1/5/24, 6:23 AM ELABORATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE EXPATRITES' CROSS-CULTURAL …

ELABORATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE AND
THE EXPATRITES' CROSS-CULTURAL
ADAPTATION
Author: Nick Daher
Date: Spring 2019
From: International Journal of Business and Public Administration(Vol. 16, Issue 1)
Publisher: International Academy of Business and Public Administration Disciplines
Document Type: Report
Length: 6,730 words
Lexile Measure: 1550L

Abstract:

As the world continues to shrink through globalization and becomes more connected with one
common market, organizations can no longer ignore the effects of globalization and the increased
mobility of labor across national and cultural boundaries. Cross-cultural adaptation has become an
important source of competitive advantage for many organizations and their expatriates. Research
suggests that employees who are highly effective in their home country may not necessarily be as
effective in international settings. Thus, experiences of expatriation have been marked with high
failure rates, increased costs, and ineffectiveness. This study elaborates on the relationship
between three dimensions of cultural intelligence (cognitive, motivational, and behavioral) and
three dimensions of expatriates' cross-cultural adaptation (ability to work in host countries,
adaptation to general living condition in host countries, and interaction with citizens of host
countries).

Keywords: Cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adaptation, expatriates.

Full Text:

INTRODUCTION

As the world continues to shrink through globalization and becomes more connected with one
common market, organizations can no longer ignore the effects of globalization, which in turn, has
increased the mobility of labor across national and cultural boundaries. In this environment, cross-
cultural adaptation has become an important source of competitive advantage for many
organizations and their employees assigned to work abroad (Andreason, 2003a, 2003b). A critical
issue that is still debated is why some individuals adapt cross-culturally more easily than others.
Research suggests that an individual's personal characteristics have a significant effect on cross-
cultural adaptation (Church, 2000). Furthermore, research on expatriates suggests that employees
who may be highly effective in their home country may not necessarily be as effective in
international settings (McEvoy & Parker, 2002).

The experiences of expatriation have been marked with high failure rates, increased costs, and
ineffectiveness on the part of expatriates (Mendenhall, et al, 2002; Shaffer, et al, 2006).
Consequently, it has become crucial for global organizations to develop individuals who can adjust
and work effectively and efficiently in an international environment. Given the significance and high
costs of expatriation, it is crucial to understand what is to do in order to help expatriates adjust and
succeed in their international assignments. This study intends to examine the relationship between
the cultural intelligence and the expatriates' cross-cultural adaptation. Specifically, this study
intends to examine the relationship between three dimensions of cultural intelligence (cognitive,
https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GBIB&u=lirn17237&id=GALE|A595704240&v=2.1&it=r&sid=bookmark-GBIB&asid=a2b7b751 1/14
1/5/24, 6:23 AM ELABORATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE EXPATRITES' CROSS-CULTURAL …

motivational, and behavioral) and three dimensions of crosscultural adaptation (ability to work in
host countries, adaptation to general living condition in host countries, and interaction with citizens
of host countries) related to expatriates.

CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE

The definition of culture varies greatly among social scientists. However, House et al. (1999)
provide an experiential and comprehensive definition of culture as, "distinctive environments of
collectivities about which members share meanings and values, resulting in a compelling model
pattern of common affective, attitudinal, and behavioral orientation that is transmitted across
generations and that differentiates collectivities from each other" (p. 540). Weber, Ames, and Bais
(2005) define culture as, "a set of long-standing values, attitudes, beliefs, social structures, and
institutions which have been shaped by local conditions that include, geography, climate, history,
economics, and politics as a way of coping with these conditions" (p. 92).

This inclusive definition provides a framework for understanding why individuals from different
cultures might perceive leadership in profoundly different ways. In this review, culture refers to a
national culture, which is the values and beliefs developed in "the country in which an individual
spent the majority of his or her formative years" (Hambrick, et al, 1998, p. 183).

Increasing globalization across most industries has prompted the need for cultural intelligence as a
new competency dimension that underpins effective leadership across borders. Earley and
Peterson (2004) defined cultural intelligence as "the aptitude to use skills and abilities appropriately
in a cross-cultural environment. According to Earley and Ang (2003), cultural intelligence is distinct
from social and emotional intelligences in that it requires people to switch national contexts and rely
on their ability to learn new patterns of social interaction and devise the right behavioral responses
to these patterns. The authors refer to several examples of leaders who possessed social,
intellectual, and emotional intelligences, and were successful in their own country's environment,
but were unable to transfer these skills to a different country's setting because they lacked the
crucial competency of cultural intelligence.

Earley and Ang (2003, p. 9) defined cultural intelligence as "a person's capability for successful
adaptation to new cultural settings; that is, for unfamiliar settings attributable to cultural context"
which consists of four dimensions described below:

(1) Meta-cognitive Dimension-The skills of planning, self-monitoring, and using cognitive strategies
are vital to the expatriate who attempts to assimilate patterns of behavior in a foreign situation into
a cohesive framework that individuals can understand and manage. It is how a person makes
sense of inter-cultural experiences. It occurs when people make judgments about their own
processes and those of others. This dimension includes cognitive strategies, self-monitoring, and
planning.

(2) Cognitive Dimension--a person understands of how cultures are similar and different. It is the
ability to gather data and function in a new culture as well as comprehend the differences between
the native culture and the host culture. This dimension includes cognitive flexibility, specific cultural
information, social perception, and decision-making.

