

Transport Sector • Matatus,

• Boda boda
• Tuk tuk
• Buses
• Taxis
• Mkokoteni

Business or commercial ventures • Posho Mill

• Shoe Making
• Hair Dressing
• Mobile money services
• Pottery
• Buying and selling of Land
• Table banking
• Car wash

Health – related • Community pharmacy

• Chemist
• Private Clinics

Entertainment and Hospitality • Tents and chair hire

• Dance troops
• Public address systems
• Party Décor and catering services

7.7.8 Tips for starting an Enterprise

Carrying out a feasibility study. This basically answers three fundamental questions;
• Do the beneficiaries have the time and (access to) skills to run the business? (Research into the organi-
zation and management of the business).
• Can the product/service be sold? (Research into the market of the product/service)
• Can the product/service be sold for a profit? (Research on the requirements for investment, sources of
finance, the daily expenses, and the sales income)

Planning for the enterprise:

Planning in a business can be compared to going on a journey. One needs to make the necessary arrange-
ments in advance and take note of where one is in the course of the journey. A good planning process
follows the steps below;

• What is the goal of starting the enterprise and what do we want to do in the future?
• What are the different ways to reach the goal? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each way?
• Which way is most acceptable? Is it feasible? Are the resources needed available?
• What tasks must be completed to move towards the goal in this way?
• Who will be responsible for these tasks? Who will do what, when and where?
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• When will progress be evaluated?
• Write-up the results of the discussions in a business plan
• Carry out the plan

Guiding questions for an entrepreneur:

• Why? –Motive for starting business (employment? Profit?)
• What?- For goods and services
• Who? - Demand? Personnel? Skills?
• How?- Strategy/Method
• When? - To start business, acquire required items
• Where?-Location of business? Source of raw materials? Inputs, credit/funds? Markets

MODULE 7: PARTICIPATORY METHODS FOR DEVELOPMENT

8.1 Training Objectives

At the end of the session, participants will be able to:

a. Explain the importance of community participation in development
b. Explain methods of collecting, analyzing and interpreting data in participatory processes information

8.2 Contents

a) Introduction
b) Definition of concepts
c) Methods of gathering data
d) Analyzing and organizing data for use

8.3 Methodology: Group discussions, lecture, brainstorming exercises, case studies, stories, audio-visu-
al aids, simulation, participatory education theatre.

8.4 Duration: 4 hours

8.5 Materials: Assorted stationery, flipchart board, newsprints, blackboard, chalk, poster, drawings, com-
puter and projector.

8.6 Guidelines for Trainers

Step 1: The trainer works with participants to define concepts in participatory methods
Step 2: Trainer highlights the participatory methods; and asks the participants to give their understanding of
the methods
Step 3: Trainer introduces tools for participatory data collection
Step 4: The trainer divides the participants in groups and asks them to practice use of the methods and
tools
Step 5: Participants present their experiences from group work in plenary and the trainer provides additional
input
Step 6: Trainer helps participants to interpret the information gathered and its possible use.

8.7 Notes for Trainers

Introduction

Participatory Methods refer to ways of engagement of people in making and acting on decisions that affect
their lives and in controlling and influencing decisions made by communities themselves to bring about
improvements in their community.

This session highlights some of the participatory methods used to gather information on communities for
community development planning and programming.

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
8.7.1 Definition of Concepts

Method: Is a way of doing things

Participation: Refers to the involvement of individuals or group of people in a certain engagement or activity
Participatory Development: Refers to centering development around the people so that they are on forefront
of all decisions and actions taking place in their communities.

8.7.2 Participatory methods

• PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal)-this is an approach used by development actors to incorporate the lo-
cal knowledge and opinions of rural communities in planning and management of development projects
and programs.
• PUA (Participatory Urban Appraisal)-this approach by the development actors to allow urban people
express their ideas and perceptions in an inductive manner to make their own analysis of the problems
they face and to identify their own solutions.
• RRA (Rapid Rural Appraisal)-this is link between the formal service and unstructured research methods
such as Focus Group Discussions (FGD) in-depth interviews and observational studies.
• ABCD (Asset Based Community Development)-is a methodology for sustainable development of com-
munities based on their strengths and potentials. It involves assessing the resources, skills, and expe-
riences available in a community, organizing the community around issues that move its members into
action and then determining and taking appropriate action.

8.7.3 Participatory Tools

Information can be gathered in numerous ways with varying degree of thoroughness. The choice of ways
will depend on the purpose for which the facts are to be used, the amount of time available in which to gath-
er them and the experience and skills of the investigator(s).

The methods enable members of a community to collect information about the life conditions of their
community, to analyze and share the information and to plan and take action. They permit people to collect
information quickly within few hour(s), day(s) and week(s) and to analyze and use it to plan and implement
the plans. They are visual and entail sharing while investigator(s) are expected to use their best judgment
and creativity.

The methods help people to carry out their investigations facilitated by outside investigator(s), share results
and learn from each other. The information gathered is used to prepare projects/activity plans which they
implement, monitor and evaluate and lessons are generated for their improvement.

Some of the participatory methods include; Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) or Participatory Urban Ap-
praisal (PUA). Chambers (1994) says that the methods are used in combination for collections of information,
but those commonly used depend on the problem or the situation at hand. These include; desk reviews, key
informant interviews, transect walks, community interviews, seasonal calendars, community/social map-
ping, wealth ranking, livelihood analysis and institutional and chapati or venn diagrams (Chambers (1994).

