Received: 24 April 2023 Revised: 22 June 2023 Accepted: 16 July 2023

DOI: 10.1002/prs.12517

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Avoiding water hammer and other hydraulic transients

Laurence G. Britton | Ronald J. Willey

Department of Chemical Engineering,

Northeastern University, Boston, Abstract
Massachusetts, USA
Water hammer may occur upon rapidly closing a water pipe valve. Oscillating pres-
Correspondence sure waves generated in the system may cause significant equipment damage, includ-
Ronald J. Willey, Northeastern University,
ing joint leaks and even pipe rupture. Similar phenomena can occur when starting
Boston, MA 02115, USA.
Email: [email protected] and stopping pumps. As various situations can cause potentially damaging pressure
waves, water hammer and related phenomena are grouped as “hydraulic transients.”
The phenomena are not limited to water pipes and may occur in any liquid, including
condensed gases such as chlorine, ammonia, and liquefied natural gas (LNG). Hydrau-
lic transients deserve more coverage in college courses and textbooks on process
safety, while at an industrial level, the topic should be considered in design and haz-
ard reviews. This article provides a brief introduction to the topic with a focus on mit-
igation methods. Available options should be evaluated during the design process
rather than applied retroactively after a problem becomes evident.

KEYWORDS
education, mechanical integrity

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N from large overpressures, partial vacuums, mechanical impacts, vibra-

tion, cavitation, or some combination of these.
A hidden hazard seldom explored by a process safety engineer is the Although this article is focused on practical aspects of hydraulic
phenomenon of water hammer or more broadly “hydraulic transients”. transient phenomena, it is first necessary to describe some basic the-
Significant damage can occur including erosion, cracking, joint leaks, ory. We begin with the calculation of magnitudes and velocities of
and even pipe rupture. Hydraulic transient phenomena are commonly pressure waves in simple (i.e., constant diameter and unbranched) pipe
experienced in domestic water systems when a valve is closed rapidly. systems, both with and without a simplifying assumption that the
At the other end of the scale are fire protection sprinkler/deluge sys- pipe walls are thin. The calculated wave velocities and pressures in
tems, steam generating facilities, and the broad petrochemical indus- “thick” pipes composed of steel, aluminum, or polyvinyl chloride
try, including undersea oil pipelines, fuel tanker loading, intermediate (PVC) are compared with the corresponding “thin wall” cases. We
bulk container (IBC) filling, and the transfer of condensed gases such then discuss how hydraulic overpressures are affected by pipe proper-
as chlorine, ammonia, and liquified natural gas (LNG). ties, fluid properties, and the speed of valve closure.
The phenomena are generally caused by the rapid acceleration or Numerous specific hydraulic transient phenomena are described
(more usually) deceleration of a liquid. Damaging effects may arise followed by a short list of the major contributory causes. The hazards
are illustrated by three case history summaries plus an outline of
potential risks in certain LNG systems. Finally, the article describes
This article was prepared for presentation at American Institute of Chemical Engineers 2023
the types of mitigation methods that are available, from adjusting pro-
Annual Spring Meeting, 19th Global Congress on Process Safety, Houston, TX, March 12–
16, 2023. cess conditions to the installation of special devices.

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.
© 2023 The Authors. Process Safety Progress published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Institute of Chemical Engineers.

Process Saf Prog. 2023;1–12. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/prs 1

