МИНИСТЕРСТВО НАУКИ И ВЫСШЕГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ, НАУКИ, КУЛЬТУРЫ И СПОРТА РЕСПУБЛИКИ

АРМЕНИЯ

ГОУ ВПО РОССИЙСКО-АРМЯНСКИЙ (СЛАВЯНСКИЙ)

УНИВЕРСИТЕТ

ИНСТИТУТ ГУМАНИТАРНЫХ НАУК

Кафедра теории языка и межкультурной коммуникации

Направление: Лингвистика

Студент: Бадалян Наируи

Курсовая работа

“Features of Journalistic Texts and Their Translation into Russian and Armenian”

Допустить к защите Научный руководитель:

Заведующий кафедрой, Товмасян Н. М.
д.ф.н., профессор: Симонян А.А.

Ереван – 2024
 Table of Contents

Introduction…………………………………………………………………...…….....3
Chapter I: The Role of the English Language Journalism………….……………...5

1.1 The Essence of Journalism………………………………………………………..5

Chapter II: Historical Development of Journalism…………………………………9

2.1 The Evolution of the British press.......................................................................13

2.2 American Newspapers..........................................................................................17

Conclusion……………………………………………………..…………………..…22
Bibliography................................................................................................................24
 INTRODUCTION

In general, journalism is the practice of gathering, recording, verifying, and reporting on

information of public importance. Non-fiction writing in the style of journalism is used to
report on news and actual events. It can be used in news websites, radio scripts, television
programs, and newspaper pieces.
People can learn about a variety of subjects thanks to the language used in newspapers.
The main purpose of its language is to transmit information. That, in addition to
convincing and amusing the audience, is what distinguishes its approach. Its sentence
structure and vocabulary must be carefully designed to appeal to all readers. For this
reason, the majority of individuals view newspaper language as a full, adequate, and
satisfying source of up-to-date information.

The main aim of this paper is to outline the role of the English language journalistic
texts.
The objective of this research is to examine the structure, properties, and usage of
journalistic texts.
The topicality of this research originates from the necessity of understanding the role of
language tools applied in journalistic texts.
The theoretical importance is to review the role of linguo-stylistic devices in journalistic
texts.
The practical importance of our term paper is to analyze stylistic similarities and
differences between different types of journalistic texts.
Our course paper consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a
bibliography.
Introduction submits aims and objectives of our course paper, its topicality, theoretical
and practical importance.
The first chapter discusses the role of English language in the development of
journalism. Here we also give a historical overview of different types of English language
newspapers.

3
In the second chapter we conduct comparative analyses of the linguistic features
between British and American newspapers. We also discuss various journalistic cultures
including yellow, comics and stunt journalisms.

Conclusion briefly summarizes the accomplished analyses of previous chapters.

4
 Chapter I

“Historical Development of Mass Media and Journalistic Texts”

1.1The Role of the English Language Journalism

Journalism is the creation and dissemination of reports on the relationships between

individuals, concepts, ideas, facts, and events that, to the best of their accuracy, serve as
the "news of the day" and inform society. The process of obtaining, compiling, and
distributing news—as well as feature articles and related analysis—through print and
digital media, such as books, blogs, webcasts, podcasts, social networking sites,
magazines, newspapers, e-mail, radio, and television, is known as journalism. The
reporting of current events in print, especially in newspapers, is where the term
"journalism" originated. But as the 20th century saw the development of radio, television,
and the Internet, the term's definition expanded to include all current events reporting in
print and digital media. Journalistic texts are those produced by professionals in the
fields of social communication and journalism. In this way, texts are made to educate
readers or the public at large about a situation, fact, or event that is significant to a large
audience or to the collective viewpoint of the public. This is one of the things that set
them apart from other forms of writing, such as essays, which are prevalent in literature
and philosophy and are not particularly sensitive to the passage of time.
(https://dbpedia.org/page/Journalism)

1.2 The Essence of Journalism

The concept of objectivity is the primary distinction between journalism and other non-
fiction writing genres. When conducting source interviews, investigating events, and
writing and reporting their stories, journalists are expected to maintain objectivity at all
times. Their narratives ought to inform readers rather than try to convince them. That is
not to say that opinions will never appear in newspapers; rather, writers of editorials,
columns, and other opinion-based content need to exercise extreme caution when
allowing subjectivity in their work. In addition, while research papers and other non-
fiction writing often consult encyclopedias, scholarly articles, or other additional or
supplementary information, journalists focus primarily on working with primary sources.
A journalist will frequently interview a variety of people—from politicians to regular

5
citizens—during their research and writing process in order to obtain a sense of what
people have gone through. The quotes that journalists gather help to inform and shape
their stories.
(https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/subject_specific_writing/journalism_and_journalistic_writin
g/index.html)

"Determining what constitutes "journalism" is not a consensus, despite the perception

that scholars, journalism educators, and journalists speak about the field in essentially the
same ways". Furthermore, the lack of a single definition does not imply that journalism
studies is special in any way because most academics prefer to concentrate on the specific
topic of study within their disciplines and subdisciplines rather than constantly defining
and reframing their field as a whole. However, it's also possible that the term
"journalism" itself, as a symbol for a discipline, as a portrayal of a career, and as a signal
of goals, methods, and sensibilities that might be difficult to define, are less stable than
most containers. These distinctions are being made globally, even though they are never
quite as durable as popular mythology would have people believe about journalism in the
20th century. Because of this, it could be especially difficult to summarize journalism in a
single sentence that will satisfy everyone. First of all, the history of journalism is
essential to understanding the term itself. Barnhurst and Owens emphasize that
journalism emerged as a thoroughly modern-era phenomenon, explaining it as "a group
of practices that gained special status within the wider field of communication through a
long history that separated out news sharing from its origins in interpersonal
communication." Throughout human history, telling others about things that are new to
them has been a common practice. However, with the introduction of newsletters, a
practice primarily confined to one's social and physical surroundings separated itself from
everyday communication. Not only were newsletters restricted to literate and leisurely
individuals, but they also "required some facility to produce more than one copy and to
distribute the result, as well as sufficient social status to make their activity appear to
have value for recipients." According to Barnhurst and Owens, "the latter attribute has
been the focus of constant attention in journalism." They claim that journalism was
always characterized by three fundamental characteristics that made it a cultural practice:
reporting on events, offering novelty, and establishing truth that was grounded in reality.
Later, the definition of journalism expanded to encompass systems of production and
6
distribution as newsletters transitioned from handwritten to printed, then to newssheets,
and as mechanization made it possible to circulate such news on a large scale. Moreover,
Barnhurst and Owens (2008) contend that early publishing, which was frequently
associated with parties and partisanship, was either conducted under government control
or in opposition to it, giving journalism its "close alliance with political life" and its claim
to social distinction. Thus, journalism arose "at the intersection of establishing boundaries
that distinguish private life, civil society (or the market), and the state from each other";
this gave rise, for example, to ideas about journalism's intermediary role in fostering a
public sphere, which is a space maintained in public but separate from the government
and used for discussions about civic life. At last, they contend that by the nineteenth
century, the term "journalism" had come to refer to a group of occupations involved in
creating and disseminating news, with journalists in particular emerging as "chief among
workers" due to their prominent roles as reporters, writers, and, later, broadcasters. This
was due to the rise in nationalism, literacy, and government information systems like the
post, as well as the growth of newspapers as major engines of economic activity. (Journal
of Communication, 27-53 (Barnhurst, K., & Mutz, D., 1997))

Thus, journalism is a significant and intricate social practice. Because it "seeks to notice
and communicate what it learns concerning social value, something known as news, and
in doing so is always in the act of forming an audience by bringing it into synchronized
conversation with itself," it is one with special significance. In a similar vein, Schudson
defines journalism as "the business or practice of generating and distributing information
about contemporary affairs of general public interest and importance." This definition
aligns with journalism's professionalized practices and public orientation. A group of
institutions are in the business of informing a dispersed, anonymous audience on a
regular basis (usually daily) about current events. These comments and information are
typically presented as true and sincere, with the goal of involving the audience in a debate
that is deemed to be significant to the public. Schudson defines journalism elsewhere in
terms of what it “can do for democracy,” including educating the public, acting as a
watchdog, presenting analysis, fostering social empathy, and offering a platform for
discussion. Numerous research endeavors begin with this normative stance, even if it is
only implied: journalism is important and merits examination since it is inherently public
and democratic. (Broersma, M., & Peters, C. (2013) Rethinking journalism: (pp. 1–12))
7
Mass media and journalism are fundamental to the human condition and ability to
provide meaning to the world. The use of intricate drum rhythms in Africa and other
regions, ancient sculptures and frescoes in the Ajantha-Ellora caves, and the
instantaneous dissemination of news via electronic pulses that carry vast amounts of
information across the globe are all examples of how humans have used symbols to
understand and communicate with one another as well as with the outside world. From
the dawn of communication to the present, a variety of elements have shaped the process
of meaning-making, including the technological tools at hand and the cultural, political,
and economic context in which it takes place. These components, along with the ensuing
communication channels and applications, have enormous potential to unite people
worldwide, but they have also contributed to their division in numerous ways. Mass
media and journalism have influenced both peace and conflict, advancement and
degrading, clarity and obscurity. They have evolved in a way that perpetuates unequal
power relations at the local, national, and international levels. Public opinion and
underlying sentiment are greatly influenced by mass media and other communication
technologies. When given in a fair, impartial, and non-inflammatory manner,
fundamental knowledge about other people and places can be found in newspapers,
television, and radio, all of which are valuable resources for fostering understanding. The
media is a crucial tool for accountability because it brings out significant issues—like
corruption, for instance—that might not otherwise be discussed or handled in public. The
media also plays a significant role in encouraging governments to take action on social
policy. While stories about immigrants or refugees may serve to legitimize prejudice in
some places, they also highlight issues that require attention, such as subpar living
conditions or limited access to services, immigrants' citizenship status, how local
communities react to their settlement, and so forth. However, there are times when the
media can be used as a vehicle for the spread of divisive and incorrect ideas and
messages that don't encourage civility or calm discourse. Unfavorable messages have the
power to split apart societies and support the stereotypes that encourage violence.
(https://books.openbookpublishers.com/10.11647/obp.0014/chap06.html)

1.3 Historical Development of Journalism

8
Dictionaries define journalism simply as - the main means of mass communication.
Different dictionaries may provide slightly varied definitions of journalism, but the main
idea is the following:

• The collection, preparation, and distribution of news and related commentary and
feature materials through such media as pamphlets, newsletters, newspapers,
magazines, radio, motion pictures, television, and books. While originally applied
to the reportage of current events in printed form, specifically newspapers, with
the advent of radio and television the use of the term has broadened to include all
printed and electronic communication dealing with current affairs.

(https://www.dictionary.net/journalism#definition-source-the-cabinet-dictionary-
of-the-english-language)

The Birth of the Printing Press

With the invention of the movable-type press in 1440, Gutenberg gained the ability to
produce high-quality printed materials at a rate of almost 4,000 pages per day, or 1,000
times faster than a scribe could produce by hand. Thanks to this breakthrough, printed
products are now more affordable and available to a wider audience. Modern journalism
was made possible by the sudden transformation of the newspaper's reach and scope
brought about by the invention of the printing press.
(http://www.earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/bookmarks/zenger/)

9
In 1609, the first weekly newspapers employing Gutenberg's press appeared. The
publications Relations: Aller Furnemmen, published by Johann Carolus, and Aviso
Relations over Zeitung, published by Lucas Schulte, did not identify the cities in which
they were printed in order to evade persecution by the government, but their usage of the
German language allows for an approximate location to be determined. The publications
were successful, and newspapers swiftly expanded throughout Central Europe in spite of
these worries about persecution. Weeklies appeared in Basel, Frankfurt, Vienna,
Hamburg, Berlin, and Amsterdam during the course of the following five years. Under
the name Corante, or weekly news from Italy, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Bohemia,
France, and the Low Countries, England published its first newspaper in 1621.
Newspapers began to appear in nearly every European nation by 1641, when they
expanded to France, Italy, and Spain.
(http://www.ap.org/pages/about/history/history_first.html.)

Government Control and Freedom of the Press

Local news and events were not covered by these early periodicals since many of them
were subject to government regulation. But when Oliver Cromwell and Parliament
threatened to overthrow King Charles I and unleashed civil war in England in 1641,
people looked to their local newspapers for coverage of these momentous events. The
Heads of Several Proceedings in This Present Parliament, a weekly publication, started
publishing articles on home news in November 1641 (Goff, 2007). The article sparked a
debate about press freedom that John Milton later outlined in his well-known essay
Areopagitica, published in 1644. (Bates, D. (2016)."Historical Research Using English
Newspaper"(56-68)

10
The Areopagitica addressed newspapers even though its main focus was Parliament's ban
on particular publications. "Who kills a man kills a reasonable creature, God's image,"
said Milton in response to the strict restrictions on their content (Milton, 1644). "But he
who destroys a good book, kills reason itself, kills the image of God, as it were in the
eye." Milton's book had a significant impact on printing rules even though he placed
more focus on texts than on newspapers. Newspapers were released from government
censorship in England, and people started to realize the value of a free press. Papers
started publishing more regularly as a result of their newfound independence. Biweekly
editions gave newspapers more room for market data and advertisements. As a result,
journalists shifted from being passive spectators to becoming actively involved in
business, promoting their products and offering advice on potential business trends to
investors and company owners. Publishers started daily publishing after seeing the
potential for profit and the growing popularity of newspapers. The oldest continuously
published daily newspaper in the world, Einkommende Zeitung, was first published in
1650 by a German publisher. London's Daily Courant, first in 1702 by an English
publisher, followed suit. These daily publications, which made use of the relatively novel
headline structure and the adornment of images, transformed newspapers into
indispensable elements in individuals' daily life.
(http://www.constitution.org/rf/sedition_1798.htm.)
Britain had developed into a more stable and affluent country by the early 1700s, marked
by a rapidly growing empire, technological advancements in trade and commerce, and
improvements in industry and agriculture. A new, rapidly emerging upper middle class of
bankers, merchants, entrepreneurs, and traders was becoming more educated, literate, and
eager to engage in political discourse and national governance. As a result, journalism in
magazines and newspapers experienced a boom. Newspaper companies provided a means
for writers who were previously dependent on wealthy patrons to become self-employed.
The majority of the values presented in this new publication align with those of the
bourgeois middle class, in contrast to the limitations on intellectualism, property rights,
and religious tolerance that are common in France and other countries. There was
emphasis on the value of social freedom. The first popular magazine was released in
1731. The term "magazine" was first used in reference to military warehouses by Edward
Cave, the editor of the book who went by the pseudonym "Sylvanus Urban". Scott's

11
Magazine, which was established in 1739, is the oldest consumer magazine still
published today, but its claim has been undermined by a string of ownership changes and
a break of more than 90 years. Edward Lloyd's coffee shop in England founded Lloyd's
List in 1734. It continues to be released every day as a business newspaper. Great writers
like Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Swift, Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, Henry Fielding,
Samuel Johnson, and many more emerged from journalism in the first half of the
eighteenth century. These men wrote essays on current events for the popular press and
edited newspapers. The middle class public, who started to join the flow of ideas and
news, had an insatiable demand for their entertaining and educational content. The
newspaper gained enough traction to warrant daily editions from the publishers. Samuel
Buckley established the Daily Courant, the first daily newspaper in history, on the streets
of London in 1702. The newspaper imposed stringent limitations on the dissemination of
news and information that did not involve opinion pieces. It managed to elude political
meddling by generating revenue through the sale of advertising space within its columns.
With his publication of The Storm in 1704—the first significant work of modern
journalism and the first account of a hurricane in England—Defoe is particularly
regarded as a pioneer of modern journalism. The book describes the events of the horrific
storm known as the Great Storm of 1703, which struck London on November 24, 1703,
and was dubbed "the greatest and most persistent of all the Tempests" by Defoe. The
storm lasted for a full week. It is the broadest range and has the longest duration. By
running newspaper ads asking readers to submit personal testimonies, Defoe collected
eyewitness testimony. Approximately sixty of these testimonies were chosen and revised
by Defoe for the book. For a time before direct reporting became the norm in journalism,
this was a groundbreaking method. The Tatler got its name because Richard Steele, who
was influenced by Defoe, started it in 1709 as a journal for rumors and news heard in
London coffee shops. The Examiner is where Jonathan Swift wrote his best satire. It
parodies the conflict between the Conservatives and the Whigs and is frequently
portrayed in an allegorical fashion. Published in the London Journal in the 1720s, the so-
called "Cato Letters" were written by John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon under the pen
name "Cato". All the way up to the signing of the Declaration of Independence, these
letters had a significant influence on colonial America and the early Republican
movement.