Desk reviews: This provides secondary data derived from files, reports, maps, aerial photos, satellite images,
journal articles and books.

Focused survey: Usually a small sample of respondents is interviewed using a short interview schedule. The
interview is open-ended and entails probing and visualization of aspects of the problem studied.

Key Informants Interviews (KIs): These are persons who are more knowledgeable on problems studied and
are identified and interviewed using an interview guide. The identification is done purposively through snow-
ball or judgmental sampling. Snow-ball is where a knowledgeable person being interviewed is asked to men-
tion another knowledgeable person who is contacted and interviewed and this one in turn mentions another
and so on. Judgmental sampling is where investigator(s) decide that some of the persons interviewed have
adequate knowledge and need to be interviewed in detail.

Transect walk: This entails a walk through an area and while doing so investigator(s) observe, ask questions,
listen, discuss and identify different types of soils, land uses, vegetation, crops, livestock as well as use
of local and improved technologies. The investigator(s) draws a map or sketch of the area and its various
resources.

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Community/group interviews: Members of a community or a self-help group are assembled in a suitable
location and the investigator(s) seek their views and clarifications on various questions listed in a checklist.
Seasonal calendars: Members of a community provide information on major seasons on month to month
basis to show seasonal changes including distribution of rain, soil moisture, food consumption, income,
expenditure and migration.

Community/social mapping: A few well-informed members of a community are brought together and guided
by the investigator(s) to map out the area in terms of its boundaries and its resources such as schools,
health centers, roads, streams/rivers, hills, markets, administrative center, police post and so on are shown
on the map or sketch.

Wealth ranking: In a meeting of a few better-informed members of a small neighborhood such as village
guided by investigator(s), its map is drawn. The members identify and locate households in the map. They
then rank them whether they are poor, medium or well-to-do. They can use small, medium and big stones or
long, medium and short sticks to do so.

Livelihood analysis: This entails gathering information on stability of households, crises they experience,
income, expenditure, credit, debt and multiple activities on a month by month basis.

Institutional, chapati or venn diagrams: This entails identification of individuals and institutions/groups ex-
isting in the neighborhood. For example, an inventory of self-help groups can be developed showing their
names, year started, goals, activities, number of members and status whether very active, active or dor-
mant.

Community score cards: This is a community self-analysis on the basis of standards set up in the score card
(see Annex 3). It can be used to assess progress between competing communities, but more importantly
for community self-education or for assessing its improvement.
The score card can be used as a guide to score a community in terms of government, education, religious
life, recreation, health, trade services, conservation, cottage industry and organizations. The information is
used in two ways: First, for discussion groups; and secondly, by planning committees to identify problems,
define needs and initiate new projects.

Gender Action learning system (GALS): Is a cost effective and sustainable community led planning method-
ology. It helps women and men to have more control over their lives and work together on a basis of shared
visions and values of equality.

Participatory survey: This involves the community being surveyed in gathering of information. They can, with
guidance from outside investigator(s), be involved in planning, conducting and reporting the survey. People
collect the information on local conditions and will be interested and motivated to use it. The survey goes
through a number of steps:
• Agreement on the problems to be surveyed;
• Setting up the organization to carry out the study;
• Developing the plans and the questionnaires needed to gather the desired information;
• Gathering the desired information from available sources and field. This may require some training of the
people to gather the information.
• Classification and analysis of the information gathered in the field and from secondary sources.
• Interpretation and presentation of findings both in written reports and to the people in the area of study.
• Developing plans and projects based on the findings and implementing the plans and projects. The
survey sample may not be completely representative of the area and hence the information may be less
accurate and not exhaustive. Its purpose is to bring out a picture of the situation and to motivate the
people involved to do something to correct it.

The questionnaires need to be focused to the problem of concern, pre-tested and revised to make them fit
the situation.

Members of the community can be assisted by investigator(s) to plan the survey, prepare questionnaires,
collect the information, analyze the information and interpret the findings.

Self-Appraisal or Analysis: Frequently a community wants a systematic picture of itself and its needs. It is
desirable that a less time consuming method is used to appraise the situation prior to development of plans

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or carrying out of action programmes.

The appraisal or analysis as a background to planning and action can be done through use of community
score cards or community check sheets or through the use of evaluation committees.

Evaluation committees: If a project has been going on for some time and a self-appraisal is needed, an eval-
uation committee can study the project. The committee will be valuable not only in fact gathering but also
in evaluation of the on-going project. Investigator(s) will be needed to help in design and carrying out of the
evaluation. The evaluation can equally focus on performance of a self- help group, a CBO or GSDC.

Workshop: This is another method of fact gathering and fact sharing and provides opportunity for a commu-
nity to compare experiences and appraise various community situations. The workshop is based on facts
gathered prior to its being held. The facts are critically appraised by the workshop in relation to how well
they contribute to the understanding and solution of a certain problem. A workshop may focus on a selected
problem such as schools, health or welfare problems. It can be used for one or several communities or self-
help groups.

Historical Profiles: A resident or leader of a community might be asked to write a history of the community
and its people. Local high school students can be asked to write essays on topics such as “the early history
of my community”. Such essays can be valuable in revealing the background and feelings of local people.
Similar essays can also be written on self-help groups and CBOs in a community.

Community case studies: These can be made by participant observers who live in the community for a
period of time. The observer will be able to understand the people and groups in the community and pres-
ent these in a form of a community study. For example a religious leader or a head teacher of a school can
compile such case studies.