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2 BRITTON and WILLEY

2 | DISCUSSION (ρ = 1000 kg/m3, β = 2.2 GPa) with initial velocity 2 m/s. The calcu-
lated maximum pressure rise is 2.73 MPa (396 psi). The calculated
2.1 | Abrupt halting of a liquid column in a pipe wave velocity “a” is 1365 m/s, approaching the speed of sound in
water under normal conditions (1482 m/s @ 293 K) and more than
The usual cause of hydraulic transients in liquid transfer systems is a four times the speed of sound in air (343 m/s @ 293 K).
valve closing too quickly or a pump shutting down suddenly. If a mov- At the same initial fluid velocity of 2 m/s, a plastic pipe of the
ing column of liquid is abruptly halted by the sudden closure of a same size but with a smaller elastic modulus (E = 1.4 GPa) produces a
valve, its loss of kinetic energy leads to a pressure increase at the smaller wave velocity (282 m/s) and smaller maximum pressure rise
valve and subsequent formation of a pressure wave of initial velocity (0.564 MPa or 81.8 psi) than a steel pipe.
“a” that reflects from a point upstream such as a valve, elbow, or tee. The speed of sound in a liquid “c” is a function of bulk modulus
This sets up a damped oscillatory pressure wave, which persists until and density, as given by the Newton–Laplace equation4:
its energy is dissipated in the system.
 1=2
β
c¼ ð3Þ
ρ
2.2 | Wave velocity for thin-walled pipe
Lees1 and various online sources state that the pressure wave travels
The loss of kinetic energy can be equated with the gain of strain through the pipe at the speed of sound but, as shown by the previous
energy by the liquid plus the wall material, allowing the maximum examples, this is not the characteristic sonic velocity for the liquid con-
pressure rise in the liquid “ΔP” to be calculated, as described by Lees. 1
cerned: the sonic velocity given by Equation (3) overestimates the pres-
The velocity of the initial pressure wave traveling upstream is calcu- sure wave velocity in pipes owing to the elasticity of the pipe wall. The
lated separately using the Joukowski equation.2 The expressions in effect of pipe material on water hammer has been examined numerically
Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook3 for maximum pressure rise by Kandil et al.5 Their conclusions were consistent with the predictions of
and wave velocity can be rewritten as Equations (1) and (2), namely that increasing the elastic modulus of the
pipe wall increases the amplitude of the pressure wave and that conse-
2 31=2
quently, under the same conditions, pressure waves in plastic pipes such
ρ
Maximum pressure ΔP ¼ Δv 4
 5 ð1Þ as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) have smaller amplitudes than in steel pipes.
β þ bE gc
1 D
Mosland et al.6 described the pressure wave as follows: “A fluid-
filled elastic pipeline will act as a waveguide for a pressure wave trav-
ΔPgc
Wave velocity ðJoukowski EquationÞ a ¼ ð2Þ elling along its length, transforming the initially simple pressure wave
ρΔv
into one or more guided wave modes with different characteristics. At
low frequencies, there exist in general two guided wave modes in a
ΔP = maximum pressure rise (Pa). fluid-filled pipe. One travels primarily in the pipe wall and the other
Δv = change in liquid velocity (m/s). primarily in the enclosed fluid. The latter is the fundamental fluid
ρ = liquid density (kg/m3). mode, which produces plane wave motion in the fluid when approach-
β = bulk modulus of liquid (Pa). ing 0 Hz… For simple systems, the propagation velocity of the funda-
D = pipe inside diameter (m). mental mode can be reduced to analytical expressions in the low
E = elastic modulus of pipe wall (Pa). frequency limit. Several analytical expressions exist for the fundamen-
b = pipe wall thickness (m). tal and low frequency fluid mode for fluid-filled pipes…”.
gc = gravitational conversion constant (1 kg m/N s 2
or 1 kg/ The Joukowski equation (Equation (2)) is widely used as an approxi-
Pa m s2). mation for wave velocity. The classic (1878) Korteweg formula described
a = wave velocity (m/s). by Mosland et al.6 is an analytical expression often used to estimate the
As discussed later, it is implicit in the analysis that the pipes con- pressure wave velocity in thin-walled elastic pipes. Equation (1) can be
cerned have relatively thin walls. Equation (2a) combines Equations (1) derived by substituting the wave velocity from the Joukowski equation
and (2), eliminating the variable Δv and yielding the wave velocity in into the Korteweg formula, and Equation (1) is consequently an approxi-
terms of pipe characteristics (radial dimensions and elastic modulus) mation for the pressure rise in thin-walled pipes.
plus liquid characteristics (density and bulk modulus).

2 31=2
gc
2.3 | Wave velocity for pipe of arbitrary wall
Wave velocity a ¼ 4
 5 ð2aÞ thickness
β þ bE ρ
1 D

More complex analytical expressions can be derived for pipe walls of

An example given in Perry's Handbook3 involves a 4-in Schedule arbitrary thickness and for pipes with internal linings, while more
40 steel pipe (D = 102.3 mm, b = 6.02 mm, E = 207 GPa) and water accurate solutions can be obtained using numerical calculations.6
 15475913, 0, Downloaded from https://aiche.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/prs.12517 by SEA ORCHID (Thailand), Wiley Online Library on [17/12/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
BRITTON and WILLEY 3

(A) (B)

(C)

(D)

F I G U R E 1 (A) Pressure wave velocities in steel pipe using thin-wall and thick-wall versions of Equation (1). (B) Pressure wave velocities in
PVC pipe using thin-wall and thick-wall versions of Equation (1). (C) Pressure wave velocities in aluminum pipe using thin- and thick-wall versions
of Equation (1). (D) Comparison of wave velocities for water in Sch. 40 steel, aluminum and PVC pipes.

Perry's Handbook3 provides a simple correction for Equation (1) Handbook “thin-walled pipe” example described previously (4-in
that makes it suitable for thick-walled pipe. The correction replaces Scheme 40 pipe) because D/b = 17 and the pipe would be consid-
the nondimensional pipe size parameter D/b in Equation (1) as ered thick-walled.
follows: To further examine this question, plots were made of pressure
wave velocity in water (ρ = 1000 kg/m3, β = 2.2 GPa) against nominal
D D2 þ D2 pipe diameter using both the thin-wall D/b parameter and the thick-
¼ 2 o2 ð4Þ
b Do  D2 wall correction given by Equation (4). The American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, ASME B36.10 M-2015 Standard for Welded
where Do is the outside pipe diameter. and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe provided values for D, Do, and b.
Perry's Handbook provides no guidance as to when The results are shown in Figure 1A (steel pipe), Figure 1B (PVC
Equation (4) should be used. A criterion often used to distinguish pipe), and Figure 1C (aluminum pipe). The use of nominal pipe
between thin- and thick-walled pipes is the demarcation D/ diameter rather than D/b for the abscissa provided better resolu-
b = 20. However, this demarcation is too high for the Perry's tion and additional information.
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4 BRITTON and WILLEY

