Concurrent Processes

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Analogy (1)
 You drive to KFC drive-through window.
 When you place your order, the order clerk
confirms your request, tells you how much it
costs and ask you to drive to the pick-up
window.
 At the pick-up window, the cashier collects
your money and hands over your order.
 This is a synchronised multiprocessing
system.

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Analogy (2)
 You come into contact with 2 processors –
the order clerk and the cashier.
 There are at least 2 more processors to
make the system work – the cook and the
bagger.
 Compare the scenario to an information
retrieval system.
 Processor 1 (order clerk) accepts the query,
checks for errors, and passes the request to
Processor 2 (bagger).
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Analogy (3)
 Processor 2 searches the database for the
required info (hot & spicy chickens).
 Processor 3 (cook) retrieves data from the
database (chicken to cook) if it’s kept
offline in secondary storage. Once data is
gathered (chicken is cooked), it is placed
where Processor 2 can get it (in the chicken
bin).
 Processor 2 passes it to Processor 4
(cashier).

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Analogy (4)
 Processor 4 routes the response (your
order) back to the originator of the request
(you).

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What is Parallel Processing? (1)
 Parallel processing or multiprocessing is a
situation in which two or more processors
operate in unison.
  2 processors execute instruction
simultaneously.
 The Processor Mgr has to coordinate the
activity of each processor and synchronise
the interaction among the CPUs.

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What is Parallel Processing? (2)
 Synchronisation is a key factor in the
success of multiprogramming systems.
 A system will only work properly if every
processor communicates and cooperates
with every other processor.
 2 major reasons behind multiprocessing:
 Enhance throughput;
 Increase computing power.

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What is Parallel Processing? (3)
 2 benefits: increased reliability and faster
processing.
 The benefits are achieved by careful
design.
 The failing processor can inform other
processor(s) to take over;
 The OS can restructure its resource
allocation strategies so that remaining
processors don’t become overload.

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What is Parallel Processing? (4)
 A few ways to allocate the CPU:
 Allocate a CPU to each job;
 Allocate a CPU to each working set;
 Subdivide individual instructions and each
subdivision is processed simultaneously.
 Increased flexibility brings increased
complexity. 2 challenges:
 How to connect the CPUs into
configurations;
 How to orchestrate their interaction.

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Typical Multiprocessing
Configurations
 Master/slave configuration
 Loosely coupled configuration
 Symmetric configuration

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Master/Slave Configurations (1)
 Is an asymmetric multiprocessing system.
 Is a single-processor system with additional
slave processors, each is managed by the
primary master processor.
 The master processor is responsible for
managing the entire system.
 Suitable for an environment where the
processing time is divided btwn front-end
and back-end processors.

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Master/Slave Configurations (2)

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Master/Slave Configurations (3)
 Advantage: simple.
 Disadvantages:
 The reliability is not much better than a
single processor system.
 Can lead to poor utilisation of resources.

 Increased number of interrupts.

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Loosely Coupled Configuration (1)
 Several complete computer systems, each
with its own memory, I/O devices, CPU and
OS.
 Loosely coupled because each processor
controls its own resources.
 Each processor can communicate and
cooperate with the others.

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Loosely Coupled Configuration (2)

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Loosely Coupled Configuration (3)
 When a job arrives:
 It is allocated to one processor.
 It remains with the same processor until it
finishes.
 The job scheduling algo keeps the system
well-balanced and ensures the best use of
resources using several requirements and
policies.
 E.g. new jobs are assigned to the processor
with the lightest load.
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Symmetric Configuration (1)
 Is best implemented if all processors are of
the same type.
 Advantages over loosely coupled config:
 More reliable;
 Uses resources effectively;

 Can balance loads well;

 Can degrade gracefully in the event of

failure.

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Symmetric Configuration (2)

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Symmetric Configuration (3)
 Is the most difficult config to implement
because processes must be well
synchronised to avoid races and deadlocks.
 Process scheduling is decentralised.
 There is one copy of the OS.
 Each processor has access to a global table
listing each process and its status that is
stored in a common area of the memory.

