IGCSE 0448 & O LEVEL 2059

PAKISTAN STUDIES
Notes for

HISTORY AND CULTURE

SYED HUSAIN BARI

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Book Title: IGCSE &O Level Pakistan Studies History and Culture

Edition: 3rdEdition | for 2024 Exams

Prepared By: Syed Husain Bari

Pattern: Latest 2023-25 Syllabus

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List of Contents
Section I
Downfall of Mughal Empire…………………………………………………………………………………. 4

Reformers…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..17

War of Independence………………………………………………………………………………………… 22

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan…………………………………………………………………………………………. 26

Languages…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..31

Section II
1905-1919 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 39

Khilafat Movement……………………………………………………………………………………………. 48

1927-1935…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..52

1937-1947…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..62

Section III
1947-1971 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 79

1948-1958 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 85

1971-1999…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..96

Foreign Relations ……………………………………………………………………………………………..112

3
IGCSE & O Level Pakistan Studies History and Culture Notes

SECTION I
DOWNFALL OF MUGHAL EMPIRE
Factors responsible for the downfall of Mughal Empire

• Aurangzeb’s reforms and wars

• War of succession
• Invading forces
• Weakness of Mughals
• Arrival of the British

Aurangzeb’s Reforms and Wars

POLICIES / REFORMS WARS

Jizya tax was re-imposed Marathas
Banned suttee a Hindus religious custom Jats
Destroyed temples Pathans
Banned dancing, singing, gambling, drinking. Sikhs
Determined maximum length for beard Rajputs
Forced Hindus and Sikhs to live according to the
Quran.
High taxation
Extravagance as Pearl mosque was built for his
own prayers

War of Succession
Aurangzeb killed his three brothers Shah Shuja, Dara Shikoh and Murad to ascend the throne. At the
time of his death, he tried to avoid the war among his son by dividing the empire among the three sons.
The fighting broke out and Prince Muazzam became victorious. He survived for a few years and then his
four sons fought and Jahandar Shah became king. He was murdered within a year. After ten years of
Aurangzeb’s death twelve different people claimed to be the emperor at one time.

INVADING FORCES
Marathas:
It was a southern Indian tribe in Deccan led by Shiva Ji. It started fighting against Aurangzeb in
1660’s.Continued after the death of Aurangzeb and entered Delhi in 1737 and plundered. Shah Wali
Ullah wrote a letter to Ahmad Shah Abdali to fight with Marathas as there was a fear they might replace
Mughals. Marathas were defeated by Ahmed Shah Abdali in 1761 in theBattle of Panipat.

Persians:
Nadir Shah came to India in 1737.He defeated Muhammad Shah at Karnal. His aim was not to capture
the throne but to take as much booty as possible. Hence, he took the Mughal treasury including the
famous peacock throne. He also took the prestige of the Mughals and made Mughals very weak.

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Afghans:
Ahmad Shah Abdali started conquering north western India in 1749.By 1756 he conquered Punjab,
Kashmir and came up to Multan.He was invited by Shah Wali Ullah to come to defeat Marathas as they
were about to replace the Mughals. He defeated Marathas in 1761 in the Battle of Panipat.

Weaknesses of Mughals
• Weak Administration
• Military Costs
• Declining Military Expertise
• Pleasure Seeking
• Weak Control

Arrival of the British

1600 Queen Elizabeth gave permission to a group of merchants to trade in areas East of Africa.
ElC was formed.

1608 British landed at Surat in the province of Gujrat

1612 Government of Gujrat (the future Shah Jehan) gave permission for trade

1664 British made trading ports in Madras and Bombay

1690 Trading post in Calcutta

1757 Battle of Plassey [4]

1764 Battle of Buxar [4]

1784 Pitt’s act.

1799 Tipu Sultan was defeated and Mysore was conquered. [4]

1803 British entered Delhi and took Mughal king under protection.

1818 Marathas were defeated by the British.

1843 Annexation of Sindh [7]

1849 Annexation of Punjab [7]

1852 Doctrine of lapse was given by Lord Dalhousie [4]

1856 Oudh was taken by British

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Q. Why did Hindus oppose the Jizya tax? [7]

Hindus opposed Jizya tax because it was an extra burden at a time when taxation was already high. This
burden was only on non-Muslims, who amounted to 75% of the population, which further led to
resentment. It was considered an attempt to make them realize that they were non-Muslims subjects in
an Islamic state. Since, Hindus were a majority, it created an even larger opposition.

Secondly, the Hindus believed that the money collected from them as Jizya was used against their
community which was bound to bring opposition. Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb spent a major part of the
jizya tax to fund wars against the Marathas, who were Hindus. To make matters worse, Aurangzeb
demolished temples and used tax money from jizya to build extravagant mosques such as the Pearl
Mosque. This was why the Jizya tax was opposed by Hindus.

Thirdly, the Hindus considered Jizya tax as an attempt to convert them to Islam. They were especially
concerned about the "Untouchable Caste" among the Hindus. They were not only poor but were also ill-
treated. Their conversion would not only raise their status but would also exempt them from this tax.
Although there were exceptions of Jizya in non-Muslims too, such as the poor and the sickly, yet their
conversion was feared and so caused resentment and opposition against the tax.

Q. Why did the Marathan Empire decline after the Mughals? [7]

The Marathan Empire declined after the Mughals because of the disunity that was growing among them.
The Marathan families began to show more loyalty towards the local rulers than to the Marathan
leaders in the city of Pune. As a result, cracks began to form in the Marathan unity and there was a rise
in the internal disputes. Their grip on the vast empire was weakened because of this disunity which led
to their downfall.

Moreover, they had gained control of vast areas of land which they had captured from the Mughal
Empire by waging war. However, they found it difficult to control and administer vast areas. As a
consequence, they were unable to guard their lands from the attacks of their opponents which showed
that their empire had weakened. With their defeat in battles, their empire declined.

Perhaps the most important reason was the Battle of Panipat in 1761. Shah Waliullah had written a
letter to the Afghan general Ahmed Shah Abdali to come to India and fight the Marathas. The Marathan
Empire suffered a catastrophic setback when it faced defeat at the hands of the Afghan Durrani Empire
and the local Nawabs. An entire generation of Marathan leaders lay dead on the battlefield and this
caused the Marathan Empire to fragment into different holdings under the control of individual
Marathan clans. Marathan Empire would never again operate as single autonomous unit from this point.
Thus, their time of power and rule had come to an end.

Q. Why did British come to India? / Why were the British interested in the sub- continent? [7]

The major aim of the British was to acquire India’s wealth. Since the time of Akbar, India was known as
“The Golden Sparrow of East” because of its richness and wealth. The merchants who visited India
spread the fame of the richness and wealth of India back how sharing about the enormous wealth of
India. Goods like silk, spices and indigo were highly valued in Britain. Spices gave the British food an
exotic taste but could not be grown in Britain due to weather conditions. Silk was also a major trade
product for the British and soon became a symbol of class among them. So, trade was very profitable
soon. Some historians also argue that the industrial Revolution in Britain was a result of the wealth
taken from India. The wealth help provide resources and finances for the industries to flourish.

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Perhaps another reason why the British were interested in India was to expel other European colonial
powers inorder to acquire monopoly of trade in India. At that time, there was a race among the
European Nations such as the Portuguese, the Dutch and the French to spread around the world for
trade and also to see the possibilities of making colonies. They were moving towards west making
colonies in America and also spread in the east. They also wanted to spread their religion and wanted to
promote their culture to other people.

Another reason was that the British wanted to expand their influence and trade to the Far East and
South Asia. For this they required a strategic port in the Indian sub-continent as the Indian peninsula
was surrounded by a warm water sea where multiple ports could operate throughout the year. Such
ports could greatly help the British expand their trade in multiple directions from India.

Q. Why was Robert Clive able to win Battle of Plassey? [7]

Robert Clive was a general in East India Company’s army during the Battle of Plassey in 1757. He was a
skillful military officer with expertise in warfare tactics. He used advanced weapons and trained soldiers
during the battles. His warfare tactics were far better than the Nawab’s, which made the victory easy for
Clive.

Another reason was the traitor-ship of Nawab’s General Mir Jafer. He was bribed so he sided with the
British. He abandoned Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula’s army in the battlefield, which weakened their defense.
Clive successfully used this to his advantage. This treachery helped Robert Clive in winning the Battle of
Plassey.

The Nawab opened the battle with heavy gunfire which went on until it started to rain heavily. Clive’s
troops covered their cannons and muskets to protect them from the rain, while the Nawab’s troops did
not do so. When the rain cleared, Clive attacked. The Nawab’s troops retreated. 22 of Clive’s soldiers
were killed and 500 of the Nawab’s soldiers were killed. This decisive victory marked the beginning of
the British rule in India.

Q. Why was Robert Clive made Governor of Bengal? [7]

Robert Clive was an able commander and daring soldier, which made him an ideal choice for the
governorship of Bengal. He also fought against the French army successfully. Apart from the Battle of
Plassey, he also won Battle of Arcot in 1751, as well as the Battle of Pondicherry is 1761. He was the
foremost commander of the British forces in India, laying the foundation of the British Empire. Through
his military genius, he made the French rule difficult in India and eventually forced them to leave.

In 1757, Robert Clive commanded the East India Company to a decisive victory against the Nawab of
Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah, in the Battle of Plassey. Clive not only proved his expertise in warfare but also
bribed Mir Jafar, who betrayed the Nawab and made success possible for the British. The battle was also
a triumph for the EIC because they now controlled the profitable trade of valuable goods and had
captured the richest province, Bengal. For hissly military tactics and his ability to identify traitors among
Indians, the East India Company rewarded Clive by making him the first Governor of Bengal.

Clive’s reputation and importance was further enhanced by his success in the Battle of Buxar in 1764,
which expanded British control of eastern India. Clive defeated Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. This
victory gave the British direct control of revenue collection of Bihar, Bengaland Orissa with influence till
Oudh. Owing to these smooth victories and his contributions towards the expansion of the British rule,
Robert Clive was rewarded with governorship.

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Q. Why did the British annex Sindh? [7]

The British annexed Sindh because they wanted to regain the prestige lost in Afghanistan. When the
British went to Afghanistan to install a pro-British ruler the in order to prevent a Russian invasion of
India, a rebellion took place in 1841 which killed all the troops there. The British felt that this had hurt
their pride which can result in more revolts against them in India as well. Annexation of Sindh would
help them to regain their lost prestige.

Another reason for annexing Sindh was that the British were also following their blue water policy of
gaining control of sea routes for the expansion of trade. Their aim was to establish a British Indian
empire having control over all areas which were under Mughals. They started taking over lands in 1757
from Bengal. Then they conquered Bihar, Orissa, Mysore, Delhi, Mysore and many others. They were
gradually gaining control over the whole of India and the Empire which had been conquered by the
British was as large as Europe.

Perhaps another reason why the British annexed Sindh was Ranjit Singh’s policy of expansion. Ranjit
Singh had gained control of Punjab, Kashmir and many areas in North West. Therefore, his next
expected target was Sindh and this had worried that British. So they decided to annex first rather letting
it to be a target for Sikh expansion.

Q. Why did the British annex Punjab? [7]

The British annexed Punjab because of the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839. The death of Ranjit Singh gave
them an opportunity as he was such a powerful ruler that the British didn’t attack Punjab in his life. In
1809, the British had signed a treaty with Ranjit Singh, Treaty of Perpetual Friendship. When Ranjit Singh
died rival chiefs argued that who will be the next king. The Sikhs were worried that the British will invade
Punjab so they attacked them. The British defeated the Sikhs at the battle of Aliwal in January 1846 and
forced them to Singh the treaty of Lahore. The Sikhs had to cede land to the British and pay huge
indemnity. In the second Sikh war (1848-9), the Sikhs suffered defeat from the British and the British
annexed Punjab and North West Frontier.

Another reason was traitor-ship as victory seemed to be easy by this so they invaded. British were
always helped by many traitors in India. A chief among the Sikhs known as Gulab Singh Dogra betrayed
the Sikhs as he was bribed by the British. He helped the British in defeating the Sikhs in 1846. The British
allowed him to purchase Kashmir and gave him the title of Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir.

Perhaps another reason for annexing Punjab was that the British were following the policy of expanding
their kingdom. Their aim was to establish a British Indian empire having control over all areas which
were under Mughals. They started taking over lands in 1757 from Bengal. Then they conquered Bihar,
Orissa, Mysore, Delhi, Mysore and many others. They were gradually gaining control over the whole of
India and the Empire which had been conquered by the British was as large as Europe. After the
annexation of Punjab as well as North West frontier, the British ruled almost natural frontiers of India.

Q. Why did the British establish railways in India? [7]

British established railways to promote trade because railways connected the raw material producing
areas to the port cities and also ensured that the goods imported from Britain were transported to every
nook and corner of the country for sale. Manufactured goods from England were also distributed
through railways. This helped the British earn huge profits. Railways were speedy as well as a much safer
means of transport as compared to others in India, hence railways were further developed.

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British established railways to provide a mode of transportation to Indians. Indians used railways to
travel long distances in less time, which was otherwise not possible. The railways were also a cheap
means of communication and transportation for long distances. In order to win the support of the
Indians, the British assumed it was their duty to modernize India, and so, they established railways.

The railways were used for efficient control over India and also used to camp troops and soldiers swiftly
across the empire. Troops could reach other cities for purposes such as maintaining law and order, and
smooth functioning of the state. This helped the British to effectively control vast areas of land. Other
than this, in times of famine, droughts or floods, food was transported quickly to the affected areas.

Q. Explain the impact of railways on the lives of Indian people in the nineteenth century. /How did
railways affect Indians? [7]

Railways impacted Indians because when British arrived in the subcontinent, they also brought with
them their culture. They had experienced an Industrial Revolution which too affected the locals as they
introduced various measures, such as the railways. The railways affected the Indians greatly. Trade
increased at an extremely fast pace due to the railways. Raw materials and bulky goods could be
transported efficiently. Consequently, the robberies by the Thugees, who would frequently loot Indian
caravans, were also controlled. Due to this increase in trade, the Indian locals amassed great wealth and
began to prosper. It became easy for the consumers as it resulted in decreased inflation rate.

Secondly, the railways made administration easy and effective. Law and order was now established as
army was easily transported from one part to another. In times of famine or any other natural disasters,
railways were useful for the residents of India as goods could be transported to them quickly. The swift
communication, administration and aid during times of emergency situations was what impacted the
local people positively. Crime rate also decreased drastically.

Lastly, due to railways the British officers as well as the local Indians could easily move from one place to
another. They could meet their families and relatives who were far from them hence they were pleased
with the introduction of railways. However, a rise in the road accident cases was a negative impact of
the railways. These accidents usually led to a large number of casualties in India. Hence, the railways
affected Indians both positively and negatively.

Q. Why were the British able to take control of India by 1850? [7]

The British were able to expand their control over India due to their military expertise. The British had
earned a lot of revenue from wars like the Battle of Plassey in 1757 by defeating the Nawab of Bengal
and taking over the richest province of India. The wealth gained from their control of Bengal multiplied
their resources as well as their military, making it an unmatchable force in India. The British fought with
devotion under the Queen, and the presence of strong military leaders like Robert Clive, who made
clever strategies that could not be challenged by the weak Indian side.In1764, Clive led the EIC to yet
another victory at Buxar by crushing the allied forces of Shah Alam II, Mir Qasim and Nawab of Oudh,
consequently capturing Bihar and Orissa, and also expanding their influence into Oudh. Owing to their
expertise, the English were able to annex Sindh in 1843 and then Punjab in 1849, which consolidated
British rule over India.

Perhaps an important factor was the fact that the English had experienced the Industrial Revolution,
which made it financially possible for them to manufacture advanced weaponry. This gave them an edge
over Indians who used old and outdated weapons. The British soldiers were well-trained and disciplined
in the battlefield. Whereas, India was just a collection of disunited territories with different cultures and

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religions that kept fighting each other due to their internal divisions. There was no strong uniting force,
which presented a perfect opportunity to the British to expand their control over India.

Moreover, the British laid down successful policies and administration in India. In 1784, the Pitt’s India
Act was introduced, whereby a Governor General was appointed. To further improve efficiency, a police
force and legal system were set up on British lines. A professional civil service system was also
established. Furthermore, in 1793, the law of Permanent Settlement was passed, wherewith landowners
submitted a fixed sum of taxes to the British which increased their power. They also formed the
Subsidiary Alliances in 1799. By virtue of this divide and rule policy, the Indian kingdoms lost their
sovereignty to the English, thus further expanding the hold of the British over India.

Q. How far was Indian resistance to British expansion in the subcontinent successful before1850? [14]

Indian resistance increased as the British control grew gradually. After making three residencies at
Bombay, Madras and Calcutta, the British EIC started to expand. There were a number of successful as
well as less successful aspects of Indian resistance which are as follows.

Mysore was one of the largest princely states in Southern India. There were four Anglo– Mysore wars
starting from 1767 till 1799. The British allied with Nizam of Hyderabad and started trade embargos and
small skirmishes with Mysore that were led by Haider Ali. Haider Ali defended Mysore against all British
attacks and before his death made his son, Tipu the next Sultan of Mysore. During his reign, Tipu
protected his empire from all envious eyes. His struggle was mainly against Governor General Arthur
Wellesley. Mysore fought four Anglo-Mysore wars and won first two battles and forced them to sign
peace treaties made on equal footing.

Mughals lost their power and land to the Marathas who were strong in central and southern India. They
were led by their Peshwa. In 1782, the first Anglo-Maratha war took place in which there was no gain
but more losses for EIC than for the Marathas. The Governor General Warren Hastings made a peace
treaty with them unwillingly. From there onwards, Marathas were able to put up a constant struggle
against the British which continued till 1840s.

There were many other instances of resistance by the Indians. One such example was that of Ranjit
Singh, who had a large empire consisting of Punjab that also included large areas of NWFP and Kashmir.
He was such a strong ruler that the British EIC never tried to engage him rather preferred diplomatic
measures and signed a Treaty of Perpetual Friendship with the Sikhs in 1809. Even after the death of
Ranjit Singh, the Sikh struggle remained as they fought the Battle of Aliwal in 1846 against the EIC.

However, on the other hand Indian resistance to the British was less successful as they lost the Battle of
Plassey that took place in 1757. Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula had a massive and well- equipped army but owing
to Robert Clive’s diplomatic strength, EIC managed to be victorious. Clive had bribed Mir Jafar, a general
of Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula. Furthermore, by virtue of Clive’s superior military tactics, EIC was able to crush
the Nawab’s army and increase its influence in the province of Bengal.

In 1764, in the Battle of Buxar, Shah Alam II went against EIC and met with British forces commanded by
Robert Clive. This battle resulted in a decisive victory that crushed the Indian resistance. This gave British
additional lands and taxation rights as well as an increased influence in Bihar and Orissa.

After their defeat in Afghanistan, the British conquered Sindh. The British provoked the Amirs to attack a
British residency in 1843 that subsequently broke the Treaty of Friendship and gave the British an
opportunity to attack Sindh. This British army was led by Sir Charles Napier, who later annexed Sindh.

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The Amirs were not able to put up a long resistance against the British.

To conclude, I strongly believe that Indian resistance against the British expansion during 1750 – 1850
was less successful. Even though some struggles were prolonged, they eventually died down, and the
British successfully established their empire.

Q. Was the Indian act of 1784 the main reason why the British were able to explain beyond Bengal
between 1750 and 1850? Explain your answer. [14]

The British Government took many precautions and steps to expand British rule. One such measure was
the introduction of the Pitt’s India Act in 1784. This was passed almost 11 years later than that of the
Regulating Act of 1773. The most significant feature of this act was the supremacy of the British
parliament over the East India Company and its Indian assets. By virtue of this act, a post of Governor
General was made and the company’s board was replaced by the British government officers including a
Secretary of State and Chancellor of the Exchequer. Lord Cornwallis was appointed the Governor
General of the three main presidencies in 1786; Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. He was assisted by
governors and a Commander in Chief of the Forces, and was given greater powers in matters of war,
revenue and diplomacy. This changed the status of the EIC from a trading company to a sovereign body,
which the British Government (The Crown) directly controlled. Furthermore, to maintain good law and
order, a police system was introduced to help maintain justice. Due to this, the powers of the EIC were
cleverly restricted and enabled the British government to govern India directly and firmly. This act made
a good basis for establishing British rule in India.

Besides this, the British took many other steps to fortify their control over India in the later years. In
1793, Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement making zamindars of Bengal landowners,
subject to their payment of a fixed sum to the British. In 1793 this amounted to some 10% of the total
sum collected by the zamindars. The Permanent Settlement secured the financial interests of the East
India Company and helped Bengal to become the wealthiest province in India, allowing the British to
extend their control. The British army was strengthened as they were getting large sums of money which
helped them update their weapons.

Local rulers were persuaded to sign the Subsidiary Alliances by Lord Wellesley who became Governor
General in 1798. The local ruler continued to run their affairs while British soldiers offered protection. In
return for this protection the ruler paid towards the cost of the soldiers and accepted a British resident
adviser. This consolidated Britain’s power in India at little cost and extended British control. In 1798, the
first victim of this policy was the Nizam of Hyderabad who was detached from the French and barred
from making an alliance with the Marathas. Oudh followed suit. Soon, Mysore, Oudh, Delhi and the
Marathas came under British control, followed shortly by Sindh and the Punjab.

The British wanted full control of south India to ensure their spice trade. Lord Wellesley became the
Governor General of India in 1798. Tipu Sultan tried to secure an alliance with the French against the
English in India. Wellesley questioned Tipu’s relationship with the French and attacked Mysore in 1799.
The fourth Anglo-Mysore War was of short duration and decisive and ended with Tipu’s death on May 4,
1799 who was killed fighting to save his capital. Consequently, the state of Mysore was also annexed by
the British.

In 1801, the Nawab of Sindh was also forced by the British to accept this policy and later in 1802 Peshwa
Baji Rao-II was also subjugated. Gradually, many other Marathan states started to surrender in 1803.
After defeating the Marathas, the British made their way to Delhi and then occupied it in 1803. They

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shifted the royal Mughal family from the Red Fort to Qutab Sahib. This way several states were taken
and ruled over by the British in a clever manner.

After this, the British finally turned towards north-western India. In order to restore their lost prestige in
Afghanistan, in 1841, the British provoked the Amir of Sindh who then attacked the British resident,
Charles Napier. This gave them a chance to retaliate and break the treaty. So the British attacked with
full force and annexed Sindh in 1843. After the death of the fierce Sikh ruler, Ranjit Singh, the British
exploited the chaos in the Sikh court which provoked the rival chief to attack the British. This gave an
excuse to the British to break the treaty and invade Punjab, thus it was annexed after a while. After the
treaty of Lahore 1846, the British were helped by a Hindu chief Gulab Singh Dogra to annex Kashmir,
which was given to Gulab Singh as a reward. On 30th March, 1849 Punjab and NWF were fully annexed
and fully under British control. Now the British had conquered almost all of India.

After analyzing all the points above, I think that the Pitt’s India Act seemed to be a decisive factor in the
British expansion and was the most important one because it laid a strong and long-lasting foundation
that helped the English achieve greater victories in the future. This act gave the British a sense of success
as this was the point where they started to exploit India’s assets and provinces, which later enabled
them to expand their influence beyond Bengal too.

SOURCE BASED QUESTIONS

SOURCE A

Nawab Siraj-ud-Duala opposed the growing British power in Bengal in 1757. Robert Clive, commander of
the British East India Company’s troops that had just retaken Calcutta from the Nawab, began to re-
establish control of Bengal. Clive was heavily outnumbered by the Nawab’s forces, but persuaded Mir
Jafar, the Nawab’s commander, to switch sides and not fight when the two armies met. The Nawab
opened the battle with heavy gunfire which went on until it started to rain heavily. Clive’s troops
covered their cannon and muskets to protect them from the rain, whilst the Nawab’s troops did not.
When the rain cleared, Clive attacked. The Nawab’s troops retreated. 22 of Clive’s soldiers were killed
and 500 of the Nawab’s soldiers were killed.

From Seven Years’ War: Battle of Plassey by Kennedy Hickman

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SOURCE B The British East India Company

A painting of a British official of the British East India Company riding in an Indian procession in 1825

Section A: This question is about the British in India

a) According to Source A, what reasons are suggested for the British victory at the battle of Plassey in
1757? [3]
b) What does Source B tell us about the British East India Company in 1825? [5]
c) Why were the British able to take control of India by 1850? [7]
d) Was the work of the Christian missionaries the most important reason why the Indians opposed
British attempts to westernize them between 1750 and 1850? Explain your answer. [10]

SOURCE A: The Indian cotton industry

At first the East India Company and the British Parliament discouraged Indian production of cotton
goods in order to encourage the growing cotton industry in Great Britain. British policy developed during
the nineteenth century to allow Indian people to grow raw cotton in order to supply material for the
cotton factories of Great Britain. Orders were sent out to force Indian skilled workers to work in the East
India Company’s factories. The East India Company was given legal powers to control production in the
villages and communities of Indian weavers. Very high tariffs excluded Indian silks and cotton goods
from Great Britain but British goods were admitted into India free of duty.

From The Economic History of India under Early British Rule by R.C. Dutt

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SOURCE B: A railway accident in India in the nineteenth century

Section A: This question is about India in the nineteenth century

a) According to Source A, what difficulties did the Indian cotton industry face during the nineteenth
century? [3]
b) How does Source B help us to understand Indian concerns about the building of railways in India
during the nineteenth century? [5]
c) Why did the British build railways in India during the nineteenth century? [7]
d) Was an absence of leadership the main reason why the War of Independence in 1857 failed? Explain
your answer. [10]

SOURCE A Fort William, Calcutta, 1756

On the evening of 20 June, some 64 prisoners including two women and several wounded soldiers were
marched at sword point to the filthy dungeon at Fort William. This was a little cell, measuring18 feet by
14 feet 10 inches, designed for no more than three petty criminals. The heat at this time of year was
suffocating. Prisoners trampled on each other to get nearer one of the two tiny windows or to the small
amount of water they had been left. Their guards mocked them as the prisoners gasped for air and
pleaded for mercy. At 6 am the next morning, when the door was opened, dead bodies were piled up
inside. Adapted from an essay in History Today, 2006

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SOURCE B: Famine in the subcontinent

A print of a contemporary engraving showing the distribution of relief

Section A: 1. This question is about the East India Company and its relationship with the subcontinent in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

a) According to Source A, why did many people die at Fort William in 1756? [3]
b) What can we learn from Source B about famine in the subcontinent during British control?
[5]
c) Explain why Robert Clive was successful in the Battle of Plassey in 1757. [7]

d) Was the India Act of 1784 the main reason why the British were able to expand beyond Bengal
between 1784 and 1850? Explain your answer. [10]

SOURCE A

There are few figures in history as controversial as Robert Clive. Some people described him as a soldier
of initiative, courage and determination. Other people saw him as reckless and unprincipled, a rebel
expelled from several schools for bad behavior. They said his victories at Arcot, Calcutta and Plassey
were all the result of lucky gambles that put his men in unnecessary danger. It was also said that Clive
used tactics that were sly and against the accepted codes of battle. Clive was also described as cruel,
lacking in morality and greedy for personal wealth.

Adapted from an article in a British newspaper published in June 1988

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SOURCE B

A painting of Lieutenant-General Lord Cornwallis receiving the Mysorean Hostage Princes after The Third
War at Seringapatnam in 1792, by Robert Home c. 1793

Section A: This question is about the growing influence of the East India Company.

1 Study the sources (Insert) carefully and then answer the questions which follow.

a) According to Source A what were the personal characteristics of Robert Clive? [3]
b) What can we learn from Source B about the treatment of Indian hostages during the Mysore Wars?
[5]
c) Explain why the East India Company was interested in the subcontinent in the years before 1750. [7]
d) To what extent were economic reforms the main cause of the War of Independence in 1857?
Explain your answer. [10]

SOURCE A

Mir Jafar became the eighth Nawab of Bengal following the Battle of Plassey in 1757. In return for
power, Mir Jafar made an agreement with the British to allow them to take important lands around
Calcutta. He was also obliged to make regular payments of huge sums of money to the British. Mir
Jafar’s actions allowed the British to strengthen their trading position and almost brought about
Bengal’s economic collapse. As a result, Mir Jafar’s authority quickly eroded leading to his financial and
political downfall. He became unpopular and was accused of betraying his country and his people
because of his relationship with the British.

An account of the rule of Mir Jafar from the website of a British art gallery

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SOURCE B

An engraving depicting the discovery of Tipu Sultan’s body in battle

(a) According to Source A, Mir Jafar was unpopular as Nawab of Bengal. Identify three ways he was
unpopular. [3]
(b) What can we learn from Source B about the death of Tipu Sultan? [5]
(c) Explain how Titu Mir protected the interests of Muslim farmers in the subcontinent in the early
nineteenth century. [7]
(d) To what extent were Indian rulers able to limit British expansion across the subcontinent between
1760 and 1840? Explain your answer. [10]

REFORMERS
Q: Why were there attempts to revive Islam in the subcontinent during eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries? [7]

Muslims were always in power in India since 1206. Islam was always under royal patronage and had the
official support either of the Sultans of Delhi or the Mughals. For the first time in India, during the
decline of the Mughals, there was no such support for Islam. Muslims not only lost their political power
but also became economically weak and lost their importance in the society. The reformers at this time
made attempts to bridge the gap created by lack of leadership for the Muslims and help strengthen the
Muslims against non-Muslim powers, such as Marathas, Sikhs and the British. They became the source
of guidance for the Muslims in their religious and social matters.

Secondly, the reformers observed that Islam was in difficult time as it was mixed with other religious
and failed to maintain its purified shape it was essential to follow the moral and spiritual principles of
Islam to create a good society. Un- Islamic principles and corrupt practices were not acceptable by the

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revivalists in any area of society, politics, economics or just day to day life of the individual Muslims. The
revivalists wanted to make sure that they would be able to pass the pure Islamic ways to next
generation rather than corrupted beliefs.

Muslims were also facing oppression from these rising powers, who made it difficult for the Muslims to
follow their religious practices. Muslims were also being persecuted by the Marathas in the south.
Marathas were a great threat to the identity of the Muslims. Shah Walli Ullah organized an opposition
against them. In many areas of Punjab even praying in mosques was difficult during Ranjit Singh’s era.
Azaan was banned and Badshahi mosque was turned into a stable. Therefore, Syed Ahmed Shaheed
Barelvi organized his jihad force against these oppressions. Moreover, in Bengal, Hindu and British
landlords oppressed the Muslims, where Haji Shariat Ullah launched his movement to uplift the status of
the Muslim peasants.

Q. Why did Shah Wali Ullah have a major influence on revivalism? [7]

Shah Waliullah had a major influence on revivalism because he translated the Quran into Persian. Many
Muslims did not understand Arabic in the subcontinent, however Persian was widely understood. Its
translation, thus, helped the Muslims to easily understand the Quran and the teachings of Islam on their
own and be mindful of them. Every Muslim in the subcontinent could take guidance directly from the
Quran. It became a source of unity for them and reduced sectarian division. This in general strengthened
Islam and the Muslim community by creating a major influence on revivalism.

Shah Waliullah believed that in the absence of a strong leadership, the Muslims of his era had turned
from a powerful community that they once were into a helpless and disorganized crowd. In order to
provide alternate leadership (since the Mughals had declined his call), he wrote letters to the Muslim
leaders around the world. Upon his invitation, Ahmed Shah Abdali came and fought the 3rd Battle of
Panipat in 1761 against the Marathas. The Marathas were defeated and did not stay in a position to
overthrow the Mughals. This prevented Hindu rule over the Indian Muslims. Thus, Shah Waliullah had a
major influence on revivalism.

Another major reason why Shah Waliullah had a major influence on revivalism was his written work
which exists till date. He had written 51 books; 28 in Persian and 21 in Arabic. The most famous ones are
Hujjat Allah-al-Baligha and Izalat-al-Akhfa. Hujjat Allah-al-Baligha discusses the principles and
fundamentals of Islam. Izalat-at-Akhla is a commentary and explanation of Islam. He also encouraged his
students to research and write on various aspects of Islamic teachings and history. It not only gave
knowledge to that generation but also the coming ones. His students were from Madrassa-e-Rahmiya,
which was established by his father and is present till date.

Q. Why did Shah Walli Ullah wish to revive Islam in the subcontinent? [7]

Shah Walli Ullah wanted to revive Islam in the subcontinent because he believed that Muslims had
incomplete knowledge of Islam as they were unable to understand the meaning of Quran. This was
because the language of Quran, Arabic was unknown to the people. He thought it was necessary that
the Muslims had access to the Islamic teachings. Hence, he translated the Quran into Persian so people
could understand it and live their lives in accordance to the Islamic laws and teachings. This revived
Islam in the sub-continent.

Moreover, the Muslims of the subcontinent had started adopting Hindu culture and traditions because
of their frequent interaction with them. The Muslims had forgotten their true identity as they had
started following un-Islamic practices. They had started having extravagant and luxurious weddings like

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the Hindus. Moreover, they spent large sums of money on childbirth and had started celebrating Hindu
traditions, like Diwali, Holi and Sangeet. They even banned the remarriage of widowed women, despite
being permissible in Islam. This was inspired by suttee, a Hindu ritual. Hence, in order to purify the
Islamic society and remind the Muslims of their true identity and their religion, Shah Walli Ullah wished
to revive Islam.

Furthermore, Shah Walli Ullah wanted to revive Islam in the subcontinent because the Muslims were
disunited. They were divided into sectarian groups such as Shias and Sunnis. Conflicts frequently arose
between them and they were vulnerable to attacks on their religion. Shah Walli Ullah wanted the
Muslims to concentrate on the fundamental principles of Islam and put aside their differences. Hence,
he wrote many books, including an account of the life of the four Caliphs in a manner that was
acceptable to both Shias and Sunnis, subsequently bringing them closer together. Therefore, Shah Walli
Ullah wanted to revive Islam in the subcontinent to unite the Muslims against their common enemy.

Q. Why did Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi have such a major influence on the renewal/revival of Islam
in the sub-continental? [7]

Syed Ahmad Shaheed Barelvi, (S.A.S.B) had a major influence on the revival Islam, firstly because he had
united the Muslims through his Jihad movement. In the army of mujahideen, the soldiers from different
cultures united for one cause under the flag of Islam. This encouraged to end individual differences and
united them under the command of a single leader. The mujahideen made sacrifices for the Muslim
cause which strengthened their unity. S.A.S.B, being responsible for this, was a major influence even
after his martyrdom as well.

Secondly, Jihad is a very important Islamic article of faith thus with money spent in this cause, Islam was
regenerated and the social evils that posed a threat to Islamic principles and values were eliminated. It
further strengthened Muslim faith by inculcating the idea of physical struggle for their survival and gave
them courage to stand against the Sikhs, who had banned Azaan and denied the Badshahi mosque to
them by turning it into a stable. Thus, S.A.S.B started the movement against Sikh rulers of Punjab and
began to defeat the Sikh forces 1825 onwards with the help of Pathan tribal chiefs.

Thirdly, S.A.S.B was a great orator and leader with a vision and also military experience. His religious and
political sermons won him many companions including Shah Ismail. He fought to restore the lost pride of
the Muslims and to win their freedom so they could live their lives according to Islam. He is credited
with much success in his objective. He told Muslims that they had to stand for themselves and sowed
the seed of Muslim nationalism. It is considered to be the forerunner of the Pakistan Movement as both
these movements aimed at liberating the Muslims from the clutches of non-Muslim rule.

Q. Why did Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi conduct a Jihad against the Sikhs in the early 19th century?[7]

S.A.S.B called for Jihad against the Sikhs firstly because Muslims were not allowed to practice their
religion freely. Under Ranjit Singh, many restrictions were imposed on the Muslims. For example, the
call to prayer (Azaan) was banned. Badshahi Mosque was denied to the Muslims and used as a stable by
the Sikh forces. This all was seen as a great danger to Islam and the Muslim community as they faced
many other similar humiliations. In order, for Muslims to lead a life freely and according to Islamic
teaching, S.A.S.B launched the Jihad movement to liberate the Muslim form this tyranny.

Secondly, Muslims were treated as second-rate citizens. They lived an oppressed life under the Hindu
landlords, British land-grabbers and Sikh rulers. There were heavy taxes, which were unfair. Muslims
were ill-treated and were given no respect. The support of the Mughals for the Muslims was also no

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more there. Thus, S.A.S.B believed that only physical and practical armed struggle could salvage the
Muslim pride and status.

Thirdly, S.A.S.B who was a great religions leader, upon returning from Arabia observed that the Muslim
culture had fallen victim to social evils due to a growing number of non-Muslims during the 19th century.
SASB believed that Islam was left vulnerable and there was a need to eliminate the evils that were
corrupting the Indian Muslim community in India. Thus, to purify and protect the sacredness of Islam,
S.A.S.B launched the Jihad movement, where the mujahideen took part in an armed struggle against the
Sikhs and began defeating their forces 1825 onwards with the help of the Pathan tribal chiefs.

Q. Why did the Jihad Movement fail? / Why was Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi notable to establish an
Islamic State in Punjab? [7]

Jihad Movement failed and an Islamic State could not establish in Punjab was the presence of traitors in
the army like Yar Muhammad Khan and his brother Sultan Muhammad Khan. Yar Muhammad Khan, a
Pathan chief was bribed by the Sikhs. As a result, first his servant tried to poison Syed Ahmed and later,
during the battle near Attock, he fled the battlefield with his men, which led to the defeat of the
Mujahideen forces. Yar Muhammad was later killed in a battle but his brother Sultan Muhammad
continued his hostility towards Syed Ahmed. Furthermore, the local leaders of Balakot didn't prove to be
loyal and revealed information to the Sikh army about the presence of Syed Ahmed and his forces. This
led to the martyrdom of Syed Ahmed in his last battle, the Battle of Balakot in 1831, and eventually the
end of his movement.