Analyzing and organizing data for use-for information to be used well, it needs to be gathered and organized
in a systematic manner. After the information is organized, it can be used by community groups for learning,
planning, measuring progress, discussion and so on.

How to Organize Information-various methods can be used to organize information so that it is easy to use.
Some of these are;

a) Analysis, for example in terms of age, sex, income, occupation, geographic location and any other
parameters that may be applicable.
b) Chronological ordering, what happened first in history?
c) Description, facts gathering can be described to serve as basis for evaluation
d) Illustration – many methods can be used to illustrate information for ease of understanding, e.g.
pictures, pie charts, bar graphs, line graphs, percentage, etc. can be used to further information to enhance
its effective use.

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
MODULE 8: PROJECT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

9.1 Training Objectives

At the end of the session, the participants will be able to:

a. Define key concepts in Project Management.
b. Describe the Project Management Cycle.

9.2 Contents

a) Define concepts
b) Project planning cycle (identification, design, implementation, monitoring and participatory evalua
tion)
c) Characteristics of community development projects
d) Types of community development projects
e) Challenges in project management

9.3 Methodology: Group discussions, lectures, brainstorming, case studies and group exercises, sto-
ries, and audio-visual aids.

9.4 Duration: 8 hours

9.5 Materials: Felt pens, masking tape, flipcharts, scissors and flipchart board, newsprints, blackboard
and chalk, poster and pins.

9.6 Guidelines for Trainers

Step 1: Trainer asks the participants to brainstorm on Project planning and Management concepts.
Step 2: Trainer in plenary discusses and clarifies on the various project planning and management concepts.
Step 3: Trainer engages the participants in a brainstorming session to bring out their understanding of the

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cycle
Step 4: Trainer highlights and demonstrates the project cycle.
Step 5: Trainer divides participants in small groups and asks them to come up with a sample project.
Step 6: Participants present the sample project in plenary and the trainer provides professional input.

9.7 Notes for Trainers

Introduction

This session focuses on project planning and management as an area that is central to community develop-
ment. Most of the community organizations (Self-help groups, CBOs Youth groups) are engaged in projects
but they have inadequate skills in project management and hence the need for the training. In addition, Proj-
ect planning and management has become important to attain justification for funding (external and internal)
and its ability to bring about positive change or outcomes.

9.7.1 Key Concepts in Project planning and Management

• Project: a process consisting of a set of coordinated and controlled activities with start and finish dates
undertaken to achieve specified objectives.
• Project Management: a process through which people themselves develop and use their capacity to
effectively plan, design, implement, operate and maintain, monitor and evaluate their projects.
• Project Planning: entails all the pre-investment activities, which identify the project idea and formulate
it into a set of action plans that can effectively achieve the intended objectives within the specified time
period.
• Project Implementation: A process of accessing and using resources to produce outputs.
• Programme: A set of interrelated measures which show actions needed to attain certain objectives over
a given period of time. Usually programmes are larger in scope, for example the Free Primary Education
Programme.
• Participatory Monitoring: Continuous assessment of the project and involves key stakeholders to make
sure the project is on course and achieving the desired objective within the stipulated timelines.
• Participatory Evaluation: periodic assessment of projects in terms of how far it has achieved its objec-
tives and the impact.
• Project sustainability: The ability of a project to maintain its operations, services and benefits during its
projected lifetime.

9.7.2 Types and Characteristics of community development Projects

Community development projects have often been categorized as social and economic.

• Social projects take the form of public utilities and facilities such as schools, health projects, water proj-
ects, public toilets, community halls, youth centers and religious buildings.
• Economic projects are income generating activities (IGAs) such as bakeries, livestock rearing, crops pro-
duction, horticulture, cattle dips and irrigation schemes and provision of services such as leasing chairs
and tents and cooking food at public gatherings and public address systems in Public functions (wed-
dings and funerals.)

NB: In some cases there is a mix of the two types. Characteristics:

• Develop local organizations and leadership
• Use more local resources
• Based on felt and unfelt needs of communities
• Initiated by communities and self-help groups and also with guidance from community workers
• Involve people and help develop a feeling of local ownership.

9.7.3 Project Management Cycle

A project management cycle has four main stages Identification, planning/design, implementation and Partic-
ipatory monitoring and evaluation.

Stage 1: Project Identification

Project identification stage has the following steps:
I. Problems are identified and prioritized
II. Problem analysis of the prioritized problem is carried out using the problem tree tool.
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III. Formulation of the project Objectives
IV. Identification of target beneficiaries
V. Identification of Suitable intervention approaches
VI. Identification of Project location/locations

Stage 2. Project Planning/design

Project Planning/design stage has the following steps:

I. Carry out “situation analysis” or “baseline data” or “diagnostic study” The information collected
provides a basis for this stage as well as for monitoring and evaluation.
II. Identify human, material and financial resources as well as timeframe that is required
III. Identify both internal and external sources of support
IV. Mobilize resources through fund raising and from development partners
V. Specify implementation methods.
VI. Specify Monitoring and Evaluation procedure.

Tools in Planning and Design

1. Logical framework.
2. Project proposal format.

NB: Check annex 4 for samples

Stage 3 Project Implementation

Project implementation stage has the following steps:

I. Preparation of a work plan.
II. Procurement of resources.
III. Carrying out planned activities.
IV. Building networks and collaboration for sustainability.

Stage 4: Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation:

A. Participatory monitoring stage has the following steps:

i. Review objectives and activities
ii. Develop monitoring questions
iii. Establish direct and indirect indicators and tools to use
iv. Decide who will do the monitoring
v. Analyze and present results

B. Participatory Evaluation stage has the following steps

i. Identification of evaluation team (internal/external)
ii. Team familiarization with the project
iii. Preparation of evaluation tools
iv. Conducting evaluation
v. Preparation of report and submission to the Client
vi. Execute corrective action as necessary

It is important that beneficiaries are assisted to understand evaluation and to participate in carrying it out.
Findings from evaluation done mid-term can be used to strengthen the project implementation process Ex
ante (pre-project evaluation). This is done before implementation of the project

• Formative Evaluation: (project appraisal) done at the initiation of the project or during ongoing project
activities and the information is used to improve project implementation

• Summative Evaluation (impact or outcome evaluation): This is used to assess a mature project’s success
enriching stated goals. It is also called End evaluation.

• Ex-Post Evaluation: This is carried out two to three years after the programme is completed. The purpose
is to assess lasting impact and extract lessons of experience and any unintended results.

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It answers the questions
• Is the project replicable?
• Is the project sustainable?
• Is the project transportable?

9.7.4 Challenges in Project Management

a. Poor leadership
b. Poor governance such as lack of transparency and accountability
c. Mistrust
d. Misappropriation of resources
e. Limited resources, skills, and knowledge
f. Low involvement of communities
g. Inadequate strategies of engaging communities to effectively participate in decision making and
development processes which leads to lack of ownership, conflicts and unsustainable development.

MODULE 9: RESOURCE MOBILIZATION

10.1 Training Objectives

At the end of the session, the participants will be able to:

(a) Define the concepts in resource mobilization.
(b) Identify types of resources.
(c) Explain ways of mobilizing resources.
(d) State the key elements of a project proposal and letter writing.

10.2 Contents

a. Meaning of resource and resource mobilization.

b. Types of resources.
c. Sources of resources – internal and external.
d. Ways of mobilizing resources.
e. Tools for Resource Mobilization.

10.3 Methodology: Group discussions, lectures, brainstorming, case studies, stories, and visual aids, ICT
equipment

10.4 Duration: 6 hours

10.5 Materials: Assorted stationery flipchart board, newsprints, fib cards, blackboard and chalk, poster
and pins.

10.6 Guidelines for Trainers

This is a practical module

Step 1: Ask the participants to brainstorm on the meaning of terms
Step 2: Ask participants to name some of the internal and external sources
Step 3: Ask participants to brainstorm on ways of mobilizing resources
Step 4: Trainer summarizes ways of mobilizing resources
Step 5: The trainer introduces the topic on proposal writing and asks the participants to brainstorm on the
elements of a project proposals
Step 6 Divide participants in groups to come up with a sample proposal
Step 7: Presentation of draft proposals in plenary
Step 8: Trainer wraps up by giving professional input

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

10.7 Notes for Trainers

Introduction

Mobilization of resources is a major concern for communities. Resources are raised through members’
contributions and savings in the form of cash, labour and materials. Other resources are raised through fund-
raising, loans, income generating activities (IGAs) and gifts, for instance from well-wishers and grants from
development partners.

10.7.1 Definition of concepts

Resources: These are cash, materials/human/time required that may be harnessed for meeting desired goals
and objectives. Resources exist either in a developed, undeveloped or underdeveloped form hence the need
to identify at which state they are in order to maximize on the potential benefits.

Resource mobilization: this can be explained as an effort to put together or bring together material, human
labour (or people), funds and time necessary for a common undertaking. Resource mobilization is much
more than asking (external) donors for money. One of the most effective ways of acquiring resources for a
project is to increase the number of stakeholders via networking, lobbying, information sharing and deliber-
ate networking with other sectors and institutions for example micro finance institutions.

10.7.2 Types of resources

Financial-This is the money available to an enterprise for spending in the form of cash, liquid securities and
credit lines. Before going into business, an entrepreneur needs to secure sufficient financial resources in
order to be able to operate efficiently and sufficiently well to promote success.
Personnel – People working in an enterprise to achieve a common goal. The success of a business is highly
dependent on the strength and weaknesses of the employees.
Technology-This is the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes e.g. ICT
Time - This is the quantity of availability of duration to be undertaken in a business.
Land – Primary input and factor of production which is not consumed but without which no production is
possible.

10.7.3 Sources of Resources

Whereas community development emphasizes the use of internal resources, nearly in all cases there is
need for support from external sources, especially for big projects. The support is often in form of grants,
loans, knowledge, advice, equipment, and money. Resources can either be internal or external.

Internal Resources
Money: These are the funds owned by individual, groups and communities required to facilitate a given
project
Materials: These are the locally available commodities and items which can be channeled into a project for
example Soil, timber, gravel, etc.
Man Hours: This refers to the time utilized while attending meetings, trainings, workshops and doing the
actual work.
Man Power: This includes the skilled, semi-skilled and un-skilled labour that is used to accomplish a given
task.

External resources
The resources, especially from external sources are raised in two main ways: Proposal; and letter writing.
These are resources not within the group which include:
• Skills-technical skills from the extension workers and that could be exploited for the benefit of the mem-
bers of the group
• Funds from external sources e.g. Donors, NGOs, CBOs, FBOs, Government Development Funds (WEF,
YEDF, UWEZO, NGAAF and grants) donations from Local leaders and well-wishers. This may include
cash or material.