12
(https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/subject_specific_writing/
journalism_and_journalistic_writing/index.html)

The developing relationship between readers and newspapers was captured in the
journalism style of newspapers. Newspaper language is written with readers in mind. The
demographics of these newspapers' readers are reflected in their style. A system of
related language devices that is socially accepted and functionally conditioned that
informs the reader of the day's events and gives him guidance on how to evaluate them is
known as newspaper style. Publicist style is particularly utilized in essays, speeches,
radio and television commentary, and articles published in newspapers or magazines.

(https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/subject_specific_writing/
journalism_and_journalistic_writing/index.html)

Of all the written literary English styles, newspaper style was the last to be recognized as
a distinct and unusual form of writing. The goal of the English newspaper style is to
inform and instruct the reader through a system of connected lexical, phraseological, and
grammatical devices. While reporting is the primary purpose of newspaper writing, some
genres, like the editorial, only serve as an evaluation tool.
(https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/subject_specific_writing/journalism_and_journalistic_writin
g/index.html)

1.4 The Evolution of the British Newspapers

America and Britain are two countries united by a common language, a shared religious
background, and a shared history. The press was one of the many domains where these
affinities was evident. But America has practically followed a different path since gaining
its independence in order to carve out a unique identity for itself in print media. Although
the latter initially resembled British print media, they also acquired their own distinctive
characteristics. I will outline the parallels and discrepancies between the two media in
this essay from various angles. Throughout the 17th century, as British society underwent
changes, so did the British press. This evolution was influenced by numerous factors. The
Civil War and the Declaration of Rights (1689) came after the Magna Carta as the first
charter to acknowledge the rights and privileges of the people. These, along with the

13
1695 Licensing Act's non-renewal, which ended censorship, gave the press the liberty to
thrive in Britain.

(https://www.academia.edu/14146184/British_and_American_press_a_critical_analysis)

Similarly, the nation's newspaper circulation increased as a result of the Industrial

Revolution. Another significant event that aided in the growth of newspapers was the
1855 repeal of the Stamp Act, which made it possible for a cheap press to compete with
established publications like the "Times". Furthermore, it is evident that the development
of the press was influenced by the quasi-universal suffrage and the growth of education in
the second half of the 19th century. In addition, the press flourished more than ever in the
second half of the 20th century due to the introduction of new technology. On the other
hand, the American press can be examined during two distinct eras: the colonial era and
the post-independence era. Regarding the initial phase, there was no distinction between
the American and British press. The early newspapers were merely size and style replicas
of the London papers. The New-England Courant, published by James Franklin, and the
weekly Boston News-Letter, published by John Campbell in 1704, were essentially
similar to the London Gazette and other public prints of London. Other newspapers, like
the Pennsylvania Gazette, started by Benjamin Franklin in 1728, and the New York
Gazette, founded by Andrew Bradford in 1725, were very similar to the English
newspapers. Newspaper production tripled during the second half of the eighteenth
century, a time of great prosperity for the English press. "The Times", the leading
newspaper, was only read by the elite class of educated people. With the development of
advanced printing technology, the paper initially focused on politics but eventually
expanded to become a widely distributed entertainment source. Its directors, Thomas
Barnes and then John Delane, helped it break free from state and political party control,
become an opinion-forming publication, and outsell its competitors. It was a stand-alone,
powerful paper that ran advertisements in supplements. It stood for the fourth power.

https://www.academia.edu/14146184/British_and_American_press_a_critical_analysis

However, the press at the time represented bourgeois values and was more interested in
the highbrow classes than the lowbrow populace. Nonetheless, newspapers such as "The
Daily Telegraph" had lively content aimed at middle-class readers and were written with

14
skill. "The Daily Mail" featured articles that were visually appealing, succinct, and
focused more on topics that appealed to women than politics. The front pages were filled
with advertisements. Lord Northcliffe was a major force in turning the press into an
entertainment-focused industry by modernizing The Times and acquiring the Observer.
Due to the need for information during the war, newspapers with large circulation levels
engaged in a sales war in the 20th century. But they no longer had the educated élite as
their target. Similarly, the press became viewed as a profitable venture under Thatcher,
opening the door for additional mergers and acquisitions.

https://www.academia.edu/14146184/British_and_American_press_a_critical_analysis

The Style of "The Guardian" and "The Sun" Newspapers

According to Crystal and Davy, broadsheet and tabloid newspapers have unique and
unusual styles. As a result, these newspapers have a unique language and style. Similarly,
they maintain that by writing the story with a consistent topic and a variety of stylistic
colorings. "The Guardian" is a broadsheet newspaper that was established in 1821 and
had 280,000 copies per day on average in 2011. Its center-left readership often identifies
with the political mainstream. While it is shorter and narrower than broadsheets, it is
wider than tabloids. Its balanced height and breadth made it easier for people to read in
public and gave designers more options for how to arrange pages. (Nita, K. (2012). "The
Sun and The Guardian the Tabloid and the Broadsheet"(17-25))

"The Guardian" is the first national newspaper in Britain published in full color thanks to
its news style. The newspaper saw tremendous success with the format change and
gained a lot of readership. When reporting, "The Guardian" usually adopts a somber and
educational tone, emphasizing the provision of in-depth context and analysis. The
language and content of the newspaper are known for their progressive editorial stance on
a range of social and political issues. A vast array of subjects are covered by "The
Guardian", such as news, politics, culture, science, and more. The writing style and
language used may be an indication of this diversity. The newspaper publishes columns
and opinion pieces from a variety of authors, offering a range of viewpoints on current
affairs. However, the relaunch of "The Sun" in 1969 marked the most significant recent
development in the history of British tabloid newspapers. "The Sun" promoted a

15
contemptuous, antiestablishment, entertainment-focused message, catered to younger
readers, and embraced the permissiveness of the time. (Crystal, D. "A Dictionary of
Linguistics and Phonetics". New York. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.).

Television advertising and a growing fascination with the off-screen and on-screen lives
of British soap opera characters helped to bolster its popularity. "The Sun" offers its
readers the greatest number of prizes, and it is primarily focused on television news. It is
a well-known tabloid newspaper that uses a plain writing style, lots of pictures, and
sometimes emphasis and sensationalism to give stories more drama and entertainment
value. On the other hand, "The Guardian", a well-known broadsheet newspaper, remains
impartial and more objective. Look for a conversational and intimate tone, as "The Sun"
is recognized for its introspective and personal pieces. Writing in the first person allows
readers to interact directly with the author's experiences and viewpoints, which is
common in personal essays and reflections. (Crystal, D. and Davy, D. "Investigating
English Style". (15-23))

"The New York Sun", "New York Herald", "Tribune", and "Times" all saw sales growth
and increased respectability. These and other publications shaped public perception of
political leaders' actions, which in turn had a significant impact on politics. The Yellow
Press is a different kind of press. After the United States achieved an industrial
transformation, this comprised one-third of the major dailies. It used sentimental tales,
made-up stories, eye-catching titles, and illustrations to win over a sizable illiterate
audience. In 1897, The World sold one million copies. The advent of businessmen
16
making investments in mass media and the yellow press signaled the beginning of this
era. Although they had limited circulation because of competition from local papers,
national papers flourished as well. The only one created exclusively for the domestic
market was USA Today, which debuted in 1982. Like "The New Times", "The Wall
Street Journal" began as a financial daily before progressively tackling current affairs and
expanding worldwide in 1981. Alongside the national newspapers, regional publications
that covered local, national, and international issues also grew. They consist of reports
with political analyses in the columns, as well as editorials in the center of the newspaper.

