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Narcissism and self-esteem: Different motivations

for selfie posting behaviors

Roberta Biolcati & Stefano Passini |

To cite this article: Roberta Biolcati & Stefano Passini | (2018) Narcissism and self-esteem:
Different motivations for selfie posting behaviors, Cogent Psychology, 5:1, 1437012, DOI:
10.1080/23311908.2018.1437012

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Biolcati & Passini, Cogent Psychology (2018), 5: 1437012
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2018.1437012

APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY | RESEARCH ARTICLE

Narcissism and self-esteem: Different motivations
for selfie posting behaviors
Roberta Biolcati1* and Stefano Passini1

Received: 27 September 2017 Abstract: Over the past few years, social networking site usage has increased rapidly,
Accepted: 01 February 2018
in particular as concerns photo-sharing and self-portrait photographs (so-called self-
First Published: 07 February 2018
ies). In the academic literature, some studies have recently analyzed the psychological
*Corresponding author: Roberta Biolcati,
Department of Education Studies, antecedents of selfie posting behavior to better understand its underlying mechanism.
University of Bologna, Via Filippo Re 6, Generally, scholars consider the use of selfies as a means of online self-presentation.
40126, Bologna, Italy
E-mail: [email protected] In the present research, the effects of two personality traits known to impact self-pre-
Reviewing editor:
sentation (i.e. narcissism and self-esteem) are investigated, considering the mediation
Jens F. Binder, Nottingham Trent effects of four selfie posting motives: attention-seeking, communication, archiving,
University, UK
and entertainment. Results on 237 participants show that selfie posting motives,
Additional information is available at narcissism and self-esteem are differently linked to frequencies depending on the type
the end of the article
of selfie posted online (whether own, group, or partner). Moreover, the path analysis
model shows that, even if positively correlated between them, self-esteem and narcis-
sism have different motives underlying the use of selfies. In particular, narcissistic
people engage in selfie posting behaviors because of a search for the attention of oth-
ers and the urge to escape from boredom. Contrariwise, these are the two motives for
which people with high self-esteem do not get involved in selfie-posting behaviors.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

Roberta Biolcati is Assistant Professor of Clinical In 2013, “selfie” was designated word of the
Psychology at the Department of Education year and it considered as a symptom of “social
Studies, University of Bologna (Italy). She media-driven narcissism.” The number of selfies
is a member of CESAF Research Centre on shared online in 2014 was around 880 billion and
Consumption, Social problems and Addictions each day smartphone users posted about 93
of the Department of Educational Sciences, million number of photos. Given the pervasiveness
and Member training and supervising of of selfie posting behaviors, an interesting issue
Confederations of Organizations for Analytical is to identify the underlying psychological
Research on Groups (COIRAG), Padua, Italy. motivations. The study aimed to survey different
Her major areas of research include Internet predictions of narcissism and self-esteem on selfie
and social networking use and abuse, internet posting behaviors through the mediation of the
addiction disorder, pathological gambling, different selfie motivations (attention-seeking,
compulsive shopping, and eating behavior communication, archiving, and entertainment).
Roberta Biolcati & disorders. Results on 237 participants show that both
Stefano Passini Stefano Passini is Associate Professor at the motives, narcissism and self-esteem connect
Department of Education Studies, University differently to posting frequencies of own, group,
of Bologna (Italy). He is a member of CESAF or partner selfies. High self-esteem people do not
Research Centre on Consumption, Social engage in selfie posting behaviors because they
problems and Addictions of the Department do not search for the others’ attention nor do they
of Educational Sciences. His studies are mainly feel the urge to entertainment. Instead, these are
focused on authoritarian attitudes, obedience, the main motives for which narcissistic people get
and disobedience to authority and crimes of involved.
obedience, moral inclusion/exclusion processes,
and human rights.

© 2018 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution
(CC-BY) 4.0 license.