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
10.7.4 Ways of Mobilizing Resources
• Interest from savings;
• Contribution from friends and well-wishers;
• Members’ contributions;
• Appeal through media;
• Charity walks, runs, cycling;
• Raffles, Lotteries;
• Livestock auctions;
• Income Generating Activities;
• Dinners and Lunches;
• Selling services, e.g. cooking at public functions and entertainment;
• Payment of fines by group members;
• Merry-go-rounds;
• Table banking where interest goes to group;
• Sports Tournaments Grants and Loans;
• Dividends/share contributions (capitalization);
• Surplus funds, for example, fixed deposits, trust fund and security exchange.

10.7.5 Tools of Mobilizing Resources

Proposal Writing
Proposals can be submitted to external sources for example CDF, WEF, Youth Enterprise Development Fund
(YEDF), local NGOs, FBOs and foreign embassies.

A proposal may be open ended or closed. In an open-ended proposal, a group has the liberty to write all that
they feel necessary within the outline while in closed, the group must stick to the format and ceiling of the
funding organization.

Some of these development partners provide guidelines or what is termed “format” which show what
should be contained in a proposal. Often, Community development proposals would have the following
format:
• Title of the project
• Executive summary
• Background, problem statement, objective and justification
• A work plan that shows activities, Objectives, outputs, time lines and actor (see Annex 4)
• Methods and resources for implementation
• A budget covering the lifespan of the project
• Monitoring and Evaluation framework
• Management Structure

A community worker does not prepare a proposal for a community group, but rather facilitates the group to
do so usually in a stakeholders meeting.

Letter Writing

Letter writing is another technique used in fund raising. A group can raise funds by writing letters to potential
donors seeking their support for their activities. To use this technique a group needs to prepare an inventory
of potential donors and their requirements. The group should keep the letter simple and short, but it should
attract and appeal to the donor’s interest.

The letter should include the problem that will be solved by the help the group is seeking, that is, it high-
lights the solution. Just as it is with the proposal, the Community Development worker will not write the
letter for the group, but will facilitate them to write it by providing them with the necessary information and
skills.

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
MODULE 10: RECORD KEEPING AND MANAGEMENT

11.1 Training Objectives

At the end of the session, the participants will be able to:

a) Identify types of records
b) State and utilize the tools used in record keeping
c) Explain and keep proper records
d) Explain the rationale of keeping records

11.2. Contents

a. Types of records
b. Tools for keeping records
c. Procedures of record keeping
d. Importance of keeping records

11.3 Methodology: Group discussions, lectures, brainstorming, case studies and visual aids

11.4 Duration: 4 hours

11.5 Materials: Felt pens, masking tape, flipcharts and flipchart board, scissors, newsprints, sample re-
cords, record template, posters, pins and computer and projector.

11.6 Guidelines for Trainers

This is a practice module

Step 1: Trainer asks participants to brainstorm on the types of records and the tools for record keeping.
Step 2: Presentation and discussion in plenary.
Step 3: Trainer divides participants into small groups and assigns each group to develop a sample record.
Step 4: Presentation and discussion in plenary.
Step 5: Participants discuss and list the importance of keeping records.
Step 6: Trainer wraps up by giving professional input.

11.7 Notes for Trainers

Introduction
Record keeping is a requirement for all groups and projects. Often, records of a group are kept by its sec-
retary, treasurer and other designated officials. The records help continuous and effective monitoring of
progress and smooth handing over whenever there is change in leadership.

11.7.1 Types of records

Types of records kept by community groups and the reasons for doing so are presented in Table 5.
Table 5: Types of records kept by Community Groups
Type Purpose
Financial Records
Receipt book To show that payments are made to right persons or
are being received
Order book(LPO) To show orders that were placed with suppliers
Invoice book To show payment owed to group or customers
Cash book To show income and expenditure
Petty cash voucher Used for cash transactions on day-to-day
File for bank transactions Keep bank slips, withdrawal slips, bank statements
and other financial correspondences

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Other financial records To show various financial transactions conducted by
the group
Non-financial Records
Minutes of meetings (Annex 5&6) To keep track of what has been discussed and
confirmed
Constitution or by laws To enable the group members know their rights and
responsibilities
Group members register (Annex 7) To know the profile of each group member
Visitors book To monitor the kind of visitors who visit the project
and the feedback they give
Group strategic plan Shows roadmap of the project/programmes for the
group to achieve its goals and measures for achiev-
ing them.
Membership cards For identification and ownership
General correspondence file Filing in-coming and outgoing correspondence

Note: Not all of the above records might be kept as some of them may not be useful, especially to those
groups that are very small. However, the groups should be encouraged to adapt the records to their situation
as need arises.

11.7.2 Tools for Record Keeping

There are a number of tools used in record keeping, these include:

Receipt book
This is used during sales and for payments and entails issuing of receipts for all transactions. Receipts will
be issued when sales are made or when cash or cheques are received or issued. Receipt book consists of
duplicate pages and is used with a sheet of carbon paper to enable copies to be made.

Order Book
This is used by a group to place orders from suppliers or manufacturers and acts like a local purchase order
(LPO) used by bigger organizations.

Invoice Book
This is used to remind the group’s customers that they are either owed or owe the group a payment (it is a
demanding document).

Cash Book
This is used for recording all the receipts and payments made by a group (Sample Table 6).
It consists of a series of numbered pages with columns for date, details, money and source of documents.
The pages are numbered to prevent wrongful removal of a page and fraudulent entries.
The cash book records money received and money paid out. The right-hand column is used for payments
and the left for money received.