( https://www.academia.edu/14146184/British_and_American_press_a_critical_analysis )

1.5 American Newspapers

It took until September 25, 1690, that Benjamin Harris published Public Occurrences,
Both “FORREIGN” and “DOMESTICK”, that newspapers were introduced to the
American colonies. Harris worked as a newspaper editor in England before to escaping to
America to write an article about an alleged Catholic conspiracy against England. "The
Christianized Indians in some parts of Plimouth, have newly appointed a day of
thanksgiving to God for his Mercy," read the first item published in his new colony paper
(Harris, 1690). However, Harris's earlier, more contentious style was evident in the other
articles in Public Occurrences, and the publication failed after just one issue. The Boston
News-Letter, the following American newspaper, didn't start publication for fourteen
years. “The Boston Gazette” started publishing fifteen years later, and the American
Weekly Mercury in Philadelphia started publishing right away. These early papers
cautiously avoided political commentary in an attempt to avoid following in Harris's
footsteps and upsetting colonial authorities. Following a protracted hiatus, politics
returned to American newspapers in 1721 when James Franklin criticized smallpox
vaccinations in the New England Courant. Franklin was imprisoned the next year when
the paper claimed that the colonial authority had failed to defend its people from pirates.
Franklin was ordered not "to print or publish The New England Courant, or another
Pamphlet or Paper of the like Nature, unless it be initially Supervised by the Secretary of
this Province (Massachusetts Historical Society)" by a court after he once again offended
authorities by making fun of religion. Franklin immediately gave his younger brother
Benjamin the paper after giving this order. In addition to becoming a well-known
17
statesman and being a key figure in the American Revolution, Benjamin Franklin, as the
publisher of The Pennsylvania Gazette and the creator of subscription libraries, had a
significant influence on the printing sector.
(http://topics.law.cornell.edu/constitution/billofrights.)

Not every city had a newspaper that covered politics, except Boston. John Peter Zenger
established “The New York Weekly” Journal in 1733.

Soon after, Zenger's publication started attacking William Cosby, the recently appointed
colonial governor, for replacing New York Supreme Court justices when he was unable
to maintain control over them. Cosby ordered Zenger's arrest at the end of 1734, citing in
his article "divers scandalous, virulent, deceitful and intolerant reflections (Archiving
Early America)." Andrew Hamilton, a well-known attorney from Philadelphia,
represented Zenger in a significant trial eight months later. Hamilton forced the jurors to
decide for themselves what was printed as fact or fiction. Disregarding the judge's
disapproval of Zenger and his conduct, the jury found him not guilty. Two noteworthy
advancements in the press freedom movement were brought about by Zenger's trial. First,
the trial showed the newspapers that they might be able to publish sincere critiques of the
administration without worrying about backlash. The British also started to fear that an
American jury wouldn't ever find an American journalist guilty. Newspapers started to
serve as a forum for political discourse after Zenger's decision gave the press greater
freedom and some started to want independence from England. There were more disputes
between the British and the colonists, forcing the journals to choose a side. While most
American newspapers opposed the government, a few Loyalist publications—like James
Rivington's New York Gazetteer—spoke in favor of the British. Newspapers carried

18
material expressing competing views throughout the war, giving rise to the partisan press.
Following the revolution, partisan newspapers for the Federalists and Republicans—two
opposing political parties—rose to prominence.

(https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/4-2-history-of-newspapers)
There are various kinds of news stories as well as various journalistic cultures and sorts
of journalists. There are many of these categories, and they aid in making clear the goals
and structure a journalist is aiming for in a given article as well as the kinds of details and
narrative structure a reader might anticipate from that piece. (Ehineni, T. O. (2014).
Lexical, structural and rhetorical features of Nigerian English print media. Journal of Arts
& Humanities. Indiana University (55-71))

Yellow Journalism

Publisher Joseph Pulitzer of “The New York World” created a new journalism style in
the late 1800s that centered on sensationalism—stories about crime, violence and
passion. Pulitzer leaned heavily on explicit material in his headlines to sell more copies,
despite the fact that he pioneered the use of advertisements as news and created an
extended section focusing on women, both of which were significant achievements in the
newspaper industry. Paradoxically, he is called after the most prestigious award in
journalism. His “New York World” gained notoriety with articles titled "Little Lotta's
Lovers (Fang, 1997)" and "Baptized in Blood." The newspaper tabloids of today were
modeled after this sensationalist approach. Although investigative journalism
predominated, editors frequently took liberties with the story's presentation in order to
sell their publications. Without preserving neutrality, editors' interpretations of stories
were frequently published in newspapers. At the same time Pulitzer was establishing the
New York World, William Randolph Hearst—an admirer and principal competitor of
Pulitzer—took over the New York Journal. The 1941 masterpiece Citizen Kane drew
inspiration in part from Hearst's life. The struggle to outsell one other by Pulitzer and
Hearst, the two leading New York newspapers, intensified. The papers grabbed reporters
and editors from one another, dropped their rates back to pennies, and stuffed their
publications with sensationalist, obscene headlines. The Spanish-American War was one
fight that made for especially dramatic news. Hearst and Pulitzer both flooded their
19
publications with enormous front-page headlines detailing brutal, if occasionally
erroneous, wartime narratives. Journalists often made stories about atrocities in Spain and
enhanced real ones (Hines, 2002). (https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/4-
2-history-of-newspapers/)

Comics and Stunt Journalism

A fun new feature was added to newspapers as publishers competed for readers: the
comic strip. In 1896, R. F. Outcault's “Yellow Kid” was published in Hearst's “New
York” Journal with the goal of drawing in immigrant readers who might not have
otherwise purchased an English-language newspaper (Yaszek, 1994). Customers flocked
to purchase newspapers that featured the popular mascot dressed in a yellow nightshirt.
As a result of the cartoon's "wave of 'gentle hysteria,'" it quickly gained popularity and
was included on cigarette packs, buttons, cracker tins, ladies' fans, and even a Broadway
play (Yaszek, 1994). The phrase "yellow journalism" was coined to characterize the kind
of newspapers that featured the cartoon, which was another consequence of its
widespread popularity. In response to the “Yellow Kid's” success, Pulitzer invented stunt
journalism. Journalist Elizabeth Cochrane, writing under the pen name Nellie Bly, was
employed by the publisher to cover facets of life that the publishing industry had
traditionally shunned. The Blackwell Island Lunatic Asylum in New York City was the
subject of her debut piece. Bly had herself admitted to the notorious asylum while
pretending to be insane. The performative approach that would later become her
signature reporting style was introduced by her madhouse performance (Lutes, 2002).
Bly gained a great deal of attention and acclaim from these pieces, and she was dubbed
the initial action journalist. Although these kinds of stunts were viewed as lowbrow
amusement and female stunt journalists frequently faced criticism from more established
journalists, Pulitzer's choice to recruit Bly represented a significant advancement for
women in the field of journalism. "They were the first newspaperwomen to move, as a
group, from the women's pages to the front page, from social news into political and
criminal news," according to Bly and her colleague stunt reporter Lites (2002). Even
though Hearst and Pulitzer occasionally employed dubious methods, both men made
substantial contributions to the expanding news sector. A cunning publisher, Hearst built
the biggest media holding corporation in the nation by 1922. He owned two wire
20
services, six magazines, twenty daily papers, eleven Sunday papers, and a film firm at the
time. Similarly, as his life was coming to a close, Pulitzer focused on starting a
journalism school. Nine years after Pulitzer's death and a year after he started his
educational crusade, the Columbia University School of Journalism opened for business
in 1912. When the school first opened, it had about 100 pupils from 21 different nations.
Furthermore, the inaugural Pulitzer Prize for achievement in journalism was given out in
1917.

