Open system:

A system which is connected to the network and is ready for communication.

Closed system:
A system which is not connected to the network and can’t be communicated with.

Computer Network:
An interconnection of multiple devices, also known as hosts, that are connected using multiple paths for the purpose of
sending/receiving data or media. Computer networks can also include multiple devices/mediums which help in the
communication between two different devices; these are known as Network devices and include things such as routers,
switches, hubs, and bridges.
• Network Topology:
The layout arrangement of the different devices in a network. Common examples include: Bus,
Star, Mesh, Ring, and Daisy chain.

OSI:
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It is a reference model that specifies standards
for communications protocols and also the functionalities of each layer. The OSI has been
developed by the International Organization For Standardization and it is 7 layer architecture. Each
layer of OSI has different functions and each layer has to follow different protocols.
• The 7 layers are:-
• physical layer
• Data link layer
• Network layer
• Transport layer
• Session layer
• Presentation layer
• Application layer
• Protocol:
A protocol is the set of rules or algorithms which define the way how two entities can communicate across the
network and there exists different protocol defined at each layer of the OSI model. Few of such protocols are TCP,
IP, UDP, ARP, DHCP, FTP and so on.
• UNIQUE IDENTIFIERS OF NETWORK
Host name:
Each device in the network is associated with a unique device name known as Hostname.
Type “hostname” in the command prompt(Administrator Mode) and press ‘Enter’, this displays the
hostname of your machine.
• IP Address (Internet Protocol address):
Also known as the Logical Address, the IP Address is the network address of the system across the
network.
To identify each device in the world-wide-web, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) assigns an
IPV4 (Version 4) address as a unique identifier to each device
32
on the Internet.
The length of an IPv4 address is 32-bits, hence, we have 2 IP addresses available. The length of an IPv6
address is 128-bits.
Type “ipconfig” in the command prompt and press ‘Enter’, this gives us the IP address of the device.
• MAC Address (Media Access Control address):
Also known as physical address, the MAC Address is the unique identifier of each host and is associated
with its NIC (Network Interface Card).
A MAC address is assigned to the NIC at the time of manufacturing.
The length of the MAC address is : 12-nibble/ 6 bytes/ 48 bits
Type “ipconfig/all” in the command prompt and press ‘Enter’, this gives us the MAC address.
• Port:
A port can be referred to as a logical channel through which data can be sent/received to an application.
Any host may have multiple applications running, and each of these applications is identified using the port
number on which they are running.
A port number is a 16-bit integer.
• Socket:
The unique combination of IP address and Port number together are termed as Socket.
• Other related concepts
DNS Server:
DNS stands for Domain Name system.
DNS is basically a server which translates web addresses or URLs (ex: www.google.com)
into their corresponding IP addresses. We don’t have to remember all the IP addresses
of each and every website.
The command ‘nslookup’ gives you the IP address of the domain you are looking for.
This also provides the information of our DNS Server.
• ARP:
ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
It is used to convert an IP address to its corresponding physical address(i.e., MAC
Address).
ARP is used by the Data Link Layer to identify the MAC address of the Receiver’s
machine.
• RARP:
RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol.
As the name suggests, it provides the IP address of the device given a physical address
as input. But RARP has become obsolete since the time DHCP has come into the
picture.
 Goals of Networks
• Computer Network means an interconnection of autonomous (standalone) computers for information exchange. The connecting media could be a copper wire,
optical fiber, microwave, or satellite.
• Networking Elements – The computer network includes the following networking elements:
• At least two computers
• Transmission medium either wired or wireless
• Protocols or rules that govern the communication
• Network software such as Network Operating System
• Network Criteria:
The criteria that have to be met by a computer network are:
• 1. Performance – It is measured in terms of transit time and response time.
• Transit time is the time for a message to travel from one device to another
• Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
• Performance is dependent on the following factors:
• The number of users
• Type of transmission medium
• Capability of connected network
• Efficiency of software
• 2. Reliability – It is measured in terms of
• Frequency of failure
• Recovery from failures
• Robustness during catastrophe
• 3. Security – It means protecting data from unauthorized access.
• Goals of Computer Networks: The following are some important goals of computer networks:
• Resource Sharing –
Many organization has a substantial number of computers in operations, which are located apart. Ex. A group of office workers
can share a common printer, fax, modem, scanner, etc.

• High Reliability –
If there are alternate sources of supply, all files could be replicated on two or more machines. If one of them is not available,
due to hardware failure, the other copies could be used.

• Inter-process Communication –
Network users, located geographically apart, may converse in an interactive session through the network. In order to permit
this, the network must provide almost error-free communications.

• Flexible access –
Files can be accessed from any computer in the network. The project can be begun on one computer and finished on
another. Other goals include Distribution of processing functions, Centralized management, and allocation of network
resources, Compatibility of dissimilar equipment and software, Good network performance, Scalability, Saving money, Access
to remote information, Person to person communication, etc.
Mesh Topology:
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are
AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Figure 1: Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are known as links.

•Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the total number of ports that are required by each
device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4. The
total number of ports required=N*(N-1).
•Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the total number of dedicated links required to
connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is
5*4/2 = 10.