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Symmetric Configuration (4)
 Processors use the same scheduling algo.
 When a process is interrupted, its
processor updates the corresponding entry
in the process list and finds another
process to run.
 Since each processor has access to all I/O
devices and can reference any storage unit,
there are more conflicts when several
processors try to access the same
resources – requires algo to resolve
conflicts.
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Process Synchronisation Software (1)

 Process synchronisation depends on the

capability of the OS to make a resource
unavailable to other processes while it is
being used by one of them.
 A used resource is locked from other
resources until it is released – only then can
a waiting process be allowed to use the
resource.
 Synchronisation is important because a
mistake could leave a job waiting
indefinitely or lead to a deadlock.
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Process Synchronisation Software (2)

 Example: Processor 1 and Processor 2 finish

their job executions at the same time. To
run the next job, each processor must:
 Consult the list of jobs to see which one
should run next.
 Retrieve the job for execution.

 Increment the READY list to the next job.

 Execute it.

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Process Synchronisation Software (3)

 Other resources where the same problem

can occur: memory and page allocation
tables, I/O tables, application databases,
any shared resources.
 A synchronisation mechanism is required to
provide cooperation and communication
among processes.
 Allows a process to finish work on a critical
region of a program before other processes
have access to it.
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Process Synchronisation Software (4)

 A critical region is a part of a program that

must complete execution before other
processes can have access to the resources
being used.
 Synchronisation can be implemented using a
lock-and-key scheme.
 A process checks to see if a key is available.
 If it is available, the process picks it up and
put it in the lock to make the resource
unavailable to other processes.
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Process Synchronisation Software (5)

 There are several locking mechanisms:

 Test-and-Set
 WAIT and SIGNAL

 Semaphores

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Test-and-Set (1)
 Is an indivisible machine instruction known
as TS.
 It tests to see if the key is available. If it
is, it sets it to unavailable.
 The key is a single bit in a storage location
whose value is 0 if it is free; 1 if it is busy.
 TS has one parameter (the storage location)
and returns one value (busy/free). It takes
only one machine cycle.

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Test-and-Set (2)
 Process 1 (P1) tests the condition code using
the TS instruction before entering a
critical region.
 If no other process is in the critical region,
P1 is allowed to proceed and the condition
code is changed from 0 to 1.
 When P1 exits the critical region, the
condition code is reset to 0 so another
process can enter.

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Test-and-Set (3)
 If P1 finds a busy condition code, it is placed
in a waiting loop where it continues to test
the condition code and waits until it is free.
 Test-and-Set is simple to implement and
works well for a small number of processes.

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Test-and-Set (4)
 2 drawbacks:
 When many processes are waiting to enter a
critical region, starvation could occur
because processes gain access in an
arbitrary fashion.
 Waiting processes remain in unproductive,
resource-consuming wait loops, known as
busy waiting.

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WAIT and SIGNAL (1)
 Is a modification of Test-and-Set to
remove busy waiting.
 Consists of 2 operations that are mutually
exclusive: WAIT and SIGNAL.
 WAIT is activated when the process
encounters a busy condition code.
 It sets the process’s PCB to a blocked state
and links it to the queue of processes waiting
to enter the critical region.
 The Process Scheduler selects another
process for execution.
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WAIT and SIGNAL (2)
 SIGNAL: is activated when a process exits
the critical regions and the condition code
is set to free.
 It checks the queue for processes waiting to
enter the critical region, selects one and
sets it state to READY.
 Eventually, the Process Scheduler will
choose this process for running.

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Semaphores (1)
 Is a flag that has a non-negative integer
value.
 Analogy: flag-like signaling used by railroads
to indicate whether the track is clear.
 In an OS, a semaphore signals if and when a
resource is free and can be used by a
process.

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Group discussion
 Give an example from real life of busy
waiting.

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