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Biolcati & Passini, Cogent Psychology (2018), 5: 1437012
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Subjects: Applied Social Psychology; Psychology of New Media; Psychological

Disorders - Adult

Keywords: selfies; narcissism; self-esteem; selfie posting motives; mediation model

1. Introduction
Common social networking sites usage (SNSs, e.g. Facebook, Instagram and Twitter) has increased
rapidly over the past few years (see Biolcati & Cani, 2015; Biolcati, Cani, & Badio, 2013; Kaplan &
Haenlein, 2010). Its relative novelty is linked to the occurrence of new psychological (e.g. the change
of some communication codes) and collective phenomena (e.g. the spread of new forms of online
behaviors), some of which have yet to be carefully explored (Błachnio, Przepiórka, & Rudnicka, 2013;
Sorokowski et al., 2015). In particular, photo sharing has become a significant part of the online so-
cial experience. Over half of social network users post self-portrait photographs of themselves (alone
or with other people) and share them online through social media (Smith, 2013; Sorokowski et al.,
2015; Weiser, 2015). This is in part due to the increasing use of smartphones. In 2013, “selfie” was
designated word of the year. It refers to “a photograph that one has taken of oneself, usually with a
smartphone or webcam and shared via social media” (Oxford Dictionaries, 2015). The number of
selfies shared online in 2014 was around 880 billion (Zigterman, 2013) and each day smartphone
users posted about 93 million number of photos (Brandt, 2014).

Selfie-posting has earned a great deal of attention from newspapers and the academic world
since 2011 (e.g. Sung, Lee, Kim, & Choi, 2016). Previous studies (Dhir, Pallesen, Torsheim, &
Andreassen, 2016; Sorokowski et al., 2016) have suggested that females are more active in taking
and posting own, partner and group selfies as compared to male social networking users. This is
consistent with the wider research into computer-mediated communication, specifically into online
self-presentation, which has shown that women are more prone to use photos for self-impression
management than men (Muscanell & Guadagno, 2012).

Given the pervasiveness of selfie posting behaviors, in particular among young women (Manovich,
2014), an interesting issue is to identify the psychological motivations behind selfie-posting behavior
in order to better understand its underlying mechanism. Generally, scholars agree that selfie posting
symbolizes a relatively new but dominant means of online self-presentation (Qiu, Lu, Yang, Qu, &
Zhu, 2015; Sung et al., 2016). The selfie distinguishes itself from other forms of self-promotion on
social media. Users may indeed extend the self in a more complete way, showing in the portrait both
physical characteristics and personality traits (Lee & Sung, 2016). Specifically, selfies seem naturally
to contain the highest number of elements of ostentation and self-propagation (Weiser, 2015).
Selfies have been defined as a symptom of “social media-driven narcissism” (Pearlman, 2013),
meaning that the posting of self-portrait photographs represents a self-promoting activity.

Given the theoretical rationale on selfie-posting as a self-promoting online activity, the present
study investigates the effects of two personality traits known to impact self-presentation, namely,
narcissism and self-esteem. Narcissism is commonly defined as a pervasive pattern of grandiosity,
need for admiration, and a hyperbolic sense of self-importance (Mehdizadeh, 2010; Oltmanns,
Emery, & Taylor, 2006). Specifically, narcissists are characterized by a significantly inflated, positive
but unrealistic self-image, a lack of interest in weaving close relationships, and an engagement in
self-regulatory behaviors to confirm the positive evaluation of one’s own self (Foster & Campbell,
2007; Ong et al., 2011). Most of the theoretical models in personality psychology agree that narcis-
sists use interpersonal relationships in part to affirm the positive illusions of their own physical desir-
ability (Vazire, Naumann, & Rentfrow, 2008).

The association between narcissism and selfie posting behaviors has already been analyzed (Fox
& Rooney, 2015; Leung, 2013; Sorokowska et al., 2016; Sorokowski et al., 2015). Given the narcissists’
need to gain others’ attention and admiration for preserving their own fragile self-image, posting
selfies may reasonably function as a psychological way by means of which individuals attempt to

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achieve these self-regulatory purposes (Sorokowski et al., 2015; Weiser, 2015). Scholars have indeed
found that narcissism predicts higher levels of self-promoting content in several social networking
activities (see Buffardi & Campbell, 2008).