Advantages of this topology:

• Communication is very fast between the nodes.
• It is robust.
• The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices through dedicated
channels or links.
• Provides security and privacy.
• Problems with this topology:
• Installation and configuration are difficult.
• The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of devices.
• The cost of maintenance is high.
• Star Topology:
• In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node and all
other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as
broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters
in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet
LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected

to a single point of connection i.e. hub.
• Advantages of this topology:
• If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables required to connect them is N. So, it is
easy to set up.
• Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports required is N.
• It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
• Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
• Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
• Problems with this topology:
• If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash down.
• The cost of installation is high.
• Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
• Bus Topology:
• Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It
is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology,
various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA,
Slotted Aloha, etc.

Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to
the channel via drop lines.
• Advantages of this topology:
• If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required to connect them is 1, known as
backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
• Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10 Mbps.
• The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small networks.
• Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known.
• Problems with this topology:
• A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer
known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
• Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
• Security is very low.
Ring Topology:
• In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices.

• A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to
the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence
to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.

• The data flows in one direction, i.e.., it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections between each
Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to
transmit the data.
 Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
•Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one node to another node.
•Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
The following operations take place in ring topology are :
1.One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for performing the operations.
2.To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the token is to be released for other stations to use.
3.When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4.There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just after transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the
token after the acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of this topology:
•The data transmission is high-speed.
•The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
•Cheap to install and expand.
•It is less costly than a star topology.
Problems with this topology:
•The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
•Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
•The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
•Less secure.
Tree Topology :
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and
SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) are used.

• Tree Topology :
• This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and
SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) are used.

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from
the central hub to the secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a
multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.

Advantages of this topology :

It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
We can add new devices to the existing network.
Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Problems with this topology :
 • If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
• The cost is high because of the cabling.
• If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
• Hybrid Topology :
• This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied above. It is used when the nodes are free
to take any form. It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies seen
above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Figure 6: The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a combination of all different types of networks.
Advantages of this topology :
•This topology is very flexible.
•The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Problems with this topology :
•It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
•Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
•The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and network devices.
Types of area networks – LAN, MAN and WAN

• The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different computers via any medium. LAN, MAN, and WAN are the three
major types of networks designed to operate over the area they cover. There are some similarities and dissimilarities between them. One of the
major differences is the geographical area they cover, i.e. LAN covers the smallest area; MAN covers an area larger than LAN
and WAN comprises the largest of all.
There are other types of Computer Networks also, like :

• PAN (Personal Area Network)

• SAN (Storage Area Network)
• EPN (Enterprise Private Network)
• VPN (Virtual Private Network)
• Personal Area Network (PAN)-
• PAN is a personal area network having an interconnection of personal technology devices to communicate over a short distance. It covers only
less than 10 meters or 33 feet of area. PAN has fewer users as compared to other networks such as LAN, WAN, etc. PAN typically uses some
form of wireless technology. PAN involves the transmission of data between information devices such as smartphones, personal computers,
tablet computers, etc.
• Local Area Network (LAN) –
• LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that personal computers and workstations can share data, tools, and
programs. The group of computers and devices are connected together by a switch, or stack of switches, using a private addressing scheme as
defined by the TCP/IP protocol. Private addresses are unique in relation to other computers on the local network. Routers are found at the
boundary of a LAN, connecting them to the larger WAN.
• Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked is limited. By definition, the connections must be high-speed and relatively
inexpensive hardware (Such as hubs, network adapters, and Ethernet cables). LANs cover a smaller geographical area (Size is limited to a few
kilometers) and are privately owned. One can use it for an office building, home, hospital, school, etc. LAN is easy to design and maintain. A
Communication medium used for LAN has twisted-pair cables and coaxial cables. It covers a short distance, and so the error and noise are
minimized.
The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the network. It is costly and may or may not be owned by a single
organization. The data transfer rate and the propagation delay of MAN are moderate. Devices used for transmission of data through MAN are Modem
and Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN are the part of the telephone company network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer or the
cable TV network in a city.
Wide Area Network (WAN) –
WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large geographical area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a
state or country. A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting to other LANs via telephone lines and radio waves and may be limited to an
enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public. The technology is high speed and relatively expensive.
There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN. WAN is difficult to design and maintain. Similar to a MAN, the fault
tolerance of a WAN is less and there is more congestion in the network. A Communication medium used for WAN is PSTN or Satellite Link. Due to
long-distance transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed since it involves increased distance and increased number of servers and terminals etc. Speeds of
WAN ranges from a few kilobits per second (Kbps) to megabits per second (Mbps). Propagation delay is one of the biggest problems faced here.
Devices used for the transmission of data through WAN are Optic wires, Microwaves, and Satellites. An example of a Switched WAN is the
asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network and Point-to-Point WAN is a dial-up line that connects a home computer to the Internet.
Conclusion –
There are many advantages of LAN over MAN and WAN, such as LAN’s provide excellent reliability, high data transmission rate, they can easily be
managed and shares peripheral devices too. Local Area Network cannot cover cities or towns and for that Metropolitan Area Network is needed, which
can connect a city or a group of cities together. Further, for connecting a Country or a group of Countries one requires a Wide Area Network.