1. For steel pipe (Figure 1A), it makes little difference whether 2L

τ¼ ð5Þ
Equation (1) is solved using the D/b parameter or the corrected a
Equation (4) parameter for thick walls. Many of the data pairs
are almost superimposed, although the simpler equation for Hence, τ = 2 L/a. For longer closing times, the maximum pressure
thin-walled pipes generally predicts slightly greater wave veloci- rise is reduced approximately by the ratio τ/t, hence:
ties and hence slightly greater ΔP values. Pressure wave veloci-
ties tend to decrease as pipe diameter increases and as pipe τΔP
ΔPred ¼ ð6Þ
t
schedule decreases; these effects are especially pronounced for
pipe schedules 10 and 40. Increasing the pipe diameter is com-
monly recommended for mitigating the effects of water ham- ΔPred is the reduced pressure rise accompanying valve closure
mer. However, the benefits are most evident for the weakest times larger than τ.
pipe (Sch. 10) and are minor in Sch. 40 and 80 pipes except Valve closing times shorter than τ are effectively instantaneous
where the pipe diameter is ≤12 inches. In many practical cases, because the system has insufficient time to respond. Further theoreti-
the benefit of increasing the pipe diameter is either marginal or cal details can be found in Perry's Handbook3 and references therein.
negligible. Equations more complex than Equation (6) have been developed for
2. For PVC pipe (Figure 1B), the pressure wave velocities are only estimating ΔPred for specific applications.
10–30% of the values calculated for steel pipe. For large-diam- The bulk modulus for water β = 2.2 GPa used in the previous
eter Sch. 10–40 pipes, the wave velocities fall as low as 100– example neglects the effect of dissolved air, which is often present at
200 m/s. The wave velocity difference between the thin-wall around 2% v/v under atmospheric conditions. This approximation is
and thick-wall solutions maximizes at 30–50 m/s for Sch. 160 reasonable for dissolved air. Kieffer7 showed that even after bubbles
PVC pipe; the difference decreases with decreasing pipe sched- start to appear, their effect on sonic velocity is a function of mass
ule and becomes negligible for Sch. 10 and 40 pipes. (PVC pipe fraction, pressure, and bubble size; at atmospheric pressure and a
below Sch. 40 is generally not encountered and is sold accord- mass fraction of 104, air bubbles must be at least micron sized to sig-
ing to its pressure rating.) The use of large-diameter PVC pipe nificantly reduce the speed of sound in water. However, greater mass
of adequate strength is a possible mitigation for water hammer fractions and/or bubble sizes can produce a dramatic decrease in both
experienced in steel pipe. bulk modulus and sonic velocity.
3. For the intermediate case of aluminum pipe (Figure 1C), the The sonic velocity in air–water mixtures can fall as low as about
pressure wave velocities fall just below that of steel pipe. 20 m/s, and just 1% by volume of air bubbles in water decreases
4. Figure 1D shows a snapshot of how the wave velocity in water the sonic velocity by 95% to 100 m/s7. This is because the overall
decreases with decreasing pipe wall elasticity, assuming a thin- density remains more characteristic of a liquid, while the compress-
walled pipe. The pipes considered are Sch. 40 steel, aluminum, ibility becomes more characteristic of a gas. Bubbles may be ini-
and PVC having respective elastic moduli of 200, 69, and tially present, may form in low-pressure zones during flow
2.8 GPa. reversals, or may be created by the oscillating pressure wave. Bub-
ble production rate is increased when a cryogenic liquid is handled
The curves in Figure 1A, B suggest an increase in wave velocity at near its boiling point or when a liquid normally contains dissolved
a nominal pipe diameter of about 16 inches; the effect is most pro- gases, such as steam in hot condensate or light ends in gasolines. In
nounced for Sch. 10 pipe. However, this is merely the effect of ASME principle, bubbles should dampen and slow the pressure wave,
B.36-10 M specifying the same pipe wall thickness for a series of although the net effect is complicated because the collapse of small
increasing pipe diameters. cavitation bubbles may cause local erosion of equipment. This is
Owing to its high velocity, the oscillating pressure wave often different from the so-called “cavitation hammer” phenomenon dis-
produces a rapid succession of “hammer blows,” even in long pipe. cussed later, which involves the production of a large void down-
The maximum pressure rise adds to the initial liquid pressure, which in stream of a fast-closing valve.
many cases is already quite high.