Apart from this, the Mujahideen force also had other weaknesses that led to the failure of the
movement. The fighters were not trained warriors but teachers and spiritual leaders without any
experience or skills of warfare. The movement also had no continuous source of funds but only
depended on donations. The force was made up of Muslims who belonged to different regions and
tribes. This caused differences among them every now and then. All these factors set up the movement
for failure.

On the other hand, Sikhs were a stronger force. Their army was skilled and trained in battle. It had no
divisions as in the case of the Mujahideen force. Moreover, it had no issue of funds too, since it was
backed by the empire of Ranjit Singh and its treasury. They also knew sly warfare tactics as they had
bribed Yar Muhammad Khan successfully. Strengths ofthe Sikh army caused the failure of Jihad
movement.

Q. Explain why Haji Shariat Ullah was an important figure in the revival of Islam during 19thcentury. [7]

Haji Shariat Ullah was an important figure in the revival of Islam because he urged the Muslims to
observe Muslim practices and refrain from indulging in un-Islamic activities. He believed that Bengali
Muslims were suffering due to their neglect of their religious obligations. Therefore, he persuaded them
to act upon Faraiz or obligations of Islam, and thus founded the Faraizi movement. His belief in the
success of the Muslims was rooted in the purity of faith, which helped many Muslims to follow Islam
sincerely, thus leading to its revival.

The Faraizi movement also revived Islam by reinstating faith in jihad against the non- Muslims, who were
exploiting poor Muslim peasants through their policies. HSU wished to liberate the Muslims from the
claws of the Hindu and British landlords so he declared Bengal “Dar-ul-Harb” and gave Muslims
awareness to fight for their economic, social and religious liberties. This made him an important figure in
the revival of Islam.

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Haji Shariat Ullah also became a source of inspiration for the most depressed faction of the Muslim
community; the peasants and the artisans. They were being oppressed by the rich and powerful Hindu
zamindars who were a beneficiary of the British rulers. Bengali Muslims were restricted to menial jobs
and were given limited opportunities in education and employment. HSU tried to fill in the leadership
vacuum created after the decline of Mughals by providing guidance to the Bengali Muslims in the era of
decline. Moreover, he inspired them to unite in an attempt to improve their lives and uplift their status.
Their pride was restored in the Muslim community which led to the revival of Islam.

Q: The work of Shah Walli Ullah the most important than any other factor contributing to the
spread of Islam between 1750-1850. How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your
answer. [14]

Shah Wali Ullah

• He translated Quran into Persian which helped the Muslim to understand it. Later his sons
translated it into Urdu.
• Taught in Madrassa Rahimiya and enhanced it. It later produced scholars.
• He wrote 51 books both in Arabic and Persian. The famous books were Hujjatullah-ul-Baligha and
Izalat-ul-Akhfa.
• He also wrote an account of first four caliphs in a way that was acceptable for both Shias and Sunnis
in order to minimize the division between them.
• He organized an opposition against the Marathas. He wrote the nobles to join together against
Marathas who were a constant threat for Mughal Empire.
• He wrote a letter to Ahmad Shah Abdali who defeated Marathas in battle of Panipat in 1761.

Syed Ahmad Shaheed Brailvi

• Syed Ahmad Shaheed Brailvi was a man of action

• He believed in Jihad against non – Muslims oppressors.
• He raised a huge Mujahideen forces after returning from Arabia.(80,000 mujahideens)
• He gave ultimatum to Ranjit Singh to stop oppressions against Muslims and allow them to worship
freely. Ranjit Singh ignored it and Jihad was started against Sikhs.
• His movement was called as Jihad movement.
• Defeated Sikh forces in a Battle at Okara and then at Hazarothe
• Later he was betrayed by Yar Muhammad Khan, a tribal chief in his army and was defeated in battle
field at Attock.
• In order to avoid a war between the Muslims he shifted headquarter from Peshawar to Balakot.
• Once again he was betrayed by the local leaders who told Sikhs the way to his headquarter. He was
defeated as was attacked suddenly when his army was not prepared to fight. He was killed along
with his deputy Shah Ismail Shaheed and with this ended the Jihad movement.

Haji Shariat Ullah

• He started movement in East Bengal called as Fraizi movement.

• Called India as Dar-ul-Harb.
• The word “Faraizi” came from the word Farz which means obligation.
• He wanted to remove what he thought the Hindu practices which had crept into their religion.

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• He organized the Muslim parents of the region against the oppressions of Hindu landlords (British
landlords as well). He was driven out of the region by them.
• After his death his son Mohsin – ud – din (Dudhu Mian) continued this movement who further
expanded. After his death the movement ended.

Analysis:
I agree with the statement that SWU’s work was more important as his work was not limited to
particular area rather, he proved himself to be a torch bearer. He wrote books available for the future
generation. He translated Quran into Persian so that it can be understandable by the majority of the
Muslims. He tried to heal the differences among the Muslims. Most of all he finished the Marathas
threat permanently by persuading Ahmad Shah Abdali to attack them.

War of Independence
Causes of the War
Q. Why did the War of Independence happen? [7]

There were some political reasons. The doctrine of lapse was implemented by Lord Dalhousie in 1852
which enraged the Indians as their lands were taken away if no natural heir was present. Sitara, Nagpur
and Jhansi were taken by the British. The seizure of Oudh in 1856 convinced the Indians that the British
were greedy land grabbers. In Oudh the legal heir was present but British took the lands under the
pretext of bad governance. The change of language to English in 1834 was also a reason of resentment
against British. Furthermore, the shifting of the Royal Family from Red Fort to Qutub Sahib was seen as a
sign of disrespect, which led to the war.

Moreover, the British considered themselves and their culture to be superior to that of the Indians and
thought of it as their responsibility to spread it. The opening of missionary schools also threatened the
Indians as they started converting the locals to Christianity. Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs all felt threatened
by this. They changes brought by the British as railway, telegram etc. were too fast for the Indians to
accept. Furthermore the arrogant behavior of the British as seeing themselves superior to the Indians
was another problem. The treatment of Indians as 3rd rate citizens led to the great rebellion.

There were some economic reasons. High taxation was a burden on the poor locals. Huge profits were
earned by trade as well. However, there was a stark difference in the life style of the British and the
locals. Corrupt tax collectors emerged as a problem too as they collected for themselves, which became
one of the reasons for the war of independence.

Military reasons were also played a vital role. There was a dispute in the military as the soldiers refused
to leave “Mother India” and were scared of the fact that they had lost to Afghanistan. Travelling through
water was prohibited in Hinduism. Greased cartridges were introduced which were covered with fat to
keep the gunpowder dry. It was rumored that the fat was either of pig or of cow. Hindus refused to use
it as cow was sacred for them and Muslims refused too as pig was unacceptable (haram) in Islam. It
ultimately led to revolt.

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Failure of the War

Q: Why did War of Independence fail? / Why did the Indians not achieve independence in 1857? [7]

There was lack of unity among Indians different groups from different areas who were fighting for their
own specific reasons. There was nothing as Indian nationalism. Most Indian princes did not like the idea
of imperial power being restored. The same troops that were now revolting had conquered Punjab and
Sindh. So the people of these provinces were not interested to support them. The Raja of Kashmir sent
2000 troops to help the British so that he could remain in power. Similarly, the main garrisons of
Calcutta, Madras and Bombay didn’t revolt as they had a much better life than before. The revolt failed
to spread across the whole of India and remained limited to central regions only.

Another major reason was the strength of the British. Britain was the most powerful nation in the world
at that time and its skilled diplomats and experienced troops were able to defeat the locals. High profits
in trade and high taxation enabled them to make mighty military machine that was unmatched in India.
The troops were skilled, highly trained and experienced at warfare and new modern methods of fighting.
The British also had a large supply of ammunition. In fact Indians with their outdated weapons were no
match for their mighty military machine. The diplomats exploited the differences among the Indians and
never let them unite against the British.

Another reason was the absence of a general plan before the beginning of the War that started abruptly
with the defiance of a single sepoy, Mangal Panday.These sepoys had no co-ordination or clear aim.
They also lacked training, experience and advanced weapons of modern warfare to compete with a
strong force like the British. The small groups spread out in different areas which were easy to defeat.
This absence of planning and coordination made it easy for the British to regain control within a year.

Q. Was the work of the Christian missionaries the most important reason why the Indians opposed
British attempts to westernize them between 1750 and 1850? Explain your answer. [10]

The British took many steps to modernize and unify India so it would be easier to administer. One such
measure took place in 1833, when the Charter Act of India legitimized the influx of Christian
missionaries. These missionaries were heavily invested in setting up their institutions, however their
main goal was not mass education but rather conversion. In order to achieve this, they undertook
education. These schools preached the teachings of Christianity, and expected the locals to give up their
religion and convert to Christianity. This was seen as a threat to their religion and so the Indians
resented it.

However, there were other reasons why the Indians opposed the British attempts to modernize them.
One such measure was taken in 1829 when the British banned there ligious custom suttee of the Hindus
in which the widow had to burn herself alive with the dead body of her husband. This too was seen as a
religious interference by the Hindu and so was resented.

British also introduced a number of social reforms without any consideration for the sentiments of the
locals. In 1834, they replaced English with Persian as the official language. This was another cause of
resentment as Indians became uneducated and hence jobless.

The British introduced co-education system however, Indians took this as a cultural interference as this
measure was devoid of respect for their religious teaching. This caused resentment among the masses
especially the Muslims, as they observed pardah for women, which could not be observed in co-
education school. Not surprisingly, a British official in 1835 remarked, “A single shelf of a good European

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library is worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia.”

Moreover, the British introduced the railway system. Although this was an efficient means of transport,
but it led to a rise in road accidents which made the Indians annoyed as they thought the British were
interfering with their daily lives.

The British also destroyed the economic fabric of the Indian society. Since they had experienced the
Industrial Revolution, they had the machinery to produce large amounts of cloth, which was then sold at
a cheap price in the local markets. This angered the Indian weavers as local Indian cloth was expensive,
causing them to become jobless.

In light of the above discussion, it may be concluded that the work of the Christian missionaries was the
most important reason why the Indians opposed the British attempts to westernize them. As religion
was the focal point of the lives of the Indians, their beliefs were very dear to them. Hence, they resented
any intrusion into their cultural and religious sphere.

Q. To what extent were the outcomes of the War of Independence beneficial for India? Explain your
answer. [14]

The War of Independence (WOI) had some failures and success. They are discussed below with
conclusion:

Indians failed to achieve the main objective of the WOI, which was to get rid of the British rule and
achieve independence. The uprising was successfully crushed by the British troops in all parts of India
within a few months. Countless Indians lost their lives. And India came under the direct control of the
British crown by virtue of the Queen’s Proclamation of 1858. Moreover, religious reforms such as the
ban on suttee and purdah, that became one of the reasons for the WOI, were retained even after the
war. Thus, the main objectives of the Indians were not met and the outcome was not beneficial for the
Indians.

Secondly, the war brought utter destruction to the still existing powerless Mughal King and the symbolic
Mughal Empire. As a consequence of War of 1857, the Mughal Dynasty officially came to an end. The
Queen was declared the Empress of India in 1857, while Bahadur Shah was exiled to Burma. His sons
were killed. Thus, it ended the only support Muslims had in the subcontinent. With the end of the
Mughal rule, Muslims now had absolutely no political representation. Hindus also become more hostile
against the Muslims and India became a British colony.

Another big failure was that the Muslims were solely blamed for the uprising. They were victims of worst
atrocities as they were hanged in large number; their properties were confiscated and many were driven
out of jobs. The British believed that it was the Muslims who had initiated the war and were more
determined to get rid of the British. Muslims were exclusively targeted by the British who wanted to
erase any sense of imperial pride from their minds. At many places, mass executions were carried out
publicly. Sepoys were blown out of canons and their bodies were stitched in pigskin. Raids were
conducted on the houses of several notable people on grounds of treason.

The British further punished the Muslims by withdrawing their support from Muslims schools which led
to their decline in the field of education as well. Consequently, the Muslims suffered heavy losses as
their social and economic status deteriorated. This also caused the British to favor the Hindus. The
British also became cautious and selective in military recruitments. They began to enlist troops from

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relatively loyal provinces such as the Punjab, NWF and Kashmir, and promoted the “martial races” of
Pathans, Gurkhas and Punjabis.

Furthermore, in 1876, Queen Victoria assumed the title of the “Empress of India”. The British decided to
use the Princely States as pillars of the colonial rule. Lord Curzon made it clear that the Princes ruled
their States merely as agents of the British Crown. The Princes accepted the proposal and willingly
became junior partners of the empire because they were assured of their privileged status and
existence. Hence, the powers of the princes were reduced as a result of the war.

However, it would not be just to claim that the war achieved nothing at all.The exploitative role of East
India Company came to an end. The subcontinent went under the direct control of the British Crown.
With the declaration of the Queen’s proclamation, the hated “Doctrine of Lapse” was permanently
abolished, which was aimed at grabbing Indian territories. The proclamation declared that no further
territories would be annexed. This satisfied the princes, Nawabs and the other nobles, who could now
adopt sons who could be their heirs. The nobles could rule their lands peacefully without fear of any
further British expansion. The British also promised that they would abide by all the treaties.

Moreover, the war became a historic event promoting nationalism and patriotism in Indians. It created a
strong urge in the Indians to break the shackles of slavery. They had learnt a lesson that they could not
defeat the British politically therefore they now knew they had to join politics if they ever wanted to
improve their status. The Indians got more education and acquired political awareness. The locals also
started to from their political parties like the Indian National Congress in 1885 and produced leaders
such as Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Gandhi, and Jinnah. This was followed by All India
Muslim League in 1906.

The British also started to train the Indians by the introduction of periodic political reforms, involving
Indians in the affairs of the state on limited scale. The governor-general was to be called Viceroy and a
Secretary of State for Indian affairs was nominated with a council of 15 members. These changes were
made to address concerns of Indian people.

Another positive impact of the war was that the British started the expansion of rail and road networks
in India. Although done for quick movement of troops and faster transport to further their colonial
interests, it also gave Indians the opportunity to gain benefits. The development of the irrigation system
also began during this time. This greatly benefitted the locals as the farmers could increase their farm
output using modern farming methods.

In conclusion, I agree with the statement to a great extent because the war failed to achieve its main
objectives and further strengthened the British by allowing them to rule India for another 100 years.

Discuss and Prepare:

Q: Who was Titu Mir? [4]

Q: Who were Thugees? [4]
Q: What was greased cartridges issue? [4]
Q: What was Battle of Kanpur? [4]
Q: Who was Nana Sahib? [4]
Q: Describe the events of War of Independence? [4]
Q: Greased cartridges issue was more important than any other for the war of independence to happen.
Agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

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Q: Lack of unity among Indians was more important than any other for the failure of war of
independence. Agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]
Q: Why did the British take tough measures against Muslims after 1857 war? [7]

Q: Was an absence of leadership the main reason why the War of Independence in 1857 failed?
Explain your answer. [14]

Absence of leadership

• No single leader e.g. Bhadur Shah was not accepted by most Hindus.
• Many people at the time thought Bhadur Shah did not have strong leadership skills and that he was
more of a figurehead.
• Bhadur Shah and the Rani of Jhansi worked alone, and neither would support the other.

Other reasons

• Lack of unity and common cause amongst the Indian population.

• The Punjab was uninterested in helping the rebellion, sending men and supplies to help the British.
• Some of the Indian princes were more interested in restoring their own powers and this often
depended upon the support of the British.
• Muslims were more likely to oppose the British in the war but there was not a sense of unity with
Sikhs and Hindus who were less likely to support them in their cause.
• A series of uprisings against the British, the Indians were not as coordinated or strong so the British
overcame them.
• The British had modern methods of fighting.
• The British army was well disciplined and supplied by some of the local rulers.
• The British used diplomatic as well as military mechanisms to limit the extent of the conflict.

SIR SYED AHMAD KHAN

Reconciliation: Improving relationship between Muslim &British
Q. Why did Sir Syed Ahmad Khan want better relationships between Muslims and British? [7]

In order to improve socio–economic condition of the Muslim, it was vital to reconcile with the British,
who had put all the blame of the War of Independence on the Muslim community, while they perceived
other Indian communities to be loyal to them. The British had replaced Muslim rulers because they
thought it was justified to penalize their community. Therefore, they followed a policy of repression
against them. There were large scale killings of Muslims. Their land and property was confiscated. Jobs
were banned and Muslims were economically destroyed.

Muslims generally resented the British and took them as invaders for trying to replace Islam with
Christianity. Many rejected the western cultural values and education considering them as un-Islamic.
They remained hostile & defiant towards the British.

Meanwhile, Hindus showed loyalty towards Muslims and took full advantages to establish their
superiority in India. They were now the part of Civil services and the new system introduced by British.
Muslims were at a disadvantage because of Hindus gaining strength.

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Work
Convincing the British:

• “The Loyal Muhammadens of India” (defended the Loyalty of Muslim);

• Essays on the causes of the India Revolt; (analyzed the revolt: Insufficient Indian share in
government forcible conversion of Indians, poor management of army) British failure to understand
Indian mindsets. The senior British circles which includes British government officials and members
of the royal family read all this.
• Explained the meaning of Nadarath to clarify its use. Muslims didn’t use it as an insult. It was derived
from the Arabic word “Nasir” means (helper); Muslims used the word in a positive not an insulting
manner.

Convincing the Muslims: Religious views

• He believed relations with the British could be improved by improving the understanding of
Christianity by Muslim groups. He tried to overcome this by writing ‘’Tabayin al Kalam“, in which he
pointed out the similarities between Islam and Christianity.
• He was also aware that the British knew little about Islam. After reading a book of Sir William Muir
about the Holy Prophet (PBUH), he wrote his own work correcting the many errors he had read.

Results/ Importance:

• Attitude of the British also improved gradually. They stopped their policy of oppression towards
Muslims.
• They allow the educational activities and Muslims too, were now willing to get the western
education.
• Success of Simla delegation, separate electorates for Muslims in 1909 Act.

Educational Services
Q: Why Sir Syed Ahmad Khan wanted Muslims to get British education? [7]

• Muslims not interested in modern British education as they consider it as un-Islamic.

• Hindus began to excel by acquiring modern education; got better jobs, & improved their image
before the British, who started using them to counter Muslims; by 1871, 711 Hindus against only 92
Muslims in the government service.
• Growth of Hindu revivalism (Hindu movement) with increasing number of educated Hindus; they
showed little respect towards Muslims.
• Indian civil services, judiciary, etc will be dominated by the Hindus if Muslims will not start getting
the western education.
• Muslims were economically destroyed because of policy of repression by British against them.
Education will help them to improve their socio-economic status.

Work

• Told Muslims about the Quranic commands to acquire knowledge.

• Issued “Tahzib–ul–Akhlaq“, that published articles of Sir Syed & other influential Muslims to bring
about a positive intellectual change among Muslims.
• 1859 opened a school in Muradabad.

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• 1863, Scientific Society was established by Sir Syed. The purpose of scientific society was to translate
books from Persian, Arabic English into Urdu so that it is available for wider number of people.
• 1864 opened another school in Ghazipur.
• 1869, visited England, observed Oxford & Cambridge – dreamed similar institute for Indian Muslims.
• On return, started a fund raising campaign: May 1875, MAO (Muhammadan Anglo Oriental) School,
Aligarh; became MAO College in 1877. It offered modern & Islamic education. Acted as nursery for
many important future leaders.
• 1886, Muhammadan Educational Conference (MEC), to improve educational standard of Muslims.
• In 1920 M.A.O collage became Aligarh University.

Results / Importance:

• Gradual improvement of educational, social & economic status of Muslims.

• MAO College became a breeding ground for future Muslim leaders, Liaquat Ali Khan, Ayub Khan, etc.
• MEC served as platform for political activity of Muslims. AIML was founded in its 20th session, 1906.

Political Services

Hindi Urdu Controversy

In 1867 Hindus demanded Hindi to be the second official language replacing Urdu. Sir Syed opposed this
because of its association with Muslims. It was demanded just because Urdu was the language of
Muslim. It reflected Hindu aim of dominating India in future.

Founder of the Two Nation Theory

• He predicted the separation of Hindus & Muslims in future after the 1867 language controversy and
developed the idea of two nation theory. Two Nation Theory gradually became valid & lay basis of
the struggle for separate Muslim homeland.

INC politics:

1885, INC formed, aimed to convey views of Indians to British. INC claimed to represent all Indians
regardless of religion. But in reality it was a Hindu – dominated party working for Hindu Raj in India. Sir
Syed advised Muslims to keep away from politics and focus on their education.

INC demanded:

• Political representation on Democratic pattern of England (one man one vote) Sir Syed opposed this
because of numerical majority of Hindus as Muslims will not be able to win any elections. Sir Syed
opposed this because of visible educational disparity b/w Hindus & Muslims. Hindus might sweep all
seats causing further problems for Muslims. He recognized that the Muslim community could not
win any election because of the Hindu majority population, so he advocated separate seats and a
separate electorate, which was the forerunner of the future demand for a separate homeland.
• It also demanded Competitive examinations for the civil services in India.

Q. How successful was Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in restoring the reputation of the Muslims in the eyes of
the British in years after the war? Explain your answer. [10]

The success of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (SSAK) in restoring the reputation of Muslim in the eyes of the
British in the years after the war is evaluated below with a conclusion.

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SSAK wrote the pamphlet “Loyal Muhammadans of India” and the “Essay on the Causes of the Great
Indian Revolt” which helped to restore the reputation of the Muslims. Loyal Muhammadans of India
highlighted the loyal services of the Muslims to the British. Whereas, the Essays on the Causes of the
Great Indian Revolt pointed out the causes of the revolt and made the British aware that the Muslims
cannot be entirely blamed for the uprising of 1857. The British officials were given copies of the
pamphlet. Since they were not out-rightly rejected, this played a part in the restoration of the repute of
the Muslims.

SSAK wanted Muslim to acquire western education as the British had always wanted. Sir Syed did this by
establishing schools at Muradabad (1859) and Ghazipur (1864) and later founded the Muhammadan
Anglo Oriental College. Since the British had allowed the formation of these institutes, it showed that
the British had reduced their hostility towards the Muslims and were more open to working with them.

The future events after SSAK also proved his success in restoring the reputation of the Muslim in the
eyes of the British in the years after the war. It was due to these efforts of SSAK that the British made
concessions to Muslims during the Simla Deputation (1906) and years later when Muslim themselves
became keen themselves, Pakistan was founded.

However, there had been events which may show a contrary picture. His efforts to support Urdu as the
second official language when the Hindi-Urdu controversy arose in 1867 were not fruitful after his
death. When the British government prepared to accept the demand of the Hindu communities of
the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh) and Bihar to change the Perso-Arabic script of the official
language to Devanagari and adopt Hindi as the second official language on demand of Hindi activists, Sir
Syed Ahmed Khan became the most vocal opponent of this change. However, after his demise, the
British showed their hostility not only towards the Muslims, but to their language too. Contrary to the
aspirations of SSAK, the demands of the Hindus was granted and Hindi was made the second official
language.

Another failure in terms of this could be that the British hostility towards Muslims and the favour for
Hindus was never completely removed. Every now and then, the British showed their bias against the
Muslims. A few examples include the change in the second language, the partition of Bengal, and the
betrayal that led to the Khilafat Movement. The atrocities in late 19th century due to the War were also
brutally carried on against the Muslims.

In conclusion, it can be said that SSAK was successful to a great extent in restoring the repute of the
Muslims in eyes of the British in the years after the War as its end result was the formation of Pakistan.

Q. Was the attempt to achieve a better understanding with the British the most important
contribution that Sir Syed Ahmad Khan made to the Muslim cause during the nineteenth century?
Explain your answer. [14]

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (S.S.A.K) was a great reformer. He wrote a pamphlet called “The Loyal
Mohammadans of India”. In this pamphlet, he brought to light the loyal services of the Indian Muslims
for the British. By doing so, he made the British realize that Muslims were indeed loyal and so the
hostility towards them was reduced. He also wrote an essay “The Causes of Indian Revolt”, in which he
pointed out the reasons for the War of Independence, explaining to that British that pinning the entire
blame for the war on the Muslim was totally unjust.

Secondly, he wrote a pamphlet called “Taam-e-Ahle Kitaab” (food laws of people of the book), in which,
he highlighted the fact that Muslims and Christians were allowed by religion to dine together. This

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encouraged the Muslims and the British to interact with each other and to look beyond their
differences.

Thirdly, SSK cleared a misconception of the British. The Indians called the British “Nadarath”, which the
British always mistook as an insult. SSAK cleared this confusion and explained to the British that this
word meant ‘helper’, thus this reflected a positive image of the British for the Indians and improved
relations. SSAK also founded the British Indian Association, a platform for the British representation to
negotiate and discuss issues with the Indian representative. This brought the two closer.

However, SSAK made educational contributions too. He founded a Scientific Society at Ghazipur 1863,
which translated works of Science from English, Persian and Arabic into Urdu. This helped increase the
scientific knowledge of the Muslims. Moreover, he established the Anglo Oriental School in 1875 that
was upgraded to a college in 1877. By doing so, he introduced the British Education System in India,
enabling Muslim students receive better education and leading to better job opportunities in the future.
This elevated the status of Muslims and facilitated them to communicate with the British in the future.

SSAK made many political contributions as well. Congress had suggested open competitive examinations
for jobs in civil services and the government. However, SSAK knew that the Hindus were far more
educated and would easily win all the posts. Hence, he rejected this reform and suggested a quota be
kept in each sector for the Muslims so that they won’t be denied equal opportunities.

He also presented the Two Nation Theory at the event of the Urdu Hindi controversy 1867, when the
Indian National Congress demanded Hindi to be declared as the official language in place of Urdu that
had been the official language since 1825. SAK knew that Urdu was historically associated with Muslim
culture. All of this made him realize that Hindus and Muslims were two very different nations, with two
different demands and a partition of some sort was required.

Thus, it can be deduced that the SSAK’s political contributions were more important as the Two Nation
Theory paved way for the formation of Pakistan. It also laid the basis of Muslim nationalism which
eventually evolved into the Pakistan Movement in the 1940s. This is why SSAK is known as the Father of
Pakistan Movement.

Discuss and Prepare:

Q: What was the Two Nation Theory? [4]
Q: What was the Tehzeeb ul Akhlaq? [4]
Q: What was the Urdu-Hindi controversy? [4]
Q: What was scientific society? [4]
Q: Why did SSAK want to establish better relationship between British and Muslims? [7]
Q: Why did SSAK want Muslims to get British education? [7]
Q: Why did SSAK write the essay on the Causes of Indian Revolt? [7]
Q: Why did SSAK present the Two Nation Theory? [7]
Q: The educational services of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan were more important than any other. Agree or
disagree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]
Q: Were Sir Syed Ahmad Khan’s religious views his most important contribution to the Muslim cause
after 1857? Explain your answer. [14]

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LANGUAGES
Promotion of the Regional Languages
Punjabi

• Government has given support to Punjabi institutions writer & singers

• It is taught up to Masters Level at University of Punjab
• Punjabi films & songs had gain immense popularity in Pakistan. Singers like Abrar ul Haq & Javad
Ahmed promoted the language through their songs.
• Books, Magazines are published in high quantity every year.
• It is also offered in civil services exams.
• Punjabi Literary Association was set up which published many magazines and articles.
• T.V shoes / News in Punjabi are broadcasting.
• Ghazals and Nazams are very popular way of poetry in Punjabi.

Sindhi

• Sindhi Literary Board was set up in 1948 which printed many books and magazine.
• In 1954 Bazem-e-Talib-ul-Muala was set up.
• Several books have been published on Sindhi folk literature.
• Numerous compilations of the great writer of Sindhi language have been published which have
greatly enhanced the prestige of Sindhi Literature.
• T. V shows / News in Sindhi is given.
• Sachal Sarmast Academy helped to promote the language.
• A Sindhology department in Sindh University Jamshoro is working for the promotion of the
language.

Balochi

• Television center in Quetta broad casts in Balochi.

• Radio Pakistan Karachi has been telecasting songs, programs in Balochi to enhance the development
process of this language.
• Promising writers like Atta Shah and Gul Naseer have been given promotion by government.
• Awards for Balochi Programs are given.
• Modern Balochi literature: Atta Shad, Ishaq Shamim, Gul Khan Nazir, Azad Jamal Din
• Balochi literary association was setup for weekly & monthly magazines

Pashtu

• An Academy was setup under the supervision of the government.

• Pashtu Academy was setup in 1954. This academy prepared the Pashtu dictionary.
• Films in Pashtu are made & people of N.W.F.P see these movies with great interest.
• Government allows the distribution of these movies.
• Government TV channel (PTV) telecasts program and singing shows from Peshawar Television
Center. Post-graduate classes at university level in KPK.

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Importance of Regional Languages

Punjabi

• It is local language of the biggest province of Pakistan (Punjab) with regard to population and
development.
• It is popular amongst Sufi and Sufi poets.
• Famous folk tales like Heer Ranjha, Mirza Sahiba, Sohni Mahiwal have been said in Punjabi.
• Folk tale Sassi Pannu has greatly contributed towards the popularity of this language.
• The ideas of the stories named above have been written again and used in films in different
languages. This has given importance & fame to Punjabi.

Pashtu

• It is the language of the people of KPK.

• It is an ancient language, widely used, understood and spoken by the people of N.W.F.P.
• A lot of Pashtu writers (Sabizad & Abdul Qayyum) have rendered great service in the freedom
struggle. Pashtu speakers are proud over this face.
• Rehman Baba, Khushal Khan Khattak

Balochi

• It is the language of the biggest province of Pakistan (Area wise).

• Balochi languages consists of stories of legends and romances and are great source of
entertainment.
• Religious poetry written in Balochi gives promotions to other languages such as Sulemanki and
Mekrani.

Sindhi

• It is the language of Sindh.

• Sindhi language reflects literary trends in its folk songs and conventional folk tales, Sindhi language
reflects Sindhi tradition.
• Sufi’s like Shah Abdul Latif Bhatai used this language to say religious things.
• People in Sindh are better able to understand the Sindhi language than Urdu language, Hence Sindhi
has given them the opportunity to communicate well and able to solve their problems. The famous
poets in different eras are
• Sachal Sarmast, Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai, Makdum Nuh of Hala
• Qazi Qazam of Thatta, Pir Ali M. Rashdi, G. Allana, Faqir Nabi Bux

Q: Why was Urdu chosen as national language after the creation of Pakistan in 1947? [7]

Urdu was the language of the Muslims in the sub-continent. It was widely spoken by the Muslim
population and was used in the courts of the Nawabs of Delhi. In fact, it was a rich mix of Arabic, Persian
and Sanskrit. In its early stages, it was used by Muslim armies before spreading to other parts of the sub-
continent. A language that was well-known and established, in addition to having a glorious history and
background, was bound to be chosen as the national language.

Secondly, many Urdu poets such as Amir Khusrau had written in Urdu. Urdu also held immense cultural
importance to the Muslims. Many religious books, including Quran were translated into Urdu. It was

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considered an important language with rich literary tradition and was therefore chosen to be the
language of the Muslim country, Pakistan.

Thirdly, Jinnah was keen to promote Urdu as it was closely associated with the Pakistan Movement. Sir
Syed also promoted the language through his college. As a matter of fact, Muslim League was founded
not only to safeguard the interests of the Muslims but for the protection of Urdu as well. Thus, Urdu
acted as a unifying force for the Indian Muslims and therefore selected as their national language.

Additional Knowledge

• Quaid–e–Azam chose Urdu as a national language. He considered that Urdu was a symbol of unity
among the various provinces. It would act like a binding force among different regions. While visiting
Dhaka after the independence he stressed that Urdu and only Urdu would be the national language
of Pakistan. It was logical as all other provinces were having their own languages. Urdu was the only
language understandable and spoken by all the provinces whereas regional languages were limited
to their regions.
• It has long been considered as language of Muslims since Mughals and Sultans of Delhi.
 Rich in literature
 Amir Khusro in 13th century was the first poet who developed Urdu.
 Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah & Bahadur Shah took keen interest to develop the Urdu
language. Bahadur Shah was also a poet.
 Poets such as Sauda, Dard, and Ghalib contributed a lot through their poetry.
 Aligarh University produced writers such as Hasrat Mohani, Majar, Jazbi who further developed
it. Quran was also translated into Urdu by sons of Shah Wali Ullah as Urdu was spoken and
understandable by common Muslims.
• It was the medium of instructions in Aligarh University and in other colleges as well such as Fort
William College.
 Hindi Urdu Controversy 1867: Urdu was tagged as language of Muslims of India.
 Writers during this time period also contributed the lot.
 Allama Iqbal, Dr. Nazir Ahmad, M. Hussain Azad, Muhammad Altaf Hussain Hali, Allama Shibli
Nomani
 In 1900 when Urdu was replaced by Hindi after the death of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan it was a
situation of grieve for the Muslims as their language was disgraced.
 One aim of All India Muslim League in 1906 was to protect and promote the language and
culture of Muslims.
 Jinnah’s 14 points: To protect the Muslim culture and language.

Q. The promotion of Urdu has been more successful than that of any regional language in Pakistan
between 1947 and 1999? Explain your answer. [14]

Urdu language carries immense importance for the Pakistani’s as the Muslims have been using it since
the time of Sultans of Delhi (1206-1526). Moreover, it remained important throughout the Pakistan
Movement in opposition to the British and the Hindus. After independence it was made the national
language of Pakistan. The government has taken many steps to promote its national language. Urdu is
used at all the levels of the society whether it is medium of instruction in schools or at work places. The
Pakistan Television station along with all the other News channels broadcasts in Urdu. The film, dramas
and novels and theatre plays have received unprecedented popularity thus promoting Urdu. There are
weekly and monthly magazines that are published in Urdu. Prominent poets like Faiz, Faraz, Ahmed
Nadeem Qasmi and Munir Niazi have been given various awards, such as Adamjee Award, Baba-e-Urdu

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Award and The Prime Minister’s Award have also been introduced by the government to patronize it.
The 1973 Constitution of Pakistan also pledges to make Urdu the national language of the country. Thus,
the promotion of the language has been quite successful as Urdu is widely spoken and understood in
Pakistan.

Besides Urdu, regional languages have also been promoted by the government. Punjabi is the local
language of 60.4% of the population of Pakistan. It is spoken and understood in the most populous
province of the country. Many saints like Sultan Bahu, Bulleh Shah, and Baba Farid have all used Punjabi
in their romantic fold tales. After independence, more steps were taken to promote it further. It is now
offered at MA level at the University of the Punjab. Moreover, it is also offered in the civil service exam.
Theatre plays have played a vital role in the promotion of Punjabi. Other than that, films and dramas in
this language have garnered huge success. The new wave of Punjabi authors and poets includes
Habib Jalib, Ahmed Rahi and Munir Niazi. Moreover, it also happens to have close links to Islam as Quran
has been translated in Punjabi by Muhammad Faiq. Some Punjabi newspapers were issued from Lahore,
like the Daily Sajjan in the 1980s.

Apart from this, Sindhi which is an even older language used to be written in Merwari and Arz Nagari
script but later on, with the arrival of Turkish tribes from Central Asia in 712 AD, it became influenced by
Persian and Turkish. Famous poets include Qazi Qazzan of Thatta and Mukhdum Nuh of Hala. After
independence, many steps were taken by the government to promote it. The government set up the
Sindhi literacy Board in 1948. Later, in 1954, Bazme Talib ul Maula was established to serve the same
purpose. Sachal Sarmast Academy also honours the work undertaken by its namesake in the field of
Sindhi literature. Moreover, a Sindhiology department at the University of Jamshoro has also been
founded. Under the Language Bill of 1972, Z.A. Bhutto declared it the national language of Sindh along
with Urdu.

Pashto has also been very important during the Pakistan Movement in organizing an opposition against
the British rule. Later it was promoted after partition. Sahibzada Abdul Quyyum founded the Islamia
College Peshawar where Pashto is taught and promoted. A post-graduate degree in Pashto is also
offered in The University of Peshawar. Also, in 1954 a Pashto Academy was set up. Using this platform,
Maulana Abdul Qadir compiled a Pashto dictionary which is widely accepted. Abaseen Arts Council also
promoted Pashto Theatre.

Balochi has been the least developed owing to the fact that its literature is in the form of oral tradition.
For the same reason, it has been on the verge of being lost forever, before the government of Pakistan
made concentrated efforts to promote it. Radio Pakistan Karachi broadcasts in Balochi. The role played
by Quetta Television Station is very important in the promotion of Balochi. The Balochi Literary
Association and poet such as Atta Shad and Gul Khan Nazir have strived for the advancement of this
language.

In conclusion, I agree with the statement that the promotion of Urdu has been more successful in
comparison to the regional languages of Pakistan as it is the national language. It is widely spoken and
understood. It is also used in public offices and educational instruction while being the medium of
instruction. The entertainment industry has also played a crucial role in its promotion as a language due
to which Urdu is gaining popularity across the globe.

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Q. How successful was the development of regional languages between 1947 and 1999? Explain your
answer. [14]

The extent to which the development of regional languages between 1947 and 1999 has been successful
is evaluated below, with a conclusion.