Because a group usually keeps more of their money in a bank account and a small amount in its office, the
cash book has columns to show what happened to cash in the office as well as that held in a bank. (Sample
- Table 7)

Apart from the cash and bank columns, there are also analysis/details columns to both the cash and bank
sections of the cash book. Often analysis columns will conform to the headings in the group’s budget.
Each entry made in the cash or bank columns is also entered in the analysis/details column.

The total of the analysis column at the end of the week or month will show how much money has been
spent or received under that heading.

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Table 6: A simple cash book

Date Details Receipts (Money Payments (Money Balance

Where the group/project operates a bank account, then the cash book will have three additional columns for
the bank.

Table 7: A simple cash book for an IGA project

Date Details Cash Bank
Receipts Payments Balance Receipts Payments Balance
(Money (Money (Money In) (Money Out)
In) Out)

Other Financial records

These include:
• Store ledger book which shows non-fixed assets owned by the group;
• Savings and credit records which show who saves, borrows and pays;
• Bank records which show banking transactions;
• Internal/external auditor’s reports which show accountability and transparency

11.7.3 Importance of Record Keeping

Financial records are important for the following reasons:
a. Show the financial strength of a group;
b. Assist in planning;
c. Assist in decision making;
d. Demonstrate transparency and accountability;
e. Indicate surplus and loss
f. It justifies to donors, members and other important stakeholders on effective use of the funds.
g. Monitor members’ participation in the group activities.

MODULE 11: CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES

12.1 Training Objectives

At the end of the session the participants will be able to;

a) Identify cross cutting issues in community development
b) Define key concepts of the cross-cutting issues
c) Explain how cross-cutting issues affect community development
d) Define the strategies of mainstreaming cross-cutting issues in community development

12.2 Contents

a) Introduction
b) Gender Mainstreaming
c) Disability Mainstreaming
d) HIV/AIDS
e) Vulnerable groups

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
f) Drug and Substance abuse
g) Environment /climate change
h) Disaster awareness and preparedness response

12.4 Methodology: Discussion, stories, case studies, posters, audio visual, role play

12.5 Duration: 6 hours (however this will depend on the issues at hand)

12.6 Materials: Flipcharts, posters, felt pens, black board, chalk, projector, laptop/computer.

12.7 Notes for trainers

Introduction
Community development as a basic strategy of community involvement assumes that every person in the
community is involved. However, there are other factors that may affect community development such as
issues of gender, disability, HIV&AIDS and drug abuse, vulnerable groups, environment, climate change, disas-
ter awareness and preparedness. These issues require special attention and thus the trainer needs to highlight
the need to integrate them into the development processes.

12.7.1 Gender
Gender refers to the social construction of roles, responsibilities and behavior patterns assigned to men and
women, boys and girls. Social construction is how society values and allocates duties, roles and responsibil-
ities to women, men, girls and boys. This differential valuing creates the gender division of labour and deter-
mines differences in access to benefits and decision making which in turn influences power relations and re-
inforces gender roles. The social constructs vary across cultures and time. While Gender is a social condition,
Sex refers to the biological and physiological differences between males and females as determined by nature.

Why Gender is an issue in community development

Historically, women have not been holding leadership positions and therefore have not been involved effec-
tively in decision making processes. Additionally, they don’t have access to property, land, credit, because the
society is patriarchal and this limits their participation and contribution in community development. Women
contribute indirectly to community development but their contribution is not valued in monetary terms in the
domestic economy. There is little involvement by men in small community projects because of the way they
have been socialized. Gender based violence issues slows down community development. Hence the need
for Gender mainstreaming.

Gender Mainstreaming

In order to ensure both male and female are involved in community development then gender mainstreaming
has to be effected: This is the process of integrating a gender equality perspective into design, implementa-
tion, monitoring and evaluation of development plans, policies, programmes, projects and legislation at all
stages and levels. Gender mainstreaming is a strategy for the achievement of gender equality. The ultimate
goal of gender mainstreaming is to achieve gender sensitivity, equity and equality

How to mainstream Gender in Community Development

1. Encourage representation and participation of both men and women during group formation and any other
activity within the community.
2. Investigate and identify specific needs of girls and boys, women and men for project identification and
implementation.
3. Create awareness on different types of Gender Based Violence (GBV).
4. Assist in referring victims to the relevant agencies.
5. Encourage community dialogue on GBV prevention.
6. (For more details refer to the Gender Training manual)

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12.7.2 Disability

Disability as defined in the PWDs Act 2003, is a physical, sensory, mental or other impairment including any
visual, hearing or physical incapability which impact on social, economic and environmental participation.

Why Disability is an issue in community development

The act also spells out the Rights and the privileges of Persons with Disabilities (For more details refer to the
Persons with Disabilities Act, 2003) PWDs have competencies and skills which if harnessed can contribute
greatly to community development.

Disability Mainstreaming
This is a strategy for making the concerns and experiences of persons with disabilities an integral dimension
of the design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of policies and programs.

How to mainstream disability in community development

i. Create awareness through sensitization and trainings on disability
ii. Enforce affirmative actions on PWDs
iii. Setting up Disability Mainstreaming Committees
iv. Encourage PWDs to form groups

Methods of Disability Mainstreaming

• Disability awareness trainings/sessions and PWDs empowerment
• Accessibility to physical facilities and premises
• Employment and retention of persons with disabilities
• Organization/ institution services and/or products or programmes
• Policies, procedures, practices
• Setting up a Disability Mainstreaming Committee

12.6.3 Drug and Substance Abuse

Drug and Substance Abuse: Refers to Compulsive, excessive and self-damaging use of habit forming drugs
and substances.

