Introduction of Control Unit and its Design

Control Unit is the part of the computer’s central processing unit (CPU), which directs the
operation of the processor. It was included as part of the Von Neumann Architecture by John
von Neumann. It is the responsibility of the Control Unit to tell the computer’s memory,
arithmetic/logic unit and input and output devices how to respond to the instructions that have
been sent to the processor. It fetches internal instructions of the programs from the main
memory to the processor instruction register, and based on this register contents, the control
unit generates a control signal that supervises the execution of these instructions.
A control unit works by receiving input information to which it converts into control signals,
which are then sent to the central processor. The computer’s processor then tells the attached
hardware what operations to perform. The functions that a control unit performs are dependent
on the type of CPU because the architecture of CPU varies from manufacturer to manufacturer.
Examples of devices that require a CU are:

 Control Processing Units(CPUs)

 Graphics Processing Units(GPUs)

Figure 1: Block Diagram of control unit

Functions of the Control Unit –
1. It coordinates the sequence of data movements into, out of, and between a processor’s
many sub-units.
2. It interprets instructions.
3. It controls data flow inside the processor.
4. It receives external instructions or commands to which it converts to sequence of control
signals.
5. It controls many execution units (i.e. ALU, data buffers and registers) contained within a
CPU.
6. It also handles multiple tasks, such as fetching, decoding, execution handling and storing
results.

Types of Control Unit –

There are two types of control units: Hardwired control unit and Micro programmable control
unit.

1. Hardwired Control Unit –

In the Hardwired control unit, the control signals that are important for instruction
execution control are generated by specially designed hardware logical circuits, in which
we cannot modify the signal generation method without physical change of the circuit
structure. The operation code of an instruction contains the basic data for control signal
generation. In the instruction decoder, the operation code is decoded. The instruction
decoder constitutes a set of many decoders that decode different fields of the instruction
opcode.
As a result, few output lines going out from the instruction decoder obtains active signal
values. These output lines are connected to the inputs of the matrix that generates control
signals for executive units of the computer. This matrix implements logical combinations
of the decoded signals from the instruction opcode with the outputs from the matrix that
generates signals representing consecutive control unit states and with signals coming
from the outside of the processor, e.g. interrupt signals. The matrices are built in a similar
way as a programmable logic arrays.
 Figure 2: Hardwired Control Unit

Control signals for an instruction execution have to be generated not in a single time point
but during the entire time interval that corresponds to the instruction execution cycle.
Following the structure of this cycle, the suitable sequence of internal states is organized
in the control unit.

A number of signals generated by the control signal generator matrix are sent back to
inputs of the next control state generator matrix. This matrix combines these signals with
the timing signals, which are generated by the timing unit based on the rectangular
patterns usually supplied by the quartz generator. When a new instruction arrives at the
control unit, the control units is in the initial state of new instruction fetching. Instruction
decoding allows the control unit enters the first state relating execution of the new
instruction, which lasts as long as the timing signals and other input signals as flags and
state information of the computer remain unaltered. A change of any of the earlier
mentioned signals stimulates the change of the control unit state.

This causes that a new respective input is generated for the control signal generator
matrix. When an external signal appears, (e.g. an interrupt) the control unit takes entry
into a next control state that is the state concerned with the reaction to this external signal
 (e.g. interrupt processing). The values of flags and state variables of the computer are
used to select suitable states for the instruction execution cycle.

The last states in the cycle are control states that commence fetching the next instruction
of the program: sending the program counter content to the main memory address buffer
register and next, reading the instruction word to the instruction register of computer.
When the ongoing instruction is the stop instruction that ends program execution, the
control unit enters an operating system state, in which it waits for a next user directive.

2. Micro programmable control unit –

The fundamental difference between these unit structures and the structure of the
hardwired control unit is the existence of the control store that is used for storing words
containing encoded control signals mandatory for instruction execution.
In microprogrammed control units, subsequent instruction words are fetched into the
instruction register in a normal way. However, the operation code of each instruction is
not directly decoded to enable immediate control signal generation but it comprises the
initial address of a microprogram contained in the control store.

 With a single-level control store:

In this, the instruction opcode from the instruction register is sent to the control
store address register. Based on this address, the first microinstruction of a
microprogram that interprets execution of this instruction is read to the
microinstruction register. This microinstruction contains in its operation part
encoded control signals, normally as few bit fields. In a set microinstruction field
decoders, the fields are decoded. The microinstruction also contains the address of
the next microinstruction of the given instruction microprogram and a control field
used to control activities of the microinstruction address generator.
 Figure 3: Micro programmable control unit with a single-level control store

The last mentioned field decides the addressing mode (addressing operation) to be applied
to the address embedded in the ongoing microinstruction. In microinstructions along with
conditional addressing mode, this address is refined by using the processor condition flags
that represent the status of computations in the current program. The last microinstruction
in the instruction of the given microprogram is the microinstruction that fetches the next
instruction from the main memory to the instruction register.