The government has worked towards the development of Sindhi spoken in Sindh (by 12% of Pakistan
population). In 1948, Sindh Literary Board was set up for it. It has printed many books and magazines by
notable Sindhi poets such as G. Allana, Faqir Nabi Buksh and Riaz Ali Muhammad Rashid. Moreover,
several books on Sindhi folk literature have also been written. Consequently, in 1954, Bazm-e-Talib ul-
Maula was also established for the promotion of Sindhi. For the development of Sindhi, Sachal Sarmast
Academy has been founded in the memory of Sachal Sarmast and a Sindhiology Department has also
been set up at Sindh University Jamshoro. Under the Language Bill of 1972, Z.A. Bhutto declared it the
national language of Sindh along with Urdu. In addition to this, Sindhi has also been encouraged by local
media, plays and dramas.

Balochi has been the least developed owing to the fact that its literature is in the form of oral tradition.
For the same reason, it has been on the verge of being lost forever, before the government of Pakistan
made concentrated efforts to promote it. Balochi language has been developed by broadcasts in Balochi
from Radio Pakistan Karachi. Quetta Television Station also broadcasts in Balochi language. Dramas and
plays in the language have also played an important part. Balochi Literary Association was also set for its
development which has been publishing weekly and monthly magazines in Balochi. Modern Balochi
literature has also been encouraged. Notable poets Such an Atta shad and Ishaq Shamin, and writers
such as Gul Khan Nazir and Azad Jamal din have been working for its promotion.

Steps have been taken for the development of Punjabi, which is spoken by 48% of Pakistan’s population.
Translation of Quran in Punjabi is present. Punjabi is also thought up to MA level at The University of
Punjab. There is a department dedicated for it too. It is also present as a subject in provincial and control
computer examination alongside other regional languages. Modern poets such Daman, Sharif Kunjahi,
Ahmed Rahi and Munir Niazi have also played an important part is the development of Punjabi.
Moreover, broadcast of radio, films, dramas and plays have also helped in development of the language.

The government has promoted Pashto by establishing an academy in 1954 for the promotion of Pashto
literature. The academy was initially headed by Maulana Abdul Qadir and it had prepared a widely
accepted Pashto dictionary. Post graduate classes have been initiated at university level in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa. Apart from this, broadcast via radio, dramas, songs and films in Pashto have also played
an important role in its development. Islamia and Peshawar University have also been encouraged the
development of Pashto language.

However, at times the development of these regional language has lacked. Their status is just that of a
mode of communication in personal lives. In practical and professional lives these languages are hardly
used or considered. They are not officially used in government offices, work places and institution the
signboards on roads also don’t have these languages. This shows that the promotion of these regional
languages has been very restricted.

In addition to this, in educational institutes, there are also not officially used as a medium of instruction.
As a result of this, their use has further been restricted. New generation that merely learn them in
school may not be able to get hold of the languages. The point is that other academic subjects such as
science, math, etc. have not translated in the regional languages. In conclusion, I believe that

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development of regional languages between 1947 and 1999 has been partially successful. More efforts
are still required so that these languages can become more practical and useful in everyday life.

Who was Shiva Ji?

Ans: He was Hindu leader of Maratha. In 1646 he gained control over several territories in Deccan and
Surat. In 1665 Aurangzeb defeated him and was brought as a prisoner to Agra. He managed to escape
and even next 25 years of fighting was not able to subdue him. He died in 1689. He was the greatest
rival of Aurangzeb

What was the EIC?

Ans: In 1600 Queen Elizabeth 1 granted permission to a group of merchants to set up the EIC. EIC was
given the monopoly in trade between Britain and areas East of Africa .In 1608 EIC first landed at Surat.
EIC purchased spices, silk and cotton from Indians and sell them at higher profits .Trade was so
profitable that the company soon made its own army for its protection.

What was Battle of Plassey? (1757)

Ans: In 1756 the French encouraged the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud Doula to attack the base of EIC in
Calcutta. He captured the city but was unable to keep the control of it. In 1757 Clive arrived with a force
of EIC soldiers and defeated Nawab Siraj ud Doula in the Battle of Plassey. Clive victory had been made
easy by the treachery of Siraj ud Doula’s general, Mir Jafar.

Who was Warren Hastings?

• 1782, first Governor General / Viceroy of India

• British / English statesman
• Introduced a number of reforms in administration, revenue, finance, commerce and the judiciary
• Developed policies relating to Oudh and Rohilla
• Involved in several wars including the Anglo-Maratha and the Anglo-Mysore
• A patron of the arts

What was Battle of Buxar? (1764)

Ans: In 1764 Mir Jafar’s son in law Mir Qasim joined forces with the Mughal emperor Shah Alam 2 &
Nawab of Oudh to drive the EIC out of Bengal. They were defeated by the British and after that defeat
Bihar and Orissa were conquered by the British.

Who was Tipu Sultan? (1799)

Ans: He was born in 1750. He was the Sultan of Mysore. He was defeated by the British under Arthur
Wellesley in 1799. He died while fighting in the battlefield.

What was Doctrine of Lapse? (1852)

Ans: In 1852 Governor General Dalhousie extended British control by applying the Doctrine of Lapse. It
stated that when a ruler died without a natural heir the British would annex his land. So Satara, Nagpur
and Jhansi fell into British hands. This was an unpopular policy and caused resentment. In 1856 the

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Nawab of Oudh died and although he had legal heir, Dalhousie annexed his land under the pretext of
bad governance.

What was Battle of Panipat?

• 1761
• Shah Wali Ullah wrote a letter and invited Ahmad Shah Abdali & local Muslims nobles who joined
together against Marathas
• Threat from Marathas to Mughal empire was ended
• Marathas were defeated.

What was Jihad movement?

• It was founded by Syed Ahmad Shaheed Braelvi in 1823.

• Aimed at liberating Muslims of Punjab from the oppressive Sikh rule of Ranjit Singh.
• A force of 80,000 mujahideen started struggle against the Sikhs.

What was Faraizi movement?

• It was founded by Haji Shariat Ullah in 1818.

• Stressed on proper observances of Faraiz or obligatory Islamic duties and purify Islam from corrupt
practices.
• It aimed at improving the socio-economic and political conditions of poor Bengali Muslims especially
the peasants oppressed by rich Hindu and British landlords. It ended in 1860.

Who was D Mian? (Mohsin-ud-Din)

• Son of Haji Shariat Ullah

• Continued the Fraizi movement after him
• Expanded the movement and divided the areas in circles each under a Khalifa
• The movement ended after his death in 1860.

Who was Titu Mir?

• Syed Mir Nisar was a Bengali

• He reinforced traditional Muslim values
• He was determined to free Bengal from British rule
• He organized a stand against zamindars
• He set up his own rule near Calcutta with a small army
• He built a bamboo fort at Narkelbaria in 1831 and defeated the British troops sent to destroy it
• He was killed in battle in 1831.

What was Indian Civil Service?

After the war of independence EIC was abolished and British government took the responsibility for all
matters. The direct responsibility was in the hands of the viceroy. He had over 1000 members of the
Indian civil service to help him administer the country. These ranged from highly paid judges to lowly
paid junior administrator. This was the system introduced to administer India as a replacement of
Mansabdari system of Mughals.

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Who was Lakshmi Bai / Rani of Jhansi?

• Born in 1828
• She was assisted by Tatya Topee in the war against British.
• She was dressed up like a man in the battlefield when she was killed.
• Died in 1858

Who was Tatya Topee?

• Born in 1814. He was an Indian commander during the rebellion of 1857.

• He assisted Rani of Jhansi.
• He was defeated by Napier a British commander.
• Captured and executed by British in 1858

Who was Mangal Pandey?

• A Hindu sepoy who revolted in March 1857

• Refused to use the greased cartridges
• Captured and executed by the British
• He became the symbol of resentment against the British

Who was Sir Syed Ahmad Khan?

Sir Syed Ahmad khan was born in 1817 in Delhi. Sir Syed Ahmad was the founder of Aligarh movement.
He wrote different Pamphlets including ‘Loyal Muhammadans of India’. He persuaded Muslims to get
the western education and opened educational institutes. He gave Two Nation Theory and was also
called as “Father of the nation.” He died in 1898.

What was the Aligarh movement?

The Aligarh movement was started by Sir Syed Ahmad khan. The central aim of the Aligarh movement
was to improve relations between the British and the Muslim community by removing British doubts
about Muslim loyalty. It also wanted to improve the social and economic position of Muslims by
encouraging them to receive western education. It also increased the political awareness of the Muslim
community in order to make them aware of the threat from Hindus in India.

What was ‘The Loyal Muhammadans of India’?

In 1860 Sir Syed wrote ‘The Loyal Muhammadans of India’. In this work he defended the Muslims from
the British. He gave a detailed account of the loyal service which Muslims had rendered and named
various Muslims who had shown loyalty to the British during the war of independence. At the same
time, he called on the British to end their hostility towards the Muslim community.

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SECTION II
1905-1919
Q. Why was Bengal partitioned in 1905? [7]

One reason for the partition of Bengal was the increased political awareness and demands of Hindus
under INC. INC leaders like Tilak used to deliver impassioned speeches demanding self-rule in India. In
1897, he was imprisoned for writing a provocative newspaper article. During the late 1870s, many secret
societies sprang up that aimed at ridding India of the British. In 1897, a British officer and his companion
were assassinated. These activities worried the British, who were forced to take measures to clamp
down, hence the British decided to distract the INC attention from its demand for self-rule by
partitioning Bengal.

Another reason was that Bengal was the largest of the provinces of India. At the end of the nineteenth
century, it included Western Bengal with a population of 54 million (42 million Hindus and 12 million
Muslims) and East Bengal and Assam with a population of 31 million (12 million Hindus and 18 million
Muslims).This was a huge area to govern as one unit. There were ten times as many people in Bengal as
there were in the whole of Britain at this time. The British claimed that Bengal was too large to govern
as one province and that it would be more efficient to govern it as two smaller provinces. Moreover,
there was a growing economic disparity between the Hindus and the Muslims, where Hindus enjoyed
monopoly over trade, industry and politics. Perhaps, the British wanted to reduce this disparity by going
ahead with the partition.

Administrative reasons also played a vital role in this partition. In 1903, Viceroy Curzon proposed that
Bengal should be partitioned into West Bengal and East Bengal. The eastern province would include
Assam and three districts previously considered to be part of West Bengal, Dhaka, Chittagong and
MymenSingh. It was difficult to administer such a big and densely populated province by a single
governor. Administrative difficulties included collection of taxes, providing relief and rehabilitation to a
population repeatedly hit by cyclones and floods, controlling the law and order situation that was
gradually deteriorating. Dividing the province into east and west helped overcome these challenges.

Discuss and Prepare

Q: ‘Partition or reversal’? Were the reasons why Bengal was partitioned in 1905 more important than
those regarding its reversal in 1911? Explain your answer. [14]

Q. Why was the Simla Deputation important in history? [7]

It was important as it marked the beginning of a new era of relationship between Muslims and British.
The viceroy, Lord Minto had accepted the Muslim demand of separate electorates. The British
acceptance showed that the attempts by Sir Syed and others to restore relations between the Muslims
and the British had been successful. The British were now prepared to work with the Muslims, and even
to make concessions to them.

It also showed that the Muslim community was gradually gaining political awareness about their rights
and their status in India. They had finally decided to ensure that it established a secure place in the
constitution by its own methods. The Hindu-Muslim rivalry which existed in day to day life now existed

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in the constitution as well. The Muslim leaders decided to break away from Congress and worked
separately for promoting and protecting the rights and interests of Muslims of India.

The success of the deputation showed that many Muslims had now a growing sense of nationalism as
they had come round to the idea that they were a separate community that should be treated
differently than the Hindus. They were encouraged to stride further to form a separate party for the
Muslims. AIML was created two month later in December 1906. The Simla Deputation was perhaps the
first step down the long road leading to the formation of Pakistan.

Q: ‘The Muslim League was founded in 1906 because the Hindus had their own political party.’ Do you
agree or disagree? Explain your answer. [14]

The All India Muslim League was formed on 30thDecember 1909. There were multiple reasons for its
formation. The main reason, however was that the Hindu-dominant INC was making attempts to
undermine the Muslims despite their claim that they represented all Muslims since they obviously
represented and favored the Hindus. For example, in mid-1867 they demanded that Hindi replace Urdu
as the court language. They also launched the Swadeshi Movement to demand the reversal of the
partition of Bengal. These acts of the Hindus were an eye-opening experience for the Muslims as they
realized the anti-Muslim intentions of the INC and thus formed their own party as the Hindus could not
be trusted.

Another reason was the success of the Simla deputation. The encouraging response of viceroy, Lord
Minto, drove the Muslims to make their own political party. They realized that joint and organized
confrontations were more effective when dealing with the British. Such organized efforts could only be
achieved using the platform of a new political party for the Muslims.

A Hindu extremist party, Arya Samaj was becoming more active. It believed that all Indians of all
different religions were once Hindus and so they had set out to convert them back to Hinduism and even
resorted to violence while doing so. The Muslims were scared and felt that their religion was being
threatened. This brought about the realization that only a political party could protect them.

In February 1906, the Liberal party won the elections in Britain. It was known to be sympathetic towards
the Indians, especially the Indian Muslims. Therefore, it seemed more likely to consider concessions
regarding the Indians. In order to communicate with them Muslims needed their own political platform.

Lastly, since Lord Minto accepted separate electorates for Muslims, they needed a political party to
participate in the elections. Consequently, important Muslim leaders gathered at the residence of
Nawab Salim Ullah Khan in Dhaka for the 20th MEC (Mohammadan Educational Conference) and decided
to turn this platform into the All India Muslim Conference, which was later re-named “All India Muslim
League”.

Conclusively, the main reason for the Muslims to establish their own political party was that the Hindus
had their party (INC) and they wanted to defend themselves against any political advances of the
Hindus.

1909: The Morley-Minto Reforms :

• The Imperial council was increased to 60 members by adding more non-official members (Members
not holding positions in Government). However, the British retained control by ensuring that the
majority of members were official (and therefore appointed by the British)

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• The Central Executive Council as increased by adding 60 new members. The Council could discuss
matters of importance and advice on government policies, including the budget.
• Provisional councils were also increased to 50 members in the larger provinces and 30 in smaller
provinces.
• Muslims representatives to the Councils were elected by a separate Muslim only electorate.

Q. Explain how the British reacted to Hindu-led protest against the partition of Bengal between 1906
and 1908. [7]

The British took immediate steps to deal with the Hindu-led protests. Initially, restrictions were placed
on newspapers and public meetings. Between 1906 and 1908 editors were prosecuted and some were
imprisoned. Besides this a Press Act in 1908 gave the government even greater control over
newspapers.

Furthermore, organizers of Hindu-led demonstrations like Bal Gangadhar Tilak of Poona were arrested in
June 1908 and were deported to Burma where he was sentenced to six years of imprisonment for
impassioned provocative speeches against the British. Other radical leaders left India to avoid arrest.
Influenced by Tilak, a group of young revolutionaries began an underground movement. The British took
firm action against the group- those who were arrested were executed or imprisoned.

But the British realized that using tough measures to crush the Hindus would not be sufficient
themselves. Instead, a better approach would be to win the support of the moderate Hindus by making
reforms. In 1905, Lord Minto was appointed Viceroy. He worked with the Secretary of State for India in
London; John Morley, on what was to be known as the Morley-Minto Reforms (1909). Under these, all
the councils were enlarged. The Imperial Council now had 60 members ad 60 new members were added
to the Central Executive Council. Moreover, provincial councils were increased to 50 members in larger
and 30 in smaller provinces. Muslims were also given the right to separate electorates to which the INC
greatly protested.

Q. Why was the partition of Bengal reversed in 1911? [7]

The partition of Bengal created a Muslim-majority province, the East Bengal. Hindus rejected the
decision and launched a series of violent protests and demonstrations against the partition. The
partition aroused fury amongst the Hindus. They proclaimed 16 October 1905; the day partition was put
into effect, as a day of mourning. There were hundreds of protest meetings and many petitions sent to
the government. Later, there was even an assassination attempt on the future Viceroy Lord Minto.

The British reversed the partition of Bengal due to economic reasons also. The Hindus of West Bengal
started Swadeshi Movement, which also spread to other parts of India. It was a massive campaign for
boycotting the British goods and using home-made products. The Hindus responded to the movement
enthusiastically. The use of local products became a matter of pride. Foreign clothes were thrown into
bonfires. By 1908, imports from Britain had fallen off significantly and sales of British goods in Indian
markets dropped drastically. So, the British had to reverse the decision.

The British took several measures to bring the situation under control but political unrest kept on
growing. They passed press Act in 1908. Restrictions were imposed on newspapers and public
gatherings. Editors were imprisoned. The prisons were filled with revolutionary activists. Tilak was also
arrested in June 1908 and put behind the bars for 6 years. Apart from repressive measures, the British
turned to reconciliation also by introducing Morley-Minto reforms in 1909 to win support of the Hindus,
but the reforms also could not pacify them. The situation was becoming difficult for peaceful

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administration and ultimately the British had to decide in favor of the annulment of the partition in 1911
when King George V visited India.

Q. Why was the Lucknow Pact signed in 1916? [7]

Lucknow Pact was signed due to different reasons. One of them was the Partition of Bengal in 1905
which was very favorable for the Muslims and the British repeatedly assured Muslims that it was final.
However, British reversed it in 1911 contrary to their promises made with the Muslims. British did the
same in 1900 when they replaced Urdu by Hindi after the death of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. It made the
Muslims realize that they could not trust the British for the protection of their right. They realized that
the British exploited the disunity between the Hindus and Muslims for their own interests. So, they
changed their policy and adopted a moderate approach towards Hindus.

Another reason for the signing of the Lucknow pact was the failure of the British to grant more rights to
the Indians in the Morley Minto reforms. This thus led to a change in the policy of the Congress. Hindus
were unhappy with the reforms and soon realized that it was due to their strong hostility towards the
Muslims that they got separate electorates and established a separate party. The Congress hoped if both
parties came close they would be able to get more rights in the next reforms. In order to ward off the
British policy of repression during WWI, both parties decided to set up joint council to improve common
understanding on key issues.

Another reason for the signing of the Lucknow Pact was the efforts of liberal leaders such as Mahajan
and Mr. Jinnah who believed Hindus and Muslims could work together. Jinnah was a strong supporter of
Hindu-Muslim unity. He persuaded the ML to change its policy of “loyalty to the British” and demand for
self-rule. This brought the ML closer to the INC, which was already demanding ‘swaraj’(self-rule). He
believed that joint demands would put pressure on the British. INC was ready to give concessions to
Muslims whereas Muslim League was also willing to jointly demand for self-rule in India.

Q. Why was Lucknow Pact important in history? [7]

It was the first time that the Hindus and Muslims had made a joint demand for political reforms to the
British. Jinnah said that the Pact had come about because cooperation in the cause of our motherland
should be our guiding principle. India’s real progress can only be achieved by a true understanding and
harmonious relations between the two great sister communities. The pact marked the high-water mark
of Hindu-Muslim unity. Both the communities were together in India for the first time ever in a joint
struggle against British. They were expecting greater share in the government while giving no chance to
the British to exploit their differences.

It marked the first acceptance by the Hindus that a degree of partition would be necessary in any self-
governing India. They gave great concessions to Muslims in the form of separate electorates and 1/3
seats. The Hindus also accepted the Muslims as a separate community that needed to be dealt
separately. It also showed that the Muslims acknowledged that they stood much more chance of
protecting their rights if they worked with the Congress against the British.

It led to a growing belief in India that self-rule was a real possibility. The idea of self-rule was
strengthened in the same month E.S. Montague, the Secretary of State for India, announced in the
British House of Commons that the British policy was an increasing association of Indians in every branch
of the administration until India was ready to govern itself as part of the British Empire. Perhaps all of
these reasons make the Lucknow pact a very important event in history.

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1919
Montague Chelmsford Reforms

• The legislative Council should now be known as the Legislative Assembly. It would have 145
members, of which 103 should be elected for a period of 3 years. There should be separate
electorate for Muslims and Sikhs, which 32 seats reserved for Muslims.
• The Council of State would have 60 members, 33 of whom would be elected.
• A Council of State would have 60 members, 33 of whom would be elected debate matters of
importance. But it had no power and some princes did not even bother to attend what was little
more than a ‘talking shop’.
• The role in the central administration for the Indians was further restricted by the power of the
Viceroy who could still pass any law he chose, if he felt it was necessary for the safety of India. Also
the Executive Council was still made up of only nominated members. Although three of these were
now to be Indian.
• In the provinces, a new system of ‘diarchy’ was introduced. Under this system areas of responsibility
were divided into two lists.
• Reserved subjects were controlled by the Provincial Governor and his Executive Council, which had
between two and four members nominated by the Governor.
• Transferred subjects were entrusted to ministers responsible to provincial Legislative Councils. As
these Councils were elected by the people, this looked as if there was a substantial degree of
involvement by local people. But it should not be forgotten that the ministers were chosen from the
Legislatives Council by the Viceroy himself. So he had the real power. Indeed, under certain
circumstances, the Viceroy had the authority to dismiss the provincial Legislative Councils.
• The British also claimed that they were extending voting rights to more local people, but the new
regulations still meant that only 5.5 million (or 2%) of India’s 250 million population could votes.

Q. Why did the Indians oppose the Montague Chelmsford Reforms 1919? [7]

Indians opposed these reforms because before these reforms were introduced the British announced
that they were granting the Indians self-rule and later released a document discussing this in the years
1916 and 1917 respectively. However, there forms contained no reference to self-rule which greatly
upset the Indians. In addition to this, the MC reforms introduced Diarchy at provincial level which divided
the powers into two groups. i.e., Reserved subjects and transferred subjects. The transferred subjects
included public health, public works, forests, etc., and the reserved subjects included police, revenue, press
and publications etc. The transferred subjects were given to the Indians. The real power still belonged to
the British and only matters of low importance were handed over to the Indians. These subjects were
under the ministers who were chosen by the viceroy. He also had the power to dismiss the provincial
councils if required. At central level no power was transferred to Indians.

Indians also took part in WWI on behalf of the British, and rendered great services for which they were
expecting a great reward. The British introduced diarchy but only gave the Indians authority over less
influential sectors of the government, such as health and education. The real powers still remained with
the British as the British-appointed ministers could dismiss provincial councils under emergency powers.
At central level, no power was transferred to the Indians, which became one of the reasons for their
opposition.

A council of princes was also set up with 108 members who allowed them to debate matters of
importance. Despite increased representation for Indians in the councils, their role was still advisory and

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some princes did not even bother to attend what were little more than ‘talking shops’. The role of the
Indians in the central government was also limited by the power of the viceroy, who could still pass any
law he deemed necessary for the safety of India. His Executive Council still comprised of nominated
members, though three out of these six members could now be Indian. However, the voting rights were
yet again given to only a very limited number of people. 98 per cent of the Indians could still not vote as
the criteria was very strict, hence the reforms were opposed by the Indians.

Q. The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms were more important than any other political developments
between 1909 and 1919. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

Important political developments between 1909 and 1919 are discussed below with the more important
one in conclusion.

Little was done by the British government about the sub-continent during the First World War but
shortly afterwards in 1919 came the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms. Mont-ford Reforms were
presented jointly by Viceroy Lord Chelmsford and Secretary of State John Montague for India. Its
importance is subjected to the fact that by virtue of these reforms, Diarchy was introduced at provincial
level with reserved subjects with the centre and transferred subjects with the elected members of
province. Voting rights were also increased although it still had only 5.5 million people (7% of 250 million
in India). Sikhs were also given separate electorates in it alongside Muslims. The Council of Princes was
also made but was no more than a ‘talking shop’. In the Councils although elected members were
increased (103/145 in Legislative Assembly and 33/66 in Council of State) but still the Viceroy had all the
power to allow which law to be passed and which not. In provinces the important subjects like Justice,
Police, Press, etc. were kept reserved to keep power. These Reforms disappointed the Muslims and
Hindus as they had hoped for greater concessions. Central government reserved sweeping powers for
itself, with only minor concessions for the locals. The Reforms did hold out concessions to political
parties, provided they accepted the right of the British to remain in control.

Another important political development was the Morley-Minto Reforms given in 1909 by Viceroy and
Minto and Secretary of State John Morley. It was important for Muslims since their rights were officially
recognized and so were given separate electorates. Under it the Imperial Council was increased to 60
members by adding more non-official members but British retained power by keeping official members
in majority. The Central Executive Council which could only discuss and give advice on important matters
was increased by adding 60 members. Principal Councils were increased to 50 members in large
provinces and to 30 in small ones. Overall, since they did not give much power to Indians Congress
opposed it.

The Lucknow Pact, signed between Congress and Muslim League in 1916, was also an important political
development. It was the first time that both the communities had cooperation to such a high-level. In
this one of a kind agreement between the Muslims and Hindus, a number of political demands were
placed before the British government, in an attempt to show a united front and produce common aims.
The British, who were stuck in World War-I at the time, did feel the pressure and employed superficial
measures to gain temporary support. Joint demands included provincial autonomy; more representation
in the councils, protection of minorities and motions to be passed by large majority in the councils.
Congress also considered the League an equal and important party by validating their demands.

In addition to it, Rowlatt Act imposed in 1919 was also an important political development. It was
proposed by Justice Rowlatt to counter revolutionary activities in India. Its most controversial proposals
were: arrest without warrant, detention without bail and order people where to live. Since they were

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against safeguard against illegal imprisonment, there was a great resentment by Indians against it.
Massive protests were done. Gandhi launched Hartal against the proposals and Jinnah resigned from
Imperial Legislative Council as protest.

The Rowlatt Act of 1919 increased the resentment of the political parties by including the right of arrest
without a warrant and detention without bail. This was against the basic principles of British justice,
which were trial by jury, and safeguard against illegal imprisonment. This portrayed the colonial mindset
of the British towards the Indians. Yet another important political development that occurred the same
year was the Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy, better known as the Amritsar Massacre. It was an attack by
British General Dyer on a peaceful protest being done by unarmed people in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar.
The area was enclosed in high walls with a narrow entrance. There were around 20,000 people in the
Bah when General Dyer attacked with his forces. The troops fired 1600 rounds. People had no way to
escape and around 400 people were killed and 1200 were injured. General Dyer received no serious
punishment for it; besides only being dismissed from his post. In the British media, he was also posed as
a hero for maintaining law and order in India. Indians came to know that the British did not value their
lives at all.

In conclusion, I disagree that the Montague-Chelmsford reforms were important than any other political
development between 1909 and 1919. The 1909 Act may be considered the most important due to the
granting of the separate electorates for Muslims. This strengthened the idea of nationalism among the
Muslim community of India, which later evolved into their demand for a separate homeland.

Q. To what extent had India benefitted by the early 1920s from supporting the British in the 1st World
War? Explain your answer. [14]

The benefits and drawbacks that India suffered by early 1920s from supporting the British in the First
World War is discussed below with a conclusion.

The Indians sepoys had given immense services to the British in the 1st World War which were to be
acknowledged. More than a million had fought and thousands had given their lives. The British did shine
a ray of hope for these services in 1917. India was informed that it would be given a greater say in the
government. Although, no further explanation was given but for Indians it meant some real power if not
self-rule.

Another benefit was that British had increased their concessions for India. In 1918, a report was given by
the British. It suggested that India might be given self-government. It was a huge announcement since
both, Congress and League had a policy of acquiring self-rule in India. If the British were to grant it, that
was to be great reward for the services rendered by them during the war efforts of the British.

To acknowledge the services of the Indians, the Government of India Act, 1919 was a practical step.
Diarchy was introduced at the provincial level, which gave a greater authority to the Indians in the
government than was the case earlier. The subjects in the provinces were divided among the elected
Indians and the British. The elected Indian ministers were given control of subjects such as education,
public health, public works, forests and local government, thus a greater part.

On the contrary, Indians faced many difficulties as well. The Government of India Act 1919 was not as
the Indians had wished. All the real power was retained by the British Viceroy. The Viceroy could allow
or disallow any law to pass, as he wanted. The councils could only advice. At the provincial level, all
important subjects such as justice, police, revenue, press and publications were reserved by the British.
Apart from this, only a minority of Indians were allowed to vote in the elections under the GOI Act 1919.

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A huge percentage of the population was denied this basic right as the criteria for adult franchise was
very strict. Only 2% of 250 million Indians, which is equivalent to a total of 5.5 million people only, could
vote.

Another major setback was the Rowlatt Act that was implemented in 1919. According to this law, there
could be arrest without warrant, detention without bail and the right was given to the provincial
government to order people where to live. This was against the basic principles of British justice, which
were trial by jury, and safeguard against illegal imprisonment. This portrayed the colonial mindset of the
British towards the Indians.

In conclusion, I believe that the Indians hardly got any benefit from supporting the British in the 1st
World War since the announcement was just an insincere promise. The British continued to maintain
their harshness towards the Indians by the Rowlatt Act, 1919.

Q. The introduction of the Rowlatt Act was the sole cause of violence during 1919-1920 in India.
Explain your answer. [14]

The causes of violence in India during 1919-1920 are discussed below with a conclusion. The Rowlatt Act
was given in 1919 by the British to suppress the revolutionary ideas and activities in India. Its terms like
arrest without warrant, detention without bail and order of where to live were resented by the Indians.
These were against the basic principles of British justice system which were safeguard against illegal
imprisonment and trial by jury. To oppose them, the Indians held mass protests and strikes. Gandhi
launched hartal and Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council. To counter these protests, the
British further suppressed the Indians, which proved to be an act that instigated more violence. Anti-
British publications were banned and public gatherings were forbidden. Not only this but two nationalist
leaders, Dr. Satyapaul and Dr. Kitchlew were deported without trails.

The Montague-Chelmsford reforms given in 1919 may have caused violence in India as it did not meet
the expectations of the Indians who had rendered great services during the 1st World War. They were
expecting a greater authority if not self-rule, however, the real power was retained by the Viceroy, who
could veto any law he wished. The subjects transferred to the Indians were also less important such as
forests, education and health. Important ones like press, justice and revenue were still reserved for the
British. When the Indian protests to show their resentment, they were suppressed by the British. This
led to violence, which usually manifested into communal riots between Hindus and Muslims and
gradually spread to other parts of India. Fundamentalists like Arya Samaj and Hindu Mahasabha also
plunged in.

The Amritsar Massacre 1919 has also gone down in the annals of history due the great loss of life it
caused. This event is an embodiment of the British suppression and inhumane attitude towards the
Indian masses, when General Dyer fired 1600 rounds on a procession of 20,000 Indians who were
protesting peacefully in Jallianwala Bagh. With its tall walls and a narrow entrance, Indians were not able
to escape. It was estimated that 400 Indians were killed with another 1200 injured. Being itself a great
act of violence, this further led to resentment and fierce protests. When General Dyer was portrayed as
a hero in the British media for “maintaining order” in India, matters got worse.

In conclusion, Rowlatt Act cannot be termed as the sole reason of violence since there were other
reasons that were equally important such as the Mont-ford Reforms and the Amritsar Massacre, which
too caused violence in India. Nonetheless, it was a more critical one as the British had tried to suppress
revolutionary activity by implementing it and resentment and objections were bound to come of it , if
not allowed peacefully then via violence.

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Q: During the period 1911 – 1919 the Amritsar Massacre had the greatest impact on relations
between the British and the Indian people. Give reasons for your answer. [14]

SOURCE BASED QUESTIONS

SOURCE A: The Defence of India Act 1915

The Defence of India Act came into force in 1915 for the duration of the First World War and for six
months after it. The Act gave the Governor General special powers to ensure the safety of the people
and the defence of the British Empire in India. Public servants were given powers to uphold the law.
Violation of the Act was punishable with fines, prison sentences of up to seven years and death for
offences considered to be terrorism or plotting against the British Government.From a website on the
history of India

SOURCE B: An entrance to Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar

A photograph of an entrance to Jallianwala Bagh, which is largely unchanged since 1919

a) According to Source A, what reasons are suggested for the introduction of the Defence of India Act in 1915?
[3]
b) How does Source B help us to understand what happened at Jallianwala Bagh in 1919? [5]
c) Why was India not granted self-rule by Britain in 1919? [7]
d) Which of the following had the most important effect on the Pakistan Movement between 1909 and 1919?
(i) The Morley–Minto reforms, 1909
(ii) The reversal of the Partition of Bengal, 1911
(iii) The Lucknow Pact, 1916
Explain your answer with reference to all three of the above. [10]

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KHILAFAT MOVEMENT
Q.Why did the Khilafat Movement emerge? [7]

During WWI, the Turkish Empire fought on the side of the Germans against Britain. This created a
serious problem for the British in India. They wanted the Indian Muslims to fight in the war against the
Turks, but they knew that Muslims would not participate in any fight which led to the Khalifa being
overthrown, or his empire being dismantled. To resolve the problem, British informed the Indian
Muslims that British would respect the Khalifa and his empire would be maintained. As a result of this
promise thousands of Muslims joined the British army. After the war, the British attitude alarmed the
religious leadership that started the movement. The major aims of the movement were to safeguard the
sacred Islamic sites, to protect the seat of the Khalifa and to keep the boundaries of Turkey intact. The
Muslims tried to pressurize the British to fulfill the commitment they had made in WW1.

After WW1, the victorious countries punished Germany and Austria by signingthe Treaty of Versailles.
They were allowed to have a limited army and no air ornaval forces. They were forced to pay heavy war
indemnity. Austria was divided after which it became a land-locked country. There was a fear of even
worse treatment with the Ottoman Empire as the victorious countries was negotiating the Treaty of
Sevres with the Turks. It further raised fears among the Muslims of India who showed their concern by
starting the movement under Ali brothers.

Another reason was the overall attitude of the British towards the Muslims. The Muslims felt betrayed
by the British now twice in a decade. Before this the partition of Bengal was reversed despite British
promises. There was a rivalry between Britain and Russia over Persia and Afghanistan. The two powers
had agreed on how Afghanistan and Persia were to be governed, but little attention was paid to the
views of the native Muslim population. Furthermore, the religious sentiments of the Muslims were hurt
as they feared the removal of the head of their community. All these together resulted in a stronger
opposition against British.

Q. Why did Khilafat Movement fail? [7]

The failure of the Hijrat movement was the first setback to the passions of the Muslims in India. Hijrat
Movement was an offshoot of the Khilafat Movement. In 1920 some scholars declared India as Dar-ul-
Harb and decided to march towards Afghanistan. 18000 Muslims migrated but Afghan government
didn’t welcome them. The emigrants were refused entry and forcibly sent back. 18000 Muslims came
back hopelessly, homelessly and pennilessly. This harmed the popularity of the Khilafat Movement and
discouraged the Muslims, who lost hope in supporting the Khilafat.

The failure of the Moplah uprising was another reason. Moplahs were the descendants of Arab traders
who had settled in the Southern coastal areas. In August 1921, there was an uprising by the Moplahs, in
South India, against the British. 10,000 Moplahs set the Tirur police station on fire. Later 4000 Moplahs
were killed by British troops and many thousands were arrested which ended the uprising.

The withdrawal of Gandhi from the Khilafat movement proved to be another major blow. In February
1922, 21 policemen were killed after they fired at a political procession in Chauri Chaura, a village in
Gorakhpur district. Gandhi called off the movement and withdrew Congress support without even
consulting the Muslim leadership.

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The movement failed as it was unrealistic because the caliphate had no connection or influence on the
policies of the subcontinent. The caliphate had a sentimental value for Muslims because it reminded
them of the 4 pious caliphs of Islam and a symbol of Muslim unity. The Movement was to express
against the British and their harsh anti-Muslims policies in Middle East and India. The main reason for
the failure of the Khilafat Movement was the abolishment of Caliphate by Mustafa Kamal Ataturk in
1924 without thinking what anyone outside Turkey thought about it and established modern democratic
Turkey in which Caliphate had no place.

Q. How important was the Khilafat Movement? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

Khilafat movement started in 1919 to save the Khalifa and the Ottoman Empire. In 1921, some scholars
declared India as Dar-ul-Harb and decided to march towards Afghanistan. 18000 Muslims migrated but
the Afghan Government didn’t welcome them. The emigrants were refused and forcibly sent back.
18000 Muslims came back hopelessly, homelessly and pennilessly. From the failure of the Hijrat
Movement the Muslims learnt a lesson that they would not be accepted by any other state. They would
have to live in India and work for securing a better future. Six years later in 1930 at Allahabad address,
Allama Iqbal gave the idea of a separate homeland. Once the whole Muslim leadership was united on
this idea by 1940s, as presented at the event of the Pakistan resolution, they were able to get a separate
homeland for the Muslims.

Next, the British betrayed the Muslims by not fulfilling the promise after the WW1. For the second time
in a decade, the Muslims felt betrayed by the British. Insincere promises of not harming the Ottoman
Empire had been made by the British. This further increased the distrust between the Muslims and the
British. It also promoted the sentiment that Muslims should not completely trust the British to secure
their rights. British favored them only when they had their own interests. Moreover, Gandhi started the
non–cooperation movement against the British but when Khilafat Movement was at its peak, he
withdrew. The withdrawal of Gandhi because of Chauri Chaura incident tarnished the idea period of
Hindu Muslim unity and widened the gap between the two communities to such an extent that it was
never bridged again. Hence, the Muslims realized they must work independently for their own rights.
This situation, coupled with the attitude of Hindus, convinced Jinnah to announce that he would not
work to reconcile with the Hindus. He started working for the rights and interests of the Muslims only.