Self-esteem is defined as an individual’s overall self-evaluation of one’s own worth (Rosenberg,

1965; Weiten, 2004). According to Judge and Bono (2001), it represents a specific dispositional trait,
a positive self-concept that refers to people’s representations of their distinctive, or general feelings
of self-confidence. One’s own level of self-esteem reveals personal representations of how individu-
als typically feel about their value, importance, or abilities across time and context (Rosenberg,
1986). Indeed, self-esteem represents the evaluation which individuals make and usually maintain
with respect to themselves (Amirazodi & Amirazodi, 2011).

As many studies (e.g. Campbell, 2001) have pointed out, narcissism and self-esteem have com-
monalities. Scholars have explained the strong correlation between the two constructs by the fact
that both narcissists and high self-esteem individuals share a high self-opinion (Campbell, Rudich, &
Sedikides, 2002). Nevertheless, the two personality traits do not overlap. A critical difference con-
cerns the interpersonal implications of these traits. Narcissism is rather harmful to interpersonal
relationships, whereas self-esteem may be helpful. Furthermore, in clinical psychology it is widely
accepted that narcissism is deep-seated in fragile self-esteem (Mehdizadeh, 2010). In contrast to
narcissism, which is recognized as a risk factor for some forms of addiction (e.g. compulsive shop-
ping, pathological gambling), high self-esteem is strongly associated with psychological health
(Biolcati, 2017; Biolcati, Passini, & Griffith, 2015).

Previous research investigating relationships between social media activities and self-esteem has
produced mixed results. Nadkarni and Hofmann (2012) have shown that self-esteem may predict
the actual need for self-promotion on social networking sites. Mehdizadeh (2010) has instead found
that individuals low in self-esteem engaged in more self-promoting behaviors on Facebook (includ-
ing self-promoting photos) as compared with individuals with higher self-esteem (see Sorokowski et
al., 2015). Conversely, other studies (e.g. Krämer & Winter, 2008) have pointed out that low and high
self-esteem users did not differ on self-presentation behaviors. In addition, some studies have sug-
gested that selfie-posting behavior encompasses a range of use and motivations: for example, tak-
ing and sharing selfies for “narcissist motives” (Halpern, Valenzuela, & Katz, 2016) might be very
different from posting selfies to feel authentic (Warfield, 2014). Indeed, selfie-posting might not be
a unidimensional phenomenon and a number of motivations to take and share selfies may exist si-
multaneously (Etgar & Amichai-Hamburger, 2017). In this sense, these several motivations underly-
ing selfie-posting behavior may relate differently to personality characteristics. Therefore, in line
with some literature (e.g. Biolcati, Passini, & Mancini, 2016; Wang, Jackson, Wang, & Gaskin, 2015;
Weiser, 2015), psychological motives could be considered more important determinants of behav-
iors than personality traits because they are a more proximal source of behavior than individual
characteristics.

In the present research, psychological motives are considered in order to investigate the hypo-
thetically different predictions of narcissism and self-esteem on selfie-posting behaviors. Sung et al.
(2016) have principally identified four motives for posting selfies on SNSs: attention-seeking, com-
munication, archiving, and entertainment. The attention-seeking motive represents the drive for
individuals to seek self-concept confirmation and affirmation through the positive evaluation of oth-
ers (Bazarova & Choi, 2014). The communication motive represents the drive for individuals seeking
to build and maintain relationships within their social networks. The archiving motive indicates that
individuals take selfies and post them on SNSs to document special events. Finally, the entertain-
ment motive suggests that individuals take and post selfies to pass the time and to escape boredom.
Sung et al. (2016) have shown that the four motives were all significantly associated with selfie-
posting frequencies. However, while research has examined the significant motivations behind

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online photo-sharing (e.g. Etgar & Amichai-Hamburger, 2017), to our knowledge no study has yet
investigated the motivations as mediators of the relationships between personality features (i.e.
narcissism and self-esteem) and selfie-posting behaviors.

2. Hypotheses
The main aim of this study is to extend previous works on predictors of selfie-posting behaviors by
investigating the relationship between selfie-posting, narcissism, self-esteem and motivations for
selfie posting behaviors. In particular, the aim is to examine hypothetical different predictions of
narcissism and self-esteem on selfie-posting behaviors through the mediation of distinct selfie
motivations.