(https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/4-2-history-of-newspapers/)

Chapter II

Types and Linguo-Stylistic Features of Media Texts

Media texts have a variety of functions, such as providing information, amusement,

influencing opinions, and expressing cultural values and identities. To communicate with
audiences, they use a variety of media, including text, graphics, audio, video, and
interactive components. Media texts can also be produced by people, groups, or
institutions, and they can be shared via conventional or online media.
21
A media text is a complex communication artifact that may be found in many different
platforms and channels and is widely used in contemporary society. It acts as a medium
for communicating ideas, forming opinions, swaying viewpoints, and articulating
identities and cultural values. Media texts are a rich tapestry of content that reflects the
intricacies of human experience and interaction, spanning from traditional print media to
digital platforms.
A media text is fundamentally an outcome of human expression, creativity, and
inventiveness. Whether they are journalists, writers, filmmakers, advertisers, or content
providers, it reflects the goals, viewpoints, and agendas of those who created it. Every
media text has its own special combination of spoken, visual, and audio components that
come together to make sense and elicit reactions from viewers.
Texts from the media serve a variety of purposes in society, including news,
entertainment, persuasion, and education. By giving audiences access to information on
recent advancements, trends, and events, they influence public opinion and promote
responsible citizenship. Media texts attract audiences, provoke emotions, and provide
moments of fun and escape through storytelling, imagery, and narrative strategies.
Furthermore, media texts are crucial in forming cultural norms, identities, and values.
They contribute to the creation of common cultural narratives and symbols while also
reflecting the many viewpoints, customs, and experiences of people all over the world.
Media texts are works of art, music, cinema, or literature that are used to explore,
analyze, and express culture.
Media texts are more dynamic, interactive, and participatory than ever in the digital age.
Users can create, share, and interact with media material in real-time on social media
platforms, online forums, and digital communities, which blurs the boundaries between
producers and consumers. The process of democratizing media creation and
dissemination has also democratized information access, given people more power to
speak up and promote social change. But in addition to these advantages, media texts
provide problems with false information, deception, and moral dilemmas. The spread of
sensationalized content, sensationalism, and fake news has exacerbated divisiveness and
mistrust in society and damaged faith in established media outlets. Furthermore, privacy,
surveillance, and digital surveillance concerns highlight the necessity of ethical standards
and responsible media practices in the creation and distribution of media texts.
Media texts are vital, significant, and essential parts of modern civilization. They mirror
the subtleties and complexity of the human experience while also influencing our views,
convictions, and actions. Comprehending the potency and possibilities of media texts is
crucial for maneuvering through the intricate media terrain and cultivating a more
knowledgeable, involved, and diverse community. In general, media texts reflect the
cultural, social, and political settings in which they are produced and consumed,
impacting societal attitudes and behaviors, and forming public discourse.

2.1 The Classification of Media Texts from Linguistic Perspective

22
The dynamic development of traditional mass media, radio, television, the emergence and
spread of the World Wide Web - the Internet has led to the creation of a single
information space, a special virtual environment formed by a set of multiple media
streams. All of this would inevitably have an impact on word creation and propagation
processes, speech use quirks, and the nature of linguistic evolution.
One of the most prevalent ways that people use language nowadays is through mass
media texts, or media texts, whose combined length far surpasses the entire amount of
speech that is said in other contexts. Simultaneously, the corpus of writings created and
disseminated on a daily basis via mass media outlets is growing. In particular, this may
be assessed by quantitative metrics: the quantity of television channels is increasing, and
they are becoming more specialized; the most common categories of channels include
news, entertainment, sports, education, music, etc. New publications have emerged,
including magazines, newspapers, and radio stations, catering to a diverse range of age,
profession, and social interests. The ongoing expansion of the media language array is
greatly aided by communication on the World Wide Web.
The rapid growth of online versions of print publications and the emergence of online
publications collectively lead to a rise in the total quantity of texts operating in the global
information space, which scholars view as a distinct domain of speech consumption with
unique attributes. Understanding the dynamics of language change requires an
understanding of the concept of common information space, which enables us to present
the diverse activities of national and international mass media as a single, cohesive
system that functions and significantly affects the flow of linguacultural processes. In
contemporary science, an entire vocabulary of terminologies and ideas are employed to
demarcate this new virtual space devoid of national boundaries and physical obstacles.
Referring to the same semantic line but highlighting different aspects of mass
communication processes, such as information space, information environment,
information field, media environment and media landscape, is the functional and stylistic
aspect of media speech in media linguistics 1495.
("Media and Society: Production, Content and Participation" by James Curran and
Michael Gurevitch)
English has become prevalent in mass media, popular music, show business, science and
information technology, worldwide business and trade, politics, and diplomacy. The
stylistic and functional aspects of media speech in sports, education, and media
linguistics 1497. These days, it is difficult to identify a human endeavor where the
English language does not play a significant role. Famous English linguist CRYSTAL
(1996), pointing out the role of the media in the promotion and dissemination of the
English language and mass culture in the national media landscape (LYSAKOVA, 1989),
aptly describes the global role of the English language in the modern world in her book
English as a Global Language. In fact, there are far more English-language media texts
than any other language available on a daily basis through mass media channels.
Additionally, English-language mass culture samples are becoming more prevalent in
national mass media throughout nearly every nation on the planet.
The idea of media text, which appears in all studies on speech creation in mass
23
communication, is unquestionably the most significant theoretical element of media
linguistics. This idea's main points can be summed up as follows: When applied to the
field of mass communication, the conventional linguistics definition of a text as a
"coherent and integral stretch of language either spoken or written" [Carter 1998]
significantly broadens its meaning.
("Media Literacy: A Reader" edited by Donaldo Macedo and Shirley R. Steinberg)