2.5 | Phenomena associated with hydraulic

2.4 | Practical considerations: effects of valve transients
closing time and air bubbles in water
2.5.1 | Cavitation hammer
The maximum pressure rise, or “surge,” occurs when the time for the
valve to close “t” is less than the time “τ” taken for the wave to travel After the valve closes, liquid on the downstream side continues to
distance “L” from the valve to a reflection point and then return, a flow in the same direction, creating a partial vacuum, which might
total distance of 2 L. cause a weak pipe to implode. More often, the column of liquid
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BRITTON and WILLEY 5

breaks downstream of the valve in the phenomenon known as 2.5.3 | Condensate hammer
“column separation,” leaving a low-pressure vapor pocket adja-
cent to the valve. The subsequent flow reversal and collapse of This occurs when pressurized vapor is admitted to a system contain-
the large gas bubble creates a damaging phenomenon known as ing condensate or when condensation occurs in a pressurized vapor
“cavitation hammer.” In milder cases, cavitation shock waves system. This usually involves steam and steam condensate in which
involving small gas bubbles may still damage the equipment case the phenomenon is called “steam hammer” but can also occur in
over time. other systems such as liquefied ammonia (see later). Steam travels
much faster than condensate (up to 40 m/s) and can tear slugs of
Cavitation number condensate from the bottom of the pipe as it travels overhead, pro-
Cavitation is a two-step process of localized transition from liq- viding them with substantial kinetic energy. Propulsion of condensate
uid to vapor and then collapse of the vapor back to liquid. As slugs through the line may cause damage at obstructions such as
discussed by Mukherje8, the collapse of vapor bubbles can elbows or valves when the kinetic energy converts to pressure energy.
cause significant damage. The potential for cavitation depends This mechanism is termed “Vapor-Propelled Liquid Slug” (VPLS).9 A
on the dimensionless “cavitation number”, σ, which characterizes separate but related mechanism is termed “Condensate Induced
how close the pressure in the flowing liquid is to its vapor Shock” or CIS.10 This is caused by the sudden condensation of pres-
pressure: surized steam or other vapor in a system. The rapid decrease in vol-
ume accompanying condensation produces a large pressure gradient
ðPs  Pv Þ that can accelerate slugs of condensate toward equipment surfaces.
σ ¼
2 ð7Þ
ρv
2gc

2.5.4 | Reverse flow hammer

σ = Cavitation number.
Ps = absolute static pressure in undisturbed flow (Pa). This occurs when a check valve (non-return valve) closes too slowly. The
Pv = absolute vapor pressure (Pa). swing check valve is an old design relying on gravity or fluid flow to close the
ρ = density (kg/m3). valve. In practice, swing check valves close slowly at first, during which time
v = free stream velocity (m/s). reverse flow occurs, and then suddenly close, leading to water hammer.
gc = gravitational conversion constant (1 kg m/N s ).
2

Bubbles form when the local pressure falls below the vapor pres-
sure or when gas such as steam is injected into a liquid. Low-pressure 2.5.5 | Two-phase flow
regions are formed on the suction side of a pump during reverse flow
hammer (described below), in eddies and vortices, and where the This can give rise to pressure oscillations and surges. The phenome-
velocity increases locally, in accordance with the Bernoulli equa- non of “bowing” may occur in refrigerated liquid systems if the two
tion.3 Once the bubbles reach a region where the pressure exceeds phases stratify, causing large temperature differences and potentially
the vapor pressure, they implode or “cavitate” with the production damaging pipe wall stresses.
of shock waves. These generate noise and vibration, often causing
erosion or pitting of the equipment. Cavitation often occurs in
pumps and around propellers and impellers. A critical cavitation 2.5.6 | Geysering
number σi can sometimes be estimated below which bubbles are
likely to form. Critical cavitation numbers for certain types of This occurs when a liquid is handled near its boiling point in a vertical
equipment such as pumps and orifices may be available from the or sometimes an inclined pipe. Rapid vaporization can cause a damag-
supplier. As σ is further decreased, the number density and size of ing pressure surge as liquid is propelled from the pipe.
bubbles increase.

2.6 | Contributory causes of hydraulic transients

2.5.2 | Pulsating flow
Hydraulic transients can occur from any quick stoppage of a flowing
3
This is a type of hydraulic transient described in Perry's Handbook. It stream. Examples are:
can be caused by the flow pulsations of compressors and pumps and
may lead to vibration and equipment failure. • Plant start-up and shutdown
The following hydraulic transient phenomena are described indi- • Starting and stopping pumps (exacerbated by power failures and
1
vidually by Lees. brownouts)
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6 BRITTON and WILLEY

• Emergency shutdown (ESD) 2.7.4 | Concern with liquified natural gas (LNG)
• Rapid PERC (Powered Emergency Release Coupling) closures transfer
• Power failures (exacerbated by unreliable electricity grid and/or
high demand) Although LNG piping systems can withstand the stresses of normal
• Actuation of emergency isolation valves operation, events such as PERC closures, ESDs, valve operations, and
• Actuation of fire protection systems pump trips can all create hydraulic transient upsets. For LNG handled
• Gas pockets associated with changes in pipeline elevation near its boiling point, the negative pressures produced by the oscillat-
• Residual liquid or condensation in pressurized gas or steam ing pressure wave accompanying water hammer can cause localized
systems flashing of the LNG. The consequences can include excessive surge
pressures, causing increased pipe stresses and structural loads. Bur-
rows13 describes the development of methods to run simulations of
2.7 | Industrial case histories such events.
Rupture of an LNG pipe can have major consequences, as illus-
Some hazards of hydraulic transient phenomena are illustrated by trated by an event at Freeport LNG's export terminal on Quintana
three published case histories plus an outline of potential risks in cer- Island, Texas on June 8, 2022.14 Following an explosion and fire, the
tain LNG systems. company initially announced a three-week downtime that was later
extended to 90 days as government agencies became involved. As the
second largest LNG facility in the United States, accounting for 20%
2.7.1 | Valve closure of a diesel oil transfer of all LNG processing, the event caused a price “shockwave that
damages a pump reverberated” through the natural gas forwards market.15 The com-
pany later announced a force majeure on LNG exports from the
Cornell11 described a case history involving diesel oil being transferred location until September, saying that it would not return to full
through a 4-in line at a locomotive fueling facility. After a valve was operations until late 2022. Start-up was later delayed until March
suddenly closed, a pressure wave “surged back,” damaging the vanes 2023. Investigations showed that overpressure caused rupture of
in the sliding vane pump. an LNG transfer line in the pipe racks that transfer LNG from the
storage tank area. It was later determined that the pipe failure was
not caused by water hammer but by thermal expansion of LNG in
2.7.2 | Sudden closing of a valve in an IBC filling an isolated and unprotected section of the pipe. However, the
operation 9-month downtime of Freeport LNG illustrates the loss potential
for LNG equipment.
Intermediate bulk containers (IBCs) were being filled through welded Liquid hammer may also occur in LNG tank trailers, where the
2-inch stainless tubing via an air-operated diaphragm pump bolted to repeated impact of cryogenic liquid on welded joints and seams can
a concrete pad.11 After a valve at the tote was suddenly closed, a lead to an increased likelihood of forming cracks. Tanks manufactured
pressure wave propagated back to the pump, ripping it from the con- according to International Organization for Standardization (ISO) stan-

crete pad and turning it 45 , bending the 2-inch stainless steel tubing. dards (ISO tanks) comprise an evacuated external shell on a low-
temperature LNG storage tank. The outer insulating tank shell also
gives some protection from external impact. During transportation, if
2.7.3 | Anhydrous ammonia leak the liquid slops around, it has the potential to create water hammer
effects. One mitigation method is to equip such tanks with internal
On August 23, 2010, hydraulic shock caused a roof-mounted 12-inch baffles, as described in the patent literature.16
(30-cm) suction pipe to catastrophically fail, leading to the release of
more than 32,000 pounds (>14.5 t) of anhydrous ammonia at the Mill-
ard Refrigerated Services facility in Theodore, AL.12 The report states 2.8 | Mitigation of hydraulic transients
that damaging hydraulic shock events frequently occur in low-
temperature ammonia systems and are typically caused by condensate To combat water hammer in the home, a vertical dead leg can be
(see Section 2.5.3 “Condensate hammer”) during and after the extended from the branch that feeds a sink or toilet, causing air
defrosting of evaporators with hot gaseous refrigerant. The failed sys- trapped in the dead leg to serve as a cushion. Should signs of water
tem components typically include evaporators, associated piping com- hammer reappear, the lines can be drained, air can be re-introduced,
ponents such as suction stop valves, evaporator suction piping, and and the system can be repressurized with water, trapping air again. In
suction header mains downstream of the evaporators. The Millard the following list, small surge arresters suitable for home use are dis-
incident was considered to have been caused by either the VPLS or cussed in Section 2.8.13, while other entries describe mitigation for all
CIS types of condensate hammer or a combination of both. sizes of pipeline:
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BRITTON and WILLEY 7

FIGURE 2 Swing and silent types of check valve (from Ref. 20).

2.8.1 | Condensate (steam) hammer water hammer because the valve closing time is normally shorter than
the closing speed of the upstream valve.18 The optimum separation
1
A variety of measures are recommended by Lees : provide adequate between a fast-acting valve or pump and the silent check valve is
fall (decrease in elevation per unit length of pipe) in the pipework; about 5 pipe diameters where practicable.19 The check valve supplier
take measures to minimize accumulation of condensate in low points should be consulted on the overall system design. Numerous factors
(add low point drains); avoid or reposition fittings prone to collect are involved such as orientation and liquid viscosity.19
condensate (such as globe valves and strainers); provide adequately
maintained automatic stream traps; drain condensate from steam sys-
tems before starting up. Lees recommends that traps and drains 2.8.3 | Pump start-up and shutdown
should be installed so that they can be drilled through under pressure
if they get blocked. Finally, as condensate may be present despite all Damaging hydraulic transients can occur when a swing check valve is
such measures, steam must be admitted slowly. installed downstream of a pump. During pump start-up, sudden open-
ing (slam open) of the swing check valve may damage its valve seats
and hinge pins.7 During shutdown, the swing check valve is closed by
2.8.2 | Cavitation (reverse flow) hammer gravity plus the change in pressure differential across it. “Slam shut”
closure of the swing check valve can lead to water hammer on its
The large, low-pressure volume formed immediately downstream of a downstream side. The pressure transients can be mitigated using
rapidly closed valve can be isolated by placing some type of check silent check valves, which close in much less time than it takes for a
valve farther downstream. This avoids the pressure spike that would pump to stop (Figure 2 and Ref. 20). This prevents reverse flow ham-
otherwise occur when liquid surges backwards. Liquid subsequently mer between the valve and the pump (see Section 2.5.4 “Reverse flow
fills the void space by slow leakage through small holes in the check hammer”) plus hydraulic transients downstream of the check valve.
valve, or by slowly opening the otherwise fast-acting valve (Dudlik
et al.17).
“Swing check” valves can lead to water hammer owing to their 2.8.4 | Variable frequency drive (VFD)
ability to open rapidly but close relatively slowly. Instead, “silent
check” valves are often used to mitigate reverse flow pressure tran- The speed of an AC induction pump motor can be regulated by con-
sients. To minimize damage to the valve, internal springs are often trolling the applied frequency and voltage.21 A variable frequency
used to moderate the rate at which the valve opens and shuts. Alter- drive allows a pump motor to operate close to optimum efficiency
natively, a hydraulic damper may be used to slow the closing rate. regardless of motor speed or flow rate. The speed increases slowly
When flow stops, the closure time of properly designed valves is during start-up, decreasing the likelihood of water hammer. By avoid-
about three tenths of a second. This normally prevents reverse flow ing large start-up currents, VFDs decrease wear and tear on the motor
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8 BRITTON and WILLEY

in addition to lowering energy costs. VFDs cause the pump motor Dudlik et al.17 Water hammer is usually associated with actuated
speed to automatically adjust to changes in demand and to shut down valves, tied to ESD systems or other control systems (not manual
at a controlled rate. Some processes use backup generators to miti- valves). Actuators for both multi-turn valves and quarter-turn valves
gate low-voltage faults, while protective devices may be used to pre- (and globe valves) are available with opening and closing profile con-
vent power-up when voltage is outside the tolerated range. Voltage trollers. A typical profile for a large valve (16–36 inch) is that the first
filters (line reactors) and surge suppressors (transient voltage surge 90% of the travel is accomplished in say, 30 s, and the last 10% is
suppressors or surge protective devices) are often used as additional accomplished in an additional 30 s.23
layers of protection to protect against high-voltage spikes.

2.8.8 | Eliminate air/gas

2.8.5 | Reduce flow velocity
Systems should be flushed at start-up and provided with gas blow-off
The hazard due to hydraulic transients depends on the strength of the devices at suitable high points to prevent gas accumulation.
system concerned. For many steel pipe systems, the effects of an
occasional hydraulic shock might be tolerable and the pipework might
also accept full vacuum. While nuisance hazards can be reduced by 2.8.9 | Pressure (surge) relief valve (PRV)
avoiding long, straight pipe runs, the potential for cumulative damage
to valves and other components should be considered if shock phe- Often used in the petrochemical industry, these valves open quickly
nomena are reported. The maximum flow velocities needed to avoid during a hydraulic transient and relieve fluid at high pressure to a safe
hydraulic shock are usually smaller than those recommended to outlet.24 For example, on long pipelines carrying crude oil or product,
avoid erosion, although in some cases the ranges overlap. Depending the PRV relieves to a surge tank from which the liquid is later pumped
on the liquid involved, the maximum flow velocity to avoid flashing or back into the pipeline. The valves have “non-slam” capability to avoid
erosion might be limited to 5 m/s (17 ft/s), although for gritty or water hammer upon closure. Commonly used surge relief valves are
corrosive liquids much smaller velocities are needed.22 the gas loaded, pilot operated, and rupture pin types. They have fast
For “weak” pipes such as PVC, the cumulative damage caused by response and reseat at the set point with non-slam closure. While the
hydraulic shocks can pose an unacceptable risk of catastrophic failure. relief valves themselves are relatively inexpensive, a discharge tank
It has been variously suggested that to minimize hydraulic shock the with associated piping is required to avoid loss of containment.
flow velocity should always be kept below 10 ft/s, while to avoid
shock phenomena the velocity should be kept below 5 or 6 ft/s. The
flow velocity of water in buildings is often kept below 6 ft/s for 2.8.10 | Anti-surge tanks
acoustic reasons and depending upon occupancy might need to be
kept below 4 ft/s. Often termed “surge tanks,” these devices are air-filled chambers con-
Increasing the line diameter reduces the flow velocity while main- nected to a pipeline to absorb or dampen pressure waves in the liquid.
taining capacity but is often an expensive option that might need to The first design in Figure 3 shows a typical closed tank design,
be adopted at the design stage. although for large water mains, the anti-surge tanks are often open to
the air. In chemical systems, although nitrogen might be used in place
of air, some type of bladder or bellows arrangement is normally used
2.8.6 | Reduce operating pressure to isolate the gas chamber (see Sections 2.8.11 and 2.8.12) and pre-
vent gas loss to the process side. Carbon steel tanks are typically lined
The total maximum pressure during water hammer is the sum of with epoxy, although other options are available. For the small-
ΔP and the initial operating pressure, so reducing the operating diameter pipe used in household plumbing, a small air chamber in the
pressure directly reduces the maximum pressure attained during form of a short length of pipe such as a tee fitting can be installed to
pressure surge. act as a shock absorber.