Our first hypothesis concerns the differences between men and women in regard to selfie posting
behaviors. Specifically, in line with the literature previously described, we predicted that women
would score higher on selfie-posting frequencies than men.

Our second hypothesis concerns the mediation effects of motivations for selfie-posting behaviors
on the relationship between personality traits and selfie posting. Specifically, we hypothesized that
narcissism and self-esteem were differently mediated by the four motives identified by the litera-
ture. As attention-seeking and entertainment are two motivations more related to personal needs
while communication and archiving have a more social and relational purpose, we hypothesized
that narcissism would be positively mediated by entertainment and attention-seeking and nega-
tively by communication and archiving. Contrariwise, self-esteem should be positively mediated by
communication and archiving, and negatively by entertainment and attention-seeking.

3. Methods

3.1. Participants
A convenience sample of participants was contacted online, using an Internet questionnaire imple-
mented by Google Forms, a survey-generating tool (https://www.google.com/forms/about/). The
questionnaire was publicly accessible and an invitation with the link to the questionnaire was dis-
seminated to the potential participants by means of three systems: mailing lists, a newsgroup of
university undergraduate students, and a social networking site, namely Facebook. Respondents
were advised that their participation was voluntary and that their responses would remain anony-
mous and confidential. No fee was offered. The questionnaire was drafted in Italian. In order to
check and prevent a person re-entering the survey site, the subject’s IP address was monitored. The
data were collected in 2017. The research was conducted in agreement with the ethical norms laid
down by the Italian National Psychological Association.

A total of 237 Italian citizens (20.7% men and 79.3% women) responded by accessing the website
and filling out the questionnaire. Participant ages ranged from 18 to 40 years (M = 23.97, SD = 3.73).
As regards their level of education, 3.8% declared they had finished middle school, 45.1% declared
they had completed a high school diploma, 31.6% had a university degree, 18.1% a master’s degree,
and finally 1.3 a PhD qualification.

3.2. Measures

3.2.1. Selfie-posting behaviors

Selfie-posting frequency was measured using one item, “How often would you say that you take and
post selfies on SNSs?” Response options consisted of very infrequently, once a month, once every
other week, once a week, 2–4 times a week, 5–6 times a week, once a day, and several times a day.
Participants also specified the frequency by which over the past 30 days they had posted on social
networks (from 1 = never to 6 = always): own selfies; group selfies; selfies with the partner. Moreover,
they indicated the importance given to the number of likes to their selfies posted online (from 1 = no
importance to 7 = a lot of importance).

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3.2.2. Selfie-posting motives

Motivations were assessed using the 38-item scale developed by Sung et al. (2016). Response op-
tions ranging between 1 (strongly disagree) and 7 (strongly agree). As in the original study, four di-
mensions were computed: attention- seeking (6 items, e.g. “To attract attention,” α = .92),
communication (5 items, e.g. “To keep in touch with friends,” α = .75), archiving (5 items, e.g. “To
record a specific moment,” α = .85), and entertainment (3 items, e.g. “To pass the time,” α = .69).

3.2.3. Narcissism
Participants completed the 16-item version of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI, Ames,
Rose, & Anderson, 2006). The NPI is composed by 16 forced-choice dyads. Participants chose either
the non-narcissistic (recoded as 0, e.g. “I prefer to blend in with the crowd”) or the narcissistic re-
sponse (recoded as 1, e.g. “I like to be the center of attention”). The 16 items were summed together
(α = 71). The sum score ranged from 0 to 16, where higher scores indicate higher levels of
narcissism.

3.2.4. Self-esteem
The Rosenberg (1965) Self-Esteem (RSE) scale is a 10-item instrument in which participants respond
to each item on a 4-point Likert-scale (from 1 = strongly disagree to 4 = strongly agree). Example
items include: “On the whole, I am satisfied with myself” and “All in all, I am inclined to feel that I
am a failure” (reversed item). A RSE index was computed as the mean of all the items (α = .77), so
that higher totals reflect higher self-esteem.