Lastly, in 1924, Mustafa Kamal Ataturk simply abolished the caliphate, regardless of what anyone
outside Turkey thought. This is why one historian commented on the Khilafat Movement as a wrong
ideology, romantic and out of touch with no reality. The Muslims of India learnt that they were wrong in
this movement. The Turks themselves had abolished the caliphate. The Muslims of India were more
concerned about the fate of the Caliph than the people of the Ottoman Empire. From this movement,
the Muslims also gained the practical political experience. Moreover, they learnt how to struggle for
their own rights. They held conferences, huge protests and processions and bore the oppressions
courageously. It trained the political workers which later became useful in the struggle for a separate
country.

Khilafat Movement apparently failed to achieve the desired results but it gave the Muslims of India a
good direction to move forward, which proves its importance in the history. It gave political maturity to
Muslim leadership and helped them act according to the experiences of the past. The hidden success
made it certainly a very important step towards independence.

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Q: Was the withdrawal of Gandhi's support the main reason for the failure of the Khilafat Movement?
Do you agree or disagree? Explain your answer. [14]

There were various reasons for the failure of the Khilafat movement, which are discussed below.One of
the reasons for the failure of the Khilafat movement was the withdrawal of Gandhi's support in February
1922 after the Chauri Chaura incident. In August 1920, Non-Cooperation was started by Gandhi to
support the Khilafat Movement. This support ended due to the Chauri Chaura incident when 22
policemen were killed after having fired at a political procession. It was an act of violence, unlike what
Gandhi had wanted and was not aligned with his policy of Satyagarya. Due to this surge in violence, he
decided to call off his movement. As soon as his support was withdrawn, the Hindus were quick to
follow by doing the same. As a result, the support for Khilafat Movement significantly decreased with
which the previously maintained pressure on the British also decreased. The movement weakened and
thus gradually failed.

The Khilafat Movement had the support of both Muslims and Hindus. Muslims primarily wanted to
protect the Khilafat. Hindus took it as a chance to remove the British from India. However, their unity
was disturbed by the Moplah uprising in August 1921. It was a violent uprising of extremist Muslims who
were against both the British and the Hindus. A few thousand Hindus were also killed. This communal
violence gradually spread to other parts of India, driving a wedge between them. The Khilafat
Movement was damaged by this ugly turn of events that led to internal rifts.

Apart from this, the failure of the Hijrat Movement was also are as on for the decline of Khilafat
Movement. In August 1920, under Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad, 18,000 Muslims decided to migrate to
Afghanistan as they believed that India had become Dar-ul-Harb, or a place of war. Hence, they sold
their belongings and left for Afghanistan. But the Afghans did not allow them to enter in such large
numbers. They had nowhere to go, which made them distressful and caused economic misery.
Consequently, they lost their interest and enthusiasm for the Khilafat Movement, which led to its failure.

Another reason that can be considered is that not all Muslims around the world were interested in
protecting the Khalifat. It was only the Indian Muslims who were enthusiastic about this mission. They
lacked support from other Muslims thus the movement could not gain strength that was required to
create enough pressure on the British. This lack of support from the Muslim world can be judged by the
fact that the Afghans did not allow immigrants of the Hijrat Movement into their land. Moreover, the
Turks were also not interested in the movement themselves. All of these factors led to the failure of the
Khilafat Movement.

Another point worthy of a mention is the role played by Kemal Ataturk, a Turk military leader, in
November 1922 when he abolished the Sultanate of Turkey and laid the foundation of modern
democracy. In 1922, under a military revolution, Turkey became a republic and the last Khalifa, Sultan
Mehmet VI, was deposed. Attaurk, in the meantime, regained some of the previously lost Turkish
territories and forced the Allies to sign a new treaty, Treaty of Lausange. This made him a hero in the
eyes of the Turks. Finally, in 1924, the institute of Caliphate was abolished by Ataturk and the Khalifa
was exiled. This proved to be a decisive blow to the movement since its main purpose was to protect the
Khilafat in Turkey. It also showed that the Turks did not care for the struggle of the Indian Muslims. This
is why some historians have described the Khilafat Movement as a wrong ideology, romantic and out of
touch with realities. As a result, the Khilafat Movement came to an end.

In light of the above discussion, I do not agree that the withdrawal of Gandhi's support was the main
reason for the failure of the Khilafat Movement. A greater reason for the failure was the last nail in the

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coffin that was driven by Kemal Ataturk, when he abolished the institution of Caliphate and exiled Sultan
Mehmet VI. It was pointless to continue a movement whose foundation had been lost. The Indian
Muslims felt totally isolated due to lack of support from the Muslim world.

Q. Was the Khilafat Movement founded because the Muslims feared the breakup of Turkey after the
First World War? Agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

Q: Was the abolition of Caliphate by Mustafa Kamal in 1924, the main reason for the failure of Khilafat
Movement? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

Q: Lack of leadership was the most important reason for the failure of Khilafat movement. Do you agree
or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

1927-1935
Q: Why did Simon Commission come to India? [7]

The British started the gradual transfer of power to Indians in order to train them to work in a
democracy. They did so by giving a series of reforms after every ten years. The 1st reforms came in 1909
while the second came in 1919. The British had stated that a commission was to be set up after 10 year
to inquire about working of the Mont Ford reforms of 1919, it would recommend proposals for the
future reforms to transfer more power to the Indians.

The British Conservative Government feared losing power to the Labor Party, which it thought was too
sympathetic towards the beliefs of Indian Nationalism and would make too many concessions to the
Indians, especially the Muslims, whereas the Conservative Party had no sympathy for Indian nationalism.
So the Conservative government therefore decided to bring the date earlier of the commission. It aimed
not to transfer much power to the Indians.

In 1927 the communal antagonism (religious hostility) was at its peak in India starting from the
withdrawal of Gandhi in Khilafat Movement. The Muslims and Hindus were so hostile that it was feared
all the things mutually agreed by the two communities up till now would be wasted. The British sent the
commission to rescue the situation and agree the two parties to make mutual proposals for the next
reforms.

Q. Why did the Simon Commission fail? / Why was the Simon Commission Report rejected? [7]

The first major cause of the failure of the Simon commission was its composition. It shall not be
forgotten that all seven members of the Simon Commission were British and no Indian was included,
which instigated the locals who declared it an “all-white body”. Neither Hindus nor Muslims had any
representation in the commission was considered as an insult by the Indian as the British continued with
their own policies without considering what the Indians wanted and took action only if there was any
personal gain. There was no change in their attitudes, which is why it failed.

The work of the commission was to inquire about the working of M.C (Montague Chelmsford) reforms
which were highly opposed and resulted in the Amritsar Massacre. Furthermore, Indians knew that the
conservatives would soon lose power but the British feared that the Labor Partywould grant more
power to the Indians. So the Conservative government made the commission earlier as it wanted to
finalize the proposal during their rule. Conservatives Party entirely opposed the Indians but the Labour
Party had a feeling of sympathy with Indian nationalism. If taken as a whole, this was another chapter

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from the tale of British Deception and Double Cross towards the Indians, hence it met opposition from
the local Indians.

The recommendations of the report also failed to satisfy the major political parties because they were
not acceptable to either the INC or the ML in totality. The INC wanted a federal form of government
with most of the powers with the centre whereas the ML wanted a weak centre with a greater degree of
provincial autonomy. The ML was also disappointed as the Simon Commission report did not
recommend one third Muslim seats in the government. Furthermore the Simon Commission rejected
the Congress demand of self-rule. Instead it proposed “No discussion of Self-rule”. So INC was not ready
to work with it. It also rejected the Muslim League’s demand of weightage in Punjab and Bengal as it
proposed “No weightage but Separate Electorates”. On this event, there was a conflict in the Muslim
League when the groups led by Muhammad Shafi agreed but the one led by Jinnah did not. Congress too
launched many protests and raised black flags that held the slogan “Go Back Simon”.

Q. Why did Jinnah present 14 points in 1929? [7]

In 1929, Jinnah presented fourteen points in response of the Nehru Report of 1928. Nehru Report was a
purely Congress document that asked the Muslims to make so many sacrifices. It rejected the Muslim’s
right to separate electorates and were given only 1/4th representation in the Center. The Nehru Report
also demanded to declare Hindi as the official language of India, which reflected the traditional narrow
mindedness of the Hindus. However, Jinnah demanded one third seats for Muslims in the Central
legislature, weightage in Punjab and Bengal, demanding full provincial status to Sindh and NWFP and
residuary powers for the provinces, but Congress did not accept them.

The British declared to transfer power through a series of reforms after every ten years. The 1st reforms
came in 1909, the second reforms came in 1919 and the next were expected to be given in 1929. It was
necessary to present the separate view points of the Muslims to the British. As Jinnah declared the
“parting of the ways” so he decided to work for the Muslim interests only rather than reconciling with
the Hindus. He made separate proposal to present the viewpoints of Muslims for the upcoming reforms.

While unfolding these points in January 1929, Jinnah had adopted a threatening tone by saying, “No
scheme for the constitution of the Government of India will be acceptable unless all the following basic
principles are given effect to.”In his fourteen points Jinnah tried to safeguard the political rights and
interests of the Muslims by demanding one third Muslim seats in the Centre, no change in the existing
provincial boundaries which would convert Muslim majority into minority and no law about a
community to be enforced without three fourth members of the same community in the legislative
assembly approving it. He also demanded to take measures to save the Muslim culture, language and
religion as well as a giving all minorities freedom to follow their religions. They became the basis of all
future negotiation with the Congress and the British.

Q. Why was Chaudhry Rehmat Ali important for Pakistan movement? [7]

He coined the name ‘Pakistan’ for a new country for Muslims. He proposed this in his Pamphlet called
‘Now or Never’ which he wrote in 1933 in Cambridge, Britain. The literal meaning of the word “Pakistan”
is ‘land of the pure’. As suggested by Rehmat Ali, each letter represented a Muslim majority area within
British India, i.e. Punjab, Afghania (NWFP), Kashmir, Sindh and Balochistan. This name was adopted by
the AIML for the independent Muslim state. For the same reason, the “Lahore Resolution” was dubbed
“Pakistan Resolution.”

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Rehmat Ali also presented the scheme of Pakistan. As a young student, he had attended the Round
Table Conferences in London and was opposed to the idea of any kind of federation. He started his
Pakistan National Movement in 1933 to campaign for the idea of Pakistan. He was in favor of a separate
homeland during RTCs and tried to convince the Muslim leaders about it including Jinnah but failed to
impress. The Muslim leaders at that time still hoped for saving the rights of Muslims through
constitution within one India, though the idea of partition of India appealed many.

He established the organization Bazme-e-Shibli for the progress of Urdu language. Moreover, his views
were indeed ahead of his time and different from those of Iqbal’s, who proposed a Muslim state within
or outside India.

Q. Why was Allama Iqbal asked to chair Allahabad address? [7]

He was a poet, philosopher, and a great thinker. With his poetry he awakened the Muslims from their
deep slumber of slavery. His poetry was a source of inspiration for the Muslims of India. It developed the
sense of nationhood in them. His famous books were Bang-i-Dara, Armaghan-i-Hijaz, Zabur-i-Ajam, Bal-i-
Jabreel etc.

He was the elected legislative member and secretary of Punjab Muslim league. He participated in 1926
elections. He was knighted in 1927 by the title ‘Sir’ and also participated in the 2nd RTC.

He gave a clear cut objective to the Muslims in his famous Allahabad Address in 1930 which explains
that the areas where Muslims are in a majority (Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan and NWFP) be amalgamated
together to form a new state where Muslims live according to Islam. It was based on the Two Nation
Theory. He was the thinker of Pakistan.

He promoted Urdu language by his poetry. In 1930s, he convinced Muslims that Jinnah was the only
capable leader who could lead Muslims to save their rights.

Q. Why were the Round Table Conferences held during 1930-1932? [7]

• The British had sent the Simon Commission in 1927 to reduce the religious antagonism between
Hindus and Muslims and to decide future reforms mutually. The commission was greatly opposed by
the Indians and was greeted with mass demonstrations. However, the commission was able to
produce a two volume report. It had less to cheer for the Muslims as it rejected the idea of Sindh
being separated from Bombay and 1/3rdseats in the assembly. It also rejected self-rule demand of
Congress as well. The British then called the RTCs to discuss the commission’s recommendations.
• It the first RTC Congress was not present as Gandhi was on Salt March against the unfair salt laws
and because the British had not yet implemented on the Nehru Report. Congress was also not
present as no guarantee was given by the British that anything agreed at the conferences would be
implemented. Since Congress, India’s largest party and had the support of the 75% Indians, was not
present there was no progress made in the talks. Then the British called another RTC to try again to
draft the future constitution mutually with the Hindus and Muslims.
• At the time of the 2nd RTC the Labour Party, which was sympathetic towards the Indian nationalism,
had lost the elections in Britain. The new coalition government didn’t want to transfer much power
to the Indians and was less keen to reach a compromise in India. In the RTC Gandhi also refused to
recognize the problems of the minorities. He took a hard line in the talks and refused to give any
weightage or separate electoratesto the minorities. Thus, the second round of talks also failed and
the British called the 3rd RTC.

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Q. Why did the 2nd Round Table Conference fail? [7]

The 2nd RTC was held in September-December1931. The Congress leader, Gandhi was able to attend the
conference owing to the Gandhi-Irwin Pact in the same year, while the Muslims were represented by Sir
Agha Khan, Allama Iqbal and Jinnah. During the course of these talks, Gandhi adopted a rigid and
inflexible attitude towards the minorities in India. Gandhi stressed on the point that he represented all
communities in India including the Muslims but Jinnah argued that instead he was the spokesperson of
the Muslim League. Gandhi insisted that religious liberty was sufficient for all the minorities whereas
Jinnah demanded adequate constitutional protection of all minorities in India. This stance of Gandhi,
annoyed Jinnah and Iqbal who held their viewpoint of safeguarding the rights of the Muslims.

Moreover, Congress also remained firm on the Nehru Report, while the Muslim League took a hard line
on Jinnah’s 14 points, which led to a deadlock between the two parties. Hence, the 2nd RTC failed to
achieve the desired outcome.

By the time the 2nd RTC was held, the Labour Party that had been enthusiastic about the RTCs, had lost
the election in Britain and had been replaced. The newly formed coalition government in England that
was dominated by the Conservative Party was less keen to give concessions to Indians. This lack of
interest also contributed to the failure of the 2nd RTC. Hence the communal issue was once again
postponed, while the only major outcome had been the creation of two Muslim majority provinces;
Sindh and the NWFP (now KPK). Overall, the 2nd RTC was a failure.

Q: How successful were the Round Table Conferences of 1930-32? Explain your answer. [14]

The Round Table Conferences were successful to a certain extent. All in all, three Round Table
Conferences were held in London. The 1st RTC was held in November 1930 at the House of Parliament in
London, which was attended by 89 delegates including Jinnah and Sir Agha Khan. Its purpose was to
propose the future constitutional reforms in India. The first Round Table Conference was successful in
the regard that a federal system of government for India was approved. Diarchy was dropped at the
provincial level which was a step towards a complete transfer of power. Moreover, it was agreed that
the princely states would also join All India Federation provided their rights were protected.

Congress attended the 2nd Round Table Conference after the Gandhi - Irwin Pact in 1931 and Gandhi
called off his Non-cooperation Movement. It was successful in the sense that new provinces were
agreed upon. Sindh was to be separated from Bombay, Bihar from Orissa and NWFP was to get
provincial status. The minorities entered into an agreement on their demands.

However, not all was successful. In the 1st Round Table Conference, Congress boycotted it as Gandhi was
in jail and the British did not give him the guarantee that all agreements would be implemented. The
talks did not go further than federal system, which was disappointing for the Indians as they wanted
dominion status. The sub-committee of minorities was unable to reach a conclusion upon their
demands. In the absence of INC, no major decision could be reached.

Even though Gandhi was present in the 2nd Round Table Conference, he was stubborn and refused to
recognize the problems of the minorities, taking the same stance as that of the Nehru Report. Seeing
this, Jinnah stuck with his 14 points and also took a harsh stand point. Moreover, Gandhi insisted that
INC alone represented all Indians including Muslims but Jinnah and the League disagreed. The British
government had also changed, and the new coalition led by the Conservatives was less keen to reach a
compromise in India.

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The 3rd Round Table Conference was a complete failure. The Congress was absent as Gandhi had
launched yet another phase of his Non-cooperation Movement and Jinnah had quit active politics to
practice law in London. Interestingly enough, he was not even invited. However, Muslim League did
attend the conference under the leadership of Sir Agha Khan but it merely showed the political
instability within the League, as not everyone stood with Jinnah. There were only 46 delegates in
attendance. No agreement could be reached due to high political tensions between the parties.

Overall, the round table conferences were successful to a very little extent as no significant agreement
was reached. Though it was an excellent platform for the Indian leaders to propose the future
constitution however owing to their internal differences, this golden opportunity was lost and no
consensus was could be achieved. Other than a few partial successes, the RTCs were a failure.

Q. Why was the Government of India Act 1935 important in History? [7]

The Government of India Act 1935 had great importance in history for the move towards independence.
The federal parliamentary system of government was introduced in India with bicameral legislature. The
system of Diarchy was dropped and all the powers were given to Indians at provincial level. Diarchy was
introduced at federal level and many powers were given to the Indians except for some subjects as
foreign affairs, defense, etc. The Indians gained more representation in the legislative councils, which
provided a basis for negotiations with the British and resulted in the British leaving.

The significance of the Act can also be analyzed from the fact that the number of provinces was
increased to eleven. Sindh was separated from Bombay and was given the status of separate province,
which was a great gain for the Muslims as it was a Muslim majority area. Orissa, too, was given the
status of a province. NWF also became a full-fledged province. The number of people who could vote
was also increased from 2% (5.5 million) to 25% which means a larger degree of say in the government
by the Indians.

Lastly, the impact of the Act can be seen as it was rightly called as Road to Independence. Both
communities, Hindus and Muslims, realized that the next reforms would mean complete transfer of
power to the Indians thus both had to work to strengthen them. After independence, the Act became
the interim constitution for both the countries until they made their own constitution. It also provided
the basis of constitution of India and Pakistan. Both India and Pakistan also followed the federal
parliamentary form of government provided by this act.

Q. Why did the Indians reject the Government of India Act 1935? [7]

The Government of India Act 1935 was opposed by the major Indian political parties. For them, many of
its points did not grant Indians the powers they had expected. The lengthy negotiations on the nature of
the constitution (1927-32) and high demands of the Congress and the Muslim league also made Indians
desperate when the act came. The main reason for its rejection was that Indians demanded dominion
status that was not granted. The British still retained the real powers. The part concerning with the
princely states was never implemented. Princely states refused to join the federation as their rights were
not protected.

At provincial level, though diarchy was dropped and all powers were given to the Indians, the governors
of provinces could still interfere with the provincial governments in the name of emergency. They had
the power to dismiss the ministers and even the provincial administration. Similarly, at federal level the
viceroy could vote against any legislation made by the Indians that was not acceptable to him. The

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viceroy had control over defense and foreign affairs. He also had emergency powers in times of war,
which meant that Indians had only limited powers.

Though the number of voters was increased by five times, 3/4th of Indians were still deprived of voting
rights due to the strict property qualification. Thus, a great majority of Indians were not empowered to
elect representatives of their choice. Due to these reasons both Muslim League and Congress opposed
the Act and sharply criticized it. According to Jinnah, it was simply “thoroughly rotten, fundamentally
bad and totally unacceptable”. Nehru initially declared the act as “Charter of Slavery” and later on
became more sarcastic by saying “it is like a machine with strong brakes but no engine.”

Q. Which of the following was the most important in the development of the Pakistan Movement?
Explain with reference to all three. [10]

• The Simon Commission 1927

• Jinnah’s 14 points 1929
• The Government of India Act 1935

All three developments contributed towards shaping of the Pakistan Movement. The Simon Commission
of 1927 was a major step towards drafting a future constitution of India. The British had promised to
review the 1919 Act after 10 years. Due to political unrest and communal violence, they appointed a
team of 7 parliamentarians under Sir John Simon two years earlier. The commission was appointed by
the Conservative Party government which feared a defeat in the upcoming elections and was also
apprehensive the labor government might grant too many political concessions to Indians. The
commission prepared Simon Commission Report that was published in 1930. It recommended a federal
form of government, abolition of diarchy but opposed granting the provincial status for Sindh and the
NWFP. It however did favor separate electorates for Muslim but didn’t recommend 1/3rd Muslim seats in
the Center or weightage for the Muslims. Congress and Muslim League rejected the SCR as its contents
were only partly acceptable to both the parties.

In 1928, the British asked the Indians to frame the proposals for the constitution of India. All Parties
Conference was called which was presided by Moti Lal Nehru of Congress. It produced the Nehru Report.
It was purely a Congress document that asked the Muslims to make many sacrifice. It rejected the
Muslim right of separate electorates and were given only 1/4th representation in the Center. It also
demanded to make Hindi the national language of India. It reflected the traditional narrow mindedness
of the Hindus. It also resulted in an increasing gap between the two communities after Khilafat
movement. However, its only positive outcome was the unity of the divided Muslim groups in India.
Later, it also led Muslims to finally demand for a separate homeland in 1940 which resulted for the
creation of Pakistan.

Later from 1930-32 the Round table Conferences took place to find out mutual ground among various
communities of India regarding constitution. In 1935, the government of India Act was passed which
proved to be very important for the future of the sub-continent. Federal parliamentary form of
government with bicameral legislature was established in India. It gave a certain amount of provincial
autonomy as all powers were transferred to Indians at provincial level. New provinces of Sindh, Orissa
and NWFP were made. For the first time, a large portion of the Indians was given opportunity to vote.
This act made it clear on the Indians that a complete transfer of power was near which further increased
the efforts of the Muslims and ultimately led them to demand a separate homeland.

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To conclude, the introduction of Jinnah’s 14 Points in 1929 was the most important factor in the
development of the Pakistan Movement. These provided the basis for all future negotiations and
decisions to secure the rights of Muslims in India. They also provided a road map for the Muslims to
follow and laid a foundation for the Pakistan Resolution, which eventually led to the creation of a
separate country.

Q. Which of the following was the most important in the development of the Pakistan Movement?

1) The Nehru Report, 1928

2) Jinnah’s 14 points, 1929
3) The Government of India Act, 1935

Explain your answer with reference to all three of the above. [10]

The importance of the above three in the development of Pakistan Movement, are discussed below with
a conclusion.

After an All Party Conference, the Nehru Report was drawn up by a committee chaired by Moti Lal
Nehru in 1928. These proposals demanded immediate dominion status for India, a federal form of
government and a strong center with limited provincial autonomy. However, the interests of the Muslim
community were not safeguarded as it asked for too many sacrifices from the Muslims. The Muslims
demands of separate electorates and 1/3rd representation in the councils were rejected. Without
separate electorates Muslims could never have the desired representation in assembly thus would be
socially and politically vulnerable. This anticipated a dark future of the Muslims in India, and breathed a
new life into the Pakistan Movement, therefore Jinnah commented that it marked “the parting of ways”.
Moreover, it was proposed that Hindi be declared the official language, whereas Urdu, the language of
the Muslims, was not given that status or any sort of protection otherwise. This too caused the
development of Pakistan Movement. Muslims’ interest such as giving full provincial status to Sindh and
NWFP were also completely ignored. All this developed the Pakistan Movement since the provisions of
this Nehru report exposed the anti-Muslim sentiments of the INC.

Jinnah’s 14 points given in 1929 set out the Muslims demands for their interests which were to be
considered while any future constitutional scheme was to be given by the British. It so formed the basis
of future negotiations with British and Congress. It suggested that provinces should have full autonomy;
no territorial change should effect Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal and NWFP; Muslims should have
1/3 representation in assembly and cabinets; Muslims’ culture, education, language, charities and
religion should be protected by constitution; Sindh should be separated from Bombay; and NWFP and
Baluchistan should have same status as other provinces. As a result of demands not being fulfilled
Muslims still had to protect their interests one way or the other. To protect themselves, the idea of
Pakistan Movement developed by it since no other possible way was left to protect Muslims.

The Government of India Act 1935 was also important in the development of the Pakistan Movement.
Jinnah called it “thoroughly rotten, fundamentally bad and totally unaccepted” since it was not in line
with Muslim demands of 1/3 representation. This demand was completely ignored which was important
at the time. These last set of reforms implemented by the British introduced a federal system of
government and established a greater degree of provincial autonomy, while shifting the diarchy from
the provinces to the center. Sindh, Orissa and Bombay were also given provincial status. In addition to
this, 25% Indians were granted the right to vote. As it did not favor the Muslims, Muslim League rejected
it. Although the British had no intention of leaving India, their power over the provinces had weakened
and independence was a step closer than before. This was significant as it paved the way for further

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negotiations that resulted in the British exit from India. In the following elections INC was declared
victorious and was invited to form ministries in 8 provinces. The ensuing atrocities committed by these
INC ministries united the Muslims and led to the further development of the Pakistan Movement. GOI
Act 1935 is also very important in history because it served as the future constitution of the newly
established state of Pakistan after 1947.

In conclusion, I believe that the Nehru Report was the most important in the development of Pakistan
Movement since after its proposals the Muslim League increasingly realized that the Congress had
ignored the Muslims’ demands and their interests were not protected. It also dawned on the Muslims
that they had to protect themselves on their own, hence the report played a vital role in the
development of the Pakistan Movement.

Q. Assess the significance of the contributions of Allama Iqbal and Rahmat Ali to the Pakistan
Movement. Explain your answer. [14]

Allama Iqbal

• His poetry awakened a sense of nationhood among the Muslim community urging them to be active
in making progress along a distinctive Islamic path and not capitalist in nature. This approach was
popular with many Muslim people who adopted this vision;
• He was opposed to the British control of India – believing the conquest of others was wrong. He was
the first Muslim politician to advocate the creation of a separate Muslim state; after his Allahabad
address in1930, many Muslim people seriously considered separation for the first time;
• He persuaded many that the Muslim League had to build an effective mass political party to
challenge the domination of the Congress.
• Jinnah adopted many of his ideas, later leading the Muslim League.

Rahmat Ali

• In 1933, Rahmat Ali and other students produced a very popular pamphlet called ‘Now or Never’.
The pamphlet argued that the subcontinent should be partitioned to provide a Muslim homeland
and was an important step forward;
• He also founded the Pakistan National Movement and campaigned for the idea of Pakistan, the
name given to this separate homeland by Rahmat Ali and his followers;
• By 1940 the Muslim League supported Rahmat Ali’s view that a separate Muslim homeland was
needed;
• Rahmat Ali was unpopular as he criticized other Muslim leaders including Jinnah over what he saw
as the abandonment of Muslim communities in places such as Delhi as well as accepting a divided
Bengal under the terms of partition in 1947.

Q. Was the introduction of Jinnah’s 14 Points in 1929 the most important factor in the development of
Pakistan Movement between 1928 and 1935? Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your
answer. [14]

In 1929, Jinnah presented his fourteen points in response to the Nehru Report of 1928. Muslim League
had rejected the Nehru Report as it asked for too many sacrifices from the Muslims which included no
separate electorates and no one third Muslim seats in the Central Government. Jinnah proposed three
amendments to the report but the Congress did not accept them. Hence, in his fourteen points Jinnah
tried to safeguard political rights of Muslims by demanding one third Muslims seats in the existing
provincial boundaries and no law about a community to be enforced without three fourth members of

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the same community in the legislative assembly approving it. These became the basis of any future
negotiation with the Congress and the British.

In 1928, the British asked the Indians to frame the proposals for the constitution for them. All Parties
Conference was called which was presided by Moti Lal Nehru of Congress. It produced the Nehru Report.
It was purely a Congress document that asked the Muslims to make many sacrifice. It rejected the
Muslim right of separate electorates and were given only 1/4th representation in the Center. It also
demanded to make Hindi the national language of India. It reflected the traditional narrow mindedness
of the Hindus. It also resulted in an increasing gap between the two communities after Khilafat
movement. However, its only positive outcome was the unity of the divided Muslim groups in India.

Later from 1930-32, the Round table Conferences took place to find out mutual ground among various
communities of India regarding the constitution. It helped to reach an agreement regarding the
introduction of a federal government in India. The princely states also agreed to be a part of federation
if their rights were protected. New provinces of Sindh, Orissa and NWFP were made. In 1935, the
Government of India Act was passed which proved to be very important for the future of the sub-
continent. Federal parliamentary form of government with bicameral legislature was established in
India. It gave a certain amount of provincial autonomy as all powers were transferred to Indians at
provincial level. For the first time, a large portion of the Indian was given opportunity to vote.

I agree that the introduction of Jinnah’s 14 Points in 1929 was the most important factor in the
development of the Pakistan Movement as they represented the deep-rooted fear among Muslims
about a possible Hindu-dominated India. By asking for so many political safeguards for Muslims, it
became apparent that the ML was preparing itself for the partition of India.

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SOURCE BASED QUESTIONS

SOURCE B: The Round Table Conferences 1930–1932

From a British political magazine during the period of the Round Table Conferences. John Bull is a
character used in political cartoons as a national symbol to represent Britain in general.

SOURCE A: The Simon Commission 1927

The offer of the hand of friendship from Congress is more valuable than any concession which the British
Government is willing to make. This public meeting of the citizens of Bombay firmly declares that the
commission which has been announced is unacceptable to the people of India as it denies the right of
the people of India to participate on equal terms in framing the future constitution of the country. It
contains no Indian representation. Indians throughout the country should have nothing to do with the
commission at any stage or in any form. We are not satisfied with the status of just being petitioners to
this commission.

From a speech made by Jinnah in Bombay in 1927, in reaction to the appointment of the Simon Commission.

Section A: This question is about the Pakistan Movement between 1927 and 1937.

a) According to Source A, why was their opposition to the Simon Commission of 1927? [3]
b) What does Source B tell us about the negotiations during the Round Table Conferences between
1930 and 1932? [5]
c) Explain the importance of the Government of India Act of 1935 to the future of the sub-continent.[7]
d) How successful were the provincial elections held in India in 1937? Explain your answer. [10]

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SOURCE A: The Delhi Proposals 1927

Jinnah was keen to have Hindu-Muslim unity and was prepared to reject separate electorates for this. As
a result he made a number of proposals to Congress at a meeting in Delhi in 1927. He wanted more
Muslim-majority provinces to balance the number of Hindu-majority ones represented in the central
assembly. He proposed that Sindh be separated from the Bombay Presidency and made into a full
province. He wanted the protection of Muslim minorities as well as other minorities in Punjab and
Bengal. One third of seats in the central legislature were to be set aside for Muslims and he wanted
reserved seats rather than separate electorates. Congress favourably received these proposals but
withdrew their support later in the year. From Jinnah vs. Gandhi by Roderick Matthews

SOURCE B: The Simon Commission 1927

A banner produced at the time of the Simon Commission

Section A: This question is about India 1927–1935.

a) According to Source A, what were Jinnah’s aims in his Delhi Proposals of 1927? [3]
b) How does Source B help us to understand Indian concerns about the Simon Commission of 1927? [5]
c) Why was Dr Allama Muhammad Iqbal asked to chair the Muslim League at Allahabad in 1930? [7]
d) Which of the following was the most important in the development of the Pakistan Movement?
i) The Nehru Report, 1928
ii) Jinnah’s 14 Points, 1929
iii) The Government of India Act, 1935

Explain your answer with reference to all three of the above.

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The Period of Congress Tyranny (1937-39)

Bande Matram

This was a nationalist Hindu song in which Hindus were encouraged to expel Muslims from ‘Hindustan’.
This was not a Congress policy, but the singing of the song was made compulsory before the start of
official business every day in the provincial assemblies. This worried and offended Muslims.

The Wardha Scheme

This was an education scheme based on Gandhi’s views introduced in all Congress education ministries.
Teaching was to be in Hindi, spinning cotton by hand was introduced into the school curriculum and
there was to be no religious education. All students were expected to bow before a picture of Gandhi
hung in their schools. Muslims saw these measures as an attempt to subvert love for Islam amongst
their children and convert them to Hinduism.

The Vidya Mandir Scheme

Vidya Mandir was an elementary educational scheme implemented in schools of central provinces and
Bihar. It was the brain child of the Ravi Shankar Shukla. Muslims claimed that it was to abandon Muslims
religion culture and customs. They also claimed the word ‘Mandir’ to be highly communal and resented
it.

The ‘Congress Tyranny’

Whilst it was never an official Congress policy, Muslims feared that a major aim of their Hindu rivals was
to erase the Muslim culture. It is true that in some places Hindu extremists behaved in an appalling way.
Muslims were forbidden to eat beef and received harsh punishments if they slaughtered cows. Azan was
forbidden and attacks were carried out on mosques. Noisy processions were arranged near mosques at
prayer time and pigs sometimes pushed into the mosques. Muslims felt that if they lodged complaints
with authorities, decisions were always against them. Sometimes there were anti-Muslim riots in which
Muslims were attacked and their houses and property were set on fire.

SOURCE BASED QUESTIONS

SOURCE A The Day of Deliverance

I wish the Muslims all over India to celebrate Friday 22 December 1939 as a national ‘Day of Deliverance’
from Congress rule. Provincial and local Muslim Leagues should hold meetings to offer thanks in their
prayers for the end of the unjust Congress regime. These meetings should be peaceful and orderly so as
not to upset or offend any other community. It is the Congress High Command who are responsible for
the unjust tyranny of these past years.

Adapted from a speech by Jinnah to the Muslim community on 2 December 1939

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SOURCE B: Gandhi’s educational ideas

A photograph of Gandhi at an ashram

a) According to Source A how did Jinnah want the Muslim community to act on 22 December 1939? [3]
b) What can we learn from Source B about Gandhi’s ideas on education between 1937 and 1939? [5]
c) Explain how Jinnah transformed the Muslim League between 1937 and 1939. [7]
d) How successful were the 1937 elections? Explain your answer. [10]

Q: Why was Pakistan Resolution presented in 1940? [7]

One major reason was the period of Congress Tyranny during 1937-1939. The Congress introduced a
series of tyrannical schemes such as the Banda Matram, Wardha scheme and Vidiya Mandir Scheme,
which were humiliating and aimed to harm the Muslim culture, language and their separate identity.
Congress treated the Muslims with disdain. Eating beef was banned. Azan was forbidden at many places
and disturbances during prayers were a routine. Muslims feared that a major aim of Hindu rule was to
establish Hindu dominance. It gave Muslims a clear picture of what India would be like after the British.
Due to such harsh behavior of the Congress, Muslims leadership decided to demand for a separate
homeland for the Muslims and Pakistan Resolution was presented.

The Lahore Resolution was not a spontaneous decision but the outcome of ‘Two Nation Theory’. Sir Syed
presented “The Two Nation Theory” for the first time after the Hindi-Urdu controversy of 1867. He gave
the idea of two nations in India; i.e. Hindus and Muslims. Later, Allama Iqbal strengthened it when he
presented his famous Allahabad address in 1930. He gave the idea of creating a separate state for the
Muslim in India. In 1933, Ch. Rehmat Ali had also written the pamphlet “Now or Never” in which he
suggested the name “Pakistan” for the separate state of the Muslims.Later events such as the Nehru
Report and Gandhi’s rigid stance over the issue of the minorities during the second Round Table
Conference widened the gulf between the Hindus and Muslims and further strengthened the faith of the
Muslim leadership in the Two Nation Theory. Finally, under the leadership of Quaid-Azam, this
resolution was presented at Minto Park in 1940.

Another reason for the Pakistan Resolution was the fear of the British leaving India. The Second World
War had started in Britain and the loss of British in the early years made the British withdrawal
inevitable. Congress claimed itself to be the sole representative of all the people of India which was

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unacceptable for the Muslims as in reality it only stood for the rights of the Hindus. The Government of
India Act 1935 also explained that the next reforms would be the complete transfer of power to the
Indians. Muslims believed that they would not be given their rights in United India so the resolution for a
separate country was presented.

Q. Why did Cripps Mission fail? [7]

Cripps mission proposed to grant dominion status to India after World War II. However, the Congress
wanted an immediate transfer of power. It believed that after the war the British would turn on their
words and if British could be pressurized during the war then only it would be able to achieve ‘Self Rule’.
The Congress realized that the British were negotiating from a weak position and the Congress wanted
to exploit it. They knew that the British were desperate. Gandhi rejected the proposal calling it “a post-
dated cheque of a failing bank.” The INC also rejected the proposal of India’s disintegration. The Hindus
considered this option a lethal blow to the Indian integrity.

Another reason for its failure was the disapproval of the Muslim League. Mr. Jinnah was pleased with
the formation of separate unions but another clause stated that the constitution of free India would be
drawn by Indian political leaders. Mr. Jinnah feared that the constitution making body would consist of
mostly Hindus who would surely deny Muslims their rights. Moreover, the method of opting out of the
federation was not clearly defined. Muslim League also rejected it because the Mission did not talk of
the idea of Pakistan. Whereas, the official policy of Muslim League was to follow the Pakistan Resolution
and demand a separate homeland.

The British attitude towards Indians was another reason. British once again tried to use delaying tactics
as they wanted the proposals to be implemented after the war. They wanted to gain time so they could
negotiate from a position of advantage. Earlier also they had made such promises during the WWI which
they didn’t fulfill and resulted in the Khilafat Movement. There was a lack of trust and guarantee that
whatever they were saying would be implemented in the future. So, Congress tried to pressurize them
for immediate actions. All these factors led to the failure of the mission.

Q. Why did Congress start the Quit India Movement in 1942? [7]

Congress did not accept the Cripps proposals. Congress wanted to have the complete transfer of power
to the INC immediately. Congress argued that they were not bound to accept any plans by the British
who would leave the sub-continent. They wanted the English to leave India immediately after handing
over the power to the Indians. Gandhi called Cripps plan “a post-dated cheque on a failing bank”.