When a "text" refers to a wide variety of signs, not just verbal ones, it transcends the
formal bounds of the verbal sign system and approaches its semiotic interpretation in
mass media. The majority of academics concur that the degree of mass communication,
as defined by the media properties and features of one mass communication channel over
another, contributes new meanings to the text notion. Television media texts, thus,
encompass more than just verbal expression; they function on many levels, including
verbal text proper, visual (or "footing," as journalists refer to it), and audio, which
encompasses all audible effects, from voice attributes to music.
The combination of a specific verbal level and a set of unique media qualities—such as
sound effects on radio or newspaper layouts and vibrant illustrations in press—that are
dictated by the technological quirks of a given media channel also characterize texts on
the radio and in print media. Thus, it stands to reason that media texts might be thought
of as multifaceted, multidimensional entities.
Media texts are a broad category of communication media that are used to spread
messages via print, film, radio, television, and digital platforms. Any communication
written with the goal of reaching a big audience is referred to as a media text.
Newspapers, periodicals, books, ads, movies, TV series, websites, posts on social media,
video games, and more can all be included. The functions of media texts vary based on
the medium and situation. They have the power to enlighten, amuse, convince, educate,
and inspire thought. A news component, for instance, updates readers on current affairs,
but an advertising tries to convince viewers to purchase a certain commodity. Texts in the
media frequently have certain qualities that set them apart from other types of
communication. A mix of text, graphics, audio, and/or video elements may be used in
these. Additionally, they are often made to be easily understood and ingested by a wide
range of users. Media materials are written with the intended readership in mind. In order
to appeal to their target audience of readers or viewers, producers modify the text's style,
tone, and content. Effective media texts must take into account the preferences and
demographics of their audience. Texts from the media have a big influence on people and
the community. They have an impact on consumer behavior, public opinion, cultural
norms and values, and the formation of identities and worldviews.
All things considered, media texts are essential to contemporary communication because
they mold our perception of the outside world and have an impact on our ideas,
convictions, and behavior.
A linguo-stylistic analysis of media texts looks at the way different media formats use
language choices, stylistic elements, and linguistic approaches to engage audiences, elicit
feelings, and convey meaning. This thorough investigation will focus on the complex
interactions that occur between language and style in various media texts, such as print,
broadcast, digital, visual, and interactive media.
24
The linguo-stylistic aspects of media texts are a diverse range of linguistic and stylistic
components used in a variety of media platforms to successfully communicate ideas.
Texts in the media frequently use certain linguistic registers that are intended for their
intended viewers. Media writings may use formal, informal, colloquial, or specialist
language types, depending on the genre and setting. For example, news stories usually
follow a formal register that is defined by impartiality, clarity, and precision, whereas
advertising use language that is both persuasive and emotive in order to draw readers in.
Rhetorical devices are frequently utilized in media texts to improve their persuasive
power and impact on communication. These literary strategies, which are intended to
draw in the audience, elicit strong feelings, and reaffirm important ideas, include
alliteration, metaphor, simile, hyperbole, and irony. For instance, news article headlines
frequently use attention-grabbing slogans or inflammatory language to draw readers. In
order to give media texts their structure and consistency, narrative techniques are
essential.
Media texts, whether they be news reports, feature articles, or fiction narratives, use
narrative elements like plot, characters, setting, and point of view to captivate readers and
make their points clear. In order to increase narrative complexity and hold the attention of
the audience, media texts may also use flashbacks, intertextual references, or non-linear
narrative structures. To improve their communicative efficacy, media texts combine
visual and multimodal components with textual parts.
Images, drawings, infographics, charts, graphs, and multimedia materials like movies and
animations can all be included in this. These visual components enhance audience
engagement and comprehension by providing context, enhancing textual content, and
appealing to a variety of sensory modalities. An important factor in media texts' overall
rhetorical effect and audience reception is their tone and style. The tone of media texts
can vary, based on the genre, audience expectations, and communication objectives. Tone
can range from formal and authoritative to conversational and hilarious.
Comparably, the overall tone and voice of the text are influenced by stylistic decisions
such sentence form, diction, and rhythm, which in turn affect how the audience interprets
and responds to the work.
The linguistic, rhetorical, narrative, visual, and intertextual elements of media texts
include a wide range of techniques used to captivate, educate, and convince viewers in
the ever-changing media landscape of today. Scholars and professionals can learn more
about the intricate interactions between language, style, and meaning that influence
media discourse and audience response by examining these characteristics.
Texts in the media comprise a wide range of communication formats that inform,
entertain, or influence viewers. They cover a wide range of media formats, from
interactive media and digital platforms to conventional print magazines. Comprehending
the various forms of media texts is necessary in order to appreciate the complex nature of
modern-day communication and its influence on society. (The Language of New Media.
by Lev Manovich)

Based on its format, goal, and distribution channel, media texts can be categorized into a
number of categories. These are a few examples of typical media texts:
1. Print Media
For decades, print media has been a vital component of communication, offering tangibly
sourced information and amusement. Books, periodicals, newspapers, and other printed
25
publications fall under this category.
Print media has existed for many years. Books, journals, and newspapers taught us about
the world we live in, and this knowledge has influenced the way we think, learn, and
behave in contemporary society. Customers still find print media to be more credible and
it to be more effective nowadays. The first print advertisements appeared in print journals
in 1841, ushering in "The Golden Age of Print," which replaced earlier print media. The
last decades of the 20th century marked the end of the Golden Age of Print, which
fundamentally altered the nature of the game.
("Mass Media Revolution" by J. Charles Sterin, Joseph R. Dominick)
The reason the era was known as "The Golden Age" was that print advertising became
extremely profitable for those that were prepared to engage in it, and its effectiveness
increased dramatically. Print media messaging during this time focused on aspirations,
optimism, happiness, and positive affirmations. Nonetheless, some messaging tricked
people into purchasing goods by instilling guilt and terror.
Sadly, print media companies had a significant challenge: they were unable to monitor
the sales information of the print marketing collateral and advertisements they produced.
This implied that the return on investment (ROI) for print advertising could not be
determined. As such, it was difficult for companies to defend their print expenditure
decisions.
(http://www.medienabc.org/page5/page40/page40.html)

Print media is a useful instrument for marketing and communication since it has several
benefits. Print media continues to be relevant and offers distinct advantages tailored to
particular audiences and situations, even though digital media has become more and more
popular in recent years. The following are some benefits of print media use:
 Print media, such as newspapers and magazines, are tangible objects that readers can
interact with and handle. The tangible nature of print media fosters confidence and
credibility because it is regarded as a more authoritative and dependable source than
digital ones.
 Print media enables delivery to particular audiences or specific geographic locations.
In order to make sure their message reaches the correct demographic, advertisers can
select magazines or other sources that correspond with their target market.
 Print products in physical form have the power to linger with readers. Effective print
advertisements, brochures, or flyers can draw readers in and improve brand memory
since information delivered in a tangible medium is more likely to be remembered.
 Printed items have an extended lifespan and can be gathered, preserved, and
consulted. Historical archives' printed publications, magazines, and newspapers shed
light on historical events and prevailing cultural practices. Print media may have
restricted access to digital devices or be able to reach people who are less tech-savvy.
Because of its inclusivity, marketers may interact with a wider range of consumers,
including those who are older or less tech-savvy.

Print media, like all forms of communication, is not without its shortcomings, though.
The price of printing and delivery is a significant drawback. Paper, ink, and logistics of
transportation are among the resources needed to produce physical copies. These costs
can go up rapidly for advertisers as well as publishers.
Additionally, print media is not as immediate as digital channels. Printed newspapers can
find it difficult to stay up to date with breaking news stories when online news sources
26
are continuously updating their information in real-time. Furthermore, printed materials
are difficult to alter or fix once they are distributed, should faults be found.

(https://www.literacytoday.ca/home/reading/reading-strategies/reading-visual-texts/
reading-media-texts)