3.3. Data analysis

First, in order to explore the relationships between the variables investigated, bivariate correlations
were computed. In particular, Spearman’s correlations were used between single scale items (i.e.
the four items measuring selfie-posting behaviors and importance attached to “likes”), while
Pearson’s correlations were used in the other cases. Second, differences between men and women
were computed using χ2 test, in case of the general selfie-posting frequency, and ANOVA in case of
all the other variables.

Third, a path analysis model was computed to test Hypothesis 2, i.e. the mediation of motivations
for posting selfies on the relationship between narcissism and self-esteem with selfie-posting fre-
quencies. The model was estimated via maximum likelihood (ML) estimation using the Mplus 8 soft-
ware program (Muthen & Muthen, 2012). For the evaluation of the model fit, we relied on the
following indexes: the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), the standardized
root-mean-square residual (SRMR), and the root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA).
Consistent with the recommendation of Hu and Bentler (1999), goodness-of-fit criteria were used in
order to quantify acceptable (CFI > 0.90, TLI > 0.90, SRMR < 0.10, RMSEA < 0.08) and excellent fit
(CFI > 0.95, TLI > 0.95, SRMR < 0.08, RMSEA < 0.06). Finally, the indirect effects and their standard
errors in the model were also estimated with Mplus, which uses the so-called delta method
(MacKinnon, Lockwood, Hoffman, West, & Sheets, 2002). Given that the survey software automati-
cally obligated participants to respond to all the items, no data were missing.

4. Results
As concerns the selfie-posting frequency, half of the participants (n = 109, 46%) engaged in selfie-
posting behaviors very infrequently, while 73 people (30.8%) once a month or once every other
week, 27 (11.4%) once a week, and 28 (11.6%) 2–4 times a week or more frequently. No difference
for sex was found on general selfie-posting behaviors [χ2(7, N = 237) = 7.81, p = ns]. As can be seen
in Table 1 (left part), descriptive statistics showed that participants declared not to frequently post
own, group or partner selfies, while they attach importance to the “likes” they received around the
midpoint of the scale. Motivations for posting selfies showed that selfies were posted principally for
archiving, even if also the other three motivations had scores around the midpoint of the scale. As
concern sex differences (see Table 1, low part), the ANOVA showed that women had a higher fre-
quency of group selfies compared to men, while no differences were found on the other frequencies

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 Table 1 Means, standard deviations, correlation coefficients and ANOVA differences for sex among all the variables.
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Biolcati & Passini, Cogent Psychology (2018), 5: 1437012

Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1. Selfie frequency (1, 8) 2.32 1.65 –
2. Own selfie (1, 6) 1.78 1.10 .70*** –
3. Group selfie (1, 6) 2.11 1.22 .54*** .43*** –
4. Partner selfie (1, 6) 1.41 .84 .17** .16** .20** –
5. Likes (1, 7) 3.55 1.70 .21*** .34*** .16* −.04 –
6. Attention (1, 4) 1.90 .84 .13* .24*** .08 −.06 .58*** –
7. Communication (1, 4) 1.76 .59 .33*** .30*** .32*** .06 .44*** .40*** –
8. Archiving (1, 4) 2.45 .78 .28*** .23*** .24*** −.06 .31*** .37*** .55*** –
9. Entertainment (1, 4) 1.97 .76 .31*** .32*** .24*** .08 .41*** .68*** .42*** .44*** –
10. NPI (0, 16) 3.23 2.65 .11 .17** .10 .13 .14* .17** .11 .03 .14* –
11. RSE (1, 4) 2.99 .43 .06 −.08 .05 .20** −.25*** −.25*** .05 .03 −.15* .25*** –
M men – – – 1.67 1.82 1.39 3.35 1.96 1.74 2.38 1.93 4.67 3.07
M women – – – 1.81 2.19 1.41 3.61 1.88 1.77 2.47 1.99 2.85 2.97
F – – – .64 3.69* .40 .90 .34 .82 .62 .19 19.90*** 2.31

Notes: NPI = Narcissistic personality inventory and RSE = Rosenberg self-esteem. Correlations of single items (Column 1 to 5) were computed with Spearman’s coefficient, while all the others with
Pearson’s one.
*p < .05.
**p < .01.
***p < .001.

