Reading and Writing

TEXT • Is made up of words or sentences

• Is defined in terms of its being a physical
product
• Meaning is not found in a text
• A large unit of language
• A group of ideas put together to make a point
or one central idea
• Has a structure which requires the ideas in
the discourse to be relevant to each other
• An actually connected discourse
• Analysis it deals with cohesion
DISCOURSE • Is the use of such words or sentences
• Utterance, talk, speech, discussion, and
conversation
• An extended expression of thoughts or ideas
• Ideas in discourse are connected or do not
have a particular structure
• Meaning is derived through the readers
interaction with the text
• Webster – said discourse as an orderly
extended expression of connected thoughts on a
subject
• Ball, et al (2006) define it as “ more than just
a string of individual target segments joined together
in series
• Is made up of utterances having the property
of coherence
• Analysis investigates coherence
Is viewed as a process
• Comes from a latin word discursus, which
stand for conversation, speech

• A set of utterances of speech event e.g.

conversation, a joke, a sermon, an interview.

• Some linguist would restrict discourse to

spoken communication and reserve text for written
CHARACTERISTICS OF A TEXT • Non verbal
• Sentence/words
• Not to be uttered or spoken
• Written/printed
• Has a meaning
CHARACTERISTICS OF A DISCOURSE • Utterance/uttered
• Spoken
• Verbal
• Speech
• Communication/ interaction
READ; ACT; COMPREHEND; UNDERSTAND Text becomes a connected discourse when we ____,
_______,______,_______
NARRATION • Is the act or process of narrating or telling a
story.
• It involves action, character’s and theme
• Can be an incident, anecdote, historical
account, autobiography, biography and a novel
DESCRIPTION/DESCRIPTIVE • Uses sensory writing with rich and vivid
details that appeal to man’s five sense
• Sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell
• Figures of speech are often used to enhance
the sensory experience of the readers.
• Can be from general to specific or vice versa
EXPOSITION/EXPOSITORY • Provides information about one or more
topics.
• It informs, explains, expounds, and interprets
• Includes exemplification or classification
comparison and contrast, cause and effect and
problem solution
PERSUASIVE/ARGUMENTATION • Persuades readers through proofs of the
writer’s views
BRAINSTORMING is the most popular tool in generating creative and
rich ideas
• Is an individual or group activity
• This technique, efforts are made to make a
solution to a particular problem.
• Ideas are gathered and listed from the input
of every member.
 • Just enumerate ideas. Do not evaluate
• Select possible topics. List subtopics under
each topic.
• You may draw lines, arrows, or stars to show
connections between various subtopics
• It is best that you try to eliminate the topics
that will not provide enough information.
CUBING An idea is examined from six distinct
viewpoints:
1. Describe the topics (What is it?)
2. Compare and contrast it (What is it like or
unlike/how is it different)
3. What do you associate it with? (What does it
remind you of?)
4. Analyze it (What are its parts?)
5. Apply it (In what ways can it be utilized?)
6. Argue for or against it (In what ways can you
support or oppose it?)