There were also rumors of a possible Japanese attack on India as the Japanese forces had captured
Singapore recently. Gandhi argued that in case of the British departure from India, there was no danger
of any such attack. Even if India was attacked, Indians would persuade Japan by non-violent protest.

Delaying tactics of British were not acceptable for Indians particularly Hindus. There was a lack of trust in
the British Raj as they always used delaying tactics to take advantage of the disunity and lack of
agreement between Hindus and Muslims. Gandhi was also not ready to wait for the war to end as the
British would not be under pressure to accept his demands. He wanted to fully exploit the situation
when the British were amidst trouble against Germany. British were under great pressure as there was
no win no lose situation in the war. Massive protests during the Quit India Movement on the widest
possible scale was a policy to put more pressure in order to achieve their goals.

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Q: Why did Quit India Movement fail in 1942? [7]

Although Congress started the protests on a large scale which ended the British control in many areas,
the British responded to the situation firmly. Gandhi, Nehru and other leaders were arrested. Congress
was banned. The British resorted to aerial bombing and use of machine guns to maintain their control.
These drastic measures made the movement fail.

Jinnah remained aloof and wanted ‘Divide and Leave’. Quit India movement failed to achieve its aims as
Congress failed to win the support of Muslims. Jinnah totally disagreed with Gandhi. He was following
the official policy of AIML and any solution in which there was no separate homeland for the Muslims
was totally unacceptable. He didn’t want the British to quit but to divide.

Q. Why did Gandhi – Jinnah talks fail in 1944? [7]

Gandhi did not agree to talk about the partition as he wanted to acquire power by compelling the British
to leave India before the decision whether Pakistan would be made or not. He wanted the support of
Jinnah to compel the British out of India. Jinnah didn’t agree as he wanted Pakistan. Moreover, he had
no reason to trust Gandhi as the condition of a joint struggle seemed dubious to him. Hence, Jinnah
declared that the official policy of AIML was to get a separate country for the Muslims and that he was
not ready to step down from this demand.

Another reason was the disagreement of views of Gandhi and Jinnah. Gandhi called himself the
spokesman of all communities in the sub-continent. Jinnah refused to accept this as he was of the view
that Gandhi represented the Congress and Hindus. He made it clear that he was the only spokesperson
of Muslims in India and AIML was the sole representative of the desires of Muslims of India.

Gandhi wanted foreign affairs, defense, and communication to be under federal government whereas
Jinnah also wanted federal structure but with more powers to the provinces. Gandhi also did not agree
to the ‘Two nation Theory’ whereas it was the basis of Lahore resolution and now the policy of Muslim
League since 1940. Gandhi argued that he could not find a single example in the world history in support
of the Muslim nationhood in India. But Jinnah countered his argument by highlighting the historic,
civilizational and cultural difference between Hindus and Muslims. These factors led to the failure of
Gandhi-Jinnah talks.

Q. Why did Simla Conference fail in 1945? Why did Lord Wavell plan Fail? [7]

It failed as Jinnah objected to the British proposals in Wavell plan which proposed fewer seats in the
Executive Council. The division of 5 seats for Muslims and 5 for Hindus was equal but Gandhi insisted
that out of these 5 Muslim members in the Executive Council, one Muslim member would be appointed
by Congress as Gandhi claimed that Congress was also representing the Muslims of India. To prove this,
he brought Abdul Kalama Azad with him, who was a Muslim leader of Congress. Jinnah didn’t accept this
idea that Congress also represented the Muslims of India.

Jinnah even didn’t agree to give that seat to any other Muslim party such as the Unionist Party whose
head was Malik Khizer Hayat. He didn’t accept the idea that any other political party represented the
Muslim community of India. Therefore, he stressed that all Muslim members must be from the Muslim
League only. He pointed out that Muslims were already a minority and Hindus would be a permanent
majority in the Executive Council with seats of Sikhs and scheduled castes that were bound to vote in
favour of the Congress.

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Simla Conference failed as Jinnah was not ready to step down from his stance that only AIML was the
sole representative of Muslims of India. Jinnah stressed that only AIML represents the Muslims of India
and not any other party. He pointed out that AIML won every by-election after 1937 elections. He was
even ready to contest elections to prove the popularity of AIML.

Q. Why did AIML do well in 1945 elections? [7]

In the 1945 elections, Muslim League came up with a striking victory by winning all the 30 Muslim seats
in the Central Assembly and 446 out of 495 Muslim seats in the provinces. The reason behind this was
the dynamic leadership of Quaid-e-Azam who had organized the party from grassroot level. After 1937
election the membership numbers increased. The chief minister of Punjab and Bengal joined the Muslim
League. Party tickets were given to deserving candidates and funds were distributed wisely. Quaid-e-
Azam himself led the campaign as addressed multiple gatherings across provinces. The experience of the
by –elections was also helpful and this time the party was led by true leaders.

Another reason for their success was the Congress rule from 1937-39. Congress rule was a nightmare for
the Muslims facing religious restrictions and threat to their culture. During this period the Hindus
provoked Muslims indignation. The celebration of the Day of Deliverance at the call of the League
showed the strength of the ML in Muslim majority areas. The 1940s Pakistan Resolution also acted as a
unifying force. The Muslims now had a direction. They also had a clear cut aim to achieve. The campaign
was launched with a slogan of a separate homeland for the Muslims, even the areas were identified to
be merged into the future Pakistan.

After the failure of Gandhi – Jinnah talks and the Simla Conference, it seemed clear that the British
withdrawal was near. Thus, the general election was a litmus test to gauge the political divide in India. It
was a referendum for the Muslims to become a separate nation. It had to confirm their existence. The
overall attitude of Congress, from the time when the Nehru Report was presented till the elections,
played a vital part to convince the Muslims to vote in favor of the League. Therefore, Muslim voters
were charged with emotions; all set for great sacrifices that brought a surprising victory for the Muslim
League.

Cabinet Mission 1946

The Cabinet Mission came to India aimed to discuss the transfer of power from the British
government to the Indian leadership, with the aim of preserving India's unity and granting it
independence. Formulated at the initiative of Clement Attlee, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom,
the mission had Lord Pethick-Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander.

The Plan

The mission made its own proposals after dialogue with the Indian leadership. The mission proposed a
complicated system for India with three tiers: the provinces, provincial groupings and the centre. The
center’s power was to be confined to foreign affairs, defense, currency and communications. The
provinces would keep all the other powers and were allowed to establish three groups. Thus provinces
having Hindu majority such as UP, CP, Bombay, Bihar, Orissa and Madras would make Group A. Group B
would comprise Muslim majority areas of Sindh, Punjab, Northwest Frontier and Baluchistan. Bengal and
Assam would make Group C.

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Reactions

Through the scheme, the British expected to maintain Indian unity and also provided Jinnah the
substance of Pakistan. By holding the full provinces of Punjab and Bengal, Jinnah could satisfy the
provincial leaders who feared losing power if their provinces were divided. The presence of large Hindu
minorities in Punjab and Bengal also provided a safeguard for the Muslim minorities remaining in the
mostly-Hindu provinces. Muslim League's Council accepted the mission's proposals on 6 June 1946 after
securing a guarantee from Wavell that the League would be placed in the interim government if the
Congress did not accept the plan.

Congress, however, accepted the proposals as it rejected the demand for Pakistan. Its position was that
the provinces should be allowed to stay out of groups that they did not want to join, in light of both
NWFP and Assam being ruled by Congress governments. However, Jinnah differed and saw the grouping
plan as mandatory. Jinnah insisted it be binding once the plan was accepted. Nehru's speech on 10 July
1946 rejected the idea that the provinces would be obliged to join a group and stated that the Congress
was neither bound nor committed to the plan. In effect, Nehru's speech squashed the mission's plan and
the chance to keep India united.

Q. Why was Radcliffe Award unjust? [7]

Lord Mountbatten set up Boundary Commission under Justice Radcliffe to demarcate the boundaries in
Bengal and Punjab. It was unjust as it gave many Muslim majority areas to India. Firstly, Calcutta was
given to India from Bengal. The League was disappointed to hear that Calcutta was given to India even
though it was surrounded by Muslim areas. Calcutta was a developed city with industries and ports. It
was given to India so that it could benefit from its industries and earn huge profits. Quaid-e-Azam
declared that East Pakistan without Calcutta was like a man without lungs. He also declared the
boundary commission to be ‘unjust, perverse and wrong.’ It was a major economic set-back for a newly
born poor country, Pakistan.

Gurdaspur in Punjab was awarded to India. By awarding Gurdaspur to the Indians they now had a land
route to Kashmir which resulted into disputes between Pakistan and India. India also got the control of
rivers coming from Kashmir. It also resulted in a huge migration as Muslims in these areas found
themselves on the wrong side and a refugee problem was created. The Kashmir issue remained a
dispute between both the countries.

Thirdly, Ferozpur was also given to India. The League was also greatly disappointed on Ferozpur being
allotted to India. The canal head-works of River Ravi and Sutlej were given to India while canals coming
out of these head-works flowed into Pakistan. India threatened to stop the waters of Pakistan after
independence and the dispute was resolved permanently in 1960 by the Indus Water Treaty.

Discuss and Prepare

Q. Why did Muslim League celebrate the Day of Deliverance in 1939? [7]

Muslims celebrated the Day of Deliverance on 22ndDecember 1939. Britain declared war on Germany in
WWII. The viceroy of India using his emergency powers, as granted by the Government of India Act
1935, also declared war on Germany without taking the Congress government in confidence. It means
the British Indian army would also take part in WWII. In protest, the Congress ministers resigned from
the government as they were not consulted. It ended the rule of the Congress which was largely hated
by Muslim.

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With the end of Congress rule the tyrannical policies of Congress also ended. These policies were aimed
to destroy the Muslim language, culture, and religion. Some of these policies aroused strong resentment
among the Muslims as it hurt their religious sentiments; i.e, Wardha Scheme. The atrocities of the
Congress against Muslims in many areas also ended. Its policies such as Band-e-Matram, Vidyia Mandir
Scheme, etc also came to end. During its rule, the INC treated the Muslims with disdain. Eating beef was
banned. Azan was forbidden at many places and pigs were pushed into mosques during prayers.
Muslims feared that a major aim of Hindu rule was to establish Hindu dominance. It gave Muslims a
clear picture of what India would be after the British. When these atrocities and persecution came to an
end with the resignation of Congress ministers, the Muslim leadership decided to celebrate the Day of
Deliverance.

The singing of Band e Matram was also made compulsory in the morning assemblies. It was a Hindu
nationalistic song that was composed in Bengali by Mr Bankim Chatterji and Muslims believed it
contained anti-Muslim expression. Since Muslim students were also compelled to sing it, they began to
realize that in a Hindu-dominated independent India, their religion and interests would not be secure.
Moreover, their survival would be difficult. Moreover, the tricolor INC flag was hoisted on government
and public buildings along with the Union Jack which was a reminder of the only two political forces of
India; the British and the INC.

Another reason for celebrating the Day of Deliverance was the political genius of Jinnah. It was a large
scale political activity from the platform of a newly organized AIML under the leadership of Quaid-e-
Azam. It also displayed the popularity and organizational strength of AIML. The ML could now spread its
message and seek support of the Muslims taking part in the celebrations.

Q: How successful were the provincial elections held in India in 1937? Explain your answer. [10]

Successful

For Hindus/Congress:

• Congress won majorities in 5 provinces and largest single party in 4 others

• Saw themselves as the sole party representing Indians
• Led to formation of cabinets in 8 provinces.

For Muslims/Muslim League:

• First major election fought and helped to unify the Muslim League
• Led to improvements in organization and planning
• Learnt that their support was in areas where Muslims were in minority rather than in majority
• Recognition of an ‘image problem’ as its rich and aristocratic leaders were seen as out of touch with
the lives and problems of ordinary Muslims.

Less successful
For Hindus/Congress:

• Congress alienated the Muslim League after the elections which led to difficulties in future
negotiations
• Attitude of Congress and Nehru hardened Muslim views towards a separate nation.

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For Muslims/Muslim League:

• Relative poor performance in the elections; out of 489 Muslim seats, the Muslim League won only
109.
• In the Punjab; out of 86 Muslim seats, Muslim League won 1 and others taken by Punjab Unionist
Party.
• Muslims felt betrayed by the British who were seen as too concerned with getting the new
provincial governments running rather than being concerned with Muslim rights
• Congress used its new powers to further upset Muslims during Congress Rule.

Q. Was the success of the Labour party in winning the British general election in 1945 the most
important reason why the subcontinent of India was partitioned in 1947? Explain your answer. [10]

There were many steps which eventually led to the partition of India in 1947. They are listed for
discussion below.

One of the most important reasons for the partition in 1947 was the success of the Labour Party in
winning the British general election against the Conservative Party in 1945. The Labor Party won by
47.7% against the 36.2% of the Conservative Party. As a result, Winston Churchill was replaced by
Clement Attlee as the Prime Minister. The Labour Party was more keen and enthusiastic to give India
self-governance. This party was opposed to imperialism and wanted to free India. As a result, this
objective spread a positive aim of independent India, which might have been the first step however, it
favored Congress more due to its long history of cooperation with the British that worried the Muslims.

Anyway, this was not the only reason for the partition. The Labour Party asked Lord Wavell to organize
elections for provincial and central assemblies and set up an executive council. The results were
announced in December 1945. Muslim League had won 87% of the Muslim vote; all 30 seats in central
assembly and 446 out of 495 seats in provincial assembly. Congress won 91% of the non-Muslim vote,
yet by this election it became pretty clear that Muslim League was the undisputed voice of the Muslims.
It also cleared the fact that Congress did not speak for all India but was in fact a Hindu dominant party.
Muslims had united in these elections and the message was put across that there were two different
nations.

Apart from this, a three man delegation from Britain came to India to find a solution that was acceptable
to all. The cabinet arrived on the 24th of March and met with representatives of all communities and
groups. The delegation found that there was very little common ground between them. Jinnah insisted
on forming Pakistan while Congress wanted India to be undivided. This cabinet mission proposed an
Interim government which would form an All- India Commission from members of the provincial and
central legislatures that would decide whether or not there would be two states. Both the parties
disagreed with the plan, but regardless of it, the delegation continued with their proposals. They
rejected the idea of Pakistan, instead divided India into three parts, namely Hindu majority, Western
Muslim province, and Bengal and Assam. Muslim League agreed but Congress said they would not be
bound by any plan once the British left. Thus, Muslim League saw that there was nothing left for further
discussion. It also proved that there was nothing to be done other than partition and that was to be
done quickly before the British left.

Another important reason for the partition was the Direct Action Day (1946). The British departure was
inevitable and thus Muslim decided to pressurize them to take a decisive action before their exit. The
Muslims needed to show solidarity and strength to the British and the Congress. In July 1946, Muslim

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League passed a resolution declaring that they should prepare for the last attempt against the Congress
and the British and prevent the British from leaving the Congress in charge. By August 1946, this was
named as the Direct Action Day. In many places, there were many demonstrations that demanded the
formation of Pakistan. It was a harsh reminder to the British that the Muslim Indians could not live in a
single state especially when in Calcutta the demonstrations turned violent killing nearly 4000 people in
an event better known as the Great Calcutta Killing. This warned the British of any further communal
rioting and forced them to divide India.

Finally, the last step before Pakistan gained its independence was the 3rd June Plan. In February 1947,
Atlee announced that the British would leave the sub-continent by 1948. The subsequent violence in
Punjab in March 1947 convinced Nehru and other Congress members that India was to be partitioned.
The new viceroy Lord Mountbatten met with the Indian politicians and decided that partition was the
only solution. The 3rd June plan announced that there would be two states; India and Pakistan, where
the interim constitution would be Government of India Act 1935 and both the states would have
domination status. Provinces like N.W.F.P, Baluchistan, Bengal, such and Sylhet in Assam voted to join
Pakistan. After this, the final date of the transfer of power was moved from June 1948 to August 1947
and thus India way partitioned.

In conclusion, I disagree that the success of the Labour Party in the general elections was the most
important reason for the formation of Pakistan since the Labour Party was pro-Congress and Congress
wanted India undivided. The most important reason was the 3rd June plan. This was the most significant
reason because India was partitioned based on the plan that was the eventual result of all the previous
efforts.

Q. How successful were negotiations aimed at independence during World War II? Explain your
answer. [14]

The successes and failures of the negotiations aimed at independence during World War II (1939-1945)
are evaluated below with a conclusion.

On 23rd March 1940, the Lahore Resolution was unanimously passed by the members of All India Muslim
League present in the annual session in Lahore. After the internal negotiations, the members had agreed
that the Muslim majority zones in the north-western and eastern India should be grouped to make
independent states in which constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign. This became the
official policy of Muslim League and they started to work forward in consideration of it.

In a bid to win over the sympathies of the Indian masses and political parties during the war, His
Majesty’s Government issued a White Paper on August 8, 1940. The document, which later on is known
as the August Offer in history books, promised for the establishment of an independent Indian
Constituent Assembly with completely indigenous representation and a power to frame the future
constitution of the country. The offer also provided the option for the extension of the Viceroy’s
Executive Council. Simultaneously, the August Offer talked about the rights of minorities, especially
Muslims as it declared that the majority community will not be given the veto power and full weight
would be given to the views of minorities in making of the Constitution. However, the document made it
clear that all the promises will be fulfilled after the conclusion of the war and that too if all the
communities and political parties would the British in their war efforts.

To discuss the August Offer, Quaid-i-Azam held meetings with the Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow. While the
leadership appreciated the clauses of the offer in which the British agreed to accept that no future
constitution was to be formulated by the Government without the approval and consent of the minority

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communities, it held reservations on issues like the composition of the Executive Council and the
vagueness of the War Advisory Council. Also it was against the the spirit of the Lahore Resolution in
which clearly declared that the Muslims of India were a nation by themselves and they alone were the
final judges and arbiters of their own future destiny. The Indian National Congress also opposed the
offer and their president, Abul Kalam Azad, even refused to discuss the formula with the Viceroy. Hence,
this effort had also failed.

Another negotiation that was aimed at independence during the WWII were the Gandhi-Jinnah talks
held in 1944, throughout the month of September. Its success can be deduced from the fact that Gandhi
considered Jinnah a vital participant in the discussion about the future of India in terms of
independence. Moreover, as a result of these negotiations, both the parties agreed that it was time for
the British to leave India.

Simla Conference held in 1945, just before the end of WWII, also aimed to negotiate the independence.
This can be considered a sincere effort by the British to solve the Indian problem regarding
independence. The British were clear that they were to leave India now and make it independent. At the
conference, all Indian stakeholders had also agreed on the proposal of formation of an Executive council
which would govern the country under the then constitution until a new one was made for the future of
India. Thus, there was success.

On the contrary, there were failures in these negotiations too. The Lahore Resolution was just an
internal agreement and Congress was not in favor of this idea. Even, the British did not consider it high
regard initially. Since, the other stakeholders were not involved in it or agreed to it otherwise, the
Lahore Resolution couldn’t prove strong in the struggle for independence.

In Gandhi-Jinnah talks both were not able to agree on the framework of independence and with that
deadlock, the talks broke down. Gandhi wanted Jinnah’s support in gaining independence from the
British before they could have a mutual agreement regarding the partition of India. However, Jinnah
stood his ground firmly and maintained that the partition must be ensured before the exit of the British
from the subcontinent, as he did not trust the Congress on this issue.

After some initial success, the Simla Conference also ended in a deadlock regarding the future of India.
The disagreement arose over the composition of the Executive Council. Jinnah was firm in his demands
however Gandhi wanted to nominate at least one Muslim member in the council as he was adamant
that INC represented all communities of India. To prove his point, he had Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad, a
Muslim leader of the Congress accompany him to the conference. Nevertheless, Jinnah maintained his
stance by reminding Gandhi that Muslim League was the sole representative party of the Muslims of
India, as was evident of the earlier election results. The suggestion of giving the seat to the Unionist
Party, another Muslim party in Punjab, was also rejected by Jinnah as it would have created a
permanent minority of the Muslim League in the councils, hence no consensus was made in this regard.

In conclusion, it can be deduced that negotiations aimed at partition during WWII were successful to an
extent since all major stakeholders (Congress, Muslim League and the British) had agreed that India
should be given independence. The framework for it was still being negotiated and not clearly decided.

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SOURCE BASED QUESTIONS

SOURCE A

The All India Muslim League meeting in Lahore 1940

In March 1940, the All India Muslim League held its annual session at Minto Park, Lahore. Quaid-e-
Azam, Muhammad Ali Jinnah outlined the events of the past few months and presented his own
solution to the Muslim problem. He said that the problem of India was not one of an internal conflict
between Hindus and Muslims, but mainly an international one. He felt that the differences between
Hindus and Muslims were so great and so sharp that their union under one central government was full
of serious risks. He said that Hindus and Muslims belonged to two different religions, philosophies, social
customs and literature. Hindus and Muslims belonged to two separate and distinct nations and
therefore the only chance open was to allow them to have separate states.

SOURCE B

Section A: This question is about the steps taken towards the creation of Pakistan during the 1940s.

a) According to source A, what were the problems facing India in 1940? [3]
b) What does source B suggest about the attempts to solve the problems of the sub-continent in
1945? [5]
c) Why did Congress and the Muslim League oppose the Cripps Mission in 1942? [7]
d) Was the success of the Labour Party in winning the British General Election in 1945 the most
important reason why the sub-continent of India was partitioned in 1947? Explain your answer.
[10]

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SOURCE A

In 1940 Mr Jinnah announced that the Muslim League had made ‘enormous progress’. He believed it
had become a strong institution capable of having a long-term influence. He said that the League was a
great success. Communications with the British at the beginning of the war proved that they were taking
the Muslim League seriously and thought of them as a major power. Mr Jinnah added, that because of
the advances made by the League, Muslim India was now politically ‘conscious and awake’ and the
Muslim League would be a permanent feature of Indian politics.

Adapted from Jinnah and the Lahore Resolution by Farooq Ahmad Dar, 2015

A cartoon from an Indian newspaper about the future of the subcontinent, published in July 1947. Attlee
was the British Prime Minister between 1945 and 1951.

(a) According to Source A, what examples of ‘enormous progress’ (line 1) had the Muslim League made?
[3]

(b) What can we learn from Source B about the tensions that existed over the future of the
subcontinent? [5]

(c) Explain why the Cripps Mission had limited success in 1942. [7]

(d) ‘Disagreement over the future role of central government in the subcontinent was the main reason
for the breakdown of the Gandhi–Jinnah talks in 1944.’ How far do you agree with this statement?
Explain your answer. [10]

What was Swadeshi movement?

It was started by Hindus under Congress after partition of Bengal in 1905.British goods (salt, cotton)
were boycotted. A series of strikes in Calcutta. Clothes put in bonfires as a protest. Using locally
manufactured goods were a matter of proud. The sale of British goods went down dramatically and
drastically. British suffered economically.

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What was the Simla delegation?

8th Oct, 1906. A Group of prominent Muslim leaders led by Sir Agha khan met the viceroy Lord Minto at
Simla. Presented Muslim’s demands of separate electorates and more percentage of Muslim seats in
council than population. Demand of separate electorate is accepted by Lord Minto but John Morley
rejected the other demand saying it undemocratic.

What were Morley Minto reforms?

Series of reforms passed by British parliament in 1909.Viceroy Minto& Secretary of State John Morley.
Number of Indians in government increased but their work was purely advisory. Muslims were granted
separate electorates. Opposed by Hindus.

Prepare:

Q: What was the Mutiny Party? [4]

Q: Who was LalaHardayal? [4]

Q: What was Silk Letter Conspiracy? [4]

What was Indian Council Act of 1892?

Act of Parliament of UK. Authorized and increase in the size of British legislative councils in British India
due to demand of INC. No. of non-official members increased in both central and legislative council. It
prepared the base of Indian democracy. These bodies had little power and were ignorant by British.

What was INC?

Founded by former member of Indian civil service – Allan Octavian Hume in 1885.At its early stages
congress was not keen to offend British. It declared its loyalty to Queen Victoria. Later on it changed its
aim to self-rule and played an important role in winning independence. At first it represented all India
but later became Hindu party.

What was Lucknow pact 1916?

INC and ML came closer in 1913 onwards Jinnah joined ML while remaining a member of INC. Joined
session of ML and INC 1916 – Lucknow. Both agreed on a set of demands example 1/3rd Muslim share in
councils, separate electorates of Muslims and provincial autonomy. Got united for a set of common
demands to get more power in the upcoming reforms.

What wasDiarchy?

Introduced in1919 by Montague Chelmsford Reforms. Literary meaning: dual rule. Division of subjects
between the Governor General and Provincial Ministers. Governors had reserved subjects e.g. Police
and justice. Ministers had transferred subjects: public work, health. Opposed by Indians. Removed from
provincial level in Govt. of India Act.

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Who was Pundit Mohan Malaviya?

Punjab Hindu Sabahs in politics since 1919.In 1923 UP Congressmen Pundit, brought Hindus Sabahs in a
political party Hindu Mahasabha. President of INC on 4 occasions. Founded English newspaper “The
Leader” published from Allahabad in 1909.

Who was General Dyer?

Responsible for maintaining order in India in 1919. Banned public meetings in Amritsar. Order to fire.
Amritsar massacre fired 1600 rounds, (Killed=1200 - Injured=400).

Q: What was the Rowlatt Act?

In December 1917 a committee was formed under Justice Rowlatt. To investigate revolutionary activity
in India. Committee reported revolutionary activity in India (April 1918). IMPORTANT MEASURES: arrest
without warning, detention without bail and right of provincial govt. to order people where to live. This
was against British justice policy. Jinnah resigned from Imperial Legislative Council. Gandhi launched
Hartal.

Q: What was Amritsar Massacre? / What was Jallianwala Bagh incident?

Indian people opposed Rowlatt Act in 1919. Amritsar City of Punjab --- JallianwalaBagh - narrow
entrances, five-foot wall, two banks attacked and 5 Europeans killed. General Dyer – commander of the
area, ordered his troops to open fire on an unarmed crowd of 20000, fired around 1600 rounds. 1200
injured, 400 killed.

What was the Non Cooperation Movement 1920?

Indians opposed British govt. Quit govt. services. Boycott British goods and courts. Walk out of schools
and colleges. To remove official titles.

What was the Khilafat Movement?

Treatment of Turkey by British after WW1.Muslims in India were angered. First conference in Delhi in
1919.Headed by Maulana Shaukat Ali and Maulana M.Ali Jauhar.

What was the Hijrat movement?

India declared as ‘Dar-ul-Harb’ by some scholars. August 1920 – 18000 Muslims migrated to Afghanistan.
Afghanistan did not welcome the immigrants. Muslims returned jobless, homeless and hopeless.

What was Chaura Chauri incident?

In Nov 1921 riots broke out in Nilambur. Led to pitched battle between locals and soldiers. Tirur- police
station set on fire. Chaura chauri- a village in Gorakhpur district. Feb 1922, 21 policemen were killed on
burning of police station after they fired on a political procession.

What was Satyagarya policy?

Gandhi- keen advocate of the policy of passive resistance. Gave this approach the name of Satyagarya.
Meaning ‘not meek submission to will of the evil doer but pitting of one’s whole sole against the will of

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the tyrant. Gandhi argued that it showed the strength and moral supremacy over those who resorted to
violence. Aimed at Swaraj (self-rule).

Who was Mehmat VI?

Last sultan of Turkish empire. Turkey fought in WWI, sided with Germany and Austria. He was sent into
exile in Italy. After him the Khilafat was abolished. Died in 1926.

What was the Simon Commission?

Govt. of India Act (Montague-Chelmsford Reforms) 1919 had stated that a Commission was to be set up
after 10 years to review it. Sent before time by conservative group. Seven men Committee headed by Sir
John Simon. All members were British. Due to growing communalism in India and fear of loss to labor
party for conservative, 2 years earlier.

What was the Nehru Report?

Headed by Nehru. Immediate Dominion status for India. India to be a federation, with two chamber
parliament. Protection of minorities. Vote for all men and women.

What was Salt March?

Gandhi led the march. 12th March from his retreat near Ahmedabad to the village of Dandi.

24 days March. British forbade the making of salt (except under license). Protest against all unfair laws.

What was Hindu Mahasabha?

Active in Punjab Politics since 1890’s. 1923, Pundit Mohan Malaviya unified various Sahabas to make
Hindu Mahasabha. Became more organized under the new President V.D. Savarkar. Savarkar was later
accused of involved in Gandhi’s assassination in 1948.

What was Allahabad Address?

In 1930, Dr. Allama Muhammad Iqbal chaired a meeting of Muslim League in Allahabad. Delivered a
historic address. Urged Muslims to struggle for an independent homeland. Muslim majority province of
Northern Western India to make Muslim state.

What was Gandhi- Irwin Pact?

March 1931, after a series of meetings between Gandhi and Viceroy Irwin. Lord Irwin released Gandhi
and other political prisoners. Gandhi agreed to call off non-cooperation. Gandhi also agreed to give up
his demand of self-rule in return for promise of Indians genuine say in governing India. Agree to attend
the 2nd RTC.

What was Communal Award?

Given by Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald in 1932 before the 3rd RTC. Demand of Muslim League.
Decided the weightage for different communities. Rejected by Congress.

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What was Bande Mataram?

Introduced by Congress ministries in 1937. Hindu nationalist song, encouraged Hindus to expel Muslims
from Hindustan. Singing of it compulsory in assemblies before the start of official business in the
morning. Offended Muslims.

What was the Wardha Scheme?

Gandhi’s educational scheme. Introduced in all Congress education ministries. No religious education.
Compulsory bowing before Gandhi’s portrait in schools. Tilak on forehead. Muslims saw such measures
to subvert love of Islam amongst their children.

What was Congress Tyranny?

Congress ruled from 1937-39. Bande Matram. Wardha Scheme. Slaughtering of cows banned,
disturbance in Azaan. Attacks on mosques. Sometimes pigs were pushed into mosques.

What was Day of Deliverance?

Congress ministries resigned with the outbreak of WW2. They resigned to pressurize British to their
demand of self-rule. On Jinnah’s call, Muslim League celebrated ‘Day of Deliverance’ as end of Congress
Tyranny. During Congress Tyranny, Muslims were harassed.

What was Pakistan Resolution?

Annual session of Muslim League, 22nd March 1940 Lahore. Chief Minister of Bengal, Fazal ul Haq
presented a resolution. Demand for a Muslim state in North West and North East Muslim province of
India. Passed unanimously by all.

What was Gandhi-Jinnah Talks?

Gandhi after the release from prison wrote to Jinnah for talks to discuss the future of India. Several
rounds of talks, September 1944, Jinnah House Bombay. Against the hopes of many Indians, the talks
failed. In the talks Gandhi did not support Two Nation Theory.

What was the Cabinet Mission Plan?

Last British attempt to keep India united. March 1946, 3 cabinet members reached India. Talks with
Muslim League and Congress for a federation of India but no consequence was reached. It proposed that
an interim government should be set up to rule India during the British withdrawal.

What was Direct Action Day?

July 1946. Muslim League passed this resolution. Struggle against British and Congress. To show the
strength of Muslims. Peaceful demonstration but killing in Calcutta. 4000 people died. It was also known
as great Calcutta killing.

What was 3rd June Plan?

Feb 1947, Atlee announced British would leave India up to 1948. Mountbatten realized the need for a
speedy settlement. 2 states India and Pakistan. Dominion status each. Muslim majority provinces would
either vote to stay in India or join Pakistan.

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Who was Mohammad Ali Jinnah?

He made unique contribution to Pakistan Movement. Born on Dec 15th 1876 Karachi. He was a very able
and at the age of 15 was sent to London to study Law. He also proposed his 14 Points in contrary to
Nehru Report. Became President of Muslim League in 1934. First Governor General of Pakistan.

Who was Chaudhry Rehmat Ali?

He was born in 1897. In 1933 formed the Pakistan National Movement. He also published the pamphlet
‘Now or Never’. He died in 1951.

What was ‘Now or Never’?

It was a pamphlet written by Chaudhry Rehmat Ali in 1933. It coined the name of Pakistan. It
contributed to the idea of independence. It was written to 30 million Muslim in North –West of India
Subcontinent.

Prepare:

Q: What was Treaty of Versailles? [4]

Q: What was Treaty of Sevres? [4]

Q: Who was Mustafa Kamal Ataturk? [4]

Q: What was Moplah Rebellion? [4]

Q: Who were Ali brothers? [4]

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SECTION III
1947-1971
Initial Difficulties faced by Pakistan 1947-48
Geographical Problems

There were two parts of the country East Pakistan and West Pakistan separated by 1000 miles of land
belonging to India. Communication was difficult between the two wings. Officials could only move either
by sea or by air. It was very difficult for the newly born poor state to manage these separate units.

Political Problems

The first problem that Pakistan had to face was to choose a capital to form a government and to
establish a secretariat. Karachi was chosen as the capital of Pakistan. Quaid-e-Azam took the office of
the Governor General, Liaquat Ali Khan was appointed as Prime Minister and a Cabinet of experienced
persons was selected. Arrangements were to be made to bring the officials who had opted for Pakistan
from Delhi to Karachi. The Indian Government adopted delaying tactics in transferring the Government
servants and official record which aggravated the situation. Therefore the immediate task before the
nation was to establish a workable administrative and Government machinery to run the affairs of the
newly born state. The biggest administrative problem facing Pakistan was the acute shortage of
competent and experienced personnel in the Central and Provincial Governments. Furthermore, there
weren’t enough chairs, tables or even stationary and paper pins for administrative purposes. At the time
of establishment of Pakistan the Government of India Act 1935 became the working constitution of
Pakistan with certain changes. The first constituent assembly was formed and was given the task to
frame the constitution for the country. But the constituent assembly failed to frame a constitution even
in eight years. Lack of a permanent constitution created political instability.

Economic Problems

When Pakistan came into existence, it mostly consisted of economically backward and underdeveloped
areas. The agricultural system was outdated which added to the economic backwardness of the areas
forming part of Pakistan. Before partition the Hindus, with the blessings of the British Government, had
acquired complete monopoly in trade and commerce. The entire capital was in the hands of the Hindus.
Unfortunately, the banks and other financial institutions were located in Indian Territory. The major
industries were also in those areas which were part of India. Besides these factors, the technical experts
and labor, who operated the industries, were all Hindus because the Muslims lagged in education and
financial capabilities. The inadequate system of transportation and communication also made its
adverse effect on economic development of the country.

Social Problems

Five different nations were living in Pakistan having five different cultures, languages, art, music etc. Five
different nations were Bengalis, Punjabis, Sindhis, Pathans, and Balochis. Only two things were common:
their religion Islam and their joint struggle to get separate country from Hindus and British. There was a
difficulty in developing the spirit of nationalism. Urdu was not accepted as the national language
particularly by Bengalis.

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Princely States

There were 565 princely states in India. They were given the choice of accession to either Pakistan or
India. All Indian princely states were given the right to link up with either of dominions. However, the
fate of some states remained undecided. The Muslim Nawab governing Junagadh favored in acceding to
Pakistan. But Indian Government sent Army troops towards Junagadh and occupied the State by force in
November, 1947. Hyderabad Deccan was the largest and richest state ruled by Muslim leader Nizam
who decided to remain independent. India attacked Hyderabad on 13th September 1948 and forcibly
annexed this state to India. Kashmir dispute is the most important and unsolved problem. Kashmir is the
natural part of Pakistan because at the time of partition 85% of the Kashmir’s total population was
Muslim. The ruler Raja Hari Singh declared Kashmir as a part of India. Pakistan has continuously insisted
that Kashmir must get their right of self-determination but due to non-cooperation of India, Kashmir
issue still remain unsolved.

Division of Assets

In order to embarrass Pakistan financially, India did a lot of dishonesty in the matters of Pakistan which
were concerned with its benefits. Pakistan was promised to get Rs. 750 million but the Indian
Government refused to give. Pakistan received only 200 million. Pakistan also did not receive the due
share of the military assets. This dishonest attitude put Pakistan into great difficulties. Due to Gandhi’s
influence another Rs. 500 million were given to Pakistan.

Military Assets Pakistan needed weapons and military for security; dividing assets by 36% & 64% for
Pakistan and India. India gave worn out, rusted and damaged weapon to Pakistan 150000 Muslims
troops came to Pakistan. There were 4000 officers required by the military but initially we had only 2500
Muslim officers. Jinnah promoted 1000 officers from within army and included 500 British officers
including Commander in Chief Sir Douglas Gracey. There was no ordinance factory in Pakistan as India
refused to give any factory to Pakistan out of 16 ordinance factories in India. It paid Rs. 60 million and
Pakistan built a factory at Wah.

Canal Water Dispute

Most of the rivers flowing in Pakistan have their origin in India. In 1948, India stopped water supply to
Pakistani canals to damage the Pakistani agriculture. However, Pakistan argued its economy depended
on irrigation canals. So in May 1948, a temporary agreement was reached and India allowed the flow of
water on the condition to find out alternatives soon. Later in 1960 an agreement called Indus Water
Treaty was signed between the two countries.

Accommodation of Refugees

On the birth of Pakistan, Hindus and Sikhs became more furious. In a planned move, Muslims properties
were set on fire and they were compelled to leave India for Pakistan with nothing but their lives.
Millions of refugees were killed before they reached Pakistan. Many migrants were looted and killed. It
was estimated that about ten million people crossed the border and two million refugees arrived in
Karachi alone. About 1 million people died and another 20 million were homeless. Lack of funds in
Pakistan to provide medical care and shelter increased the burden on the new country.

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Discuss and Prepare:

Q: Why were there the problems of division assets?

Q: Why was there a refugee problem?

Q: Why was there a canal water dispute?

Q: How successful was Jinnah as Governor General. Explain your answer. (14)

Jinnah had to face many problems after partition during 1947-48. There were number of successful as
well as less successful aspects of Jinnah as Governor General.

One of the major successes of Jinnah was the formation of the government. He made Karachi the capital
of the country. It was difficult to find buildings to set up government offices. However, Jinnah managed
to form a secretariat and established government offices in the Sindh Assembly’s building. He assumed
the office as the first Governor General, with Liaquat Ali Khan as the first Prime Minister of the newly-
formed state. Moreover, he invited many government officers from Delhi to relocate to Karachi with the
help of British and Orient Airways so they could help govern the country. He also secured the
membership of United Nations to gain recognition and support among the other nations of the world.
He also inaugurated the State Bank of Pakistan on 1st July 1948 in order to develop banking and a strong
financial system in the country.

Furthermore, he worked to establish the military. When Pakistan needed around 4000 more officers,
Jinnah filled in the positions by inviting 500 British officers such as the first army chief, Sir Douglas
Gracey. As the Governor General, Jinnah set up a new ordinance factory in Wah with the 60 million
Rupees which were given to Pakistan as compensation. This was the POF (Pakistan Ordinance Factory),
which became Pakistan’s first and only ordinance factory while India had 16 such factories. Jinnah also
set up the military General Head Quarters in Rawalpindi.

Around 8-10 million people crossed the border after independence. Karachi alone received around 2
million refugees. For a new state, it was hard to accommodate this mass migration of people. To tackle
this problem, Jinnah introduced Refugee Rehabilitation Fund and made arrangements for the provision
of shelter to 20 million people who were homeless.

Lastly, Jinnah also tried his best to solve Canal Water dispute he reached a compromise with India which
ensured that Pakistan’s agriculture would not be denied the precious water supplies which resulted in
agricultural production.

However, there were some less successful aspects of Jinnah as well .One of Jinnah’s failures as the
Governor General was that his inability to supervise the constitution-making process in Pakistan, which
later was delayed for 8 years. Had Jinnah made the constitution himself, it would’ve laid a strong
political foundation for the newly-formed state. However, the absence of a constitution proved to be
the core of many other problems in the future.

Failure to fund a permanent solution to the issue of the princely states particularly Kashmir can be seen
as yet another failure. There were no success achieved through the Kashmir War in 1948 except few
areas that were taken over Pakistan, while the major part is still occupied by India. The Kashmir issue
wasn’t resolved by Jinnah as Governor General. There was also no permanent resolution to
accommodate the refugees. Similarly, although the Canal Water Dispute was resolved for the time

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being, the problem posed a grave threat to Pakistan’s agriculture until the Indus water Treaty of 1960
was finally signed between India and Pakistan.

To conclude, though Jinnah had great accomplishments as a Governor General, such as the
establishment of the State Bank of Pakistan and the GHQ but he would’ve been proven to be more
effective had he focused more on critical issues like the Kashmir issue and a new constitution that was
acceptable to both wings of Pakistan.

Q: The Formation of government was the most important problem faced by Pakistan than any other in
the early years of Pakistan. Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. (14)

There were many problems faced by Pakistan after its independence and some of them have been
discussed below with a conclusion.

Pakistan had to face a huge problem in the formation of its government. The first problem was to select
a capital. Although Karachi wasn’t the first choice, it was still chosen as capital nonetheless. While Sindh
Assembly was chosen as an office of the government, it displeased the Bengalis as the capital was far
away from them and they had minimal contact with the government itself. Urdu was chosen as national
language by Jinnah which also made Bengalis upset as 56% of the population spoke Bengali while only
6% were Urdu speaking. However, Jinnah was firm on his decision. Jinnah was Pakistan’s first Governor
General while Liaqat Ali Khan was appointed as the first Prime Minister. Pakistan also lacked good Civil
Servants and to solve this problem, officers who opted for this were flown from Delhi to Karachi via
British and Orient Airways.

Pakistan was also challenged socially as there were five different nations joining together which caused
many problems. There were five different ethnic groups who spoke five different languages; Punjabis,
Sindhis, Pakhtoons, Balochis and even Bengalis. So choosing one national language was hard, therefore
Jinnah chose Urdu as a uniting force. All of them had different cultures, literature, music and even
festivals.

There were many economic problems faced by Pakistan. Out of the reserve of 4 billion rupees, Pakistan
was to receive only 750 million as its share. However, Pakistan only got 200 million from its share but
the transfer was stopped due to the Kashmir war. As a new state, Pakistan had to face extreme
difficulties like shortage of stationery in the government offices. The remaining 500 million was
transferred to Pakistan due to Gandhi’s efforts as he started a hunger strike which forced Nehru to
handover Pakistan’s share.

When independence was announced, around 8-10 million people crossed the border as they found
themselves on the wrong side of the border. Karachi alone received 2 million refugees who settled in
Karachi but Pakistan as a new state wasn’t able to accommodate all the refugees. To make matters
worse, communal violence resulted in almost 1 million deaths. 20 million people ended up being
homeless in Pakistan and even after Jinnah’s Refugee Rehabilitation Fund, there was no permanent
solution to this.

Most of the rivers flowing in Pakistan have their origin in India. In 1948, India stopped water supply to
Pakistani canals to damage the Pakistani agriculture. However Pakistan argued its economy depended
on irrigation canals. So in May 1948, a temporary agreement was reached and India allowed the flow of
water on the condition to find out alternatives soon. Later in 1960 an agreement called Indus Water
Treaty was signed between the two countries.

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In conclusion, Pakistan’s political problems were the main reason for many other minor problems such
as the delay in the making of a new constitution as many Ministers and Prime Ministers were inefficient
and incapable of performing their duties. This caused many other problems.

Q: Why was it difficult to agree on a new constitution in 1950s? / Why was there a delay in
constitution making in Pakistan? [7]

Primarily, there was a difference in opinion over the nature of the constitution which delayed the
process. Many religious factions opposed the proposals presented by the Basic Principles Committee in
September 1950 and considered it insufficiently Islamic. Ulamas wanted a complete Shariah in the state
whereas liberals wanted western democracy to be followed.

Moreover, East Pakistan had a much larger population than West Pakistan and resented the idea of
equal representation in the National Assembly. East Pakistan also resented having to accept Urdu as an
official language at the expense of Bengali. This led to a delay in the constitution making as there could
not be an agreement on key issues. Besides this, opposition from local and provincial politicians against
the Head of the State being given all great powers proved to be a hindrance in the development of the
new constitution. Provincial politicians objected to the power being given to the federal government as
they wanted provincial autonomy and limited powers for the federal government.

Finally, the death of Jinnah was another major setback. In the absence of such a towering personality it
was not easy to make a constitution that was accepted by all. Later on, the assassination of Liaquat Ali
Khan, further increased the political instability and the quest for power between the Governor Generals
and Prime Ministers started which further stalled the constitution making process. Consequently,
Liaquat Ali Khan had to withdraw the proposals and Pakistan had to wait another six years before it
could have its own constitution.

Q. To what extent did Pakistan achieve a new constitution between 1947 and 1973? Explain your
answer. [14]

After independence in 1947, Pakistan had to make a new constitution. The extent to which Pakistan was
success in achieve this goal between 1947 and 1973 is discussed below with a conclusion.

The first attempt to set up a constitution came in 1949 with the Basic Principles Committee which tried
to pave the way towards a new constitution. It attempted to set out a plan to enshrine Islamic principles
in an eventual constitution and presented its proposals in the Objective Resolution. One of them was
that it should be a Western Democracy with Islamic values. The later constitutions were based on it. In
1952 a revised Basic Principles Committee presented a report which made firm steps towards an Islamic
constitution by stating that the Head of State should be Muslim and that he would appoint a committee
of Islamic specialists to ensure that all legislation conformed to Islamic law.

In 1956 the long awaited constitution emerged with the important declaration that Pakistan was to be
an Islamic Republic and that Urdu and Bengali would be the official languages, which was an attempt to
placate the people of East Pakistan. Iskandar Mirza became the Governor General and Chaudhary
Muhammad Ali was the Prime Minister. It was based on a parliamentary system with President having
power to choose the Prime Minister and in case of emergency dissolve the National Assembly. There
was a cabinet for Prime Minister and an Islamic Committee with the right to veto on legislation against
Shariah. There were national and provincial assemblies with elected members. There were separate
Federal and Provincial Courts too.

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In 1959 Basic Democracies were introduced by Ayub Khan which was a 4 tier structure of government,
allowing elections at various levels. The success of these councils which were set up was such that
martial law was lifted in 1962 after a new constitution was introduced. This was a Presidential form of
Constitution in which all powers were with President General Ayub. With this the Martial Law was lifted.
The name ‘Islamic Republic of Pakistan’ was given and Bengali was also accepted as official language in
it.

In 1971, General Yahya’s martial law ended. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto took charge and with full consensus of all
parties he formulated a constitution in 1973. This Constitution of 1973 revived the power of the National
Assembly and as a result political parties became more important. This constitution is present till date.
It is a parliamentary form of constitution. It guarantees all basic fundamental human rights. Islamic
Ideological Council was formed to keep legislation in line with Islam. The Upper House (Senate) was
introduced which was to have equal members from all provinces. Lower House (National Assembly) had
elected members according to population. This constitution was and still is considered supreme by all.

However, these efforts made to achieve a new constitution also had failures. The Objectives Resolution
of 1949 was sharply criticized especially by East Pakistan who resented the fact that Urdu, not Bengali
was to be the official language despite the much larger population. Other provinces resented the major
powers being given to the federal government. It also resented the idea of equal representation in the
National Assembly, again due to the size of its population. Ulamas objected that it was not much Islamic.
The second draft given in 1952 also had more or less the same drawbacks. The Basic Principles
Committee’s proposals were not fruitful enough to ever form a constitution. The death of Liaquat Ali
Khan meant that constitutional change had to wait until a new leader could be found and had time to
settle in.

The Basic Principles Committee’s report was challenged because the official language issue was still not
settled and East Pakistan was determined to oppose the selection of Urdu. Political uncertainties and
change meant that further discussions towards establishing a new constitution were put on hold for a
few years until 1956.

The 1956 constitution was heavily criticized since it didn’t solve the political problems of Pakistan. The
constitution promised a parliamentary system of government but whilst the President held the power to
intervene or even suspend the Assembly. East Pakistan was very unhappy at not having a majority in the
Assembly that it believed its vast population deserved. It was abolished 2 years later in 1958 as a result
of martial law by General Ayub but was never re-enforced. Apart from this, the points of the constitution
were a compromise between the wishes of Muslim League and United Front (the two main parties).
Neither of them were completely satisfied thus it was not proven as strong. Like the United Front had to
drop its objection to equal seats and demand of full provincial autonomy.

In 1962, General Ayub gave his own constitution. It was also not very successful. The 1962 constitution
increased the powers of the ruling elite which happened because the major landlords dominated the
elections to the Basic Democracies and often used force or bribery to influence the results .The
constitution also upset the people of East Pakistan as they felt they were going to have little part in the
governing of Pakistan and that the power was held by the military and civil officials of West Pakistan.
Basic Democracy and Constitution of 1962 were both abolished by General Yahya in 1969 as he took
charge.

In conclusion, it can be said that Pakistan was successful and able to achieve a new constitution in 1973
despite setbacks like political instability and two military coups. The Pakistani politics finally evolved to

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fully achieve a parliamentary form of government. Despite being suspended by two military leaders in
1977 and 1999, this constitution is still intact till date, which is a testimony to its inherent strength and
comprehensive nature.

1948-1958
Q. Who of the following contributed the most to Pakistan’s domestic policies between 1948 and 1958?

i) Liaquat Ali Khan

ii) Malik Ghulam Muhammad
iii) Iskander Mirza

Explain with reference to all three above. [14]

All three of them contributed towards the development of Pakistan.

In March 1949, during Liaquat Ali Khan’s time, Objectives Resolution was passed to lay out fundamental
principles to make constitution. It was reviewed by the Basic Principles committee in September 1950
and the draft constitution recommended a bicameral legislature with both houses having equal powers.
Urdu was kept as national language. However, the religion parties declared it insufficiently Islamic. East
Pakistan objected to equal share in the parliament as it had more population than West Pakistan. It also
criticized on Urdu being the only national language. Liaquat Ali Khan introduced PRODA (Public
Representatives and Officers Disqualification Act) in order to curtail corruption in Pakistan. Liaquat Ali
Khan was able to foil a coup of military officers. In March 1951, in the famous Rawalpindi Conspiracy
case, Major Akbar Khan and fourteen other officers were arrested. However, in October 1951 Liaquat Ali
Khan was assassinated in Rawalpindi while addressing a public rally.

After Liaquat Ali Khan, Malik Ghulam Muhammad persuaded Khawaja Nazim-ud-Din to step down as
Prime Minister, he became the 3rd Governor General in Oct. 1951 himself. In order to develop Pakistan
economically he introduced a 6 years economic development plan in 1951 that was later further
extended to another 5 years plan. Its aim was to make economic planning regarding industry, power and
transport sectors. A major jute processing plant was set up in 1952 in East Pakistan. As a result of efforts
for exploring oil and gas reserves, natural gas was discovered at Sui in Balochistan in 1952.

In 1952-53 Pakistan had positive Balance of Payment (BOP) due to a huge demand of cotton and jute in
Korean War that caused large scale export of these commodities. During the same period however,
there was serious food shortage due to droughts in east and West Pakistan and violence that was
aggravated by an anti-Qadiani movement. Ulamas demanded removal of Ahmadis from key posts
including the foreign minister Sir Zafar Ullah Khan. Making this an excuse, Malik Ghulam Muhammad
dismissed Khawaja Nazim-ud-Din in April 1953.

Muhammad Ali Bogra was the new PM. During his period a clause restricting the powers of the
Governor General was passed from assembly. PRODA was also abolished by the assembly as Governor
General could misuse it. However, Ghulam Muhammad soon dismissed Bogra’s government and
dissolved the Constituent Assembly in September 1954. He re-appointed Bogra as PM with five non-
assembly members as ministers in cabinet including Ayub Khan as defense minister. The new
constituent Assembly was elected in June 1955. In August 1955 M.G. Muhammad fell ill and Iskandar
Mirza became the new Governor General.

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Iskander Mirza appointed Ch. Muhammad Ali as new Prime Minister. The One Unit Scheme was
introduced by Iskander Mirza in Oct, 1955 by merging together all provinces of West Pakistan to make
two Provinces; East and West Pakistan. Ch. M. Ali drafted Pakistan’s first constitution that was
implemented in March 1956. It introduced federal, parliamentary from of government though the
President had powers to appoint and dismiss the P.M. After One Unit Scheme, East and West Pakistan
had equal seats in the one house parliament, the National Assembly. However, the Constitution was
abrogated in Oct, 1958 by Iskander Mirza himself. Karachi airport was completed, railways were
modernized and telephone network was expanded

Mirza failed to have good relations with his Prime Ministers. Ch. M Ali was dismissed and replaced by
Hussain Shaheed Suharwardy in Sept. 1957. Suharwardy was replaced by I.I Chundrigar in Oct, 1957 and
was replaced by Feroz Khan Noon (Dec. 1957 to 7th Oct, 1958). Finally, on 7th October, 1958 he declared
Martial Law and appointed General Ayub Khan as the CMLA (Chief Marital Law Administrator).

To conclude, LAK contributed the most as he took the first step towards political and economic stability
of the new state of Pakistan. The Objectives Resolution of March 1949 remains the preamble of the
1973 Constitution till date.

Q. Explain why there was a constitutional crisis in 1958? [7]

In 1955, Iskander Mirza become the Governor General. However, he wanted to get more power than the
Prime Minister. In 1956, when the Constitution was presented, he reserved the emergency powers (also
to choose the Prime Minister and dissolve the assemblies). However, the Prime Ministers he appointed
were not in favor to be directed by him. Due to this, work relations weren’t consistent. Between 1955
and 1958, five different prime ministers tried unsuccessfully to establish a stable government, until it
reached a stage where Ayub Khan felt the army should take control so stability could be restored, hence
martial law was proclaimed.

Prior to 1958, previous governments endured a number of problems that hampered development and
economic growth such as food shortages and a drought, which led to demonstrations of discontent.
Ulamas also began to campaign against the Ahmedis. As civil leadership found difficulty in dealing with
these matters, there were many personnel changes to try to find a solution. As a result, little
constitutional development could take place. Later, General Ayub felt that the situation could only be
brought under control by the implementation of a martial law in 1958 thus leading to the crisis.

Perhaps another reason for the constitutional crisis was that Iskander Mirza wanted to remain in power.
The Constitution of 1956 promised elections in 1957 but were delayed since he had become unpopular
and it was very unlikely for him to win. Moreover, he faced severe opposition from Hussain Suharwardy
who was removed from Prime Minister-ship after which he attempted to unite the political leadership of
Bengal and Punjab against Mirza. To prevent this, in lieu of elections, martial law was proclaimed, which
led to a constitutional crisis in 1958. When martial was promulgated, naturally the constitution was
abrogated leading to an emergency.

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AYUB KHAN (1958-1969)

Q: Why was martial law imposed in 1958? / Why Ayub Khan abrogated the 1956 constitution? / Why
Ayub Khan took over the government? [7]

The Pakistan’s military had Bonapartist tendencies (tendency of military to take over the government by
force) from the beginning. The death of the towering personality of Quaid-e-Azam further raised this
tendency of the military. In the Rawalpindi conspiracy of 1951 General Akbar Khan with 14 other officers
tried to intervene in the democratic government but failed. The political instability after the
assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan further increased the military influence. There were 8 different Prime
ministers in a decade. Governor general Iskander Mirza dismissed 4 different Prime ministers during his
rule. Due to this incompetency of political leadership to run the state efficiently it became necessary for
the military to take over the government on the excuse of saving the country.

Politicians were also responsible for dragging military into politics. Malik Ghulam Muhammad
introduced Ayub Khan as a defense minister in the cabinet of Muhammad Ali Bogra. During this time
period, Ayub Khan claimed to decline the offer by Malik Ghulam Muhammad of taking over the
government several times. Later, Iskander Mirza appointed Ayub Khan as a Prime minister who
ultimately forced Iskander Mirza to resign.

The delay in constitution making because of lack of agreement between East and West Pakistan over
equal representation in the parliament and the language issue also made the situation worse as
politicians failed to solve the constitutional crisis for a long time. Even after the constitution of 1956,
politicians failed to bring stability resulting in imposing of Martial law. There were severe food shortages
and riots in the country in 1950’s. The politicians had a lack of interest in developing the country
economically. On the other hand, India was rapidly progressing both economically and militarily posing a
serious threat to Pakistan’s existence. India also threatened to stop the water flowing to Pakistan. All
these reasons led to think the military to take over the government.

Q. Why was there a fall in Ayub’s rule in 1969?

Ayub’s political reforms garnered much criticism. In 1965, Ayub Khancontested the election against
Mohtarma Fatima Jinnah and was victorious. Madre- Millat was able to secure only 36 per cent seats
against Ayub. Many accused him of rigging. Moreover, the 1962 constitution gave a presidential form of
government in Pakistan in which all the powers were in the hands of the President. The provincial
leaders and political parties had very limited say in the government in the decade of 1960s. This
concentration of powers with the President was considered undemocratic as the National Assembly
could not pass any law without his consent. Most of his basic Democrats had also resigned by 1969.

The 1965 War led to the Tashkent declaration. Bhutto (the foreign minister) turned against Ayub Khan. It
was publicized that Pakistan had won the war on the front but lost it during the table talks at Tashkent.
It made the people emotional. Ayub reacted by sacking Bhutto, who then established his own political
party; Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) and became a strong point of opposition against Ayub Khan. A
Democratic Action Committee was setup to collaborate for demonstrations against Ayub Khan.

The failure of his economic and agricultural policies to give relief to poor people of Pakistan also resulted
in his downfall. At the end of 1960s it was revealed that 66% of the industrial assets and 80% of the
banking and insurance sectors were controlled by 22 families. All these families belonged to West
Pakistan. In agriculture the machinery, tubewells and HYV of seeds were affordable for landlords only.

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Hence, the land reforms also failed to work in true letter and spirit because of strong domination of the
landlords. Other problems included inflation that had become high in the period between 1968 and
1969.Sugar prices were raised causingwidespread protests and mass demonstrations. Though the
agricultural produce increased but basic commodities were still not within the reach of the common
man.

Q. How successful were Ayub Khan's foreign policies between 1958 and 1959? Explain your answer.
[14]

Ayub khan had multiple successes with his foreign policies. While he was the President, the Soviet
Union strived to make better relations with Pakistan. China's relations with Pakistan also grew as a result
so did with the Soviet Unions. And in 1961, the Soviet Union agreed to begin exploring oil in Pakistan. In
1965, Ayub Khan also visited the Soviet Union, were he discussed agreements on exploration of trade
and oil exploration as well as giving Pakistan a £ 11 million loan. As a result, USSR and Pakistan’s
relations prospered during Ayub's time.

China's relations with Pakistan also improved. China had a border dispute with India in the early 1960s,
and this led to Sino-India cold wars. As a result, China wanted to improve relations with Pakistan. And in
1962, Pakistan and China began setting up talks to discuss their border that was resolved peacefully by
1963. Still China continued to show good relations with Pakistan in Ayub's time, as in 1963 China gave
Pakistan a $60 million interest free loan. This was a huge milestone in Pak-China relationship during
Ayub's time.

In 1966 relations with India and the Soviet Union improved. The Tashkent Declaration was set up by the
Soviet Union in order to find a peaceful solution for the Kashmir issue. This resulted in India and Pakistan
handling the Kashmir issue peacefully. It also improved the Soviet Union’s image in Pakistan, as they
were impressed by their rationality and organizational skills.

However, during Ayub's time there were also some problems regarding his foreign policy as there wasn't
always hope with relations with China. In 1958 and 1959, China was developing relations with India. Not
to mention, Pakistan being a new country at the time looked towards the US for foreign aid. So when
the US voted against China joining the United Nations, Pakistan had no choice but to do so as well, while
abiding by the US’s anti-communism ways, which deteriorated China and Pakistan relations.

In 1960, the U2 crisis led to Pakistan and USSR relations being damaged. The US had sent a spy plane
from an air base in Peshawar, Pakistan. The plane was shot down when it entered Russian airspace. The
pilot Gary Powers confirmed that he had flown in from Pakistan. The USSR then threatened Pakistan, as
it was a sign of possible war. Pakistan then informed the US to notify Pakistan where its planes were
headed when flown from a Pakistan air base. This was a boost in US and Pakistan’s relations but poorly
impacted Pakistan's relations with USSR during Ayub Khan's time.

Lastly, in 1965 India and Pakistan went to war over Kashmir territory. On the first of September, Pakistan
had attacked India, because they began integrating Kashmir territory into India. On the sixth of
September, India attacked Pakistan near Lahore. Many lives and resources were wasted. The battle left
no decisive winner. No rational agreement followed either. This was a detriment to Pakistan and India
relations, as Kashmir remains a disputed territory to this day.

In conclusion, Ayub Khan faced an overall success regarding his foreign policies, as during his time he
built good relations with China, as well as the Soviet Union. There was also an attempt to make harmony
with India regarding the Kashmir issue.

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Q. Agriculture reforms of Ayub Khan were more important than any other during the Decade of
Development. Do you agree? Explain your answer. [14]

The importance of Ayub Khan’s reforms during the Decade of Development are discussed below.

Ayub Khan’s agricultural policy included land reforms. He worked on the plan that no landlord should
have more than 500 acres of irrigated land or more than 1000 acres of unirrigated land. The excess was
confiscated and re-distributed to the poor farmers. The minimum land for a farmer was fixed to 12.5
acres. This made the lands more productive since all were cultivated. It also aimed to break the strong
hold of the feudal lords. Moreover, modern means of agriculture were also introduced, such as the use
of machinery, High Yielding Varieties (HYV) of seeds, chemical fertilizers and tube-wells. Farmers were
also granted loans. Under the Indus Water Treaty of 1960, 3 dams and several perennial canals were
also built. All these measures resulted in a boost in the agricultural production of the country, thereby
reducing food shortage.

In light of his economic policy, Ayub launched a programme of ‘industrialization’ in the country under
which many industries were set up. Due to the Green Revolution, locally produced agricultural raw
material became abundantly available. Furthermore, an oil refinery was established at Karachi in 1962 in
order to reduce the import cost of oil. The Pakistan Mineral Development Cooperation (PMDC) was also
set up for the exploration of minerals. Furthermore, to encourage the private sector a number of
incentives were offered which included tax holidays and subsidies. The Export Bonus Scheme (EBS) was
also introduced for the same purpose. As a result of this, Pakistan’s GDP rose to 7%, which was 3 times
that of India.

Equally important were Ayub Khan’s social and educational reforms, under which new curricula and
books were introduced in educational institutions. Massive literacy programs were also started
alongside building of many schools and colleges. Homes for 75,000 refugees were also built in Karachi
under the supervision of General Azam Khan which improved their living standards. Hospitals were also
built and better medical facilities were introduced. To control a high population growth rate, new family
laws were implemented that discouraged polygamy. These had some degree of success.

The new capital city, Islamabad was also built during this decade, which then replaced Karachi. Away
from borders, in a secure place and easily approachable from every part of the country, it was a state of
the art capital. Other reforms were brought about to control inflation. People were prevented from
hoarding goods and selling them at inflated prices. Profiteers had their goods confiscated and many
were arrested. As a result, this action brought prices of many goods down and that benefitted people. In
addition to this, the price of milk and other goods were fixed to stop profiteering which helped families
to manage their weekly budget better.

As he believed in a “controlled democracy”, Ayub presented a 4 tier system of Basic Democracies under
the Basic Democracies Order in 1959, the public elected Union Council members who then elected the
district and divisional councils. All elected candidates were called Basic Democrats (BDs) and formed
electoral-college for the election of the President. 80,000 BDs were elected who were responsible for
the local development including health, education, water and sanitation and roads.

Later in 1962, the constitution was presented that formed the basis of a Presidential form of
government. The President who had all the executive powers, could annul any law made by the National
Assembly and even dissolve the assemblies using his emergency powers. He was elected by the Electoral
College for a span of five years. Both East and West wings had equal number of seats in the provincial
assemblies, but to win over the support of East Pakistan, Urdu and Bengali were both declared the

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national languages. Although these constitutional reforms lifted the martial law and ensured political
stability but they were heavily criticized by East Pakistan on basis of indirect election and the sweeping
powers of the President.

In conclusion, I agree that the economic reforms were the most important than any other since the
country’s GDP rose to 7%, which was 3 times of India and Pakistan became a model for many “Asian
Tigers” like South Korea and Malaysia.

Q. How successful were Ayub’s agricultural and economic policies? Explain your answer. [14]

The success and failures of Ayub Khan’s agricultural and economic policies have been discussed below
with a conclusion.

Ayub Khan’s agricultural policy included land reforms. He worked on the plan that no land lord should
have more than 500 acres of irrigated land or more than 1000 acres of unirrigated land. The excess was
confiscated and re-distributed to the poor farmers. The minimum land for a farmer was fixed to 12.5
acres. This made the lands more productive since all were cultivated. It also aimed to break the strong
hold of feudal lords. Moreover, modern means of agriculture were also introduced, such as the use of
machinery, High Yielding Varieties (HYV) of seeds, chemical fertilizers and tube-wells. Farmers were also
granted loans. Under the Indus Water Treaty of 1960, 3 dams and several perennial canals were also
built. All these measures resulted in a boost in the agricultural production of the country, thereby
reducing food shortage.

In light of his economic policy, Ayub launched a programme of ‘industrialization’ in the country under
which many industries were set up. Due to the Green Revolution, locally produced agricultural raw
material was abundantly available. Furthermore, an oil refinery was established at Karachi in 1962 in
order to reduce the import cost of oil. The Pakistan Mineral Development Cooperation (PMDC) was also
established for the exploration of minerals. Furthermore, an Export Bonus Scheme (EBS) was also
introduced that gave incentives to the exporters to increase the exports of the country. As a result of
this, Pakistan’s GDP rose to 7%, which was 3 times that of India.

On the contrary, Ayub Khan’s agricultural policy had failures as well. Due to the strong social position
and influence of the local zamindars, many of whom were members of the parliament, the success of
these reforms was very poor and only a very few people benefitted from them. In order to save their
land from any legal action, these landlords were able to manipulate the land records by bribing officers.
Moreover, the modern machinery for farming was also very expensive for the poor farmers. Only the
rich farmers could afford to buy them so only their lands’ production increased. Therefore, they were
the real beneficiaries of these reforms. On the other hand, the use of expensive modern means made
production cost expensive which led to a 25 per cent hike in the prices of food products. The resultant
inflation caused economic disparity among the rich and the poor, making the policies a failure.

There were setbacks of the economic policies as well, which were indeed long lasting as a super elite
class was formed due to mismanagement of these policies. Till the end of 1960’s, 22 families of the
country had control of 66% industry and 80% of banks and insurance companies. In other words, they
had the power to manipulate markets by fake inflation and black market. General public became
dependent on this mafia. This great class difference was a cause of resentment in general public.
Another drawback was that all 22 families were from West Pakistan, meaning East Pakistan had no
significant benefit from the economic policies, rather the difference became more apparent and
resentment increased further in East Pakistan.

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In conclusion, I believe that Ayub Khan’s agricultural and economic reforms were not much successful
since the agricultural reforms were not useful for the poor whereas the economic reforms favoured a
super elite besides also causing disparity between the two wings which led to formation of Bangladesh.

Basic Democracy

→ Provincial development advisory council (PDAC) (2)

→ (Members appointed by the President)
→ To decide national policies such as education, economics and agriculture
→ District and divisional councils (16) (based on population)
→ (Members were civil servants appointed by PDAC)
→ Extensive powers to adapt national policies to local circumstances
→ Tehsil committees (655)
→ To supervise distribution of resources
→ Local committees: rural union and urban union committees (7300)
→ (Members elected by the people, known as Basic Democrats (BDs)
→ To raise local taxes; supervise local services such as sanitation and roads

Those who were elected to the lowest tier of government, the local committees, were given the title
Basic Democrats (BDs). There were about 80,000 Basic Democrats, later increasing to 120,000. The first
elections for the BDs were held between 26 December 1959 and January 1960. Political parties were not
allowed to take part. Then Ayub Khan gave the newly elected BDs the chance to vote in a referendum as
to whether or not he should remain as President. Ayub Khan, who has seized power, was then able to
claim that he had the backing of the people of Pakistan.

1962 Constitution

The new constitution was announced on 1st March, 1962. It introduced a presidential form of
government giving all the powers to Ayub Khan. The National Legislature could not pass a law without
the approval of the President. The President nominated the Cabinet from the members of National
Assembly. The President nominated the heads of the judiciary and the provincial governors. If the
President was from West Pakistan, and then the Speaker of the National Assembly was to be from East
Pakistan. The National Assembly had equal seats of East and West Pakistan under the One Unit Scheme.
Both Urdu and Bengali were recognized as national languages. The majority of powers under Ayub Khan
further upset the people of East Pakistan as they were in favor of larger provincial autonomy. They felt
that they would have little part in governing Pakistan.

Agricultural Reforms

He also introduced agricultural reforms according to which no one could occupy land less than
12.5 acres and more than 500 acres irrigated land and 1000 acres unirrigated land. The excess land was
given to the poor farmers by the government. Ayub Khan wanted to modernize agriculture. For increase
in production mechanization, fertilizers, modern seeds, pesticides and tube wells were introduced.
Loans were given to poor farmers. As the area of cultivation increased so is the output. However, these
caused economic disparity between the rich and the poor farmers because the main beneficiaries of this
modernization in agriculture were the rich farmers. Besides this, as the cost of production of crops
increased so there price also increased.

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Industrial Reforms

Ayub Khan’s government created an environment where the private sector was encouraged to establish
medium and small-scale industries in Pakistan. It created new job opportunities and the economic graph
of the country started rising. During 1960–66, the annual GDP growth was recorded at 6.8%. It was three
times more than India at that time. An oil refinery was setup at Karachi to reduce the import cost of oil.
To extract minerals, the Mineral Development Corporation was setup. To encourage exports, Export
Bonus Scheme was introduced. However, the profit and revenue was gained by the famous 22
families of the time that controlled 66% of the industries and land of the country and 80% of
the banking and insurance companies of Pakistan. So a small elite group of wealthy Pakistani’s had
almost complete control of Pakistan’s wealth. All these developments were also based on foreign aid
from US UK and Germany etc.

Social Reforms

He also introduced a new curricula and textbooks for universities and schools after building many public-
sector universities and schools were built during his era. To give accommodation to refugees Ayub Khan
appointed General Azam Khan the Rehabilitation Minister and he settled 75000 refugees in Karachi. In
order to control a high population growth rate Family Planning Program was started. More medical and
nursing training institutes were set up to increase the number of doctors and nurses. He also started
building new capital city Islamabad.

Q: Ayub Khan’s period was rightly called as Decade of development? Do you agree or disagree? Give
reasons for your answer. [14]

YAHYA KHAN (1969-71)

Separation of East Pakistan
Political Problems

East Pakistan claimed that as their population was greater (54% of the total population) they should
have more seats in the Parliament than West Pakistan. East Bengalis also complained that majority of
Governor–Generals and Prime Ministers were nearly always from West Pakistan. This was also true of
appointments to senior positions in the Armed Forces (less than 20% of officers were from East
Pakistan). Most of the political decision making was done in West Pakistan, especially in Karachi and
later in Islamabad. Most of the Civil Servants appointed in East Pakistan were from West Pakistan.
Headquarters of the armed forces were located in West Pakistan. All this promoted a sense of
deprivation and alienation among the people of East Pakistan.

Economic Disparity

Since 1947 there was an increasing economic disparity between East Pakistan and West Pakistan.
Whenever the government took steps for developments, the measures seemed to favor West Pakistan.
The difference between the two wings increased further during Ayub Khan’s time period. The people of
East Pakistan believed that earnings from their trade in jute were used in West Pakistan. The famous 22
richest families during the rule of Ayub Khan were all from the West Pakistan. The per capita income of
people of West Pakistan was more than East Pakistanis. Between 1949 and 1960 the per capita income
increased in West Pakistan from 330 rupees to 373 rupees. In East Pakistan it declined from 305 rupees
to 288. In 1951 the per capita income of East Pakistan was 85% of that of West Pakistan. In other words,

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West Pakistan were, on average 15% wealthier than East Pakistanis. By 1970, the gap had grown to
40%.This difference was also seen in health and education. In 1948, there were only 200 doctors and
3000 hospital beds in the whole of East Pakistan. Between 1947 and 1958, the numbers in primary
school in West Pakistan rose by 163% but in East Pakistan, the increase was just 38%.

Failure to Transfer Power

When the federal general election was held, the Awami League emerged as the single largest party in
the Pakistani parliament. The League won 160 out of 162 seats in East Pakistan, thereby crossing the half
way mark of 150 in the 300-seat National Assembly of Pakistan. This victory gave the Awami League the
right to form a government. But the League failed to win a single seat in West Pakistan, where the
Pakistan People’s Party emerged as the single largest party with 81 seats. Yahya Khan was reluctant to
transfer power because of six points and conducted prolonged negotiations with the League. A civil
disobedience movement erupted across East Pakistan demanding the convening of parliament. Mujib-
ur-Rehman announced a struggle for independence from Pakistan during a speech on 7 March 1971.
Between 7–26 March, East Pakistan was virtually under the popular control of the Awami League.

On Pakistan's Republic Day on 23 March 1971, the first flag of Bangladesh was hoisted in many East
Pakistani households. The Pakistan Army launched a crackdown on 26 March, including Operation
Searchlight.

Indian Intervention

During operation searchlight India allowed the people of East Pakistan to come to its territory as
refugees and gained sympathy. The Indian intervention was firstly indirect as it fully trained, funded and
equipped the Bengali militant separatist group Mukti Bahini (The Liberation Army) fighting against
Pakistan army. It started a civil war in East Pakistan. Pakistan army was fighting against its own people.
On 4th Dec, 1971 India intervened directly waging war against Pakistan in the East. Pakistani forces tried
to divert attention by attacking on western border but in vain. India applied naval and air blockade to
stop military supplies to East Pakistan. On 16 Dec1971, about 90,000 Pakistani forces surrendered
resulting in the creation of Bangladesh.

Six Points

In 1966, Awami League’s leader Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rehman announced the six point movement in Lahore.
The movement demanded greater provincial autonomy and the restoration of democracy in Pakistan.
They include:

1. A directly elected government.

2. The federal government to control defence and foreign policy. All other decisions to be made at
provincial level.
3. Separate currencies and/or financial policies for East and West Pakistan, to stop all the money
flowing from East Pakistan to West Pakistan.
4. The provinces to tax their people and send a share to the federal government.
5. Each province to set up its own trade agreements with other countries and to control the money
spent/made through this trade.
6. Each province to have its own troops.

Q: Economic factors contributed the most towards the separation of East Pakistan in 1971. Do you agree
or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

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Q: Why was there civil war in East Pakistan in 1971? [7]

SOURCE BASED QUESTIONS

SOURCE A The cyclone that broke Pakistan’s back

Cyclone Bhola hit East Pakistan on 12 November 1970. It wiped out villages, destroyed crops and killed
nearly one million people. Nearly 85 per cent of the area was destroyed. Three months after the
cyclone, 75 per cent of the population was receiving food from relief workers. Historians believe the
devastation caused by the cyclone, the view that the government had mismanaged the relief efforts and
West Pakistan’s blatant neglect, all contributed to the high levels of anti-West Pakistan feeling. This led
to a sweeping victory for the Awami League, and eventually the breakup of Pakistan and the creation of
Bangladesh. The catastrophe happened in Pakistan yet it is felt that few Pakistanis even know of it by
name. Fewer still remember that it eventually contributed to Pakistan’s breakup.