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Figure 1. Path analysis of

the effects of NPI and RSE
on selfie-posting behaviors
mediated by selfie-posting
motives.

Notes: Reported coefficients

are standardized.
Commun. = Communication.

and on motivations for posting selfies. As concerns personality variables, men had higher scores on
NPI as compared to women.

Bivariate correlations (see Table 1, right part) showed that selfie frequency was strongly positively
correlated with own, group selfie, while more moderately correlated with partner selfie. All selfie
posting frequencies except partner selfies were positively correlated with likes (especially own selfie
had a strong coefficient), and with motivations concerning communication, archiving, and enter-
tainment, while not correlated with attention (except for own selfie). Partner selfie was not corre-
lated with any of these variables. NPI and RSE (moderately positively correlated between them) were
differently correlated with the other variables: NPI was moderately positively correlated with own
selfie, likes, attention-seeking and entertainment, while RSE was moderately positively correlated
with partner selfie, and negatively with likes, attention seeking, and entertainment.

As concerns the path analysis model, we started from a model which included all paths from NPI
and RSE to the four selfie posting motives, and all paths from motives to the items identifying selfie-
posting behaviors. Then, non-statistically significant paths (p > .05) were trimmed from the model
(Kline, 2004): i.e. the paths from NPI and RSE to archiving (β = .02 and β = .02, respectively) and to
communication (β = .10 and β = .02, respectively), the paths from archiving to all the dependent vari-
ables (β = .01 on own, β = .07 on group, β = −.12 on partner, β = .05 on likes), as well as the one from
communication to partner selfie (β = .14), the one from entertainment to group (β = .17) and partner
(β = .16) selfie and to likes (β = .01), and finally the one from attention to group (β = −.10), own
(β = −.07), and partner (β = .11) selfie. Moreover, the modification indexes suggested to set free the
paths from NPI to own selfie and the ones from RSE to partner selfie and likes. The fit indexes of the
resulting model display a good fit with χ2(22) = 28.07, p = .17, CFI = .99, TLI = .98, RMSEA = .03,
SRMR = .04. Final path coefficients (see Figure 1) showed that NPI and RSE both predicted entertain-
ment and attention-seeking but in an opposite direction: NPI was a positive while RSE a negative
predictor. Moreover, NPI had a direct positive effect on own selfies and RSE a direct positive effect on

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partner selfie and a negative effect on likes. Motivations for posting selfies were positively predictors
of selfie-posting. In particular, communication predicted group and own selfie and likes, entertain-
ment predicted own selfie, and attention predicted likes. Archiving did not significantly predict any
variable.

As concerns the mediation effects, the indirect effects from NPI and RSE on own selfie through the
mediating effects of entertainment were significant (B = .03, t = 1.91, p < .05 and B = −.03, t = −2.17,
p < .05, respectively). The indirect effects from NPI and RSE on likes through the mediating effects of
attention were significant (B = .08, t = 3.37, p < .001 and B = −.12, t = −4.39, p < .001, respectively).

5. Discussion
The main aim of the present research is to investigate the different predictions of narcissism and
self-esteem on selfie-posting behaviors through the mediation of the selfie posting motives. Given
the hypothetical effects of these two personality traits in self-presentation strategies, the current
study explores these differences in a rather new form of self-promotion, i.e. selfies.