Another way of cubing is to explore three

perspectives:
Firstly, describe the topic, its features, parts, and
challenges, then compare and contrast it with other
ideas
Secondly, trace the topic’s history, influences, and
evolution
Thirdly, map the topic to similar contemporary
topics and its influences
FREEWRITING This is another way of brainstorming, you may set a
time limit and several words or paged. Just write,
don’t edit. It allows someone to work without
inhibitions. You turn off the editor in you and allow
the writer in you free rein.
LISTING Just list the topic. Then, make a sub-list of things you
could write about each topic. For example, under
languages, you can write English, Mandarin, and
Spanish. At this point, do not outline yet, because an
outline can limit your creativity.
MAPPING A graphic form of the listing is mapping which is
sometimes called webbing or clustering. It involves
writing down ideas and then making connections by
associating similar ideas with color-coded
RESEARCHING This is the last technique in brainstorming. You must
search from the library or websites and make list or
map of the new ideas. This technique requires you to
write the main topic and write down all related
concepts below it.
IDEA LIST Involves writing down the main topic and listing
down the related ideas.
IDEA MAP A visual presentation of ideas and their connections
with one another
- More structured
- Shows how one idea subordinates another idea
TIME TRAVEL What would you do if you were in a different time
period?
TELEPORTATION What if you were in a different place?
ATTRIBUTE CHANGE Different gender/ age /race/intellect /nationality
/etc.? You become exposed to a new spectrum of
thinking you were subconsciously closed off from.
ROLESTORMING What would you do if you were someone else?
ICONIC FIGURES This is a spinoff of rolestorming. What if you were an
iconic figure? Buddha? Jesus? Mother Theresa?
Winston Churchill? Albert Einstein?
SUPERPOWERS This is another spinoff of rolestorming. What if you
had superpowers?
GAP FILLING Identify your current spot – which is Point A – and
your end goal – which is Point B. What is the gap that
exists between A and B? What are all the things you
need to fill up this gap? List them down and find out
what it takes to get them. What does it take to fill the
gap?
GROUP IDEATION Have a group brainstorming session! Get a group of
people and start ideating together. More brains are
better than one! Let the creative juices flow together!
Brainstorm in a group.
MIND MAP Great tool to work out as many ideas as you can in a
hierarchical tree and cluster format. Start off with
 your goal in the center, branch out into the major
sub-topics, and continue to branch out into as many
sub-sub-topics as needed. Source Forge is a free
mind-mapping software you can check out.
Start with your goal in the center, and branch into as
many sub-topics as needed.
MEDICI EFFECT Refers to how ideas in seemingly unrelated
topics/fields intersect. Put your goal alongside
similar goals in different areas/contexts and identify
parallel themes and solutions. Identify strategies
from seemingly unrelated fields.
SWOT ANALYSIS A useful technique for understanding your Strengths
and Weaknesses, and for identifying both the
Opportunities open to you and the Threats you face.
What are the Strengths? Weaknesses? Opportunities?
Threats?
BRAINWRITING • An idea-generating method that involves
everyone in a group activity.
• Enables a group to generate ideas and
solutions to several problems/issues simultaneously
on paper.
TRIGGER METHOD Method that provides a general way for invoking a
callback function, and thus in a sense can be used to
simulate any event. It allows your program to cause a
callback associated with a particular object and event
to run. It takes as an argument the name of an event,
and triggers the callback (if any) for that event.
Brainstorm on ideas that "trigger" you until you find
the best solution.
VARIABLE BRAINSTORMING What is the variable in question? Identify all its
variations and brainstorm on them
NICHE This is a part two of the variable brainstorming
method. From the variations of the variable you have
listed, mix and match them in different ways.
REVERSE THINKING Do the opposite of what people would typically do.
Think about everyone will typically do in your
situation. Then do the opposite.
CHALLENGER List all assumptions in your situation and challenge
for example, your goal is to brain storm on a list of
ideas for your romance novel which you want to get
published there are several assumptions for operating
assumption you are operating in here Challenge every
assumption.
ESCAPE THINKING This is a variation of challenger method look at the
assumption behind the goal you are trying to achieve,
then flip that assumption around and look at your
goal from that new angle. Flip each assumption and
review the situation from the new angle.
COUNTERACTION BUSTING What are the counteracting forces are you facing in
your scenario? For example
If you want to increase traffic to your website, two
countering forces may be the number of ads you put
and the page views on your site. What counteracting
variables are there? How can you eliminate the
counteraction?
RESOURCE AVAILABILITY What would you do if money, time, people, supplies
are not issues at all?
GET RANDOM INPUT Random input entails using a random word, picture,
or even sound, to open new lines of thinking. The
idea is not to directly solve the problem using the
random word, but to use the random word in to help
your mind begin thinking in new directions. Random
input can be used in a team or in an individual
dynamic. To utilize the random input method, one
must start with a clearly defined problem. Once the
core problem is identified, a random word or short
phrase or even a single picture is chosen. Get a
random stimulus (word, image, object, etc.) for
inspiration.
MEDITATION Meditate on the situation. Put you into a receiving
state, a state where you’re open to new thoughts and
perspectives. Meditation doesn’t have to be far-out or
religious. Just think of it as learning to calm and
focus your mind.
WRITE A LIST OF 101 IDEAS Don't stop until you have at least 101. Is all about
looking for new ideas, examining old ideas in new
ways, and diving deep into the subject.
 In other words, it is a situation where a group of
people meet to generate new ideas and solutions
around a specific domain of interest by removing
inhibitions

DRIVERS ANALYSIS A powerful approach for understanding why

consumers do what they do. However, Key Drivers is
not a single technique. It is a category of techniques
that must be thoughtfully selected based on
objectives and data structures. Picking wisely can
mean the differences between optimal use of your
marketing and product resources or misallocation of
those resources. How can you magnify the drivers
and eliminate opposing factors?
EXAGGERATION Is a representation of something in an excessive
manner. An act or instance of exaggerating
something. Enlarge the goal. Shrink it. Multiply it.
What would you do in each situation?
CHARACTER MAP It helps describe in detail the main character, their
thoughts and actions.
Good for short stories and novels
VENN DIAGRAM Is used to compare and contrast ideas and events

This diagram uses two or more overlapping circles to

show similar and different attributes
SPIDER MAP Also known as semantic web or semantic map.