Commonly abused drugs and substances include

• Tobacco
• Alcohol
• Bhang (cannabis Sativa)
• Khat/ Miraa
• Glue
• Prescription drugs
• Heroin
• Cocaine
• Mandrax

Why Drug and substance abuse is an issue in community development

Drug and substance abuse impacts negatively on the health of the users (persons) lowering their productivity
levels in community development. These persons usually divert resources meant for community development
to the purchase of drugs.

The effects of the drugs like poor memory, lack of sleep, hallucinations, irritability contributes to poor decision
making in community development programmes/projects. Drug users usually spend a lot of time looking for
drugs, using the drugs and having hangovers when they should be participating in community development
activities.

How to mainstream drug and substance abuse in community Development

i. Sensitize people in various ways and on danger of abusing drugs and substances
ii. Rehabilitate affected persons
iii. Encourage affected persons to join community development groups and activities
iv. Refer the affected for treatment or special care
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Exercise: - What activities can you do to help address drug and substance abuse in the community?

12.6.4 HIV/AIDS
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome or Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a disease of the
human immune system caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).

Why HIV/AIDS is an issue in community Development

This condition progressively reduces the effectiveness of the immune system and leaves individuals suscepti-
ble to poor health which results in death. Consequently, this leads to loss of human resource and skills in com-
munity development. When an individual is HIV positive, it may affect their effective participation in community
development. PLWHIV are stigmatized and therefore discriminated against when it comes to community
initiatives and involvement. There is therefore need to deliberately involve them in community development.

Prevention and Management of HIV/AIDS

• Use of Anti-retroviral medication

• Counseling to encourage positive living
• Post Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP) - early administration of anti-retroviral administered between 48-72
hours after exposure to HIV/AIDS for prevention
• Proper Diet
• Prevention of Mother to Child transmission
• Circumcision
• Sensitization and advocacy for prevention and management
• Abstain from sex
• Proper use of condom
• Maintain one uninfected partner

Mainstreaming HIV/AIDS in community development

This is the process of integrating HIV/AIDS perspective into the design, implementation, monitoring and eval-
uation of development plans, policies, programmes, projects and legislation at all stages and levels.

How to mainstream HIV/AIDS in Community Development

• Sensitization and advocacy

• Encouraging people to get tested
• Encouraging infected to use Anti-retroviral drugs
• Promoting good diet especially among the infected
• Working with the affected and infected in their groups and the community at large
• If the infected and or affected want to form their own groups, they should be encouraged to do so and be
supported by others without stigmatizing them
• Offering psychosocial support for the infected and affected

12.6.5 Social Protection

Social protection refers to policies and actions including legislative measures that enhance the capacity of
and opportunities for the poor and vulnerable groups to improve and sustain their livelihood and welfare; that
enable income-earners and their dependants to maintain a reasonable level of income through decent work
and that ensure access to affordable health care, social security and social assistance. These groups include
Orphans and Vulnerable Children(OVCs), Older Persons, Persons With Disabilities(PWDs), Widows and street
families.

Why Social Protection is important in community development

The constitution of Kenya 2010 stipulates that the vulnerable have a right to social protection. The vision 2030
in the social pillar talks about a just and cohesive society that is all inclusive. The overall objective of Social Pro-
tection is to ensure that all Kenyans live in dignity and exploit their human capabilities for their own social-eco-
nomic development. The marginalized are left out in community development projects and programmes, espe-
cially in decision making on matters affecting their lives. Therefore it is important to provide them with Social
Protection to enhance their participation.

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How to Mainstream Social Protection in community development

• To implement multi-Sector programmes/projects aimed at improving livelihood and access to opportuni-

ties. These include Cash transfer to OVC, PWSD and OP, Hunger safety Net programme, School feeding
programme, cash for assets, NHIF NSSF and others.
• Ensure affirmative action in community programmes and projects for the vulnerable groups.
• Encouraging inclusion of social responsibility statement in group constitutions.

Exercise- Mention other cross cutting issues in community development.

ANNEXES
ANNEX 1: SAMPLE OF A TRAINING WORKSHOP
Modules Objectives Duration
To ensure the participants are
able to:
1. Facilitation Skills a. Explain the concept of facilita- 4 hours
tion skills
b. Explain facilitation skills
c. Describe adult learning princi-
ples and techniques
d. Explain the role of a facilitator
e. State the qualities of a good fa-
cilitator

2. Community Development a.Define and e x p l a i n 4 hours

the concepts in
community development
b.State and explain t h e
principles in community de-
velopment
c.Explain approaches in
community development
d. Describe characteristics of a
healthy and unhealthy community
e. List and explain the assump-
tions in community development
f. Describe the challenges in com-
munity development
g. Participatory methods for Devel-
opment.

3. Group Formation and a. Define key concepts in 6 hours

Development group development.
b. Identify types of groups
c. Explain why people join
groups
d. Explain the process of
group formation, registration and
development
e. Explain factors contrib-
uting to success and failure of
groups
f. List key compo-
nents of a g r o u p
constitution

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4. Leadership and Gover- a. Define the concepts in 6 hours
nance leadership, management and gov-
ernance
b. Describe leadership styles
and their effects
c. Explain qualities of a good
community leader
d. Describe characteristics of
good governance
e. Describe common chal-
lenges in leadership, management
and governance.
f. Describe ways of solving
common problems in Leadership,
management Governance

5. Conflict Management and a. Define Conflict 4 hours

Resolution b. State and explain causes
of conflict
c. Identify sources of conflict
d. Identify and understand
the effects of constructive and de-
structive conflict
e. Understand and apply
ways of managing conflict

6. Entrepreneurship and De- a. Define key concepts in en- 4 hours

velopment trepreneurship
b. Identify characteristics of
individual and group entrepreneur-
ship
c. Types of enterprises
d. Explain advantages and
disadvantages of individual and
group entrepreneurship
e. Explain the benefits of
training group entrepreneurs

7. Participatory Methods for a. Explain the importance of 4 hours

Development community participation in devel-
opment.
b. Explain the methods of
collecting, analyzing and interpret-
ing data in participatory process

8. Project Management a. Define key concepts in 8 hours

Project Management
b. Describe the Project Man-
agement Cycle
c. Explain challenges in Proj-
ect Management

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

9. Resource Mobilization a. Define the concept in re- 6 hours

source mobilization
b. Identify types of resourc-
es
c. Explain ways of mobilizing
resources
d. State the key elements of
a project proposal and letter writ-
ing

10. Record Keeping and Man- a. Identify types of records 4 hours

agement b. State and utilize the tools
used in record keeping
c. Explain and keep proper
records
d. Explain the rationale
11. Cross cutting issues a. Identify cross- cutting is- 6 hours
sues in community development
b. Define key concepts of
the cross - cutting issues
c. Explain how cross-cutting
issues affect community develop-
ment
d. Define the strategies of
mainstreaming cross–cutting is-
sues in community development.

FORMAT FOR CONSTITUTION/BY LAWS OF SELF-HELP GROUP

a) Heading of the Constitution (indicate name of group)
b) Objectives
c) Membership
d) Office bearers
e) Functions of office bearers
f) Tenure of office bearers
g) Finances
h) Meetings
i) Elections
j) Record keeping
k) Discipline
l) Amendment of the constitution
m) Audit –
n) Dispute resolution
o) Dissolution of group
p) Adoption of constitution

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ANNEX 3: INVENTORY OF DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES IN YOUR COMMUNITY

Name of Agency Activities Effectiveness as Reasons for Effective-

Perceived by ness

ANNEX 4: FORMAT FOR SIMPLIFIED LOGICAL FRAMEWORK

Goal:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Life Span:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Assumptions:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Indicators of success:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Objectives Activities Persons Re- Time Frame (Quarterly) Outputs

sponsible 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Obj. 1

Obj. 2

Obj. 3

ANNEX 5: ATTENDANCE RECORD OF MEETINGS OF SELF-HELP GROUPS

Name of Group/Committee-------------------------------------------------------------------------
Location-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Year----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Members: Men-------------------------------------------------Women-----------------------------
Attendance in monthly averages

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Month Men Women Total Observations

January

February

March

April
May

June

July
August
September

October

November

December

ANNEX 6: GROUP MEETING MINUTE BOOK

Date of meeting-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Group member’s present-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Men------------------------------------Women----------------------------------------------------------------------

Other persons in attendance----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Matters arising from previous minutes-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

-
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Matters discussed:
1
. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Signed---------------------------------------------------Chairperson--------------------------------

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
ANNEX 7: GROUP MEMBERSHIP REGISTER

Name of Group---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Member’s Occupa- Date Joined Date Left Position in Other Posi- Observa-
Name tion Group tion(s) in tions

ANNEX 8: TRAINING NEEDS ASSESSMENT

What is a Training Need?
A Training Need is a gap (lack of) in knowledge or an ability and desire in any person which prevents his/her
from satisfactorily performing an activity.

What is Task Analysis?

Method of looking at each part (or task) of a person’s job and identifying what skills require to carry out the
task.

Why Training Needs Assessment?

Helps the trainer to know what the trainees already know and doing in order to know where to start. Assist
in developing appropriate training materials focusing on the specific needs for specific group makes training
relevant to the needs and life of the trainees Justifies, investment in training by showing how training will
contribute to achieving community objectives.

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Process for Identifying Training Needs of a Community

Understand the goals and objectives of the training you are going to embark on in the community. Deter-
mine the targets of the training, program in the community i.e. Women, men, extension workers, project
committee, CRPs PANs, VDC’s etc.

Understand what the target groups know and do; what about nutrition, Security, who does what in the com-
munity.
Identify the gaps in knowledge, skill and attitude. This can be done through a participation information collec-
tion in the community.
Prepare a summary document on the training needs identified for each targeted group. One can have com-
mon training needs to all the targeted groups and specific needs for specific group

Outcome of the TNA

• Determine who will be the target group
• Determine what to be taught or what topics to be given more emphasis
• Determine who will be the trainers
• Duration of the training
• Determine materials and equipments required
• Suggest training materials/techniques to be used Determine training budget.

A. Identify Skills Needed (45 minutes)

Step 1: Greet participants and read aloud the session’s posted Learner Objectives.
Step 2: Ask participants if they have ever been in a situation where the instructor spent a lot of time covering
material they already knew. If so, how did they feel? How did it affect the class morale?
Step 3: Point out that in order to reduce the boredom or frustration that can occur when training is not ap-
propriate for a particular group, it is necessary to conduct a training needs assessment before designing the
training.
Step 4: Ask how they might go about assessing trainees’ needs.

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TRAINING MANUAL ON COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
ANNEX 9: ANIMAL CHARACTERS

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