2.8.7 | Reduce rate of valve closure 2.8.11 | Anti-surge bladder tanks

To decrease the maximum pressure rise, the valve closing time should Two common types shown in Figure 3 comprise an air chamber sepa-
be increased in accordance with Equation (6). Multi-turn valves rated from the liquid by either an elastomeric bladder or diaphragm.25
should be used while quarter-turn valves should be avoided. Valves Compressed air compatible with the system pressure is held between
may also be fitted with devices to control the opening and closing the elastomer and the chamber walls. The devices have fast response
rates. Special braking devices typically restrict only the final times and continuously dampen pressure oscillations in addition to
closing rate of the valve, such as the hydraulic brake described by suppressing pressure surges. If the bladder develops a leak, the liquid
 15475913, 0, Downloaded from https://aiche.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/prs.12517 by SEA ORCHID (Thailand), Wiley Online Library on [17/12/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
BRITTON and WILLEY 9

FIGURE 3 Typical anti-surge tank designs (from Ref. 25).

FIGURE 4 “Hydropad” bellows-type anti-surge tank (from Ref. 26).

will be contained in the surrounding chamber. These devices are often wide range of capacities. Materials options include stainless steel bel-
used in hydrocarbon service. However, the bladder restricts the use lows with a carbon steel or stainless steel housing.
of internals and access flanges.

2.8.13 | Small anti-surge arresters

2.8.12 | Anti-surge bellows tanks
Small surge suppressors/arresters of various designs are available,
To avoid the pressure, temperature, and chemical compatibility limita- such as I-Type valves containing internal air-filled bladders or dia-
tions of elastomers, an all-metal bellows arrangement may be used phragms or cylindrical devices comprising a sliding piston separating
instead of a bladder or diaphragm. Figure 4 shows a large version of the liquid from the air chamber27, as shown in Figure 5. The so-called
the Flexicraft Industries “Hydropad” arrested. 26
Hydropad arresters “hose arresters” are used to mitigate water hammer caused by the
normally use pressurized nitrogen rather than air and are available in a intermittent flow of water to washing machines used in the home.
 15475913, 0, Downloaded from https://aiche.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/prs.12517 by SEA ORCHID (Thailand), Wiley Online Library on [17/12/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
10 BRITTON and WILLEY

FIGURE 5 Piston-type anti-surge

arresters.27

F I G U R E 6 Diaphragm-type anti-
surge arresters (from Ref. 28).

2.8.14 | Elbow anti-surge arresters be placed no more than 10 pipe diameters upstream of a source such
as a valve. This is consistent with the recommendation to place silent
The patented “Z Tide” hammer arrester or “pulsation dampener” is an check valves about 5 pipe diameters from a pump.
L-Type valve designed to be installed at pipe corners in proximity to The Plumbing and Drainage Institute issues Standard PDI-WH
28
water hammer sources , as shown in Figure 6. Upon reaching the pipe 201 for water hammer arresters.29 The standard is directed at the
bend, the pressure wave is absorbed by a bladder inside the valve body installation of plumbing fixtures in residential and commercial build-
that contains air at an adjustable pressure. The valve is available in flange ings and includes a certification program for standardized, engineered
sizes from 2 to 8 inches and can be installed vertically or horizontally. water hammer arresters. The document lists a size standardization
with letters AA-A-B-C-D-E-F that cover water piping systems ranging
from 3/800 to 200 . Nomographs assist the designer in selecting the
2.8.15 | Toxic chemicals appropriate lettered arrester based on flow rates, number/type of fix-
tures, and pipe lengths. Frequently a “behind the wall” solution is used
Toxic chemical systems are likely to include fast-acting isolation to add an extended vertical line 12 to 36 inches capped off from the
valves. Lees1 warns specifically about water hammer in liquid chlorine branch tee feeding the fixture. When this line fills with water, air will
pipelines and advises the use of appropriately slow-acting valves and be trapped within the vertical capped off. This “dead-end line” serves
surge tanks along with good communication between operators. The as a mitigation device for any pulsation or water hydraulic event
pipelines are also susceptible to overpressures caused by chlorine's by compressing air trapped within during a surge event. More
high coefficient of thermal expansion should liquid become trapped sophisticated devices can include a bladder between the liquid and
between automatically closed valves. To avoid trapping of liquid, the air, a surge tank (see, for example, the Amtrol reference for sizing
Lees1 recommends some proportion of manually operated valves that methods30), and relief valves.
must be deliberately closed. Designers of surge tanks and arresters for solvents and liquids
encountered in the chemical process industries must consider
long-term compatibility with materials of construction. If a bladder is
2.9 | Surge tank and arrester designs used, the elastomer must have long-term compatibility with the fluid.
Blacoh™ offers a compatibilities guide31 along with an online configu-
Surge arresting devices should always be placed close to the source of ration routine (E-Configurator)32 that assists the user in selecting the
11
the surge. As a rule of thumb, Cornell advises that the device should appropriate protection.
 15475913, 0, Downloaded from https://aiche.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/prs.12517 by SEA ORCHID (Thailand), Wiley Online Library on [17/12/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
BRITTON and WILLEY 11