(3) Motivational Dimension--confidence that a person can function effectively in settings

characterized by cultural diversity. It is the inward desire of the expatriate to engage foreign
nationals in a culturally appropriate manner. This dimension includes goal-setting, self-efficacy, and
maintaining norms.

(4) Behavioral Dimension--a person's ability to adapt to verbal and nonverbal behavior appropriate
to different cultures. It is the ability to generate the behaviors needed to reflect cognition and
motivation. This dimension includes non-verbal behavior, language performance, and self-
presentation.

CROSS-CULTURAL ADAPTATION DIMENSIONS

https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GBIB&u=lirn17237&id=GALE|A595704240&v=2.1&it=r&sid=bookmark-GBIB&asid=a2b7b751 2/14
1/5/24, 6:23 AM ELABORATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE EXPATRITES' CROSS-CULTURAL …

Considerable attention in the area of international human resources (HR) search has been paid to
cross-cultural adaptation of expatriates. Their difficulties and those of their spouses in adjusting to
living in the host country were cited as the most common reasons for assignment failure (Harrison
& Shaffer, 2005). Expatriate adaptation is critical because premature return of expatriates or
assignment failure is costly for both the organization and the individual expatriate. It is likely to
lower expatriate self-confidence and result in a loss of organizational prestige and credibility in the
host country. Therefore, adaptation is often considered as an essential predictor of expatriate
success and effectiveness (Caligiuri, 1997; Shaffer et al, 2006).

Black and Gregersen (1991) defined expatriate adaptation as "the extent to which expatriates are
psychologically comfortable with living and working in host countries." Positive adaptation results in
increased fit and reduced conflict between the environmental demands and the expatriate
employee (Aycan, 1997a). When there is a match between environmental demands and the
person's ability to meet those demands, then he/she is able to adapt (Black & Gregersen, 1991).
Adaptation consists of three substantive dimensions:

(1) Adaptation to Work and Job Requirements refers to the expatriate's ability to execute specific
job responsibilities, to meet performance standards and expectations, and to fulfill supervisory
responsibilities (Black et al., 1991; Black & Gregersen, 1991).

(2) Adaptation to General Environment pertains to obtaining a level of comfort with the general
living conditions of the host society, including climate, food, housing, cost of living, transportation,
and health facilities in the host country.

(3) Adaptation to Interaction with Host Country Nationals involves engaging comfortably in
interpersonal relations, socializing and interacting with citizens of the country in which an expatriate
is assigned.

The multidimensionality of adaptation was supported in quite a few studies through exploratory and
confirmatory factor analyses (Black & Stephens, 1989; Shaffer, Harrison, & Gilley, 1999). The
dimensions are highly inter-correlated, however each dimension predicts different adaptation
outcomes. Although some studies suggested that some dimensions precede others, no theoretical
rationale has been provided as a causal relationship among the three dimensions, and few causal
relationships have been empirically investigated in literature. Black et al. (1991) proposed factors
that affect the modes and degrees of in-country adaptation: (a) individual (such as self-efficacy,
relation skills, and perception skills); (b) job (such as role clarity, discretion, conflict, and novelty);
(c) organizational socialization, including social support and logistical help; (d) organizational
culture; and (e) non-work factors, such as culture novelty and spouse adaptation. Adaptation leads
to favorable outcomes for expatriates, including such factors as performance improvement,
reduced stress, positive work attitudes, job satisfaction, and intention to complete the assignment
(Black & Gregersen, 1991).

Furthermore, socializing with host country nationals, coworkers, and supervisors facilitates cultural
understanding and, consequently, adjustment and work effectiveness. Expatriate newcomers
acquire culturally appropriate behavioral patterns and competencies in defining culturally
appropriate and effective behaviors through interactions with organizational members and social
support from them. As expatriates make more sense of the culture, norms, and practices of the
host country and organization, their understanding reduces the stress of uncertainty and facilitates
adaptation (Aycan, 1997a).

EXPATRIATION

Expatriates are parent company nationals who are sent to work at a foreign subsidiary (Harvey, &
Buckley, 1997). Research on expatriates and global leadership suggests that employees who may
be highly effective in their home country may not necessarily be as effective in international settings
(McEvoy & Parker, 2002). The experiences of expatriation have been marked with high failure
rates, increased costs, and ineffectiveness on the part of expatriates (Mendenhall et al, 2002;
Shaffer et al, 2006). Consequently, it has become crucial for global organizations to develop
individuals who can adjust and work effectively and efficiently in an international environment.
https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GBIB&u=lirn17237&id=GALE|A595704240&v=2.1&it=r&sid=bookmark-GBIB&asid=a2b7b751 3/14
1/5/24, 6:23 AM ELABORATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE EXPATRITES' CROSS-CULTURAL …

Given the significance and high costs of expatriation, it is crucial to understand what can be done
to help expatriates adjust and succeed in their international assignments.

Black and Mendenhall (1990) used the U-Curve framework to describe the cross-cultural
adaptation progression of expatriate employees within a host culture The U-Curve theory consists
of four phases of adaptation. The first phase is honeymoon phase occurs during the first week after
arrival at the host country. Employees are fascinated by the new and different culture. When the
newcomer employee starts to cope with the real conditions on a daily basis, the second phase of
culture stock begins, which is characterized by frustration and hostility towards the host nation and
its people. The third phase is the adaptation phase in which the expatriate employee gradually
adapts to the new norms and values of the host country and can act more appropriately. The fourth
phase is the mastery phase when the employee is able to function in the new culture.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Appendix 1 depicts a graphic representation for cultural intelligence and cross-cultural adaptation
relationships for expatriate effectiveness. Appendix 1 incorporates key ideas from the literature,
translates them into concepts, and makes logical connections to illustrate relationships among
elements. The right side of the graphic representation draws from the theories of cultural
dimensions and global management, leading to exploring the expatriation literature and the three
dimensions of work, general living condition, and host-country national interaction (Black et al.,
1991), relevant to expatriate effectiveness.

The left side of the graph depicts the multidimensional model of cultural intelligence (Earley & Ang,
2003), and its assessment tools and improvement methods that underpin effective leadership
across borders. It further illustrates the relationships between each of the cognitive, motivational,
and behavioral dimensions of cultural intelligence and the three cross-cultural adaptation
dimensions of work, general living condition, and host-country national interaction (Black et al.,
1991), relevant to expatriate effectiveness.

The conceptual framework demonstrates the importance and utility of the three dimensions of
cultural intelligence and supports three propositions to advance the understanding of cross-cultural
adaptation for expatriates

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTUAL INTELLEGENCE AND CROSS-CULTURAL

ADAPTATION

The author focuses on exploring the impact of the cognitive, motivational, and behavioral
dimensions of cultural intelligence on the multiple dimensions of cross-cultural adaptation of the
expatriate ability to work, adapt to living conditions, and interact with citizens in host countries. The
discussion for each cultural intelligence dimension relevant to the crosscultural adaptation
dimensions incorporates relevant key theories and concepts, considers analyses and integration of
previous research, and concludes a proposition that offers insight to further advance the topic.

Appendix1 illustrates the association of the cognitive, motivational, and behavioral dimensions of
cultural intelligence and the three cross-cultural adaptation dimensions of work, general living
condition, and host-country national interaction, relevant to expatriate effectiveness. Furthermore,
Figures 1, 2, and 3 provide additional explanations as they focus on illustrating the relationship
between each respective cultural intelligence dimension and the three dimensions of cross-cultural.

1. The Cognitive Dimension of the Cultural Intelligence and Cross-Cultural Adaptation Dimensions

https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GBIB&u=lirn17237&id=GALE|A595704240&v=2.1&it=r&sid=bookmark-GBIB&asid=a2b7b751 4/14
1/5/24, 6:23 AM ELABORATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE EXPATRITES' CROSS-CULTURAL …

Pusch (2004) defined cross-cultural adaptation as "the capacity to function well in a new culture in
the areas of work, adapt to general living conditions, and interaction with citizens in host countries".
These cultural cognitive skills are essential to adaptation because expatriates often adapt to
management skills and behaviors in order to perform well in a new cultural environment (Black &
Porter, 1991).

In addition, research suggests that greater knowledge of the host culture reduces anxiety and
uncertainty, which in turn, increases adaptation (Bruschke et al, 1998). Similarly, Earley and Ang
(2003) suggested that this ability involves procedural knowledge and involves information specific
to the cultural environment, and that personal characteristics will influence the expatriate's
willingness and ability to learn these necessary skills during their daily encounters across cultural
lines.

This suggests a likely relationship between cognitive dimension of cultural intelligence and cross-
cultural adaptation. Williams (2008) suggested that there is a positive relationship between
cognitive dimension and the three dimensions of cross-cultural adaptation of ability to work in host
countries, adapt to living conditions in host countries, and interaction with citizens in host countries.
The sample for his study consisted of American business expatriates working in China. Williams
used the multiple regression analyses and found that individuals with higher levels of cognitive
cultural intelligence have higher levels of cross-cultural adjustment.

Work adaptation in host countries, as a part of cross-cultural adaptation, represents the expatriate's
ability to perform well in the job function in a foreign setting. Selmer (1999a) indicated that cognitive
abilities facilitate work adaptation. Similarly, Earley and Ang (2003) explained their concept of the
cognitive dimension, as a type of knowledge essential to the concept of what they call "procedural
knowledge", which is the ability to know how to execute tasks requiring sequential and quantitative
actions and may be specific to a specific culture. An individual high in the cognitive dimension
should be better equipped to understand the host culture work environment, and then employ that
knowledge to become more effective and efficient in that environment. Earley and Ang (2003)
asserted that reason and decision-making skills are key elements of the cognitive dimension.

Consequently, expatriates with higher levels of cultural intelligence should adapt more quickly and
easily to a novel culture, including the work environment where management and decision-making
skills are necessary to execute specific job responsibilities, and meet performance standards and
expectations. This also assists expatriate employees to change management styles to conform to,
or to better adapt to the host-country norms (Selmer, 1999a). This analysis suggests that higher
levels of cognitive dimension may be positively associated with better work adaptation.

https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GBIB&u=lirn17237&id=GALE|A595704240&v=2.1&it=r&sid=bookmark-GBIB&asid=a2b7b751 5/14
1/5/24, 6:23 AM ELABORATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE EXPATRITES' CROSS-CULTURAL …

General living condition adaptation entails knowing how to perform everyday tasks (such as
shopping, dining out, etc.) and feeling comfortable with the facilities and surroundings in the host
country. Research indicates that cognitive abilities assist in adaptation to everyday living activities
(Oguri & Gudykunst, 2002). Earley and Ang (2003, p. 109) assert that higher levels of cognitive CI
also include procedural knowledge, or the knowledge of how to do things, which ties directly to the
definition of general living condition adaptation and knowing how to perform everyday tasks and
feeling at ease in the host country. This suggests that higher levels of cognitive CI, as procedural
knowledge, should enhance general living condition adaptation.