First of all, we have hypothesized that women would score higher on selfie-posting frequencies
than men. The results partially confirm this hypothesis. Indeed, according with the previous litera-
ture on selfies (e.g. Dhir et al., 2016), our results show that females are more active in taking group
selfies, while no gender differences on own and partner selfies emerge. It is worth noting that most
recent research has indeed shown that both males and females frequently post selfies (Katz &
Crocker, 2015) and that gender differences might appear just in the way self-presentation is made
through them (Dhir et al., 2016). Our result is therefore consistent with previous research into online
self-presentation, in which women tend to post and present themselves more as a part of a social
group (Manago, Graham, Greenfield, & Salimkhan, 2008). Indeed, scholars have shown that men
tend to portray themselves on SNSs according to stereotypical standards of masculinity (e.g. power)
and women instead portray themselves as “affiliative.” That is, through online activities, women try
to communicate and extend their social network and to seek social satisfaction (Dhir et al., 2016;
Joiner et al., 2012). The lack of differences in overall selfie posting frequencies could also be ex-
plained by the fact that the men in our sample have higher scores on narcissism as compared to
women. In this sense, it is reasonable that individuals with high levels of narcissism use selfies as a
usual means to manage impressions (Sung et al., 2016).

Second, the relations of narcissism and self-esteem with the overall selfie-posting frequency are
not significant. In accordance with Barry, Doucette, Loflin, Rivera-Hudson, and Herrington (2017), we
found a general lack of association between narcissism and self-esteem with overall postings of self-
ies, suggesting that personality traits are significantly related just to specific categories of selfies.
Narcissism indeed correlates with own selfie posting, while self-esteem with partner selfie. In this
sense, by being people who seek attention and exhibitionism, narcissists attach great importance to
posting own selfies, faced with an audience of admirers, and less importance to posting in general
or sharing group or partner selfies (Vazire et al., 2008). This is confirmed by the significant positive
correlation between NPI and the importance attached to the likes received. As suggested by
Sorokowski et al. (2015), narcissism may be positively related to posting and improving one’s self-
image, but may not necessarily be related to posting portraits of oneself as a member of a group or
of a romantic couple. Thus, our study extends previous results concerning the positive relationship
between narcissism and self-promoting behaviors in social networking websites (e.g. DeWall,
Buffardi, & Bonser, 2011; Weiser, 2015) by showing that narcissism does not correlate with all forms
of selfies, but just with one’s own. Instead, self-esteem only positively correlates with partner selfies.
This result suggests a certain dose of happiness and satisfaction in affective relationships that lead
people to share their couple images on social media (Orth & Robins, 2014). Moreover, findings may
be in line with the theory model of self-esteem (Murray, Holmes, & Griffin, 1996) suggesting that
individuals with high self-esteem have a positive evaluations of their romantic partners that may, in
turn, result in better gratification in the relationship.

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Third, as could be expected, our study found that the four motives investigated are correlated to
frequency of selfie posting, suggesting that the higher are selfie motivations, the greater is the fre-
quency of selfie sharing. However, it is worth noting that communication, archiving and entertain-
ment motives are correlated with all frequencies (except for partner selfie which is an infrequent
selfie posting behavior, at least in our research). Instead, attention motive is linked only to own selfie
posting. These results suggest that each motive might be differently linked to frequencies depending
on the type of selfie. A recent study by Yang and Li (2014) has found that individuals post portraits
of themselves or of themselves with others on social media for a communication purpose, which is
the desire to get responses from other users. Moreover, frequencies of own or group selfies are
driven also by an individual’s desire to capture and document a specific life event or a particular
place (i.e. archiving) and as a way of escaping from boredom or as a source of entertainment. As
concerns the correlation of attention-seeking with just own selfies, this result might be explained by
the specificity of this motivation: among the various means of self-presentation offered by social
networking websites, selfies accentuate one’s key characteristics by exhibiting improved and de-
sired self-image with the intention of seeking admirers (Bazarova & Choi, 2014). In this sense, own
selfies are one of the main means of self-promotion and image management offered by social me-
dia, as they make possible sharing a desired view of oneself. These distinct patterns of correlation
suggest that the specific type of selfie should be considered when the relationships between psycho-
logical traits and selfie posting behaviors are investigated.