2.10 | Mitigating water hammer in fire protection 1. Decrease flow velocity by decreasing flow rate or increasing pipe
systems diameter.
2. Increase valve opening and closing times. Select multi-turn valves
Most fire protection systems operate at a maximum pressure of and avoid quarter-turn valves to increase valve operation times.
12 barg (175 psig); however, according to Goldsmith,33 the total over- Consider the use of valve closing speed control devices to avoid
pressure caused by water hammer in fire protection systems can eas- rapid valve position changes.
ily exceed 50 bar (740 psig). 3. Eliminate air pockets and drain condensate before starting up a steam
Goldsmith33 describes five different methods of preventing pres- system. Take precautions to prevent the accumulation of condensate
sure surge: during operation. Pressurize systems slowly during start-up.
A Anti-surge pump control valve for start-up of vertical shaft 4. Reduce the operating pressure where bubble formation via vapori-
turbine pumps. This is normally an open valve that relieves air or zation and subsequent cavitation is not an issue. Otherwise, con-
surge on start-up. The valve closes and works as a relief valve once sider the cavitation number of the equipment involved and select
the pressure decreases below the set maximum. appropriate operating conditions that avoid bubble formation.
B Anti-surge fire pump control and check valve. The valve is 5. Avoid swing check valves and instead use silent check valves
normally held closed by the jockey (pressure maintenance) pump. placed about 5 pipe diameters downstream of the source of pres-
Once the fire (main) pump starts, the valve opens and releases water sure surge, such as pump outlets.
to the system at a controlled rate to avoid surge. 6. Where practical, place anti-surge tanks no more than 10 pipe
C Valve opening and closing speed control. Despite the need diameters (either upstream or downstream as appropriate) from
for fast actuation, some systems require protection against surge, the source. Anti-surge bladder tanks continuously dampen pres-
which can be supplied by a reaction speed device. sure fluctuations and are an improvement on anti-surge tanks. To
D Reduce pressure difference between jockey pump start avoid the pressure and temperature limitations of elastomeric
pressure and pump operating pressure. This reduces the surge bladders, an all-metal alternative is the “Hydropad,” which features
accompanying a large pressure increase when the main pump an internal bellows arrangement. These allow greater working pres-
starts. sures and temperatures than bladder tanks. Smaller surge suppres-
E Anti-surge bladder tanks, as described in Section 2.8.11. sors/arresters of various designs are also available, such as an I-Type
valve containing a diaphragm or an internal air-filled bladder, or a
cylindrical device comprising a sliding piston separating the liquid
3 | C O N CL U S I O N S from the air chamber. L-style surge arresters are available for use on
pipe bends in proximity to “water hammer” sources.
Water hammer and other hydraulic transients can damage various 7. Consider pressure (surge) relief valves for systems where a dis-
process systems. Damage caused by cavitation and vibration may charge collection tank is acceptable.
accumulate over many years, while mechanical impacts by high- 8. For fire protection systems, consider minimizing the pressure dif-
velocity condensate slugs, or the effects of large pressure changes ferential between the fire pump and jockey pump, controlling the
(pressure surges or creation of partial vacuums), can cause more rapid opening and closing speeds of valves, and using anti-surge dia-
failure of such equipment as pumps, valves, or pipework. Release of phragm or bladder tanks to moderate any surge that does occur.
toxic and/or ignitable material might subsequently occur via joint
leaks, cracks, or even pipe rupture. Hydraulic transients deserve more coverage in college courses
An analysis of simple wave velocity equations showed that and textbooks on process safety, while the industrial community
the D/b correction for thick-walled steel pipe given in Perry's needs to consider the potential for water hammer and hydraulic tran-
Handbook has a small effect that might be negligible compared sients in equipment design and process hazard analysis. These phe-
with practical errors. The uncorrected equation for thin-walled nomena are not limited to water pipes and may occur in any liquid,
pipe produces slightly more conservative wave velocities for all including condensed gases such as chlorine, ammonia, and LNG.
sizes and schedules of pipe examined (Figure 1A). However, for
PVC, the corrected equation for thick-walled pipe predicts sub- AUTHOR CONTRIBU TIONS
stantially smaller wave velocities for PVC pipe of Sch. 40 or Laurence G. Britton: Conceptualization (lead); formal analysis (equal);
greater (Figure 1B). However, as a practical matter, PVC pipe less writing – original draft (lead); writing – review and editing (equal).
than Sch. 40 is generally unavailable, and thin-walled pipe is Ronald J. Willey: Conceptualization (supporting); formal analysis
instead sold according to its pressure rating. Mitigation options (equal); writing – original draft (supporting).
need to be evaluated during the design process rather than being
added retroactively once a problem becomes evident. It is gener- CONFLIC T OF INTER E ST STATEMENT
ally more cost-effective to build mitigation into the design and The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
some measures become impractical once a system is in operation. interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
Options include: ence the work reported in this paper.
 15475913, 0, Downloaded from https://aiche.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/prs.12517 by SEA ORCHID (Thailand), Wiley Online Library on [17/12/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
12 BRITTON and WILLEY

DATA AVAI LAB ILITY S TATEMENT 15. Shelor J. Freeport LNG outage reverberates through natural gas
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