From The Express Tribune, 18 August 2010.

a) According to Source A, what problems were caused by Cyclone Bhola in 1970? [3]
b) What does Source B tell us about the outcome of the conflict between East Pakistan and West
Pakistan? [5]
c) Why did the victory of the Awami League in the 1970 elections in Pakistan cause a constitutional
crisis? [7]
d) How successful have relations between Pakistan and Bangladesh been from 1971 to 1999? Explain
your answer. [10]

4 Marks Question
The Radcliffe Award?

Radcliffe Award drew boundary b/w Pakistan and India. Sir Cyril Radcliffe was the leader. It is also known
as Boundary Commission. League was disappointed to hear the decision. Ferozepur and Gurdaspur given
to India.

Khawaja Nazimuddin?

Born in 1948. Second Governor General of Pakistan. 12 March 1949, Objective resolution was passed
during his time. He was respected as an honest and a talented politician. Leader of Muslim League &
C.M of East Pak.

Objective Resolution?

Passed on 12 March, 1949.Contained principles on which the constitution was to be based on

Recommended freedom, democracy, tolerance and social justice. Suggested Urdu as Official Language
and opposition By Religious Groups On Not Being Islamized

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PRODA?

Public and Representative Officer's Disqualification Act. Introduced in government of Kh. Nazimuddin.
Complaints about corruption. Person found guilty was debarred from holding public office. Aimed at
eliminating Corruption

Rawalpindi Conspiracy case?

1951. Many army officers not happy with the Govt. of Khawaja. Nazimuddin & Liaquat Ali Khan. Many
generals were planning a military coup against government led by General Akbar Khan. General Ayub
Khan discovered the conspiracy and many senior officers were arrested.

Ghulam Muhammad?

3rd G.G of Pak in 1951. Previously Finance Minister. Introduced first Five Year Plan for economy. Then Six
Year Plan also Dismissed Khawaja Nazim Uddin as P.M.

What is CENTO?

Central Asia Treaty Organization. US sponsored anti-Soviet military bloc to center communism in SE Asia.
Pak joined 1954 though geographically not in the region. Treaty promised aid to a member country in
the case of attack by communist states. Pak left in 1972.

Iskandar Mirza?

Governor of E Pak. Governor General in 1955. Introduced One Unit policy in 1955.Pak's 1st constitution,
1956 during his rule.1958 proclaimed Marshal law

1956 Constitution?

29 February 1956. Pakistan first Constitution. Compromise between Muslim League and United Front.
Lasted only two years. Bengali Made Second Official Language

One Unit Scheme?

November 1954.PM Bogra’s proposal to merge all provinces of west Pak region in one unit. Oct, 1955,
G.G Iskandar Mirza implemented one unit scheme. E Pak & Smaller provinces of W Pak strongly
protested. One Unit Scheme Not Successful

Ayub Khan?

27 Oct 1958 took over during Martial Law.Basic Democracies introduced in 1959. In 1962, New
Constitution. Best remember for Decade of Development

Basic Democracies?

Ayub's version of “Controlled democracy”. 80,000 basic democrats who form Electoral College for
Presidential election. A four tier set up with local bodies elected by people. Comprised elected bodies
e.g. union council. Responsible for local development.

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1962 Constitution?

1st March 1962. Ayub described it as combining democracy with discipline. Set up presidential
Government. East Pakistan Disliked It. President had the power to make laws.

Decade of Development?

Name given to Ayub’s rule of 10 year.High economics growth rate as a result of his agriculture, industrial
and social reforms. Average growth rate 7% in 1960’s.1958 - 1969

Green Revolution?

Ayub's Agricultural reforms. Fair distribution of land holdings, modern irrigation as tube wells and
reservoirs of Tarbela and Mangla, HYV seeds. Resulted in greater yield. Ceiling of Land (500 Irrigated And
1000 Non-Irrigated)

Yahya Khan?

Became president in 1969. Suspended 1962 constitution. Held general elections in 1970.Ended One unit
scheme. Appointed Chief Marshal Law administrator.

Who Was General Tikka Khan?

Former Chief Martial Law Administrator. Appointed By Yahiya Khan. Arrested Mujib Ur Rehman. Later
Dismissed By Bhutto

1971-1999
Z. A. BHUTTO 1972-77
1973 Constitution

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s first achievement after coming into power was the preparation of a Constitution for
the country. The most prominent characteristic of this Constitution was that it accommodated proposals
from the opposition parties and hence almost all the major political parties of the country accepted it.
The National Assembly approved the 1973 Constitution on April 10, 1973. This constitution came into
effect on August 14. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto took over as the Prime Minister of Pakistan from this date and
Fazal Elahi Chaudhry was appointed as the President of Pakistan. It declared Pakistan as a Federal
Republic to be known as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Islam was declared as the State religion of
Pakistan. The Constitution was parliamentary in nature and declared the President was to be the Head
of the State. The President was to be a Muslim above 45 years of age and could not hold office for more
than two terms. The President was to act on the advice of the Prime Minister of Pakistan. The 1973
Constitution set up a bicameral legislature at the Center consisting of two Houses, the National
Assembly and the Senate. The National Assembly consisted of 200 seats elected directly for a duration of
five years. The 1973 Constitution provided a free and independent Judiciary. The Constitution
guaranteed a right to the citizens; to be protected by law, and imposed two duties on them, loyalty to
the Republic and obedience to the law. Any person who was found to abrogate or attempt or conspire
to abrogate or subvert the Constitution was to be treated guilty of high treason (Article 6). The
Constitution conferred several kinds of fundamental rights to the people such as the right to life, liberty,
equality and freedom of speech, trade and association. The council of Islamic ideology which shall guide

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the government with respect to Islamic teachings. The government shall endeavor to secure correct and
exact printing and publishing of the Holy Quran.

Policy of Nationalization

On 1 January 1972, Bhutto promulgated the three-staged program, under "Nationalization and
Economic Reforms Order (NERO)", which nationalized all major metal industries, including iron and
steel, heavy engineering, heavy electrical, petrochemicals, cement and public utilities except textiles
industry. The first stage of the nationalization program integrated approximately 31 major industrial
mega corporations, industrial units and enterprises, under direct management control of the
government. The program intended to assert public ownership over the industrial mega corporations,
and to satisfy the labor unions.

After the success of the first stage, the nationalization program stepped into the second stage when it
was launched on 1 January 1974, intending to nationalize the banking and financial industry sectors in
Pakistan. Passed by the parliament, over 13 major banks, over a dozen insurance companies, two
petroleum companies and 10 shipping companies were forcefully nationalized. The third program was
soon launched in 1 July 1976, when approximately 2,000 cotton, ginning and rice husking units came
under the nationalization program.

These policies had disastrous effects on economy and damaged the confidence of investors in the
country. The nationalization program financially devastated the 22 families. Those who protested were
imprisoned by the government. At an international level, the United States fully opposed the
nationalization program and marked it as an "ill-considered" decision of the government. The
nationalization program proved beneficial as it gave "self-awareness" to labors, traders, and workers
unions who became more aware about the worker's rights and work in healthy safe environment.

Agricultural Reforms

In 1972 maximum amount of land that anyone could own was set at 150 acres of irrigated and 300 acres
of un-irrigated land. Bhutto had promised that the landless would be given land. He wanted tenants to
have security of tenure; they were given the first right to buy the land that they farmed. However,
because of the power of the landowners, Bhutto felt he had to act slowly. In reality, little of the land
changed hands as landowners found various ways to get round the new regulations, and in some cases
they even evicted tenants to stop them getting security of tenure.

Educational Reforms

Bhutto tried hard to raise the literacy rate and the educational standards. The national literacy rate, at
only 25 per cent, was dreadfully low. Less than half the children went to school; many of them had
frequent absences. Bhutto knew that Pakistan could not advance economically, socially, or even
militarily, if there was not a rapid improvement. On 1st September 1972 nearly all schools and colleges
were nationalized. The Bhutto government established a large number of rural and urban schools,
including around 6,500 elementary schools, 900 middle schools, 407 high schools, 51 intermediate
colleges and 21 junior colleges. Bhutto is credited with establishing the world class Quaid-e-Azam
University and Allama Iqbal Open University in Islamabad in 1974.

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Health Reforms

The central plan of the reforms was the introduction of Rural Health Centre’s [RHCs] and Basic Health
Units [BHUs] in urban areas to provide more widespread healthcare. The plan was to set up 1 RHC for
every 60,000 people and 1 BHU for every 20,000 people. Training college for doctors and nurses were
expected to admit students on merit. Once qualified, Doctors had to work the first year wherever the
government placed them. So that instead of working only in big cities they could be assigned a post in
small town or a village.

The sale of medicines under brand names was also banned. This practice, common in West, allows drug
companies to sell new medicines under a patent name and stop other companies manufacturing the
drug under its medical name. This measure reduced the cost of medicines dramatically. Medicines were
made available without prescription. They could be bought at any pharmacy.

Lahore Summit

The Second Islamic Summit Conference held from February 22-24, 1974 in Lahore was hosted by
Pakistan and came to be known as the Lahore Summit. It was called to discuss the Middle East situation
in the wake of Arab Israel war of October 1973 and the oil embargo imposed by Arabs. It was attended
by the head of states, ministers and dignitaries from Muslim countries all over the world. Some of the
participant countries were Afghanistan, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Libya, and many others. The visiting
delegations were warmly welcomed by the people of Lahore.

Q: The policy of Nationalization was more important than any other of Z. A. Bhutto’s domestic policy. Do
you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

Q. Explain why Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s rule ended in 1977? / Why was Z.A.Bhutto’s government
dismissed? [7]

In1977, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto called for elections to get a new mandate. Bhutto took the lead in the
elections but his opponent PNA (Pakistan National Alliance) accused him of poll rigging and started
massive protests. There was a deadlock and no negotiations were successful between Bhutto and PNA.
Since the situation seemed to be getting worse, Bhutto approached the army to intervene in order to
help maintain law and order in the country. Taking advantage of his weak position, “Operation Fairplay”
was launched by the army on 5th July 1977 and Chief General Zia-ul-Haq ended Bhutto’s rule with a
martial law.

One of the main weaknesses of his government was that the focal point of the political power lay with
the party leadership and Bhutto as the Chairman in particular. When things went wrong, the blame was
clearly laid at his feet. Furthermore, Z. A Bhutto’s domestic policies that were inspired by socialism
made him objectionable to the elite of Pakistan. His land reforms aimed at reducing the power of the
feudal lords who resented Bhutto’s rule. Moreover, his policy of industrial nationalization was sharply
criticized as it led to a decline in economic growth. The large private company owners also went out of
business. Similarly, the nationalization of private educational institutes resulted in overcrowded
classrooms and a poor pace of improvement in literacy. Despite the general public coming out in his
support, his rule had to come to an end as the mighty opposed him.

Some theories have emerged regarding an alleged American conspiracy behind Bhutto’s dismissal, since
he was a socialist and pro-Russia. His foreign policy threatened America’s control in the region. In
addition to this, Bhutto was determined to promote Pakistan’s nuclear program since India had already

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developed its nuclear weapons. However, the world did not want that thus Bhutto’s rule came to an end
in 1977.

Q. In which of the following did Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto have most success?

i) Reform and control of armed forces

ii) Constitutional reforms
iii) Education and health reforms [10]

The success of the 3 reforms mentioned above as introduced by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto is evaluated below
with a conclusion.

One of the first steps that Bhutto took when he came to power was to limit the power and intervention
of army in the civil government. It was a good step to create civil supremacy under the constitution in
Pakistan. For this, he replaced many high ranking army officials (29 in first 4 months), which included the
head of Pakistan Air Force, Air Chief Marshall Rahim Khan and the Commander in Chief of the Army,
General Gul Hassan. Moreover, he promoted people of his choice to maintain his control. General Tikka
Khan was appointed as the Chief of Army Staff, which was a newly created post, and later appointed
General Zia-ul-Haq on this same position. On the whole, during his rule, Bhutto was able to create civil
supremacy.

In 1973 a new constituent was also given. Its success is evident from the fact that it is still intact. It was
mainly based on the principles of 1956 Constitution, although the president was just a figurehead. It was
presented with the consensus of all parties which seemed nearly impossible in the past. This new
constitution established a Senate which offered the opportunity for professionals, academics and
specialists to work together. It also safeguarded the interests of minority provinces which now had equal
status in the Senate. All provinces were to have equal representation so that the minority provinces
would not be denied equal representation as was the case with the One Unit Scheme that sowed the
seed of contention between the two wings of Pakistan. This crucial measure helped unify the country
after the tragic breakup. Bhutto produced the 1973 Constitution in an attempt to return to a form of
parliamentary democracy and it was important since it is the basis upon which Pakistan has been
governed to the end of the 20th century, apart from when it was suspended due to martial law.

Bhutto was also enthusiastic in bringing educational and health reforms. His goals were in the right
direction and very beneficial. For education, he nationalized schools in order to provide free education
for all till intermediate level in order to create a well-aware, aspirant and confident youth. He aimed to
double the literacy by 25 per cent. For the health sector, he aspired to provide healthcare throughout
Pakistan, by creating Rural Health Centres and Basic Health Units. A year-long service in these health
centres was declared mandatory for graduating doctors. To ensure the availability of cheap medicines
for all and sundry, sale under brand names was forbidden.

However, these reforms did have drawbacks. Even though, Bhutto appointed the army leaders by his
choice, they were merely under his control superficially and posed so quite effectively. It can be
deduced from the fact that even though General Zia was appointed as Chief of Army Staff by him, when
given the opportunity, he overthrew Bhutto and proclaimed Martial Law. His reforms and control could
not prevent the martial law.

The Constitution of 1973 introduced by him was indeed comprehensive yet could not prevent a martial
law in Pakistan. Two martial laws were placed on the country by abrogating this constitution. One of the

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main weaknesses of the new constitution was that the focal point of political power lay with the party
leadership and Bhutto in particular. When things went wrong, Bhutto was blamed.

The educational and health reforms were more ideal for his short span of government. The changes in
education led to overcrowding in existing schools while new ones were built causing a decline in the
standard of education. The reforms were not very successful since the building of new schools and the
recruitment of new teachers could not be achieved quickly and was also very expensive. Many families
resented the reforms since it meant a loss of earnings for them.

Moreover, his health reforms could not provide health care at micro level due to less awareness and a
large-scale to work on. There was a frequent shortage of doctors and nurses. Banning pharmaceutical
companies from charging for a medical brand and making medicines cheaper did see the profits of
chemists fall drastically and as a result many international drug companies closed down their operations
in Pakistan, which led to a further a loss of income for the government.

In conclusion, it can be stated that the constitutional reforms had the most success since the 1973
Constitution survives till date, despite being suspended by two military rulers in 1977 and 1999. This
shows its inherent strength and Bhutto’s ability to produce a lasting constitution for Pakistan.

Q. How successful were Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto's foreign policy between 1972 and 1977? Explain your
answer. [14]

Z.A Bhutto faced multiple successes regarding his foreign policy. In 1972, Pak-India relations improved
with the Simla Agreement. Bhutto and Indira Gandhi of India signed the Simla Agreement. By virtue of
this agreement, India returned the 90,000 prisoners of war from 1971. In return, Pakistan agreed to
discuss the Kashmir issue with India without the involvement of a third party or organization such as the
United Nations. This was a success as India and Pakistan were able to find a way to compromise in a
peaceful manner.

Relations with Bangladesh improved in 1974. When the Organization of Islamic Centre (OIC) held a
meeting in Lahore, known as the Lahore summit, to discuss the Middle East Issue regarding Israel, and
the oil embargo placed by Arabia. It was attended by 34 members, including Saudi Arabia, Libya, and
Morocco. Pakistan also invited Bangladesh. This meant that Pakistan acknowledged Bangladesh as an
independent state. Pakistan and Bangladesh could now work together as Muslim Friends, and resolve
their differences. This can be seen as a huge achievement in Bhutto's time.

Meanwhile, Pakistan started developing its relations with Afghanistan. In 1976, Daud the ruler of
Afghanistan and Bhutto visited each other's countries. This was done on the encouragement of the Shah
of Iran, who wanted the two countries to have good relations. This was a step in the positive direction,
as relations with Afghanistan were at a low in 1955. Indeed, this was a good way for both the countries
to establish good terms.

However, there were some problems regarding Bhutto's foreign policy. After the 1971 war Pakistan and
Bangladesh were left on poor terms. When Bhutto visited Bangladesh in order to discuss the division of
assets, Bangladesh demanded half of the assets Pakistan owned in 1971. This was seen as unreasonable
and Bhutto denied emphatically. Then again, many people were migrating from Bangladesh to Pakistan,
however not as many as during the partition in 1947 but large enough to cause a problem. Sheikh Mujib
suggested that all non-Bengalis should leave Bangladesh and settle in Pakistan, whether they wanted or
not. This seemed absurd to Bhutto who rejected the demand. Compromises between the two countries
seemed hopeless.

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During Bhutto’s era, Pakistan and India developed differences regarding nuclear power. In 1972,
Pakistan opened its own nuclear power plant in Karachi, out of fear of India's development in nuclear
weapons, and its superiority in conventional forces. Bhutto claimed it was the only way Pakistan could
survive. Much to Bhutto’s horror, in 1974, India successfully carried out its nuclear tests. This was seen
as a means of intimidation hence Pakistan stepped up its own game in retaliation by establishing the
Engineering Research Laboratory in Kahuta, near Islamabad. Pakistan and India had a race for nuclear
weapons, which left the countries not trusting one another. If they ever went to war and decided to use
nuclear bombs, the outcome would be horrifying.

It was during Bhutto’s reign after 1971 that Pakistan relations with UK and US were severely affected, as
the UK and US had placed military and financial embargo on Pakistan and India during the 1971 war.
While India could still rely on the Soviet Union due to their Treaty of Friendship, Pakistan took a heavy
hit. This resulted in Pakistan being split into two states and the formation of Bangladesh. This perhaps
made Bhutto lean towards China and the Soviet Union for aid, rebelling against US and the UK’s anti-
communist ways and putting a dent in US and UK relations.

In conclusion, Bhutto had an overall success regarding his foreign policy. As he was able to compromise
with India regarding the prisoners of war, and he also managed to develop better relations with both
Afghanistan and Bangladesh.

ZIA UL HAQ (1977-88)

The Policy of Islamization

Islamization was the primary policy of the government of Zia. Since independence, no religious laws had
yet been adopted for government and judiciary. Zia-ul-Haq was committed to enforce Islamic laws in the
state. New criminal offenses of adultery and blasphemy as well as new punishments of whipping,
amputation, and stoning to death were added to Pakistani law. For theft or robbery, the punishments of
imprisonment or fine, or both, were replaced by amputation of the right hand of the offender for theft,
and amputation of the right hand and left foot for robbery. For adultery the provisions relating to
adultery were replaced by the Ordinance with punishments of flogged 100 lashes for those unmarried
offenders, and stoning to death for married offenders. All these Hudood punishments were the
maximum punishments, dependent on proof—four Muslim men of good repute testifying as witness to
the crime—being met. Under Zia's Prohibition Order, the punishment of drinking was whipping one with
eighty stripes. Non-Muslims were excepted if they obtained a license to drink or manufacture alcoholic
beverages from the government. The "Zakat and Ushr Ordinance" was issued on June 20, 1980. Zakat
became a 2.5% annual tax. On the first day of the fasting month of Ramadan, banks withdraw 2.5% from
all saving accounts. On the protest of the Shia Community, they were exempted from this tax. Zia
established separate Shariat judicial courts and court benches to judge legal cases using Islamic laws.
School textbooks and libraries were overhauled to remove un-Islamic material. Instructions were issued
for regular observance of prayers and arrangements were made for performing prayers. Offices, schools,
and factories were required to offer praying space. Conservative Islamic scholars were added to
the Council of Islamic Ideology. Interest payments for bank accounts were replaced by "profit and loss"
payments. An Ehtram-e-Ramazan (reverence for fasting) Ordinance was issued banning eating, smoking,
and drinking in public places. Under Zia, the order for women to cover their heads while in public was
implemented in public schools, colleges and state television. Programs on Radio and TV were started to
promote Arabic language, and teaching of Islamiyat and Pak Studies was made compulsory. Extra marks
were awarded to the memorizers of the Quran in the Civil Services.

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Political Developments
Formation of Majlis-e-Shoora

In the absence of a Parliament, General Zia decided to set up an alternative system. He introduced
Majlis-e-Shoora in 1980. Most of the members of the Shoora were intellectuals, scholars, Ulemas,
journalists, economists, and professionals belonging to different fields of life. The Shoora was to act as a
board of advisers to the President. All 284 members of the Shoora were to be nominated by the
President.

Referendum of 1984

General Zia eventually decided to hold elections in the country. But before handing over the power to
the public representatives, he decided to secure his position as the head of state. A referendum was
held in December 1984, and the option was to elect or reject the General as the future President. The
question asked in the referendum was whether the people of Pakistan wanted Islamic Sharia
lawenforced in the country. According to the official result, more than 95 percent of the votes were cast
in favor of Zia-ul-Haq, thus he was elected as President for the next five years. However, they were
marred by allegations of widespread irregularities and technical violations of the laws and ethics of
democratic elections.

The Eighth Amendment and elections of 1985

After being elected President, Zia-ul-Haq decided to hold elections in the country in February 1985, on a
non-party basis. After elections, Muhammad Khan Junejo was elected as the Prime Minister. Before
handing over the power to the new Government and lifting the martial law, Zia managed to get several
amendments passed, most notably the Eighth Amendment Article 58-2(b), which granted "reserve
powers" to the president to dissolve the National Assembly.

Economic Development

Under Zia, the previous ruler Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto's nationalization policies were slowly reversed. A new
program of reforms was introduced in order to secure the private-sector from being diminished in the
country's economic platform. General Zia greatly favored industrialization in the country. Several
industries were privatized except banks that were kept under government-ownership and management.
Under a new policy, the private-sector investment grew from 33% in 1980 to 44% in 1989. The economic
growth averaged 6.6% per annum. Between 1977 and 1986, Zia could proudly point to an average
annual growth in the GNP of 6.2 %- one of the highest in the world at that time. During Afghan Jihad, the
aid to the Afghan resistance, and to Pakistan, increased substantially. It received heavy US aid for many
years. Pakistan was given soft terms loans and aid of $ 1.6 billion, $1.5 billion and the $ 4.2 billion
military and economic aid between 1980 and 1986. The impressive economic growth rate, however, was
accompanied by inflation, an increased power consumption and loss of skilled workers to other
countries. Since no new power plants were set up, Pakistanis had to experience frequent power failures.

Important development figures

The agricultural growth increased to 4% in 1977-88 from 2% in 1972-77. Wheat production rose from an
annual average of 8.5 million tons in 1975-7 to 13 million tons in 1986-8.Cotton production increased
from 0.5 million tons average in 1974-6 to 13 million tons in 1985-7.Industrial growth under Zia was
impressive as manufacturing sector growth over 1977-88 averaged over 9% in comparison to 3.7% in

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1972-77.Pakistan’s manufactured exports increased fourfold from US $ 1.3 bill 1980 to US $5.6 bill in
1983.

Afghanistan Miracle

On December 25, 1979, the Soviet Union, a superpower at the time, invaded Afghanistan. General Zia
decided to help the Afghan resistance monetarily and militarily with US support. President Zia now
found himself in a position to demand billions of dollars in aid for the Mujahideen from the Western
states. The Soviets kept control of the Afghan skies until the Mujahideen received Stinger missiles in
1986. From that moment on, the Mujahideen's strategic position steadily improved. Accordingly, the
Soviets declared a policy of national reconciliation. In January, they announced that a Soviet withdrawal
was no longer linked to the makeup of the Afghan government remaining behind. Pakistan, with the
massive extra-governmental and covert backing from the largest operation ever mounted by the CIA and
financial support of Saudi Arabia, therefore, played a large part in the eventual withdrawal of Soviet
troops from Afghanistan in 1988.

Ojhri Camp Incident

Ojhri Camp was a military storage center located in Rawalpindi. On April 10, 1988 the camp, which was
used as an ammunition depot for Afghan mujahideen fighting against Soviet forces in Afghanistan,
exploded, killing many in Rawalpindi and Islamabad as a result of rockets and other munitions expelled
by the blast. Defense Department officials said that they believed that the explosion was the work of the
pro-Soviet regime in Kabul.

Operation Fairplay

Operation Fair Play was the code name for the 5 July 1977 coup by Pakistan Chief of Army
Staff General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, overthrowing the government of Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali
Bhutto. It was carried out because of political conflict in the country between PPP and PNA(Pakistan
National Alliance) which accused Bhutto of rigging the 1977 general elections. In announcing the coup,
Zia promised "free and fair elections" within 90 days, but these were repeatedly postponed on the
excuse of accountability. He arrested Bhutto and his ministers, as well as other leaders of both the PPP
and the PNA. He dissolved the National Assembly of Pakistan and all provincial assemblies, suspended
the Constitution, and imposed martial law.

Q: The policy of Islamization of Zia-ul-Haq was the most important of Zia-ul-Haq’s domestic policies
between 1977 & 1988. Do you agree? Give reasons of your answer. [14]

Q: Why did Zia-ul-Haq hang Z.A. Bhutto in 1979? [7]

On 24 October 1977, the Supreme Court began the trial against Bhutto on charges of "conspiracy to
murder” of Nawab Muhammad Ahmed Khan Kasuri, father of Ahmad Raza Kasuri who was a PPP leader
but had developed differences with Bhutto. In 1977, the Supreme Court found Bhutto guilty of murder
charges and condemned him to death. Despite appeals of clemency sent by many nations, the
government upheld the Supreme Court’s verdict and Bhutto was hanged in 1979. Z.A.Bhutto refused to
plead for clemency to President Zia and was hanged till death in the Rawalpindi jail on 4th April 1979.

Zia announced holding of elections in 90 days after taking over the government and allowed political
activity. Bhutto, having a strong “personalitycharisma”, began to attract huge rallies. He had all the
potential to make government. He threatened to frame Zia in a case of high treason as mentioned in the

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Article 6 of the constitution of 1973, once he was re-elected as PM. Zia was alarmed as it was a do or die
situation for him. If Bhutto would be re-elected he had to face difficulties. So, he postponed the
elections and Bhutto was again arrested and hanged later.

There was always conspiracy theory involved in the hanging of Bhutto. Bhutto changed the foreign
policy of Pakistan and was more inclined towards China and Russia rather than towards USA, Britain and
west as they failed to help Pakistan in 1971 war resulting in the separation of East Pakistan. He also
refused to roll back the atomic weapons program of Pakistan under US pressure and vowed to make
nuclear weapons to secure the country’s defense once and for all. The west led by America never
wanted a Muslim country to get nuclear weapons. Bhutto also tried to form an Islamic bloc and
suggested the oil producing countries to use oil as a weapon. It was alleged that he was removed from
the political scenario with the intrigues of international powers.

Q: How successful was Zia-ul-Haq’s foreign policy between 1978 and 1988? Explain your answer. [10]

Success

• Pakistan’s relationship with China was strengthened in 1978 with the opening of the Karakoram
Highway between the two countries, opening up huge areas of both countries to trade and tourism.
• Pakistan received support from the West to assist Afghan fighters in their conflict with Russia in
1979. The USA gave Pakistan $3.2 billion over six years to help cope with the influx of refugees from
Afghanistan (the Afghan Miracle).
• Negotiations between Pakistan and Bangladesh on tourism, culture and trade, brought an extra $40
billion a year into Pakistan by 1986.

Less success

• Pakistan became a target of Russia as a result of supplying Afghans with arms. Border villages were
bombed and a series of explosions happened across the country.
• Threats to law and order as a consequence of the Afghan Miracle.

SOURCE BASED QUESTIONS

SOURCE A The aftermath of the High Court Judgment on Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto 1978

When the High Court judgment was announced over the radio, people in Pakistan were stunned. Two
villagers in Lahore even offered their sons to be hanged in place of Mr Bhutto. There were peaceful
protests, demonstrations, strikes and even riots. Hundreds were arrested and some died in the clashes.
The country was brought to a virtual stand-still as men and women, young and old sought to bring home
to the authorities the strong opposition to the High Court verdict.

From The Trial and Execution of Bhutto, 1978

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SOURCE B Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq

A photograph of Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, President of Pakistan 1978–1988

a) According to Source A, what were the effects of the High Court judgment regarding Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto on
the people of Pakistan? [3]
b) How does Source B help us to understand the way Zia-ul-Haq governed Pakistan? [5]
c) Why did Zia-ul-Haq introduce his Islamization reforms? [7]
d) How successful was Zia-ul-Haq’s foreign policy between 1978 and 1988? Explain youranswer. [10]

Why did Zia-ul-Haq introduce his Islamisation reforms? [7]

• To produce a strong and stable government managed by people committed to Islamic values.
• He wanted to provide a counter to Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s socialist government which he saw as liberal
/ westernised.
• He made the Islamic laws strict in order to produce a strong government by imposing a strict legal
code.
• He wanted to implement laws which punished people for showing disrespect towards the Prophet
and ensured that Islamic education was implemented in schools to raise Islamic awareness.
• He wanted to distribute some wealth to the poor and needy by introducing Islamic taxes following
Islamic principles.

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BENAZIR BHUTTO (1988-1990)

Q: Why was Benazir Bhutto’s government dismissed in 1990? [7]

Among the many problems that Pakistan faced when Bhutto took office was high unemployment. Many
of the things that she had promised in her election campaign were not delivered because the Pakistani
state did not have the finances to fund them. She had claimed that a million new homes would be built
each year and that universal free education and healthcare would be introduced, none of which was
economically feasible for her government to deliver. The country also faced a growing problem of illegal
narcotics trade, with Pakistan being one of the world's highest heroin exporters. Her narrow majority in
the National Assembly had left her unable to undo many of the Islamist reforms that Zia had introduced.
She also failed to repeal the Hudood Ordinances as committed by her during election campaigns. All
these decreased her popularity which finally led to her dismissal in 1990.

Another reason that added fuel to the fire was opposition from Nawaz Sharif. About sixty percent of the
country's population lived in Punjab province, which was under the influence of Nawaz Sharif who was
the provincial Chief Minister. Nawaz Sharif's Punjab authority refused to accept the federal officials
whom Bhutto posted there. Relations between Bhutto and Pakistan's civil service also deteriorated. In
April 1989, opposition parties organized a parliamentary no-confidence vote in Bhutto's leadership, but
it was defeated by 12 votes. Bhutto claimed that many National Assembly voters had been bribed to
vote against her.

There were differences between the President and the PM over appointments of chiefs of the armed
forces and judges of superior courts. The president had discretionary powers to appoint but Benazir
wanted to appoint herself. The President refused to this and this created tension between the two
which led to her dismissal. Benazir also faced corruption charges. Her husband, Asif Ali Zardari was
accused of corruption, bribery, and blackmailing. There had been resentment over her husband being
allowed to attend cabinet meetings despite not being a member of the government. He was also
accused of receiving kickbacks and earned the nickname "Mr. Ten Percent". Labour strikes also began to
take place which halted and jammed the economic wheel of the country, and Bhutto was unable to
solve these issues due to the cold war with the President. In August 1990, Khan dismissed Bhutto's
government under the Eighth Amendment of the constitution. He claimed that this was necessary due
to her government's corruption and inability to maintain law and order.

In the 1988 elections, PPP was able to get a majority but could not form its own government. It made a
coalition government with MQM (Muhajir Qaumi Movement). But the differences soon arose between
both the parties and MQM sided with Nawaz Sharif in September 1989. There was an increased violence
between the supporters of MQM and PPP in Sindh. In 1990, in the Pucca Qilla area of Hyderabad 40
supporters of MQM including women and children were killed. As a result, President G.I Khan dismissed
the government of Benazir Bhutto declaring she had failed in maintaining law and order situation in
Sindh province.

Successes

Bhutto was able to ensure the release of a number of political prisoners detained under the Zia
government as well as lifting the country's bans on trade unions and student associations. She also
introduced measures to lift the media censorship introduced by previous military administrations.
Benazir Bhutto went on a number of foreign trips, enhancing her image as the first female Prime
Minister in the Islamic world. In these she sought to attract foreign investment and aid for Pakistan. She

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also made efforts to cultivate good relationships with the leaders of Islamic countries who had also had
good relationships with her father, including Libya's Gaddafi, Abu Dhabi's Sheikh Zayed, and the Saudi
royal family. In 1989, she attended the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Kuala Lumpur,
where Pakistan was re-admitted to the Commonwealth of Nations. In 1989, she made an important visit
to the U.S. in June, addressing both houses of Congress and giving the speech at Harvard. A women’s
bank (First Women’s Bank) was opened and women were recruited into the police and appointed as
High Court judges as well as to important civil service positions. Her successful visit to U.S.A in June 1989
resulted in promised economic aid of over $400 million. It was recognition that Pakistan now had a
democratically elected government. Pakistan had left the Commonwealth in 1971 after Britain had
recognized Bangladesh. Benazir Bhutto’s government joined Common Wealth again.

Q: Why was Benazir Bhutto’s government dismissed in 1996? [7]

Several reasons contributed to the dismissal of Benazir Bhutto’s government in 1996. Benazir had
succeeded her father, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, but had a feud with her mother, Nusrat Bhutto. Nusrat wanted
Mir Murtaza Bhutto, Benazir’s brother, as the head of the PPP and the Prime Minister. On his return
from long exile in 1993, he put up fierce opposition against her government and Asif Ali Zardari. But he
was killed in 1996 near his house by Sindh Police. A judicial review into the case suggested that
government was involved.

The leader of the opposition, Nawaz Sharif, gave fierce opposition to the government of Benazir Bhutto.
He along with Mir Murtaza Bhutto, organized opposition against her, and started the “Train March”
from Karachi to Peshawar. In 1994, Nawaz was able together much attention and targeted the poor
economic performance of Benazir’s government and Asif Ali Zardari’s corruption. The corruption grew
during her government, and her government became increasingly unpopular as corruption scandals
became public. One of the most internationally and nationally reported scandal was the Agosta
Submarine scandal. The opposition by Nawaz Sharif (PML N) was responded by the arrest of several
opposition leaders who had participated in strikes and the Train March. It increased more opposition.

Benazir clashed with the superior courts and their judges. In 1996, the Supreme Court and provincial
high courts ordered the sacking of 24 Judges appointed by her government. The Supreme Court further
ordered the federal government to appoint judges on permanent basis rather than on an acting basis
and also to take seniority of judges into account with their appointments. This dismissal created a
political crisis as the two highest pillars of the state were in a dispute thus making the whole political
system weak. In November 1996, Bhutto’s government was dismissed by Farooq Leghari primarily
because of corruption and Mir Murtaza’s death, who used the Eighth Amendment to dissolve the
government.

Further details:

Benazir Bhutto was an economist by profession, she took the charge of economic and financial affairs on
her hand. During her second term, Benazir Bhutto continued to follow former Prime Minister Nawaz
Sharif’s Privatization policies. However, in 1997, it was revealed that the amount gained in was nowhere
to be found in government’s account.

Benazir Bhutto sought to strengthen the relations with socialist states, and made her first visit to
Socialist People’s Republic of Libya to strengthen bilateral relations. Benazir Bhutto also strengthened
relations with communist state Vietnam and visited Vietnam to sign agreements regarding the mutual
trade and international political cooperation between both countries. She also wanted to have good

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relations with India but due to Kashmir issue and Indian nuclear program she failed to get the desired
results.

The year of 1996 was crucial for Benazir Bhutto’s policy on Afghanistan when Pakistan-backed extremely
religious group, the Taliban, took power in Kabul in September 1996. She continued her father’s policy
on Afghanistan by taking aggressive measures to curb the anti-Pakistan sentiments in Afghanistan. It was
during Benazir Bhutto’s rule that the Taliban gained prominence in Afghanistan

Her government recognized their government and backed the Taliban for gaining the control of
Afghanistan. Under her government, Pakistan had recognized the Taliban regime as legitimate
government in Afghanistan, allowing the Taliban to open an embassy in Islamabad.

Q: Why did being nuclear power create difficulties for Pakistan in1980s and 1990s? [7]

In 1980s, while Pakistan was a major ally of US in the Afghan Jihad, it was given billions of dollars’ worth
of aid. Many US diplomats expressed their concern that Pakistan was using it to develop its nuclear
capability. Therefore, in 1985, the Pressler Amendment was presented before the US parliament, by
virtue of which no military or technology equipment was to be provided to Pakistan unless the US
president certified that Pakistan did not “possess” a nuclear explosive device. During the Afghan-Soviet
war this amendment did not impact the US aid flowing into Pakistan, however after the war President
Bush. Soon, aid was discontinued in 1990. The reduction in aid seriously affected Pakistan.

In addition to this, Pakistan was also pressurized to sign the Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1980, which was
stalled until India did so as well. Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto assured the US Congress of Pakistan’s
nuclear-free status but did clarified its defensive position. Furthermore, despite having made the full
payment, the delivery of 28 F-16 fighter jets was also not fulfilled, which weakened Pakistan’s
relationship with USA.

The difficulties become worse when in 1998, Prime Minister, Nawaz Sharif’s government tested the
nuclear weapons and Pakistan was openly declared a nuclear state. Severe economic sanctions were
placed on Pakistan and the treasury had almost drained. Loans by the IMF and the World Bank were out.
The government froze money that the Pakistanis held in foreign currency. This undermined savers’
confidence and made trade with other countries more difficult, hence creating more difficulties for
Pakistan.

Q: Were the challenges facing Benazir Bhutto in Sindh the main reason why she left office in 1990?
Explain your answer. [14]

The reasons why Benazir Bhutto left office in 1990 are discussed below with a conclusion. Benazir
Bhutto had a coalition government in the centre with Muhajir Qaumi Movement (MQM) a party
domination in Urban Sindh. She had promised to safeguard the rights of Urdu speaking Muhajirs but
failed to do so. This created tensions between her and the MQM. Sindh became an area of growing
opposition to the Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) and growing support for the MQM, especially after the
Pucca Qilla Massacre of Hyderabad in May 1990 when 31 MQM workers, including women and children
were killed in a police raid. Consequently, 300 more were killed in ensuing violence across Sindh.
Moreover, well-educated muhajirs opposed the special rights for Sindhis introduced by Benazir Bhutto,
such as the ‘Quota’ system, and increasingly supported the Muhajir Quami Movement (MQM).

Apart from this, Benazir was also not able to fulfil her promises that she made during her election
campaigns. BB had vowed to uplift the status of the women after Zia’s era and bring about economic

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growth. However, the social welfare programs she had given for women empowerment and rural
development were not fruitful. The government lost support as unemployment, inflation and population
grew rapidly making progress difficult.

Moreover, there were allegations that loans taken from the IMF were used by her party supporters
including her husband Asif Zardari and father in law Hakeem Zardari. They were accused of using these
funds to flourish their personal businesses and suppressing opposition. These claims from political
opponents regarding mismanagement led to the arrest and imprisonment of her husband Asif Ali
Zardari, which further weakened BB’s position.

In addition to this, BB had a weak political base to begin with as the largest province Punjab was under
her strongest political rival, Nawaz Sharif who gave her a hard time. She had to face opposition in the
assembly. A no-confidence motion was initiated against her by the opposition parties including Islami
Jamhuri Ittihad (IJI) that fell short of just 12 votes out of 119 that were required, however it did make
her weaker.

During her term, President Ghulam Ishaq Khan also refused to appoint the judges and military personnel
she wished, making it difficult for her to govern Pakistan effectively. . Further rumors of embezzlements
weakened the government enabling President Ghulam Ishaq Khan to use the Eighth Amendment Article
58-2-b to dismiss her from the office in 1990, on the grounds of incompetency and corruption.

In conclusion, I believe the challenges faced by Benazir in Sindh were not her main cause for his
dismissal since the last nail in the coffin of her government proved to be her power tussle with President
Ishaq Khan who used his constitutional power under Article 58-2(b) to remove her from the office.

NAWAZ SHARIF
Q: Why was Nawaz Sharif government dismissed in 1993? [7]

Two serious banking scandals led to many people losing money and criticism of the government. The
Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI) had been setup in 1972 by Pakistani Banker, Agha
Hasan Abedi. It had close links with many prominent people. Nawaz Sharif’s family company, Ittefaq
Industries, was a major customer. Despite being a worldwide bank, it remained essentially a Pakistani
institution employing thousands of Pakistanis. BCCI collapsed in 1991 when the Bank of England closed
their operations with the allegations of massive losses, fraud, widespread criminality and money
laundering. The collapse was a great shock as people simply couldn’t believe it. However, Nawaz Sharif
allowed BCCI branches in Pakistan to operate for several months. There were many accusations that
Pakistani businessmen and politicians had made huge profits from the bank’s illegal activities. Pakistan
also refused to extradite the bank’s founder, Agha Hasan Abedi, to face charges in the USA.

In 1991, four financial cooperatives in the Punjab, the Pakistan Cooperative Societies collapsed. It was
said that government regulations had not been good enough. There were allegations that public money
was misused. More than two million people lost their savings, including some who had invested their
entire life savings. Two of the cooperatives were controlled by relatives of Nawaz Sharif. The failure of
the National Industrial Cooperative Credit Company was the biggest financial collapse of Pakistan.
Nawaz Sharif’s family company had borrowed from the cooperatives. An official enquiry, headed by a
judge, Afzal Lone, cleared them of any wrong doing but it further damaged the standing of the Prime
Minister.

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The failure of the yellow cabs scheme was the major reason for the dismissal of Nawaz Sharif in 1993. It
was a scheme in which soft loans were offered to taxi drivers to buy imported taxis. The scheme that
was introduced to provide employment to young people failed because many people did not return the
installments, causing a major economic crisis. It also invited criticism from the opposition.

Nawaz Sharif was in conflict with President Ishaq Khan in 1993. This happened because Nawaz wanted
to repeal the 8th amendment which would have reduced the President’s powers and also wanted to
appoint his own army chief but Ishaq placed Abdul Waheed Kakar before he could. These tensions and
clashes weakened the foundation of the government. It became a major cause for the dismissal of
Nawaz Sharif in 1993.

Q: Why was Nawaz Sharif’s government dismissed in (1997-99)? [7]

The second tenure of Nawaz Sharif was full of controversies. On 28 Nov, 1997 hundreds of Sharif’s
supporters stormed the Supreme Court when during the hearing of a contempt case against PM Sharif
and proceeding had to be stopped. Sharif was involved in a dispute with the Chief Justice of Pakistan,
Syed Sajjad Ali Shah. He ordered the President to remove him from the office which the latter refused. In
December, both the Chief Justice and the President resigned. Ajmal Mian was appointed as Chief Justice
and Rafiq Tarar became the President.

Nuclear tests in 1998 made Pakistan a nuclear power but it brought widespread criticism and economic
sanctions from countries like USA and Japan. The economy was close to collapse. Therefore, Nawaz
Sharif had to raise the price of fuel and negotiate loans to keep the government from bankruptcy. He
also had to introduce a state of emergency. He replaced COAS General Jehangir Karamat with General
Pervaiz Musharaf. The idea of creating a National Security Council by Gen. Jehangir Karamat offended
him. Sharif interpreted this move to be a conspiracy to return the military to a more active role in
Pakistan politics.Nawaz Sharif forced Gen. Jahangir Karamat to resign. The dismissal damaged civil-
military relationship and paved the way for a military coup.

Due to the Kargil conflict, he lost the support of the army. The army and the government both blamed
each other for the misadventure. Nawaz Sharif claimed he was kept in the dark by the military about this
operation. He feared a coup led by General Musharaff and decided to replace him. The Plane Conspiracy
eventually resulted in a crisis that led to his dismissal.

Q: How successful was Nawaz Sharif as the Prime Minister of Pakistan? Explain your answer. [14]

The two tenures of Nawaz Sharif as Prime Minister were from 1990-1993 and 1997-1999. The successes
and failures of his regimes are discussed below with a conclusion.

In his first tenure, Nawaz Sharif started the project of building motorways. It was an ideal project and
had a long-term prospect of economic development in Pakistan. The real idea was to build a network of
motorways that connect Pakistan to Central Asian States that had just gained independence. The
motorways would encourage and make transit trade easier. Moreover, the project was also aimed to
join cities within Pakistan. The first motorways (also the first in South Asia) was completed in his 2nd
tenure in 1997, which was called M2.

Another achievement of Sharif as a Prime Minister was the 13th Amendment that he implemented using
his 2/3rd majority in the assembly. According to it, the powers of the President were restricted, making it
just a ceremonial post. The President no longer had the authority to dismiss the Prime Minister or to

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dissolve the assembly. This was a step to bring stability since due to this power, the presidents had
previously dismissed 4 Prime Ministers in almost 10 years. The instability it brought was now curtailed.

Sharif is also credited with the nuclear tests in Chaghai, Balochistan in 1998 and officially declaring
Pakistan a nuclear state. This created a sense of nationalism and made his government popular in public.
However, it also showed the strength of Pakistan against India, which had conducted similar successful
tests a few week before. Pakistan’s status also changed in the international community and secured
Pakistan against India.

However, there were also failures during Sharif’s twin tenures. A major failure was the spread of
Kalashnikov Culture and rampant drug culture in Pakistan. These were the major issue haunting Sharif
government in the first tenure. All of this was due to the Afghan Jihad, the influx of the refugees and the
ensuing civil war. Easy availability of weapons increased the crime rate to an alarming degree causing a
threat to security. The use of drugs had also increased. Sharif had failed to solve these issues effectively.

His second tenure was also troublesome. He could not establish good relations with different institutions
of the country. Due to the 13th Amendment, he had a tussle with President Leghari and consequently he
forced him to resign. The Supreme Court also did not remain protected. While a court hearing against
Nawaz Sharif accusing him of corruption was in progress, an unruly mob attacked the Supreme Court.
This flock was comprised of Sharif’s supporters and party workers. Chief Justice Sajjad Ali Shah had to
flee the court in order to protect himself. Soon afterwards, he too was forced to resign. Journalist who
were critical of his government had to face hard treatment too. A major example was that of Najam
Sethi, who was abducted and later released only under international pressure.

In addition to this, a major failure of his government was that his tenure ended with a martial law- once
again, for the fourth time abandoning democracy in Pakistan. The base was laid by his brawl with the
Army Chief, General Jahangir Keramat, who had demanded to be included in the National Security
Council. Sharif refused insisting that he was asking for a legal way to interfere in the civil government,
and therefore forced him to resign. General Musharraf replaced him. Soon relations with him also
deteriorated due to the Kargil Conflict. The last nail in the coffin was when Sharif tried to sack him while
he was on to Sri Lanka. High military officials in Pakistan did not accept this. So when the Army Chief was
denied landing rights, the army overthrew the government and martial law was proclaimed.

In conclusion, I believe that Nawaz Sharif was partially successful as a Prime Minister since he was not
able to complete both his tenures. His second tenure also ended with the martial law bringing about an
end to the long-awaited decade of democracy in the country. Despite this, he declared Pakistan a
nuclear state and brought about the 13th Amendment that reduced the muscle of the President and
brought about political instability in Pakistan.

Prepare:

13th Amendment [4]

14th Amendment [4]

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Foreign Policy
Pak–US Relations

• During the initial years of Pakistan, the country had the options of building allegiance with Soviet
Union or United States. However, Pakistan opted for the latter.
• Liaquat Ali Khan was the 1st PM to visit USA in 1950 to meet President Truman.
• In 1954 Pakistan joined SEATO (South East Asia Treaty Organization) a US sponsored defense
alliance. In 1956 Pakistan joined the Baghdad Pact that started to be called CENTO (Central Treaty
Org.) when in 1959 Iraq left the Pact. Both these alliances were anti-Communist. During food
shortage crisis in early 1950’s USA assisted Pakistan and supplied Pakistan with food grain. Pakistan
also signed Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement with USA in 1954.Under the agreement, many
Pakistani soldiers went to United States for training whereas US also established a Military
Assistance Advisory Group in Rawalpindi.
• 1960 U2 Crisis: Ayub Khan allowed United States to fly spy mission to Soviet Union from Pakistan’s
territory.
• In 1962 Pak - US relations got a setback when USA supplied arms to India against China. In 1965
when Indo - Pak war broke out Pakistan did not get any help from USA and they put arms embargo
on both India and Pakistan. Pakistan's defense was US -dependent so problem was for Pakistan but
India continued to get arms from Soviet Union. Ayub Khan visited China in 1962 and USSR in 1965
which further deteriorated the relations between Pakistan and USA.
• Pak-US relations were at lowest ebb in 1970's. During 1971 war, USA again refused to assist Pakistan
militarily. In 1970's when Bhutto came to power, Pakistan's foreign policy completely changed and
became totally anti-US. Pakistan also left SEATO in 1972. Nuclear weapons program of Pakistan was
also one of the major issues between Pakistan and USA. President Carter and his administration
allegedly threatened Bhutto to disrupt the process of atomic proliferation and research to which the
latter did not agree, leading to his differences with the Americans.
• In 1979 suddenly Pak-US relations were improved with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan as
Pakistan became the frontline ally of the US against Soviet Union in Afghanistan. Pakistan's relations
were at the highest level with the US in 1980s. Pakistan received military and financial aid from the
US. Pakistan became one of the top three countries to receive US-aid beside Egypt and Israel.
• Pressler Amendment 1985banned major military and economic aid to Pakistan unless the state was
able to justify and provide sufficient evidence that the funds were not being used for nuclear
proliferation.
• Brown Amendment 1995 aid was once given to Pakistan by USA.
• In 1998 Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif conducted nuclear test in Balochistan, in retaliation to similar
tests conducted by India, which invited the wrath of President Clinton’s administration on both the
countries. President Clinton imposed sanctions under Glenn amendment on India as well as
Pakistan.

Indo-Pak Relations
• After 1947, the relations between Pakistan and India were remained hostile. Most of the early
problems faced by Pakistan were caused by India such as Canal Water Dispute, Kashmir issue,
division of financial and military assets etc.
• The Liaquat – Nehru Pact was signed in 1950, to discuss minorities issue in the respective countries.

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• Both India and Pakistan got involved in a war over Kashmir in 1948. UN marked the ceasefire to put
halt to the war of 1948. The war officially ends on January 1, 1949, when the United Nations
arranges a ceasefire, with an established ceasefire line and a recommendation that the referendum
on the accession of Kashmir to be held. That referendum has yet to be held.
• Pakistan's relations were further deteriorated when in 1962 India received US military aid.
• In September 1965, a full-fledged war broke out between Pakistan and India. The 1965 war was then
followed by the negotiations in Jan 1966 at Tashkent. Tashkent Pact was signed between Ayub Khan
and Lal Bahadur Shastri both agreeing to withdraw to pre-war lines and that economic and
diplomatic relations would be restored.
• India instigated the people of East Pakistan and trained the separatist force (Mukti Bahini) against
Pakistan. A war broke out in 1971 and by help of Bengalis; India made Pakistani forces to surrender
in East Pakistan. 90,000 Pakistanis were held prisoners of war East Pakistan becomes the
independent country of Bangladesh on December 16, 1971.
• 90000 prisoners of war were taken back after the Simla Agreement of 1972.
• India tested its nuclear device in 1974 at Pokhran, Rajisthan.
• Pakistan's PM Z.A.Bhutto vowed to get nuclear capability. After the assassination of Indira Gandhi, in
1980's the Cricket Diplomacy dominated the Indo-Pak relation.
• Siachen dispute in 1980s also the cause of worsening relations.
• From 1979 to 1988, Afghan Jihad remained dominated. Pakistan supported Afghan fighters whereas
India sided with Soviet Union. India also accused Pakistan for assisting Sikh separatists in India state
of Punjab.
• In 1988 two countries signed an agreement that neither side will attack the other's nuclear
installations.
• In 1989 armed resistance to Indian rule in the Kashmir valley begins. India claimed that Pakistan is
supporting the resistance by providing weapons and training to fighters, terming attacks against it in
Kashmir "cross-border terrorism". Pakistan denies this. Pakistan says that it gives its "moral and
diplomatic" support to the movement, reiterating its call for the earlier UN-sponsored referendum.
• In 1998 India detonates five nuclear devices. Pakistan responds by detonating six nuclear devices of
its own in the Chaghai Hills. The tests result in international sanctions being placed on both
countries. In the same year, both countries carry out tests of long-range missiles.
• In 1999 Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee meets with Nawaz Sharif, his Pakistani
counterpart, in Lahore. The two sign the Lahore Declaration, the first major agreement between the
two countries since the 1972 Simla Accord. Both countries agreed to undertake a number of
'Confidence Building Measures' (CBMs).

Pakistan’s Relations with Britain and Commonwealth

• With the Independence, Pakistan became the member of British Commonwealth.

• Being the member of the commonwealth Pakistan got economic benefits. For example, Colombo
Plan helped Pakistan in exploring natural gas in 1950's. Pakistan had not always been supported by
the Commonwealth like no support was given to Pakistan over the Kashmir Issue.
• Both Pakistan and Britain worked together in SEATO and CENTO
• Pakistan criticized Britain over the Suez Canal issue in 1956.
• Ayub Khan made official visit to Britain in 1960's to improve Pakistan's relations with British
Common Wealth.
• In 1965 when Indo - Pak war broke out Pakistan did not get any help from UK and they put arms
embargo on Pakistan.

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• During 1971 war, UK again refused to assist Pakistan militarily. Pakistan also left SEATO in 1972.
Nuclear weapons program of Pakistan was also one of the major issues between Pakistan and UK.
• Pakistan quitted the Common Wealth membership after 1971 war when Bangladesh was made the
member of Common Wealth.
• Pakistan's relations were improved with Britain in 1980 when Pakistan got both military and
economic aid from them on the pretext of the Afghan Jihad against Soviet Union and rehabilitation
of the Afghan refugees.
• In 1986 Margaret Thatcher visited Pakistan which improved the relations. The trade volume
between both nations was of £ 376 million.
• Pakistan joined Common Wealth again in 1989.

Pak-Afghan Relations

• Pakistan hoped to have good relations with neighboring Muslim country Afghanistan but she
strongly opposed Pakistan’s membership to the UN. Afghanistan claimed some of the areas of the
NWFP and claimed that Pakhtoons living in Pakistan wanted to join Afghanistan to form
Pakhtoonistan. The relations remained hostile between the two countries.
• Quaid ordered to dismantle the old British military posts along the border so that people should not
feel alien on both sides of the border but his step could not bring the tensions down.
• Relations were at the low ebb in 1955 when the Afghans attacked and ransacked the Pakistan
embassy in Kabul.
• In 1956 Iskandar Mirza visited Afghanistan in the hope to improve relations but his efforts did not
bring fruitful results.
• Afghanistan refused to join the RCD (Regional Cooperation for Development) in 1964 as Pakistan
was its member.
• Much improvement was seen in Pak-Afghan relations during Bhutto’s time when Bhutto and Sardar
Daud of Afghanistan paid reciprocal visits to each other’s countries.
• With the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, Pakistan played the role of trusted friend and brother and
opened herborder for the Afghan refugees. 3.5million refugees settled in Pakistan.
• Pakistan waged the proxy war in Afghanistan against the former Soviet Union and also helped
Afghanistan to maintain peace even after the withdrawal of the Soviet troops.

Pak-USSR Relations

• Liaquat Ali Khan snubbed the Soviet invitation and opted to visit the USA when he got the invitation
from both these countries
• When Pakistan joined SEATO and CENTO in the 1950s, the Soviet Union changed her stance to pro
India rather than neutral.
• In 1955, the Soviet Union started pressurizing Pakistan over the Afghan claim of Pakhtoonistan.
• The Soviet Union also wanted to have good relations with Pakistan and offered to establish a steel
mill if Pakistan broke her alliance with USA.
• In 1960 relations were at a low ebb when the Soviet Authorities shot a US spy plane U-2 and she
blamed Pakistan that the plane took off from Peshawar.
• Pak-Soviet relations improved during 1960s when in 1961, the Soviets agreed to begin oil
exploration in Pakistan.
• When India got the US military aid in 1962, the Soviet Union even wanted to extend help to Pakistan
and in 1963 she gave loan of £ 11 million and in 1963 it changed its stance from pro India to neutral
over Kashmir.

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• In Jan 1966 the Soviet Union hosted a peace settlement between India and Pakistan at Tashkent
called as Tashkent Declaration.
• When Pakistan improved relations between the US and China in 1971, Soviet Union became
annoyed from Pakistan and signed the Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation with India to
help her in war against Pakistan.
• The relations improved during Z. A. Bhutto’s time period and The Soviet Union helped Pakistan in
setting up the Steel Mills near Karachi in 1973
• With the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, Pak-Soviet relations were disturbed as Pakistan started
supporting Afghanistan and waged the proxy war against the Soviet Union.
• The hostile relations continued and in 1988 Soviet Union finally withdrew from Afghanistan.

Sino-Pak Relations

• China was involved in the civil war between the nationalists and the communists when Pakistan was
created. The war ended in the victory of the communists under Mao Zedong in 1949. Pakistan
recognized the communist China.
• The 1962 Indo-Chinese war brought both Pakistan and China even closer to each other as China was
keener to develop friendship with Pakistan to counter the relations with India and the Soviet Union.
• In 1963 through different trade agreements China granted about $ 60 million interest free loan and
became the world’s largest purchaser of Pakistani cotton.
• In the same year PIA started its regular flight to China to mark the improvement in the relations.
• In 1964 China supported Pakistan’s stance over Kashmir and Pakistan supported China’s entry to the
UN while the US was supporting Taiwan as legitimate ruler of China.
• China assisted Pakistan in establishing Heavy Mechanical complex at Taxila.
• During the 1965 Indo-Pak war China supported Pakistan through military and financial aid.
• In 1972 Bhutto visited China and it was agreed that most of the previous loans would now be
converted in to financial aid.
• The friendly relations were further strengthened in 1978 with the opening of the Karakoram
Highway which was constructed on the old silk route.
• In 1986 Pakistan and China signed the nuclear cooperation treaty.

Q: How effective has Pakistan been as a member of world organizations between 1947 and 1999?
Explain your answer.

Effective:

• It has supported the Palestinian cause

• Contributed to a number of UN peacekeeping forces throughout the world.
• Pakistan became influential by raising the Kashmir question on several occasions and also became
the spokesperson for many Asian states who had not gained independence during the 1950s.
• Its membership of CENTO was treated enthusiastically because many fellow members were Muslim
countries.
• OIC provided interest free loans and grants and membership reinforced the image of Pakistan as one
of the world’s leading Muslim nations.
• As a member of the Commonwealth Pakistan supported Britain with a workforce (depleted by World
War 2), this brought the benefit of remittances.

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Less effective:

• The Kashmir question is on-going.

• Membership of SEATO did not secure aid for Pakistan, support in its difficulties with India or during
the East Pakistan break away. As a result,
• Pakistan left in 1972.
• CENTO dissolved in 1979 after failing to develop a permanent structure.
• Pakistan left the Commonwealth in 1971 when Britain recognized Bangladesh.

Q. How successful have India and Pakistan been in finding a solution to the Kashmir issue between
1947 and 1999? Explain your answer. [14]

Since partition in 1947, the main thorn between the good relations has been the Kashmir issue. Kashmir
has been the bone of contention between India and Pakistan over which the two sides have fought
various wars. At the heart of the conflict is the water insecurity of the two countries with rapidly
growing populations. The Indus is a river system that sustains communities in both India and Pakistan. In
Pakistan, it is the only river system supporting the country, where more than 92 per cent of the land is
either arid or semi-arid. Given that over half of Pakistan’s population is employed in the agricultural
sector, the importance of the Indus River to the well-being and economy of both countries cannot be
over-emphasized. Jinnah always termed Kashmir as “the Juglar-vein of Pakistan”. This is why, despite
being an advocate of peace, he ordered the military operation of 1948 for the liberation of Kashmir,
after its forceful accession to India by its Hindu Maharaja. The UNO declared Kashmir a ‘disputed
territory’ in 1957 and a ceasefire was recommended to both countries with the determination that the
people of Kashmir would be given the right to decide for the future of their state through a plebiscite.
The freedom group ended their struggle after this promise. However, to this day the referendum has not
been held and Kashmiris have been denied justice, which marks a major failure in the attempts to
resolve this issue.

In 1965, a war ensued between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir issue. The conflict began following
Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to
precipitate an insurgency against Indian rule. India retaliated by launching a full-scale military attack on
West Pakistan. This war is also known as the “Second Kashmir War”. The war continued for 17 days
without any conclusive results. The nation and its army defended the county in a superb way against its
enemy which was five times its size. However, it was a failure for both because a major war broke out
which lasted for five weeks and caused thousands of casualties on both sides with no major
breakthrough over the Kashmir Issue.

In April 1999, the Kargil war further pumped up the Indo-Pak hostility, when Muslim Kashmiri guerrillas
crossed the Line of Control and captured the Indian occupied towns of Kargil and Drass. The Pakistani
government denied any involvement, but India launched a counterattack by sending fighter planes and
fired over 250,000 shells and rockets. Two of them crossed into Pakistani airspace and one was shot
down. The Kargil conflict was a major blow to Pakistan-India relations, as not only did the Kashmir issue
remain unresolved, but it also brought the threat of a nuclear war in the region.

However, both countries have worked on trying to solve this issue. In 1948, a ceasefire was arranged
which left Kashmir divided between India and Pakistan. In 1949 an official ceasefire line (LOC) was
agreed through Kashmir which was patrolled by troops from the UN. This was a success for Pakistan as
they could now speak up if India tried to integrate Indian occupied Kashmir into India. Furthermore, in

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1957, the United Nations Security Council re-confirmed that the whole of Kashmir was a disputed
territory to avoid unfair occupation.

The Tashkent Declaration of 1966 was a non-aggression treaty between India and Pakistan that settled
the Indo Pak war of 1965. It was arranged by USSR and the two nations agreed to a ceasefire over
Kashmir and that in future Kashmir and all other disputes would be settled by negotiation. This was a
success as the agreement increased the possibility of peaceful negotiations over Kashmir instead of
further wars and bloodshed.

The Simla Agreement of 1972 was also a major step in developing good ties between the two states.
India agreed to free 90,000 war prisoners of Pakistan and Pakistan agreed to talk over Kashmir issue
bilaterally and not going to the world community. Though India got the upper hand and Pakistan lost its
legitimate support of the world body UN, yet it was a step forward in the resolution of the Kashmir
dispute.

The Lahore Declaration was a bilateral agreement and governance treaty signed between Prime Minister
Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Nawaz Sharif in 1999. It was to reduce the risk of accidental or unauthorized
use of nuclear weapons as the two nations agreed that all issues including that of Jammu and Kashmir
would be resolved by peaceful means. A bus service for also initiated between both parts of Kashmir in
order to facilitate the families of Kashmiris. This ray of hope for finding a peaceful solution to the
Kashmir issue was dashed by the Kargil War and the peace-process was rolled back. Though short-lived,
this may be considered a success as both countries were willing to compromise for the safety of their
people. It gave the two nations a climate of shared certainty and protection.

In conclusion, despite deliberate efforts from both sides to hold bilateral dialogue or with the
involvement of third parties like the UN, the relations between the two states have mainly been plagued
by failure. Kashmir still remains a bone of contention. On occasion, these negotiations were to reach a
conclusion but unfortunately were sabotaged by the hardliners and sometimes non-state actors on both
sides of the border. To make matters worse, the nuclear arms race has made this region a nuclear flash
point in the world as both India and Pakistan continue to bolster their military muscle by the further
allocation of resources.

Q: ‘Pakistan has had good relations with USSR (Russia) since 1947.’ How far do you agree with this
statement? Explain your answer. [14]

The diplomatic relations between Pakistan and USSR since 1947 are discussed below with a conclusion.

The start of good relations between the two took place in 1961 after the U2 crisis. To reduce the
tensions caused by it, Ayub Khan, the Chief Martial Law Administrator of Pakistan felt it was necessary to
move towards peace and maintain friendly relations with Russia. In 1961, the Soviets, as a gesture of
goodwill, agreed to begin exploring for oil in Pakistan. When India accepted help from USA in its war
with China, the effect was to drive Pakistan and the USSR closer together. When China began to give Pak
aid in 1963, the Soviets decided to take even more decisive steps to ally with Pakistan. In 1963, it loaned
Pakistan £11 million and shifted from its previous inclination towards India over Kashmir to neutral
stance. The relations sky-rocketed when Ayub Khan paid an official visit to Soviet Union in 1965 to
improve mutual understanding.

Another instance of good relations was in 1966 when USSR convened the peace talks in Tashkent,
between India and Pakistan to stop the Indo-Pak War of 1965. Soviets held this Peace Conference,
where President Ayub Khan met the Indian premier, Lal Bahdur Shastri. The agreement that became

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known as the Tashkent Declaration called for a truce between the two states. After this, Pakistan
became a unique country by receiving trilateral aid from USA, USSR and China.

Good relations reached a crescendo in early 1970s when Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was the Prime Minister.
There was a complete shift in the foreign policy of Pakistan. Previously, it was dominantly pro-US but
now it had shifted in favor of the Soviets. SEATO (anti-USSR bloc) was left by Pakistan. With this change,
USSR’s hostilities also reduced. It gave financial help and technical expertise to build Pakistan Steel Mill
in 1973.

On the contrary, improved relations were short-lived. After its inception in 1947, the USSR had invited
the first Prime Minister of Pakistan Liaquat Ali for an official visit in 1950. This trip had been scheduled
but right before his departure, Liaquat Ali Khan received an invitation from the US. The USSR was put
behind and he opted to travel to USA instead. This sowed the seed of tension between the two states.
The evident pro-US and anti-USSR stance was stamped in 1954 and 1955 when Pakistan joined USA
sponsored anti-USSR blocs military pacts; CENTO and SEATO.

Tensions escalated when the U2 crisis took place in 1960, when Pakistan allowed the US to use its base
camp in order to spy on USSR. The US spy plane, U2, flew from Badabir Pir base, Peshawar to the USSR,
which was shot and its pilot, Gary Powers was captured. He confessed that he had flown from Pakistan.
This created a grave issue for Pakistan since USSR clearly threatened Pakistan to prepare itself for dire
consequences if such an event occurred in the future.

Relations, however, were at a very low ebb during 1969-71 because Pakistan’s effort to bring USA and
China closer greatly annoyed USSR. In 1971 Russia retaliated by fully supported India with military aid
and Pakistan lost its East Wing.

Another decline in Pak-USSR relations was from 1979 onwards in 1980s, when Afghan Jihad was on-
going. The soviet occupation of Afghanistan in 1979 caused an open rift when Pakistan accepted
American aid to support the mujahidin rebels. Although Zia visited Moscow in 1984 for the funeral of
Andropov, he got a cold reception. Later that year, the Soviet Union, which also disapproved of Pak’s
nuclear programme began bombing raids on Pakistan. Hostile relations continued until 1988, when the
Soviets finally withdrew from Afghanistan. By then, the USSR had financially drained and finally
disintegrated in 1991. Growth of economic and cultural ties slowed due to Afghanistan effect.

In conclusion, Pakistan has not had very good relations with USSR since 1947. Overall, the tensions were
more frequent and strong. Virtually, Pakistan was pro-capitalist (US) that conflicted with Russia’s
communist ideology and economic policies. Pakistan was also opposed to expansionist deigns of USSR.

Q: How successful was Pakistan as the member of international organizations during 1947 to 1999?
Explain your answer. [14]

The successes and failures of Pakistan as the member of international organizations is discussed below
with a conclusion.

Pakistan joined the United Nation is September 1947. Following the idea of Quaid’s foreign policy,
Pakistan became the spokesperson for many Asian states that were struggling to gain independence
during the 1950s, such as Indonesia. It also supported the entry of China in the UN. Apart from this,
Pakistan has also been as active member in terms of participating in peace keeping initiative in many
countries like Somalia. It has always supported the Palestinian cause on its platform. Moreover,
Pakistan became influential by raising the Kashmir question on several occasions. The UN declared a

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ceasefire over Kashmir and affirmed its status to be disputed, while acknowledging a referendum to be
the only solution. The Indus Water Treaty 1960 with India was also settled via UN involvement. The
World Bank also provided finance to help establish hydro-electricity and soil reclamation programmes
which have been vital for the stimulation of Pakistan’s economy and industries.

Pakistan has also been an effective member of the OIC (Organization of Islamic Cooperation). Its
membership reinforced the image of Pakistan as one of the world’s leading Muslim nations. Kashmir and
Palestine issue have been highlighted on this platform. Its member states have always helped Pakistan in
times of need like floods and earthquakes. OIC also provided interest free loans and grants. In 1974,
Pakistan had successfully hosted its 2nd summit in Lahore. . It was attended by heads of state and
ministers from all over the Muslim world to discuss the Middle East situation in the wake of the Arab-
Israel war. Harmony and unity was promoted in the Islamic community. This became a great victory in
relations with Muslim countries as within two years, Iran gave loans to Pakistan totaling 730 million, UAE
100 million and Libya 80 million dollars. Sheikh Mujib was also in presence and Bangladesh was
recognized by Pakistan.

Pakistan has also been a part of the Commonwealth along with all previous colonies of the British. It has
always stood for justice, equality, peace, security and rights of the people. As a member of the
Commonwealth, Pakistan supported Britain with a workforce to participate in its reconstruction after its
depletion by World War 2. This brought the benefit of foreign remittances. Moreover, the member
countries of Commonwealth introduced an easy Visa policy. Aid was also given. Pakistan also
participated in Commonwealth Games.

Pakistan’s participation in other organizations, including SAARC and the ECO, reflect its desire to be an
influential player in the geographic region of which it is a part. Pakistan has been an active member of
NAM organization (The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a forum of 120 developing world states that
are not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. After the United Nations, it is the largest
grouping of states world-wide and took active part in its deliberations.

On the other hand, there were failures too. A major one was that Kashmir issue remains an on-going
conflict. Although, a referendum was ordered by the UN but it has not taken place till yet. Pakistan
hasn’t had the political power internationally to build pressure in order to conduct the referendum.
Similarly, the issue of Palestine is also unresolved. OIC has also not been practically productive in this
regard.

When East Pakistan formed into Bangladesh, Pakistan could not prevent the Commonwealth from
recognizing it, despite being a member state. Bangladesh was recognized and given membership to
Commonwealth. Pakistan was annoyed so it left the organization in 1972. This was a failure.

CENTO (Central treaty organization) formed by UK and sponsored by US and SEATO (South East Asia
Treaty Organization) formed by US were anti- USSR pacts. Pakistan joined them in 1954 and 1955
respectively. Its membership of CENTO was treated enthusiastically however, the organization dissolved
in 1979 after failing to develop a permanent structure. Whereas, SEATO was active though it was not of
much benefit to Pakistan. The membership of SEATO did not secure aid for Pakistan, support in its
difficulties with India or during the East Pakistan break away. As a result, Pakistan left in 1972 under
Bhutto’s rule. Moreover, Pakistan left the Commonwealth in 1971 when Britain recognized Bangladesh.

Overall, all of these organizations also failed to provide adequate support to Pakistan regarding the
Kashmir issue. The UN has failed to pressurize India into holding the promised referendum. The
Commonwealth too was seen by Pakistan as an important platform to pressurize India over Kashmir, but

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it did not garner much support as many of the commonwealth members remained silent on the issue.
Similarly, the OIC failed to apply pressure on India as well.

Q: How successful was Pakistan’s foreign policy between 1988 and 1999? Explain your answer. [14]

There were instances when Pakistan had cordial relations with India. In December 1988, Pakistan hosted
the 4th SAARC Conference in Islamabad. The Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi attended this
conference. This platform was used to encourage mutual ties. Both countries signed two agreements in
1989 to promote joint peace and cooperation. A hotline telephone link was set up between the two
states to be used in times of crisis. Apart from this, again in 1999, the Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihar
Vajpayee arrived in Pakistan and met the Pakistani counterpart Nawaz Sharif in Lahore. Not only was
this a success in terms of a visit from the Indian premiere but it also resulted in mutual agreements of
peace and cooperation between the two countries regarding the use of nuclear weapons.

With United States too, Pakistan was able to keep good relations during the time. In 1995, Brown
Amendment was passed by the US parliament. It provided relaxation to the rules of the Pressler
Amendment that was passed in 1985. As a result of it, aid for Pakistan was resumed. It was during the
tenure of Benazir, this aid of $ 388 million helped the economic condition of Pakistan. Furthermore, in
1996, the first lady US, Hilary Clinton also visited Pakistan with her daughter Chelsea. This visit was a
testimony of friendly relations between the two. In this era, relations with Afghanistan also improved. A
civil war erupted in Afghanistan with the end of the Afghan war, where seven parties were in conflict. To
resolve their disputes, Pakistan intervened and facilitated in negotiations. Pakistan tried to bring peace
in Afghanistan effectively. In 1996, this civil war ended. Pakistan had made a militant group of Taliban
that had captured 90% of the Afghan land and established their government. Two of the parties of civil
war joined the Taliban. The Taliban regime was pro-Pakistan.

However, there were times when Pakistan’s foreign policy was not very successful. Pakistan and India
were involved in a nuclear arms race due to which Pakistan had to face economic sanctions in 1998. The
Kargil Conflict also took place in 1999 just after the Lahore Declaration thereby violating the mutual
peace agreement between Nawaz Sharif and Indian PM Vajpayee. Initially, Pakistan refused any
involvement in the conflict but investigations later revealed that Pak army had in fact supported the
Kashmiri guerrillas against India at Kargil. This damaged the relations and placed deep mistrust between
the two countries.

The relations with US, also did not remain very ideal. It was because of the development of Pakistan’s
nuclear program. Firstly, despite the payment, the delivery of 28 F-16 planes to Pakistan was delayed.
This created tensions. Later, in 1998, when Pakistan conducted its nuclear tests, severe economic
sanctions were imposed that led to an economic decline. This damaged the relations with US by creating
a gulf of mistrust. The after-effects of the Afghan Jihad threatened Pakistan’s law and order. Russian
manufactured Kalashnikov guns which remained in Afghanistan were smuggled into Pakistan. They were
easily available and thus increased the crime rate. Drugs were also smuggled from Afghanistan which
immensely increased the number of drug addicts in the country. Since cross-border infiltration was
difficult to check, it became common that people were kidnapped from Pakistan and taken to
Afghanistan. These issues had a negative impact on the mutual relations.

In conclusion, Pakistan’s foreign policy between1988 and 1999 was not very successful because it had to
face strong opposition from the US due to nuclear weapons, while Pakistan could not counter it
effectively. In violation of the Lahore Declaration, Kargil conflict was also broke out. The policy was not
well maintained according to the need.

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