Fourth, the path analysis model shows more in depth how the personality traits predict selfie post-
ing behavior, considering the mediation of the four selfie motives. It is worth noting that, in disa-
greement with the hypothesis but as suggested by the correlation patterns, archiving and
communication were not connected with narcissism and self-esteem. Thus, the two motives that
are less related to any type of discomfort and that may, in a certain sense, be considered as healthy
motivations—as they express a social motivation to share with others their own life—are neither
connected to self-evaluation nor to the desire to appear. Instead, entertainment (i.e. the escape
from boredom) and attention-seeking appear to mediate the link between the two personality traits
considered and selfie-posting behavior. The relevant result is that, even if positively correlated be-
tween them, the model suggests two different (and almost contrary) modalities in the use of selfies
of people high in self-esteem or narcissism. People with high self-esteem do not engage in selfie-
posting behaviors with the aim of searching for the attention of others or escaping from boredom.
Instead, these are the main motives by which narcissist people get involved, as concerns own selfies
and importance attached to the likes received. In this sense, as suggested by Halpern et al. (2016),
taking selfies for narcissist reasoning might be perceived as the opposite of taking selfies to feel
authentic, which is more frequently a feature of individuals with high self-esteem (see Warfield,
2014).

This research has some limitations which ought to be borne in mind for future research. First, the
gender imbalance limits the generalizability of the findings and precludes our capacity to deepen
the role of gender on selfie posting behaviors. Even though gender difference was taken into ac-
count, in the future the same study should be replicated in a more balanced sample. Second, this
study is based on self-reported data. Other studies (e.g. Amichai-Hamburger & Vinitzky, 2010) have
shown that the relationships between personality traits and selfie-posting behaviors may be differ-
ent when measured by more objective criteria. Third, further variables should be considered. As
Weiser (2015) has pointed out, selfie-posting may be indeed associated with other factors not as-
sessed in this research, such as other personality traits (e.g., extraversion). Moreover, it may be inter-
esting to consider the two forms of self-esteem identified by Kernis, Lakey, and Heppner (2008): i.e.
secure and fragile self-esteem. Indeed, individuals with secure high self-esteem should have well-
anchored feelings of self-worth that are generally related to a healthy psychological functioning.
Instead, individuals with fragile high self-esteem should tend to defend their positive, yet vulnera-
ble, feelings of self-worth and are characterized by maladaptive processes, such as anger and hostil-
ity. As those authors have pointed out, only this second form of self-esteem is related to
narcissism.

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Notwithstanding these limitations, the present study extends previous selfie literature showing
that personality and trait-related motives are dominant planners of selfie posting behaviors on so-
cial media. According to Weiser (2015), selfie posting is not an unmotivated, empty activity. Instead,
it is a form of self-presentation and interaction that carries both underlying psychological and social
meanings. The results of the present research contribute in this sense to offering valuable under-
standings of selfie-posting profiles specifically and social media users in general.

Funding Brandt, R. (2014). Google divulges numbers at I/O: 20 Billion

The authors received no direct funding for this research. texts, 93 million selfies and more. Silicon Valley Business
Journal, 25. Retrieved from https://www.bizjournals.com/
Competing interests Buffardi, L. E., & Campbell, W. K. (2008). Narcissism and social
The authors declare no competing interest. networking web sites. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 34(10), 1303–1314. https://doi.
Author details org/10.1177/0146167208320061
Roberta Biolcati1 Campbell, W. K. (2001). Is narcissism really so bad?
E-mail: [email protected] Psychological Inquiry, 12(4), 214–216.
Stefano Passini1 Campbell, W. K., Rudich, E. A., & Sedikides, C. (2002).
Narcissism, self-esteem, and the positivity of self-views:
E-mail: [email protected]
Two portraits of self-love. Personality and Social
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8887-0999
Psychology Bulletin, 28(3), 358–368.
1
Department of Education Studies, University of Bologna, via https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167202286007
Filippo Re 6, 40126 Bologna, Italy.
Dhir, A., Pallesen, S., Torsheim, T., & Andreassen, C. S. (2016).
Do age and gender differences exist in selfie-related
Citation information
behaviors? Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 549–555.
Cite this article as: Narcissism and self-esteem: Different
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.053
motivations for selfie posting behaviors, Roberta Biolcati &
Etgar, S., & Amichai-Hamburger, Y. (2017). Not all selfies took
Stefano Passini, Cogent Psychology (2018), 5: 1437012.
alike: Distinct selfie motivations are related to different
personality characteristics. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(842),
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