Berry (1994a) asserts that individuals develop survival skills in a new culture based on cognitive
abilities, which in turn, supports the argument that a person higher in cognitive dimension of the
cultural intelligence should develop better survival skills concerning everyday living and do so more
efficiently and effectively. This analysis suggests that higher levels of cognitive CI may be positively
associated with better general living condition adaptation.

Host-country national interactional adaptation involves the capacity to interact with people in the
host country. Research shows that cognitive abilities facilitate these interactions (Bruschke et al.,
1998), and that knowledge of the host culture is related to better interpersonal relationships with
host-country nationals.

Furthermore, communication requires the acquisition and sharing of information in order to bring
significance to a relationship and develop meaningful action between expatriates and the host-
country nationals (Heath & Bryant, 2000). An individual with higher levels of cognitive cultural
intelligence should be more adept at using communication knowledge for this type of intercultural
interaction. This suggests that higher levels of cognitive cultural intelligence are positively
associated with better host-country national interactional adaptation.

Figure 1 illustrates a graphic representation of the cognitive dimension of the cultural intelligence
and its relationships with the three dimensions of the cross-cultural adaptation dimensions of work,
general living conditions, and host-country national interaction.

2. Motivational Dimension of Cultural Intelligence and the Dimensions of Cross-Cultural Adaptation

Relationship

Templer, Tay, and Chandrasekar (2006) suggested that there is a positive relationship between the
motivational dimension of cultural intelligence and the three dimensions of crosscultural adaptation
of the expatriate ability to work, adapt to general living condition, and interact with citizens in host-
country. The sample for their study consisted of expatriates in Singapore; over half of the
participants (56%) were from collectivist cultures (India, and Southeast Asia). Regression analyses
demonstrated positive relationships between the motivational dimension of cultural intelligence and
the three dimensions of cultural adaptation after controlling for gender, age, and time in the host
country, and prior international assignment.

Templer, Tay, and Chandrasekar (2006) (2006) identified a significant and positive relationship
between motivational dimension and work adaptation. In their analysis, they cited Earley and Ang's
(2003) assertion that expatriates with higher levels of motivational dimension of cultural intelligence
tended to be more open to new experiences and will be more persistent in adapting to the novel
culture. In this context, expatriates may be more psychologically prepared to adjust behaviors as
necessary in the new work setting. They also found leaders who were "culturally adventurous" and
"intrinsically motivated" to be more successful.

Furthermore, Palthe (2004) found a positive relationship between self-efficacy, one of the
dimensions of motivational dimension and work adaptation in host countries. An expatriate
employee with higher motivational cultural intelligence due to the desire to be successful in an
international assignment should be more willing to modify his or her employee interactions to fit the
host culture (Templer et al., 2006). This suggests that higher levels of the motivational dimension
are positively associated with better work adaptation.

https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GBIB&u=lirn17237&id=GALE|A595704240&v=2.1&it=r&sid=bookmark-GBIB&asid=a2b7b751 6/14
1/5/24, 6:23 AM ELABORATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE EXPATRITES' CROSS-CULTURAL …

In addition, Templer, Tay, and Chandrasekar (2006) demonstrated a positive relationship between
motivational dimension and adaptation to general living condition. Their findings coincide with
Earley and Ang's (2003) assertion that expatriates with higher levels of motivational dimension
adapt to general living conditions easier and more quickly due to their openness to new and
different experiences than those with a lower level of motivational cultural intelligence. Hechanova,
Beehr, and Christiansen (2003) suggested that self-efficacy, an important dimension of motivational
dimension of cultural intelligence, is related to general adaptation.

Triandis (1972) asserted that cultural contact does not necessarily lead to greater understanding
and functioning in a new culture. A lack of openness to the new culture can actually increase
stereotyping and negative feelings of the new culture. Conversely, openness to new experiences
and a new way of life will lead to accurate representations of the host culture. This openness is one
of the key attitudes possessed by a person high in motivational dimension.

Earley and Ang (2003) attested that an individual with a strong desire for self-enhancement would
be more likely to engage the host culture and feel comfortable with everyday life, as it also
represents a source of positive reinforcement for this type of individual. A strong desire for self-
enhancement is a dimension of motivational cultural intelligence. Locke and Latham (1990)
confirmed that goal setting is a key antecedent of successful completion of tasks.

Because goal setting is a major dimension of motivational cultural intelligence, it is understandable

that an expatriate high in motivational cultural intelligence is likely to set a goal of adapting to
general environment and attaining that goal. (Bandura (1997) reported that self-efficacy, another
major component of motivational cultural intelligence, improved individual ability to accomplish a
task. Consequently, a person high in motivational dimension should be more likely to adapt to the
general cultural environment in an overseas assignment. This suggests that higher levels of
motivational dimension are positively associated with better general living condition adaptation.

Templer, Tay, and Chandrasekar (2006) demonstrated a positive relationship between motivational
dimension and host-country national interactional adaptation. They employed Earley and Ang's
(2003) approach in their expectation that high motivational cultural intelligence expatriates would
have confidence in social interactions with people in the host culture, would be more adaptive in
these interactions, would actively seek these relationships, and would be comfortable around
people with different cultural backgrounds. Erez and Earley's (1993) self-representation theory,
suggested that self-enhancement and self-efficacy are powerful motivators for social interaction.

This theory is an important theoretical dimension of motivational cultural intelligence and suggests
that people receive self-enhancement and a feeling of importance from social contacts involved in
interactions. Thus, someone with high motivational dimension would have strong self-enhancement
and self-efficacy motives to engage people in the host culture. Consequently, it is likely that
expatriates with high motivational cultural intelligence would interact often and well with people in
the host culture.

Figure 2 illustrates the relationship between the motivational dimension of cultural intelligence and
its relationships with the three cross-cultural adaptation dimensions of the expatriate ability to work,
adapt to living conditions, and interact with citizens in host countries.

Studies (e.g., Mendenhall, 1999) showed that a readiness to communicate does not depend much
on language fluency as it is on the willingness to interact with people in another culture. Earley and
Ang (2003) noted that an expatriate who is not fluent may well pick up a few choice phrases (for
example, jargon, popular events) and earn a great deal of credit with the locals. This willingness is
an important element in motivational dimension of the cultural intelligence; it suggests that higher
levels of motivational cultural intelligence are positively associated with better host-country national
interactional adaptation.

3. Behavioral Dimension of the Cultural Intelligence and Cross-cultural Adaptation Dimensions

Earley and Ang (2003) claimed that the behavioral dimension of the cultural intelligence is "the
ability to generate the behaviors needed to reflect cognition and motivation." In the cross-cultural
https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GBIB&u=lirn17237&id=GALE|A595704240&v=2.1&it=r&sid=bookmark-GBIB&asid=a2b7b751 7/14
1/5/24, 6:23 AM ELABORATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE EXPATRITES' CROSS-CULTURAL …

context, these behaviors can differ significantly from the home culture; therefore, it could be
challenging. The expatriate who possesses the proper meta-cognitive, cognitive, and motivational
prerequisites does not necessarily possess a higher level of behavioral cultural intelligence. Higher
levels of behavioral cultural intelligence are evident only as one is physically able to perform the
necessary actions.

The three elements of self-presentation, language production, and nonverbal communication

actions are the most relevant aspects in the Earley and Ang (2003) model of behavioral dimension
of the cultural intelligence. As noted by Earley and Ang (2003), selfpresentation, also known as
impression management, is the end result of the behavioral component of cultural intelligence, and
is defined as "the conscious or unconscious attempt to control images that are projected in the real
or imagined social interactions, and when these images are self-relevant, the behavior is termed
self-presentation" (p. 156).

The capacity to communicate in a foreign language (language production) is another requisite skill
for high functioning ability in behavioral dimension of the cultural intelligence. Earley and Ang
(2003) suggest that one cannot possess high levels of behavioral dimension of the cultural
intelligence without some degree of competency in foreign language acquisition. While mastering a
foreign language well enough to interact with host nationals can be an overwhelming task, one
need not be fluent but merely able to pick up a few important phrases and idioms. Nonverbal
communication actions on the other hand, carry deep meaning, and can actually be more difficult to
master than a spoken foreign language since the verbal aspect of communication is often more
controllable than nonverbal messages.

According to Moynihan, Peterson, and Earley (2006), adopting appropriate behavior in cross-
cultural encounters is essential to inter-cultural interaction and adaptation. The behavioral
dimension of the cultural intelligence is concerned with the capacity of individuals to be flexible in
their verbal and non-verbal behavior when they find themselves in culturally-diverse situations.
Those individuals who adopt appropriate behaviors and whose behavior is flexible (high behavioral
dimension of the cultural intelligence) should be able to better adapt to the different aspects of a
new environment than those whose behavioral dimension of the cultural intelligence is lower.

Dagher (2010) revealed a positive relationship between the behavioral dimension of the cultural
intelligence and the two dimensions of cross-cultural adaptation related to the expatriate ability to
adapt to general living condition and interaction with nationals in host-country. Participants were
Arabs working in the United States for a period of six months to five years. Using factor analysis,
the results of his study provided empirical support for the behavioral dimension of the cultural
intelligence as positively related to the two dimensions of the cross-cultural adaptation.

Cultures vary in the norms for appropriate and inappropriate behavior (Traindis, 1994), therefore
individuals who are flexible in their behavior will make positive impressions and develop better
intercultural relations (Ang et al., 2007). Consequently, it is likely that expatriates who are able to
develop behavioral CI will be able to better adapt to the new culture and its requirements. Thus, a
positive link between behavioral CI and the three cross-cultural adjustment dimensions is
established.

Figure 3 illustrates a graphic representation of behavioral CI and its relationships with the three
cross-cultural adaptation dimensions of work, general living conditions, and host-country national
interaction.

Some scholars (e.g., Berry & Ward, 2006; Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2006) did not accept the
concept of cultural intelligence. These theorists hypothesize that intelligence differs between
countries. They base their criticism on two factors. First, due to the high complexity of intelligence
across national cultures, a distinct concept such as cultural intelligence is unlikely to apply to all
cultural settings. Second, the contact of individuals and groups from different cultures sets a
process of acculturation in motion.

The process where two different notions of intelligence meet leads to stress and conflict until some
form of adaptation with effective forms of interaction is achieved. Berry and Ward (2006) conclude
https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GBIB&u=lirn17237&id=GALE|A595704240&v=2.1&it=r&sid=bookmark-GBIB&asid=a2b7b751 8/14
1/5/24, 6:23 AM ELABORATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE EXPATRITES' CROSS-CULTURAL …

that the model of cultural intelligence needs to put a focus on these two factors to advance its
future development.

Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars (2006) claimed that cultures are relative in their values, and
that the suggestion that one culture is more intelligent is discriminatory. They have been able to
provide answers to questions regarding the credibility of CQ. First, even though cultural values are
relative, they also have a synergistic side. Consequently, the synergy hypothesis states that
cultures will be happier where contrasting values are synergistic.

Second, cultures are diverse but they converge in a more complete description. The
"complementarity" hypothesis states that cultures are a single phenomenon with contrasting
aspects. Third, for each value, a given face value exists with a latent shadow connected. The
resulting hypothesis is called the latency hypothesis. It posits that cultures have latent contrast
values within them, which find an indirect form of expression. A combination of the synergy,
complementarity, and latency hypotheses must define the construct of cultural intelligence to
validate it. These latent and contrasting values must be acknowledged and understood to formulate
cultural intelligence.

IMPROVEMENT OF CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE

Expatriates' Selection Process

The selection of competent individuals for expatriates is of critical importance. Individual candidates
for these positions are often selected from within the organization with the rationale that these
current employees or employees already possess the technical expertise, the organizational
culture, and the tribal knowledge. Forward thinking organizations, however, recognize that these
employees need more than technical competencies to be effective across borders (Riggio, Murphy,
& Pirozzolo, 2002, p. 23).

Ashamalla (1998) points out that the selection of expatriates at the recruitment phase, in which a
thorough screening for international competency is typically performed, is employed to verify
certain qualities such as cultural empathy, awareness of environmental constraints, interpersonal
skills, and other crucial qualities for success overseas like adaptation, flexibility, and tolerance for
ambiguity (p. 55). However, measuring these qualities is rather subjective, as they lack operational
definitions, especially when the selection process used is typically a personal interview.

https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GBIB&u=lirn17237&id=GALE|A595704240&v=2.1&it=r&sid=bookmark-GBIB&asid=a2b7b751 9/14
1/5/24, 6:23 AM ELABORATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE EXPATRITES' CROSS-CULTURAL …

It is crucial that there is a match between candidate and selection instruments that reveals the most
about the candidate, and identifies the gap in competencies. Consequently, employing the
construct of cultural intelligence provides a systematic, practical approach to recruiting and
selecting a more globally qualified pool of applicants. The operationalization of cultural intelligence
represents a reliable measurement that generates consistent results, and is a valid measure
designed to assess performance across cultural settings. Cultural intelligence offers ideal practical
applications as an assessment instrument that quantifies actual scores for candidates, and
identifies areas of deficiency for the purpose of training and improvement in each dimension of
cultural intelligence.

Expatriates' Training Pre-Departure and Post Arrival

Researchers (e.g., Black & Gregersen, 1991) divided expatriation training into three stages: pre-
expatriation, expatriation (international assignment), and repatriation. Pre-departure training is
valuable because employees make anticipatory adjustments before they actually encounter a new
situation. Accurate expectations learned through proper information and training are known to
facilitate the actual adaptation (Black & Gregersen, 1991). Research suggests that about 62
percent of U.S. corporations provide some cross-cultural preparation, typically less than a day, prior
to sending expatriates abroad (Black & Gregersen, 1991). Similarly, Bolino and Feldman (2000)
found, from a survey of 268 expatriates, that over 75 percent of the respondents received less than
one day of training before embarking on their assignments, and over a third of these individuals
received no pre-departure training.

Mendenhall, Dunbar, and Oddou (1987) suggested that although pre-departure training is
important, post-arrival or in host countries country training is critical to expatriate effectiveness, yet
some organizations tend to provide little follow-up training once employees are in host countries.
The authors provided some percentages relevant to follow-up training, ranging from no training at
all (49%), language skills only (36%), assigning the family a counselor once employees are
overseas (12%), to comprehensive training programs (3%). Reasons that global organizations do
not provide training due to doubts about the effectiveness of such training programs and the lack of
time between selection and relocation. Some organization also believe that the overseas
assignments do not warrant expenses for training because of their short duration, or they do not
perceive the need for training on the part of upper management.

Educating Expatriates

Alon and Higgins (2005) suggested that improving cultural intelligence results by focusing on
educating expatriates and experiencing its dimensions. Typically, formal education programs focus
on countries, language education, mentoring, cultural awareness case studies, and appropriate
cross-cultural behaviors that lead to reasonable solutions. Education also includes simulations and
other experiential activities to build cultural awareness. While language proficiency provides the
basis for cultural understanding, intercultural communication, and potential immersion in a foreign
culture, the links between linguistic competence, cultural intelligence, and leadership exist.

It is critical in educational settings that trainees set goals for changing their behaviors, be required
to work on changing those behaviors, and then be evaluated on how well they have progressed.
Crowne (2008) suggests that the depth of exposures to other cultures such as education or
employment abroad increases cultural intelligence, and that it is critical for multinational firms as
employees hire, promote, train, and prepare employees for international assignments.