Newspapers
Newspapers are periodicals that publish editorials, feature articles, ads, and current news.
They provide coverage of regional, governmental, and global events and act as key
information sources. Newspapers frequently provide sections devoted to particular
subjects including business, sports, politics, and lifestyle.
Newspapers usually follow a regular format and organization, with several sections
including sports, business, entertainment, opinion/editorial, news, and classifieds. Every
component fulfills certain informational requirements and accommodates a range of
reader interests. The front page, sometimes called the "front-of-the-book," has attention-
grabbing headlines and news articles that are meant to draw readers in.
Newspapers' primary focus is on news, which includes coverage of regional, national,
and worldwide events as well as politics, economics, culture, and society. Newspapers
use reporters and professional journalists to compile, edit, and display news articles in an
enlightening and timely way. The "inverted pyramid" approach is commonly used in
news pieces, where the most crucial information is presented first, followed by more
details and background information.
Newspapers have editorial and opinion sections where writers, columnists, and outside
contributors share their thoughts on political, social, and current affairs topics. Opinion
pieces present a variety of viewpoints and analyses, while editorials represent the official
position of the newspaper's editorial board. Readers can participate in critical thinking
and civic conversation in these parts.
Newspapers use a range of visual components to draw readers in and enhance textual
information. Images, drawings, maps, infographics, and editorial cartoons are a few
examples of these. News articles are illustrated, context is given, and reader attention is
piqued by the use of visuals. Newspapers also make use of layout and design ideas to
establish visual hierarchy and efficiently organize material. Newspapers have a unique
vocabulary and writing style that is succinct, objective, and clear. Accurate and objective
information delivery while upholding the moral principles of justice and balance are the
goals of journalistic writing. The purpose of headlines, subheadings, and captions is to
draw the reader in and provide a brief summary of the main ideas. Newspapers may also
use linguistic registers specific to their target readership, whether general readers or niche
markets. Through a variety of interactive elements including letters to the editor, opinion
surveys, and reader feedback sections, newspapers aggressively engage their audience.
These systems promote reader engagement, ease communication, and provide a feeling of
community among readers. Additionally, newspapers are using social media and digital
platforms more and more to reach a wider audience and engage in real-time conversation
with readers.
Newspapers are essential for maintaining democratic values and encouraging informed
citizenship. Newspapers support public dialogue, accountability, and openness by
27
offering independent reporting, investigative reporting, and a range of opinions. They act
as watchdogs, ensuring that institutions, prominent figures, and governments answer to
the general population.
Magazines
Magazines are periodicals that cover a broad range of subjects, including science,
entertainment, fashion, health, and travel. They are published on a regular basis. They
include content such as articles, images, pictures, and ads that are catered to particular
interest groups or demographics. Magazines that target certain populations might be
general interest or specialist.
A wide range of subjects are covered by magazines, such as business, technology,
science, entertainment, fashion, health, and travel. They offer in-depth reporting,
analysis, and opinion on particular topics, catering to specialized interests and niche
audiences. Magazines can be distributed and consumed in a variety of ways thanks to
their publication in print, digital, or hybrid formats.
Magazines are distinguished by their unique format and style, which usually include
glossy pages, eye-catching graphics, and eye-catching design elements. Magazines use
layout techniques including color schemes, grids, and typography to efficiently arrange
material and establish visual hierarchy. A variety of sections, stories, features, and
advertising catered to the magazine's intended readership may be included in each issue.
Periodicals that offer in-depth analysis, narrative, and investigation of current events and
trends are published as feature articles, essays, profiles, and interviews. Investigative
journalism, first-person accounts, and knowledgeable commentary are frequently used in
feature pieces to captivate readers and present nuanced viewpoints on difficult subjects.
Profiles highlight famous people, personalities, and cultural icons and provide
information on their impact, accomplishments, and lives.
("Magazine Journalism" by Tim Holmes)
Books
Books are printed items with longer-form text, such as reference books, non-fiction
books, and novels. They offer readers chances for education, amusement, and intellectual
stimulation by delving deeply into topics, stories, or concepts. Books' narrative voices
include the writer's distinct voice, style, and viewpoint. First-person, third-person, and
omniscient narration are among the narrators' options, and each affects how interested
and perceptive the reader is in the tale. The narrative voice used in the book affects how
readers understand the characters, plot, and themes as well as the overall tone of the
work. Different linguistic registers are used by authors according to the genre, target
readership, and thematic themes of their works. While genre literature, like thrillers or
romance novels, may stress readability and pace, using simpler language and dialogue to
move the plot ahead, literary fiction may use elevated vocabulary and complicated syntax
to convey deep feelings and ideas. Books' plot arcs, chapters, and events are arranged and
sequenced according to a narrative framework. To evoke suspense, intrigue, or thematic
resonance, authors can use timelines, narrative voices, alternate perspectives, and linear
or non-linear storytelling strategies. The narrative's tempo and the way its chapters and
sections are organized affect how interested readers are in and how well they understand
the story.
28
("Understanding Media Texts" by Andrew Burn and Gareth Moor)
Digital Media
Although many consumers view print media as very credible, it appears that its
dependability is eroding over time. Online ads have displaced print media as the industry
leader because they are more accessible, affordable, and efficient. The most widely used
medium for marketing and advertising nowadays is digital. Nowadays, more than 90% of
marketers promote their goods and services using internet and mobile advertisements.
New social media platforms have also been made possible by digital media, giving
businesses new ways to interact with customers and solicit feedback.
Print media is a useful instrument for marketing and communication since it has several
benefits. Print media continues to be relevant and offers distinct advantages tailored to
particular audiences and situations, even though digital media has become more and more
popular in recent years. The following are some benefits of print media use:
Because they make it possible to create, distribute, and consume material via electronic
devices and internet platforms, digital media have completely changed communication.
Websites, social media, blogs, podcasts, and other digital mediums fall under this
category.

Websites
Websites function as online hubs for communication, commerce, entertainment, and
information. They offer consumers access to a wide range of information and services
and include text, photos, videos, and interactive components. Websites provide a variety
of experiences that are suited to the needs of the user, from business portals to personal
blogs. Users' experience and ability to browse through content on a website are
influenced by its design and layout. Linguistically, visually appealing layouts, font, and
color schemes can be used on websites to improve readability and communicate company
identity. Users may access content more quickly and easily with the help of clear
navigation menus, headers, and section headings. Multimedia assets like photographs,
videos, and infographics can be placed strategically to improve user experience.
Websites use particular language registers according to their communication objectives
and intended audience. The tone employed might vary based on the website's purpose
and target audience, from official and technical to casual and conversational. Professional
websites, such those run by companies or universities, frequently use a formal register
that is distinguished by authority, professionalism, and clarity. On the other hand, to
establish a more personal connection with their readers, lifestyle blogs and entertainment
websites could use a more conversational and informal tone.
(https://www.matrix.edu.au/beginners-guide-year-10-english/part-7-how-analyse-digital-
texts/)
Social Media
Social media platforms allow individuals all over the world to create, share, and interact
with content. They create communities based on common interests, identities, or
affiliations by enabling real-time connections, communication, and collaboration between
individuals and organizations. Among the social media sites are Facebook, Instagram,
LinkedIn, Twitter, and TikTok. Because online communication is inherently informal and
conversational, social media platforms frequently use colloquial language and acronyms.
29
Internet memes, slang, and colloquial terms are widely used by users to communicate
with one another and express oneself succinctly. Furthermore, acronyms and
abbreviations like "lol" (laugh out loud) and "btw" (by the way) are frequently employed
to effectively communicate ideas within the character limits of websites like Twitter.
Texts on social media platforms benefit greatly from the emotional depth and eye-
catching aesthetic that emojis and emoticons bring. Emojis are tiny visual symbols that
users use to express emotions, objects, or ideas. They are often used to enhance written
communication and provide a certain tone or atmosphere.

Emoticons like :-) and :-( give users another way to communicate their feelings and
sentiments, which adds to the linguo-stylistic richness of social media conversation
generally.
On social media platforms, hashtags are widely used as metadata tags to classify content
and make it easier for users to find and interact with it. From a linguo-stylistic standpoint,
hashtags serve as linguistic identifiers that draw connections across different cultures,
structure interactions, and amplify messages. In order to participate in social movements,
join in on current events, or voice their thoughts, users purposefully include hashtags into
their postings. This allows them to deliberately use hashtags' rhetorical and linguistic
strength to reach a wider audience.

(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
371894582_Social_Media_Text_Meaning_Cultural_Information_Consumption)

Blogs
Blogs are online diaries or informational sites that are updated frequently with essays,
reviews, or introspective thoughts. They offer forums where people, organizations,
journalists, and specialists can exchange knowledge, analysis, and ideas on a range of
subjects. Blogs provide viewpoints from a variety of speakers and span from personal
diaries to professional publications. Bloggers frequently employ vivid imagery and
detailed language to provide their readers rich visions and evocative sensory experiences.
Readers are better able to picture situations, conjure up memories, and relate to the
blogger's story when descriptive language is used. In order to enhance reader engagement
and fully immerse them in the blog post, bloggers can enhance their textual material with
images, videos, and other visual features.

Podcasts
Podcasts are digital audio recordings in a variety of formats and topics that can be
downloaded or streamed. They cover a wide range of topics, from news and politics to
entertainment, education, and lifestyle, through interviews, debates, narrative, and
analysis. Podcasts give listeners access to content whenever and wherever they want,
enabling them to interact with audio programs. Podcasts frequently use a conversational
communication style that mimics casual discussions between the hosts or guests and the
audience. Intimacy and a sense of connection are established with this conversational
30
tone, which encourages participation and improves the listening experience. Podcasters
can keep the tone light and approachable by utilizing comedy, informal language, and
storytelling approaches.

Visual Media
Visual media are a broad category of media that use pictures, films, and other visual
components to tell stories and arouse feelings. Multimedia presentations, movies, videos,
and photos fall under this category. A linguo-stylistic analysis of media texts in visual
media entails looking at the linguistic and stylistic components that are employed to
engage viewers visually, elicit strong feelings, and transmit messages. To develop
visually appealing and effectively communicative media texts, designers use a range of
linguistic and stylistic strategies, from typeface and color palette to iconography and
visual effects.

Advertisements
Advertisements are sales pitches that are sent to specific audiences via print, broadcast,
digital, or outdoor media. They use strategies including comedy, narrative, testimonials,
and appealing to reason or emotion in order to persuade people to take desired behaviors.
Advertising shapes people's opinions, attitudes, and actions toward certain companies,
goods, or causes. It can be found in newspapers, magazines, radio, television, internet,
social media, billboards, and other media. Advertisements modify their linguistic register
according to the communication objectives and intended audience. The product, brand
image, and target consumer demographics all influence the language that is utilized,
which can range from official and authoritative to conversational and casual.
To engage consumers and elicit desired responses, advertisers use persuasive language,
emotive appeals, and persuasive strategies. Narrative tactics are often used in
advertisements to convey stories, arouse feelings, and establish a relationship with the
viewer. Advertisements can tell stories through exhibiting a transformational journey,
offering a problem-solution situation, or portraying relatable characters. Through
emotional engagement and the development of empathy or a sense of affiliation with the
brand or product, narratives pull viewers into the commercial.

Publications
A vast array of documents, reports, and other materials created with a particular audience
in mind—such as stakeholders, decision-makers, academics, and the general public—are
included in publications. Publications modify their language register according to their
communication goals and intended audience. The tone employed might vary based on the
genre, audience makeup, and editorial style of the magazine, from official and
authoritative to casual and conversational. While lifestyle magazines may use more
accessible language and informal tone to engage readers, academic publications tend to
use more formal language and specialized vocabulary. Publications' writing styles differ
based on the genre, format, and editorial choices. Publications may include investigative
journalism, analytical essays, opinion articles, or narrative-driven storytelling, each of

31
which has its own unique style components. Literary devices like metaphors, similes, and
descriptive language are tools used by authors and journalists to improve readability,
arouse reader emotions, and successfully communicate complicated ideas.
Titles and headlines are essential for drawing readers in and communicating the
publication's core idea or theme. Publications use language that piques readers' curiosity
and compels them to read the rest of the article to create headlines that are informative,
captivating, and attention-grabbing. Wordplay, alliteration, or provocative wording can
be used in headlines to make them stand out and draw in readers.
Reports
Reports are written pieces that offer details, analysis, or suggestions regarding particular
subjects, problems, or scientific discoveries. They can be generated for a variety of
reasons, including increasing awareness, tracking progress, or assisting in decision-
making. They can come from institutions, groups, government agencies, or individual
researchers. Reports contribute to public debate, policy formulation, and knowledge
transmission by covering a wide range of topics, including economics, healthcare,
education, the environment, technology, and social issues.
Reports modify their linguistic register according to the circumstance, purpose, and
intended audience. Depending on who is reading the report—experts, politicians,
stakeholders, or the general public—the language chosen can vary from formal and
technical to approachable and educational. Technical reports may employ jargon and
specialist vocabulary, but plain English is used in reports meant for a wider audience to
improve readability and comprehension.
In order to guarantee that information is communicated accurately and completely,
reports place a high priority on precision and clarity in language and expression. Writing
that is clear and simple makes it easier for readers to comprehend difficult ideas,
procedures, and conclusions without uncertainty or confusion. To present material
logically and methodically and encourage reader comprehension and engagement,
authors employ clear language, defined terms, and well-structured arguments.

(https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0957926501012005002)

From a linguistic perspective, media texts serve as dynamic communication objects that
fulfill certain communicative goals, engage audiences, and transmit meaning by utilizing
a broad range of linguistic resources. Language, discourse, rhetoric, and semiotics are
examples of linguistic elements that are important in shaping how messages are received
and perceived in a variety of media outlets. The complexity of media texts highlights
how important it is to understand the relationships between language parts and other
semiotic resources. Media texts often combine verbal, visual, and auditory elements with
other modes of communication. For instance, linguistic decisions like lexical selection,
syntactic structures, and discursive tactics work in tandem with visual signals like visuals,
graphics, and body language to effectively construct meaning and convey information in
a television news show.
Furthermore, linguistic traits and customs in media texts vary based on the genre, media,
and target audience. For example, newspapers use journalistic techniques, inverted
pyramid structures, and headline conventions to convey news in an informative and
concise manner. On the other hand, persuasive language, rhetorical devices, and branding

32
methods are frequently employed in advertising texts in order to impact consumer
behavior and endorse goods and services.
A linguistic perspective on critical examination of media texts entails looking at the ways
in which language is employed to frame stories, create representations, and influence
conversation. This entails examining linguistic elements including ambiguity,
euphemism, metaphor, and intertextuality in addition to taking into account larger
sociocultural and ideological settings that influence language use in media speech.
Additionally, the study of linguistic variation and change in digital and online
environments is included in the scope of linguistic analysis of media texts. For instance,
hashtags, memes, emojis, and shortened language forms are examples of distinctive
linguistic practices promoted by social media platforms. These activities reflect the
changing nature of digital communication and the rise of new communicative norms and
conventions.

At last, media texts provide a wealth of opportunities for linguistic research because they
shed light on the complex ways that language functions in many communicative
situations. Linguists can further their understanding of how language shapes and is
formed by media discourse by looking at linguistic elements, discourse techniques, and
semiotic resources used in media texts. This will help them to contribute to larger
discussions about communication, culture, and society.
(https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/english/key-concepts-in-language-and-
linguistics/media-linguistics/)

CONCLUSION
Journalism is the practice of gathering, recording, verifying, and reporting on information
of public importance. Journalism has as its main activity the reporting of events —
stating who, what, when, where, why and how, and explaining the significance and effect
of events or trends. Journalism exists in a number of
media: newspapers, television, radio, magazines and, most recently, the World Wide

33
Web through the Internet. Based on our researches we have come to the following
conclusions:
• Journalism plays a very important role in societies. The media serves an important
role in providing investigative reports, debate, discussion, background and
analysis, as well as news stories.
• The history of journalism includes the history of news and news media, which
includes the history of print, broadcast, and computer technology; news
organizations, which includes newspapers and other media outlets; news work,
routines, and news workers; and news organizations themselves. More
specifically, the history of journalism can be defined as the development of a
system of principles and justifications that manage, control, and legitimize
newsroom procedures. Journalisms are socially created and take on many forms in
relation to various media at various eras and in different national cultures. The
study of journalism's past looks at how it was developed in both domestic and
global contexts and projects its future possibilities.
• Journalism has undergone various evolutions, including the British and American
press. The research shows several differences between British and American
newspapers through number of examples. On another note, this analysis also
revealed findings that give further evidence of the difference and similarities
between the American and British newspaper writing system.
• Journalistic texts may also include the qualities of creativity, and comedy.
Therefore journalism has several styles of newspaper writing. The vivid examples
of it include yellow journalism, comics and stunt journalism. Based on this
research paper yellow journalism was a style of newspaper reporting that
emphasized sensationalism over facts. And comics journalism is a form of
journalism that covers news or nonfiction events using the framework of comics, a
combination of words and drawn images.
• The research deals with the stylistic styles of English-language journalism, briefly
lists the main features and characteristics of the functional style of journalistic
texts, outlines the techniques that are used in them.

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