Is used to investigate and enumerate various aspects

of a central idea, which could be a concept, topic, or
theme.

This central idea is placed at the center of the map.

The main idea is placed along its diagonal line, while

details of the main idea are placed on the sides of the
diagonals
TIMELINE Is used to show how events occurred chronologically
through a long bar labeled with dates and specific
events.
Timelines can be linear or comparative.
LINEAR TIMELINE Shows how events happened within one period.
COMPARATIVE TIMELINE Shows two sets of events that happened within the
same period.
CLUSTERING Is good for organization of concepts, ideas and as a
pre-reading activity.
COMPARE AND CONTRAST It helps with similarities and differences in
characters, situations and conclusion
FISHBONE MAP Used to be better understand the causal relationship
of a complex phenomenon.
Shows the factors that cause a specific event or
problem, as well as details of each cause.
SEQUENCE OF EVENTS CHART Good for placing main events in their order of
occurrence.
SQ3R Survey, Question, Read, Recall, Review
STORY MAP Helps with the outline or blueprint of a fictional
story.
STORY BOARD Helps to illustrate the main events.
W’s ORGANIZER Helps with organizing factual ideas around the main
questions who, what where, when, and why?
PLOT DIAGRAM Used to map events in the story. Used to analyze the
major parts of a plot.
EXPOSITION Beginning of the story where characters and setting
are introduced
RISING ACTION Where the main character faces a series of conflicts
CLIMAX The most exciting part of the story; When we learn
the outcome
FALLING ACTION Events leading to the end of the story
RESOLUTION End of the story
KHWL CHART What I know?, What I have to find out?, How can I
find out? and What I learned?
NETWORK TREE Is used to represent hierarchy, classification and,
branching.

It is useful in showing relationships of scientific

categories, family trees, and even lineages
PROBLEM SOLUTION MAP Displays the nature of the problem and how it can be
solved.
 This map usually contains the problem’s description,
its causes and effects, and logical solutions.
CYCLE Describes how a series of events interact to produce a
set of results repeatedly.
Some examples of events that require a cycle are
water cycle, metamorphosis, and poverty cycle.
PERSUASION MAP Is used to map out arguments and evidence that
prove a viewpoint.
This map is especially useful when processing
persuasive or arguments texts.
OUTLINE Allows a writer to categorize the main points, to
organize the paragraphs in order to make sense.

Is a snapshot of your paper, capturing the important

points.

Helps you take your paper from a clear introduction

to a logical conclusion, supported by your research.

Is essentially a guide to writing your paper,

something like an assembly instruction.

It helps you organize your paper and keeps you on

track.

Your preliminary research gives you enough

knowledge about your topic to make a general
outline.
ALPHANUMERIC OUTLINE Uses both letters and numbers as labels
DECIMAL OUTLINE Uses only numbers as labels
COORDINATION Requires ideas of the same relevance to be labeled in
the same way
SUBORDINATION Shows that minor details have to be placed under
their perspective major details.
DIVISION Requires that no cluster should contain only one
item.
PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION Requires all entries in each cluster to use the same
structure and format.
TOPIC OUTLINE A systematic arrangement of ideas using broad topics
in the form of words or simple phrases as headers. It
arranges your ideas hierarchically (Showing Main
Points and Sub points)
SENTENCE OUTLINE Uses complete sentences as its entries. Also known as
expanded outline. Use when the topic being
discussed is complicated and requires details. All
heading and sub-headings must be in sentence form.
CLAIM Are synonymous to belief, argument, assertion, or
stand
EXPLICIT CLAIM Is directly and clearly stated in the text. It is when
you can easily point out the information in the
passage.
IMPLICIT CLAIM Is indirectly expressed in the text and you need to
look
for clues or make inferences to understand its
meaning.
CLAIM OF FACT This claim is a statement that reports, describes
predicts, make causal claims, or whether something
is a settled fact.
CLAIM OF VALUE Is an argument based on morality, belief, ethics, or
philosophy. It is influentially stated by combining
limited facts and proving them as either good or
bad by targeting the reader’s emotion.

It is also called claim of judgment because the reader

has to decide whether the argument or proposition is
right or wrong or has to be accepted or rejected. In
other words, this type of claim is more appealing to
the reader’s subjectivity. The argument challenges the
decision making or judgment leading to acceptance
or
rejection of the reader, then it is considered to be a
claim of value.
CLAIM OF POLICY Is the argument where actions should be carried out.
Basically, it is perceived as a relatively direct
statement. This claim can also be called claim of
solution because it suggests and supports policies and
solutions, and the action to be taken is based on the
 results. There is an action to be done or a solution to
be taken.
NARRATION Contains the plot which gives direction
in making a story. It is a sequential presentation of
events plays an important role.
Signal words help to create unified thought and to
show the transition of events to
the next. This leads us to focus on the use of the
action words in the story. It also helps to move the
story and makes the story interesting.
The chronological ordering of events helps to show
the reader how the story moves.
Most of the common transitional words are first,
next, then, after and suddenly.
Moreover, it is also important to give specific details
in pointing out the direction of
the story.
DESCRIPTION To elucidate the nature of people, places and things.
A series of detailed observation about the subject.
This involves the use of adjectives and adverbs in the
paragraph. The kind of words we used to describe
how your subject looks, sounds, feels, smells
or even tastes like are called sensory languages. It
also concerns how you will arrange the details to
provide an image of the scene, the person or the
object you are
trying to describe in your text.
OBJECTIVE DESCRIPTION The writer presents impartial and actual picture of
the subject without biases and excluding personal
impression of the subject just like when you give your
description of an experiment in class.
SUBJECTIVE DESCRIPTION The writer gives personal impression of what is
observed. This is often used in making fiction stories.
DEFINITION Provide concise but exact meanings of unfamiliar
words and explain special meanings for familiar
words. They are often used to explain technical words
and concepts. What to define always depends on the
needs of the reader and the purpose of
communication. It can be done in either of the two
distinct methods of definition.
INFORMAL DEFINITION Either denotation or connotation
DENOTATION Is the dictionary meaning of the word.
CONNOTATION Is the secondary meaning of a word and not
necessarily included in the dictionary.
FORMAL DEFINITION Consists of three principal parts: the species (WORD)
n + Genus (CLASS) + Differentiae. The WORD is the
name of the object, process, or concept defined
EXEMPLIFICATION/CLASSIFICATION Is the most common and effective pattern to explain
an idea or point. In developing this kind of
paragraph, the writer develops a general statement –
the topic sentence, with one or more examples to
support it
COMPARISON Discusses elements that are similar
CONTRAST discusses elements or ideas that are different.
BLOCK METHOD Used to compare and contrast two subjects one at a
time. You may begin by saying everything you have to
say about the first subject you are discussing then
move on and write everything about your second
subject
POINT BY POINT COMPARISON Address one subject at a time
CAUSE AND EFFECT Is a text development pattern which explains why
something happens. It also states what results a
particular event produces.
PROBLEM-SOLUTION ESSAY Presents a problem, usually discussing several
aspects of the problem, then concludes by discussing
solutions to the problem
PERSUASION Can be in the form of an argument, discussion,
exposition, review or even an advertisement.
ISSUE This will serve as a background information about the
topic
ARGUMENT Is one’s claim or position that can either support or
reject the issue previously stated.
EVIDENCES Will give details on how and why it supports the
argument
ORGANIZATION A well-organized piece of writing is not only clear but
also logical and aesthetic.
PHYSICAL FORMAT How the text physically appears
 SIGNAL WORDS Cue in ordering of events and concepts
STRUCTURE The complete framework of the text
COHERENCE AND COHESION Two basic features that facilitate textual continuity
COHERENCE Means the connection and organization of ideas in a
text to create unity.
COHESION It pays attention to links between words and
sentences.
LANGUAGE USE the appropriate language to be used and to regard the
objective of the writing, the
context in which it was written and the target
audience in mind.
INFORMAL • Be direct and simple
• Used in writing for oneself or in writing to
family, friends, and colleagues
FORMAL • Use unbiased language
• Used in writing academic, business, and
official texts
MECHANICS Is essential in all types of writing because it describes
the technical aspects of writing. It also serves as a
road sign to guide learners like you on how to use
words appropriately in terms of conventions such as
spelling,
punctuation, capitalization, and others.