CONCLUSION

This study explored the role of cultural relevant to expatriate effectiveness in crosscultural
adaptation. It offers promising evidence of a significant and positive relationship between the
cognitive, motivational, and behavioral dimensions of cultural intelligence and the three cross-
cultural adaptation dimensions of work, general living condition, and host-country national
interaction. This study demonstrates the importance the utility of the three dimensions of cultural
intelligence to advance the understanding of cross-cultural adaptation for expatriates.

https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GBIB&u=lirn17237&id=GALE|A595704240&v=2.1&it=r&sid=bookmark-GBIB&asid=a2b7b751 10/14
1/5/24, 6:23 AM ELABORATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE EXPATRITES' CROSS-CULTURAL …

This study has emphasized the relevance and applicability of cultural intelligence and the training
and development of expatriates to underpin effectiveness in the international domain. Expatriating
firms may consider the use of screening and selection methods that integrate testing for the
cognitive, motivational, and behavioral dimensions of cultural intelligence to underpin their
effectiveness, to increase their global performance, and to reduce the costs of expatriation.

REFERENCES

Alon, I., & Higgins, J. (2005). Global leadership success through emotional and cultural
intelligences. Business Horizons, 48(6), 501-512. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2005.04.003.

Andreason, A. W. (2003a). Direct and indirect forms of in-country support for expatriates and their
families as a means of reducing premature returns and improving job performance. International
Journal of Management, 20(4), 548-555.

Andreason, A. W. (2003b). Expatriate adjustment to foreign assignments. International Journal of

Commerce & Management, 13(1), 42-60.

Ashamalla, M. H. (1998). International human resource management practices: The challenge of

expatriation. Competitiveness Review, 8(2), 54.

Aycan, Z. (1997a). Acculturation of expatriate employees: A process model of adjustment and

performance. In Z. Aycan (Ed.), Expatriate management: Theory and research. Greenwich, CT: JAI
Press.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.

Berry, J. W., & Ward, C. (2006). Commentary on redefining interactions across cultures and
organizations. Group & Organization Management, 37(1), 64-77.

Berry, J. W. (1994a). An ecological perspective on cultural and ethnic psychology. In E. J. Trickett,

R. J. Watts & D. Birman (Eds.), Human 174 diversity: Perspectives on people in context (pp. 115-
141). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Black, J. S., & Gregersen, H. B. (1991). Antecedents to cross-cultural adjustment for expatriates in
Pacific Rim assignments. Human Relations, 44(5), 497-515.

Black, J. S., & Mendenhall, M. E. (1990). Cross-cultural training effectiveness: A review and a
theoretical framework for future research. Academy of Management Review, 75(1), 113-136.

Black, J. S., & Porter, L. W. (1991). Employeeial behaviors and job performance: A successful
employee in Los Angeles may not succeed in Hong Kong. Journal of International Business
Studies, 22(1), 99.

Black, J. S., & Stephens, G. K. (1989). The influence of the spouse on American expatriate
adjustment and intent to stay in Pacific Rim overseas assignments. Journal of Management, 75,
529-544.

Bolino, M. C, & Feldman, D. C. (2000). The antecedents and consequences of underemployment

among expatriates. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(8), 889-911.

Bruschke, J. C., Hammer, M. R., Rasmussen, J. L., & Wiseman, R. L. (1998). A test of
anxiety/uncertainty management theory: The intercultural adaptation context. Communication
Quarterly, 46(3), 309-326.

Caligiuri, P. M. (1997). Assessing expatriate success: Beyond just "being there". In Z. Aycan (Ed.),
Expatriate management: Theory and practice (pp. 117-140). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Church, A. T. (2000). Culture and personality: Toward an integrated cultural trait psychology.
Journal of Personality, 68(4), 651.
https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GBIB&u=lirn17237&id=GALE|A595704240&v=2.1&it=r&sid=bookmark-GBIB&asid=a2b7b751 11/14
1/5/24, 6:23 AM ELABORATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE EXPATRITES' CROSS-CULTURAL …

Crowne, K. (2008). What leads to cultural intelligence? Business Horizons, 51(5), 391-399.
Retrieved from doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2008.03.010.

Dagher, G.. (2010). The relation between motivational and behavioral cultural intelligence and the
three dimensions of cross-cultural adjustment among Arabs working in the USA. The Business
Review, Cambridge, 15(1), 137-143.

Earley, P. C., & Ang, S. (2003). Cultural intelligence: Individual interactions across cultures.
Stanford, CA: Stanford Business Books

Earley, P. C., & Peterson, R. S. (2004). The elusive cultural chameleon: Cultural intelligence as a
new approach to intercultural training for the global employee. Academy of Management Learning
& Education, 3(1), 100-115.

Erez, M., & Earley, P. C. (1993). Culture, self-identity, and work. New York: Oxford University Press.

Hambrick, D. C., Davidson, S. C., Snell, S. A., & Snow, C. C. (1998). When groups consist of
multiple nationalities: Towards a new understanding of the implications. Organization Studies
(Walter De Gruyter GmbH & Co.KG.), 19(2), 181-205.

Hampden-Turner, C., & Trompenaars, F. (2006). Cultural intelligence: Is such a capacity credible?
Group & Organization Management, 31(1), 56-63. Retrieved from doi:10.1177/1059601105276942.

Harrison, D. A., & Shaffer, M. A. (2005). Mapping the criterion space for expatriate success: Task-
and relationship-based performance, effort and adaptation. International Journal of Human
Resource Management, 16(8), 1454-1474.

Harvey, M. G., & Buckley, M. (1997). Managing inpatriates: Building a global core competency.
(cover story). Journal of World Business, 32(1), 35-52.

Heath, R. L., & Bryant, J. (2000). Human communication theory and research concepts, contexts,
and challenges (Second ed.). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Hechanova, R., Beehr, T. A., & Christiansen, N. D. (2003). Antecedents and consequences of
employees' adjustment to overseas assignment: A meta-analytic review. Applied Psychology, 52,
213-236.

https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GBIB&u=lirn17237&id=GALE|A595704240&v=2.1&it=r&sid=bookmark-GBIB&asid=a2b7b751 12/14
1/5/24, 6:23 AM ELABORATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE EXPATRITES' CROSS-CULTURAL …

House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Ruiz-Quintanilla, S. A., Dorfman, P. W., Javidan, M., Dickson, M., et al.
(1999). Cultural influences on leadership and organizations: Project GLOBE. In W. H. Mobley, M. J.
Gessner, & V. Arnold (Eds.). Advances in global leadership (pp. 184). Stanford, CT: JAI Press

Locke, E. A., & Latham, E. A. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

McEvoy, G. M., & Parker, B. (2002). The contemporary international assignment: A look at the
options. In M. Mendenhall & G. Oddou (Eds.), Reading and cases in international human resource
management (3rd ed., pp. 470-486). Boston: Southwestern College Publishing.

Mendenhall, M. E. (1999). On the need for paradigmatic integration in international human

resource management. Management International Review, 39(3), 65-88.

Mendenhall, M. E., Dunbar, E., & Oddou, G. R. (1987). Expatriate selection, training and career-
pathing: A review and critique. Human Resource Management, 26(3), 15.

Moynihan, L. M., Peterson, R. S. & Earley, P. C. (2006). Cultural intelligence and the multinational
team experience: Does the experience of working in a multinational team improve cultural
intelligence? Research on Managing Groups and Teams, 9, 299-323.

Oguri, M., & Gudykunst, W. B. (2002). The influence of self construals and communication styles
on sojourners' psychological and sociocultural adjustment. International Journal of Intercultural
Relations, 26, 577-593.

Palthe, J. (2004). The relative importance of antecedents to cross-cultural adjustment: Implications

for managing a global workforce. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 28, 37-59.

Pusch, M. D. (2004). Intercultural training in historical perspective. In J. A. Bennett, M. J. Bennett &

D. Landis (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 13-36). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.

Riggio, R. E., Murphy, S. E., & Pirozzolo, F. J. (Eds.). (2002). Multiple intelligences and leadership.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Selmer, J. (1999a). Adjustment to Hong Kong: US v European expatriates. Human Resource

Management Journal, 9(3), 83 - 93.

Shaffer, M. A., Harrison, D. A., Gregersen, H., Black, J. S., & Ferdandi, L. A. (2006). You can take it
with you: Individual differences and expatriate effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(1),
109-125.

Shaffer, M. A., Harrison, D. A., & Gilley, K. M. (1999). Dimensions, determinants, and differences in
the expatriate adjustment process. Journal of International Business Studies, 30(3), 557 - 581.

Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2006). Cultural intelligence and successful intelligence.
Group & Organization Management, 31(1), 27-38.

Templer, K. L., Tay, C., & Chandrasekar, A. (2006). Motivational cultural intelligence, realistic job
preview, realistic living conditions preview, and cross-cultural adjustment. Group & Organization
Management, 31(1), 154-173.

Triandis, H. C. (1972). The analysis of subjective culture. New York: Wiley.

Weber, E., Ames, D., & Blais, A. (2005). How do I choose thee? Let me count the ways: A textual
analysis of similarities and differences in modes of decision-making in China and the United States.
Management & Organization Review, 1(1), 87-118. Retrieved from doi:10.1111/j.1740-
8784.2004.00005.x

https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GBIB&u=lirn17237&id=GALE|A595704240&v=2.1&it=r&sid=bookmark-GBIB&asid=a2b7b751 13/14
1/5/24, 6:23 AM ELABORATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE EXPATRITES' CROSS-CULTURAL …

Williams, M. (2008). Individual differences and cross-cultural adaptation: A study of cultural

intelligence, psychological adjustment, and sociocultural adjustment. Ph.D. dissertation, TUI
University, United States - California. (Publication No. AAT 3326775).

About the Author:

Nick Daher is an Associate Professor in the College of Business at Florida Institute of Technology.
Dr. Daher received his B.S. in Business Administration from The Ohio State University, an MBA
from Stetson University, and a Doctorate Degree in Management from University of Maryland. Dr.
Daher teaches graduate level courses and serves as a Committee Chair for doctoral students in
the DBA program. He served as a Chairman for the Supplier Management Review Board at
Siemens Telecom, as an ISO Certified Lead Auditor, and as a Corporate Trainer at TI Automotive
Systems. As a scholarly practitioner, he delivers a blend of theory and practice in teaching
methodology, focusing on application-based and evidence-based research in cross-cultural studies
and strategic management.

Nick Daher

Florida Institute of Technology

Copyright: COPYRIGHT 2019 International Academy of Business and Public Administration

Disciplines
http://www.iabpad.com/journals/international-journal-of-business-and-public-administration-2/
Source Citation (MLA 9th Edition)
Daher, Nick. "ELABORATION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE
AND THE EXPATRITES' CROSS-CULTURAL ADAPTATION." International Journal of
Business and Public Administration, vol. 16, no. 1, spring 2019, pp. 56+. Gale Business:
Insights, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A595704240/GBIB?u=lirn17237&sid=bookmark-
GBIB&xid=a2b7b751. Accessed 4 Jan. 2024.

Gale Document Number: GALE|A595704240

https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GBIB&u=lirn17237&id=GALE|A595704240&v=2.1&it=r&sid=bookmark-GBIB&asid=a2b7b751 14/14