 With a two-level control store :

In this, in a control unit with a two-level control store, besides the control memory for
microinstructions, a Nano-instruction memory is included. In such a control unit,
microinstructions do not contain encoded control signals. The operation part of
microinstructions contains the address of the word in the Nano-instruction memory, which
contains encoded control signals. The Nano-instruction memory contains all combinations
of control signals that appear in microprograms that interpret the complete instruction set
of a given computer, written once in the form of Nano-instructions.
 Figure 4: Micro programmable control unit with a two-level control store

In this way, unnecessary storing of the same operation parts of microinstructions is avoided. In
this case, microinstruction word can be much shorter than with the single level control store. It
gives a much smaller size in bits of the microinstruction memory and, as a result, a much
smaller size of the entire control memory. The microinstruction memory contains the control
for selection of consecutive microinstructions, while those control signals are generated at the
basis of Nano-instructions. In Nano-instructions, control signals are frequently encoded using
1 bit/ 1 signal method that eliminates decoding.
Difference between Hardwired and Microprogrammed Control Unit:

HARDWIRED MICROPROGRAMMED
ATTRIBUTES
CONTROL UNIT CONTROL UNIT

1. Speed Speed is fast Speed is slow

2. Cost of Implementation More costly. Cheaper.

Not flexible to
More flexible to
accommodate new
accommodate new system
3. Flexibility system specification or
specification or new
new instruction
instruction sets.
redesign is required.

Difficult to handle
4. Ability to Handle Easier to handle complex
complex instruction
Complex Instructions instruction sets.
sets.

Complex decoding and Easier decoding and

5. Decoding
sequencing logic. sequencing logic.

6. Applications RISC Microprocessor CISC Microprocessor

7. Instruction set of Size Small Large

8. Control Memory Absent Present

9. Chip Area Required Less More

Occurrence of error is
10. Occurrence Occurrence of error is less
more
Difference between Horizontal and Vertical micro-programmed Control
Unit

Basically, control unit (CU) is the engine that runs the entire functions of a computer with the
help of control signals in the proper sequence. In the micro-programmed control unit
approach, the control signals that are associated with the operations are stored in special
memory units. It is convenient to think of sets of control signals that cause specific micro-
operations to occur as being “microinstructions”. The sequences of microinstructions could be
stored in an internal “control” memory.
Micro-programmed control unit can be classified into two types based on the type of Control
Word stored in the Control Memory, viz., Horizontal micro-programmed control unit and
Vertical micro-programmed control unit.

 In Horizontal micro-programmed control unit, the control signals are represented in the
decoded binary format, i.e., 1 bit/CS. Here ‘n’ control signals require n bit encoding. On
the other hand.
 In Vertical micro-programmed control unit, the control signals are represented in the
encoded binary format. Here ‘n’ control signals require log2n bit encoding.
Comparison between Horizontal micro-programmed control unit and Vertical micro-
programmed control unit:

HORIZONTAL Μ-PROGRAMMED CU VERTICAL Μ-PROGRAMMED CU

It supports longer control word. It supports shorter control word.

It allows higher degree of parallelism. If

It allows low degree of parallelism i.e.,
degree is n, then n Control Signals are
degree of parallelism is either 0 or 1.
enabled at a time.

Additional hardware in the form of

No additional hardware is required. decoders are required to generate control
signals.

It is faster than Vertical micro-programmed it is slower than Horizontal micro-

control unit. programmed control unit.
 HORIZONTAL Μ-PROGRAMMED CU VERTICAL Μ-PROGRAMMED CU

It is less flexible than Vertical micro- It is more flexible than Horizontal micro-
programmed control unit. programmed control unit.

Vertical micro-programmed control unit

Horizontal micro-programmed control unit
uses vertical microinstruction, where a
uses horizontal microinstruction, where
code is used for each action to be
every bit in the control field attaches to a
performed and the decoder translates this
control line.
code into individual control signals.

Horizontal micro-programmed control unit Vertical micro-programmed control unit

makes less use of ROM encoding than makes more use of ROM encoding to
vertical micro-programmed control unit. reduce the length of the control word.

Example: Consider a hypothetical Control Unit which supports 4 k words. The Hardware
contains 64 control signals and 16 Flags. What is the size of control word used in bits and
control memory in byte using:
a) Horizontal Programming
b) Vertical Programming?
Solution: