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Gastronomy tourism experiences: the cooking classes of Cinque Terre

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DOI: 10.1080/02508281.2021.1975213

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Gastronomy tourism experiences: the cooking

classes of Cinque Terre

Jithendran Kokkranikal & Elisa Carabelli

To cite this article: Jithendran Kokkranikal & Elisa Carabelli (2021): Gastronomy tourism
experiences: the cooking classes of Cinque Terre, Tourism Recreation Research, DOI:
10.1080/02508281.2021.1975213

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TOURISM RECREATION RESEARCH
https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2021.1975213

Gastronomy tourism experiences: the cooking classes of Cinque Terre

Jithendran Kokkranikal and Elisa Carabelli
Marketing, Events and Tourism, University of Greenwich, London, UK

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Gastronomy tourism is a niche area of heritage tourism and attending cooking classes to learn Received 24 January 2021
about and engage in food preparation is a popular form of gastronomy tourism. Many cooking Accepted 12 August 2021
schools have come up in tourist destinations all over the world in many forms such as part of
KEYWORDS
homestay accommodation, home-based cooking classes, professional culinary schools and small Tourism experience; culinary
restaurants offering cooking lessons along with dining. This study aims to explore tourists’ tourism; Cinque Terre;
experiences related to cooking classes in Cinque Terre using the experiential framework Cookery classes; gastronomy
proposed by Kim, Ritchie and McCormick in their article “Development of a scale to measure tourism
memorable tourism experiences” published in Journal of Travel Research 51(1). A content
analysis of the online reviews of the Cinque Terre Cooking Schools on TripAdvisor was carried
out using the aforementioned experiential framework. Findings indicate that four of the
dimensions of the tourist experience framework were considered significant by the participants
of the cooking classes, namely involvement, hedonism, local culture and knowledge and that
often these dimensions overlap creating inextricable and complex bonds between them. The
study contributes to the literature on third-generation gastronomy tourism experiences,
focusing on tourists’ participation in interactive foodscapes in cooking classes in Cinque Terre.

Introduction
Gastronomy tourism takes several forms, which
Gastronomy tourism is one of the niche areas of heritage include eating and drinking in local restaurants, food fes-
tourism (Timothy & Ron, 2013). Gastronomy is about tivals and exhibitions, visits to farms and food pro-
appreciating the connection between food and host duction centres, farmers’ markets, attending cooking
culture (Everett, 2012). Food is not just for survival but classes and demonstrations, homestays, home cooking
is a cultural artefact and is often considered as a lens classes and eating at local households (Azavedo, 2019;
to understand and appreciate the local culture (Galvez Bell, 2015; Karim & Chi, 2010). Cooking classes as a
et al., 2017). As Long (2014) notes, savouring the food form of gastronomy tourism has been gaining in popu-
of others is part of experiencing their culture. People larity and attending cooking classes to learn and engage
with a strong interest in gastronomy engage not only in food preparation has become an authentic way of
in eating the local food but also in its preparation and experiencing local cuisine (Agyeiwaah et al., 2019; Bell,
researching culinary heritage (Boesen et al., 2017). 2015). Many cooking schools have come up in tourist
Tourist experiences are a continuous process of destinations to provide tourists with an opportunity to
events or activities at tourist destinations that allow engage in gastronomic experiences. These take many
tourists to enjoy the location (Walker & Moscardo, forms such as part of homestay accommodation,
2014). Memorable tourism experiences are the best home-based cooking classes, professional culinary
possible experience that is remembered and recalled schools and small restaurants offering cooking lessons.
long after the event has occurred (Kim et al., 2012). Tour- As Everett (2012) notes the cooking schools offer tourists
ists travel in search of embodied holiday experiences hands-on food experiences and represent a form of par-
and the local cuisines of destinations form a major ingre- ticipant consumption. They represent an opportunity to
dient of such experiences (Everett, 2012). The cuisine of a engage in authentic and creative tourism experiences
destination is an important determinant of the quality of that allow tourists not only to connect with the local
the holiday experience (UNWTO, 2012). Gastronomy community and fellow tourists but also to gain new
answers tourists’ need for experiencing the authentic cooking skills from the local people (Bell, 2015; Pratt
culture (Walter, 2017) and is a way of participating in et al., 2020; Richards, 2015). Cooking classes have been
serious leisure (Prayag et al., 2020). described as a form of third generation

CONTACT Jithendran Kokkranikal [email protected] Marketing, Events and Tourism, University of Greenwich, QA348, Old Royal Naval
College, London SE10 9LS, UK
© 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 J. KOKKRANIKAL AND E. CARABELLI

gastronomy tourism experiences (Pratt et al., 2020; trips partially or totally in order to taste the cuisine of
Richards, 2015). the place or to carry out activities related to gas-
While many studies offer examples of a relationship tronomy’. Gastronomy tourism thus covers a wide
between the tourist experience and culinary tourism, range of holiday products and services, which include
this field of research is still underdeveloped. Very few restaurants, bars, cooking schools, special interest culin-
studies have explored the subject of culinary experi- ary travel packages, food guides, cookbooks, cooking
ences, and fewer still have examined it in the context magazines, vineyards, wineries, breweries, distilleries,
of cooking classes and how they influence the visitor farms, farmers’ markets, TV programmes, blogs, vlogs,
experience. Though there have been studies on digital simulations, food trails, food-related seminars,
cooking classes in the tourism context (e.g. Azavedo, nutrition tours, foody tours as well as elements of well-
2019; Bell, 2015; Everett, 2012; Pratt et al., 2020; Richards, ness tourism that involves detox diets and healthy
2015), none has applied the experiential dimensions of eating.
Kim et al. (2012). There is also a lack of studies that As Timothy and Ron (2013) note cuisine and gas-
examine cooking class experiences in the European tronomy are elements of the broader system of cultural
context. This study seeks to address this gap in the litera- heritage, and local food forms one of the most salient
ture by exploring tourists’ experience of cooking classes and defining markers of a destination’s culture and heri-
in Cinque Terre in Italy using the experience dimensions tage. The food habits of communities are formed by the
proposed by Kim et al. (2012). It seeks to understand natural environment and traditions, which are integral to
tourists’ perception of cooking classes as a tourist experi- forming cultural and culinary heritage. Local cuisines
ence. Research has been carried out in Cinque Terre and mirror the culture and lifestyle of a destination and are
the nearby town of La Spezia by analysing online a fundamental element of a destination’s cultural prac-
reviews to understand tourists’ experience of cooking tices (Minihan, 2014; Richards, 2015). They are closely
classes. The study thus makes a contribution to the lit- linked to the history, cultural norms, values, relationships
erature in the niche tourism area of gastronomy with the nature of a community. Methods of preparing
tourism by applying Kim et al.’s (2012) experience and preserving food and ingredients used are unique
dimensions to examine key experiences gained by the to the natural resources, climate and lifestyle of a com-
participants of cooking classes in Cinque Terre, which munity. The cuisine has been looked upon as an
as a UNESCO World Heritage site is a unique cultural expression of the way of life of a society. The uniqueness
tourism destination. of cuisines is thus a function of the cultural and natural
The paper is organised as follows. The next section heritage. The cultural heritage of a community could
provides an analysis of the literature surrounding gas- also be attributed to its eating habits, especially in com-
tronomy tourism, gastronomy tourism experiences, munities such as the Mongolian nomads whose settle-
cooking classes as a part of gastronomy tourism and ment patterns, attires, celebrations are all determined
an overview of the cooking classes in the Cinque Terre by the availability of food both for themselves and
region. The research methods employed are described their herds. Many traditional cultural festivals (e.g.
next, which is followed by the findings and discussion. Onam, Pongal, etc. in India) are related to harvest and
Finally, the conclusions of the research are presented involve preparing traditional meals. Typical, local and
with their implications for further research and traditional food and its preparations are passed on
practitioners. from generation to generation through time, creating
an invaluable intangible heritage. Food is thus a cultural
reference point, which is linked to identity, consump-
Gastronomy tourism
tion, production, commerce, history, geography, sustain-
Gastronomy tourism is a widely used term for food- ability and globalisation (Hall & Mitchell, 2000). As an
related tourism such as culinary tourism, gastro- important component of the local culture and a power-
tourism, food tourism, wine tourism and gourmet ful marker of cultural identity, the cuisine is part of cul-
tourism (Pavlidis & Markantonatou, 2020). It represents tural tourism and represents a gateway to understand
an experiential trip to a gastronomic region and includes the local culture (Hillel et al., 2013). Acquiring knowledge
visits to primary and secondary food and drink produ- of the local gastronomy is an important part of under-
cers, gastronomic festivals, food fairs, events, farmer’s standing and appreciating the culture of a tourist desti-
markets, cooking shows and demonstrations, tastings nation (Antón et al., 2019).
of quality food products or any tourism activity related According to Ellis et al. (2018), three main factors link
to food. According to UNWTO (2012, p. 7) ‘gastronomic food to tourism: first, different cuisines are distinctive of
tourism applies to tourists and visitors who plan their different regions, earning them wide popularity among
 TOURISM RECREATION RESEARCH 3

tourists; secondly, tourists like to learn about a region’s experiences involve tourists’ participation in and inter-
culture through food; finally, the diversity and number action with communal production and consumption of
of locations where cuisine and foodstuff can be tasted food, which could be indicative of their prior knowledge
are considered very important by tourists. Destinations of the destination’s food culture and keenness to
that offer culinary delicacies, typical recipes and a culin- engage with the local culinary ecosystem for an immer-
ary heritage develop an interdependent cultural sive and creative experience of the destination (Rachao
relationship between the destination and its cuisine, et al., 2021).
adding to the appeal of its offerings, and are increasingly As Prayag et al. (2020) note, gastronomy experiences
being employed as an attraction by tourist destinations can be considered as a form of serious leisure as gas-
(Mason & O’Mahony, 2007). Gastronomy could represent tronomy tourists seek out activities and experiences
an important tourism product for destinations that are that involve skill development, education, fulfilment,
not endowed with natural and cultural resources. Local socialising, interaction as well as recreation. Gastronomy
cuisine is one of the main considerations in tourists tourism experiences have been categorised into three
choice of a destination and constitutes a major motiv- stages of their evolution (Pratt et al., 2020; Richards,
ation to travel in search of new and original experiences 2015). The first-generation gastronomy experience
in the form of both food and tourism (Hjalager & involved producers engaging consumers by providing
Richards, 2002). Gastronomy tourism is thus a way of them with themed experiences that stimulate different
marketing and branding tourist destinations, and lever- sensory elements. The increasing involvement of food
aging the culinary heritage of destination for tourism tourists in the co-creation of gastronomic experiences
development (Ellis et al., 2018) embarked on the era of second-generation gastronomic
experiences. Third-generation gastronomic experiences
involve communities and networks around food, based
Gastronomy tourism experiences
on the sharing of knowledge and skills between resi-
Experiences are intangible, internal, individual and inter- dents and visitors, and a holistic linkage of food, land-
active processes that lead to sensorial engagement, and scapes, cultures, producers and consumers.
are characterised by a heightened concentration and Gastronomy tourists who seek unique cultural
focus and are influenced by an individual’s senses, tourism experiences could be considered authenticity
emotions, values, background, attitudes and beliefs seekers, for whom local cuisine is an important part of
and contexts (Knutson et al., 2009). It is a takeaway the authentic tourism experience (Ozdemir & Seyitoglu,
impression formed by people’s encounters with pro- 2017). The authenticity of the food experience makes
ducts, services, and businesses and involves the consoli- tourists feel the lifestyle and traditions of a place and
dation of sensory values in the four realms of improves their experience perception (Antón et al.,
entertainment, education, escape and aesthetics (Pine 2019). Tourists consciously choose to consume local
& Gilmore, 1999). Experiences are complex in nature food, which tells the history of the destination and its
and a single experience comprises many sub-experi- people, and hence satisfy their quest for existential,
ences that can take place at various levels and contexts experiential and staged authenticity (Antón et al.,
(Youngman & Hadzikadic, 2014). As a social and human 2019; Ozdemir & Seyitoglu, 2017).
phenomenon that facilitates experiences, tourism rep- Studies on gastronomic experiences suggest that it is
resents an example of complex systems (Baggio, 2008). positively associated with tourist satisfaction, destina-
In an era of experiential and transformative travel, tion loyalty and repeat visitations (Agyeiwaah et al.,
there has been a growing demand for immersive, embo- 2019). The cuisine is thus one of the main determinants
died, emotionally rich and authentic experiences that of memorable tourism experiences, which are selectively
involve greater interactions and human connections constructed by tourists on the basis of their positive and
with the local community (Sheldon, 2020). Gastronomy fulfilling experiences and memories (Quan & Wang,
tourists are looked at as explorers in search of original 2004; Tsai, 2016). Kim et al. (2012) developed an experi-
experiences of local food and culinary heritage (Mak ence scale that comprises seven domains, vis., hedon-
et al., 2012), and food tourism is increasingly seen as a ism, refreshment, local culture, meaningfulness,
way of experiencing real representations of a place knowledge, involvement and novelty. Hedonism is the
(Kivela & Crotts, 2006). Culinary experiences enhance search for pleasure and represents the enjoyment and
the value of a place, providing tourists with a more auth- playfulness gained during a holiday (Sthapit & Coudou-
entic experience, something that creates an atmosphere naris, 2018). Novelty indicates the extent of new experi-
that helps tourists enjoy a memorable tourist experience ences that a tourist acquires while on vacation in
(Hjalager & Richards, 2002). Gastronomy tourism comparison with previous experiences (Sthapit &
4 J. KOKKRANIKAL AND E. CARABELLI

Coudounaris, 2018). The social and cultural interactions (Prayag et al., 2020). Driven by a desire to experience
during a holiday characterise the local culture (Kim the real representations of a place, cooking schools
et al., 2012). Refreshment relates to the state of mind have become a popular form of gastronomy tourism
in which a sense of freedom and revitalisation occurs (Bell, 2015). Tourists are not only consumers and produ-
(Kim et al., 2012). Meaningfulness is the learning about cers of food but are actors and performers alongside
the self and personal development resulting from an their instructors and fellow participants (Walter, 2017).
experience (Kim et al., 2012). Involvement highlights With their participative design and nature, cooking
the engagement in interesting and enjoyable activities classes are ideal spaces for the co-creation of experi-
that engenders an emotional reaction (Kim et al., ences (Richards, 2015). Exemplifying constructivist and
2012). Finally, knowledge implies the exploratory and existential authenticity, cooking classes provide tourists
learning aspects of an experience such as the acquisition with opportunities for intimate and sincere relationships
of practical skills, wisdom and self-awareness (Kim et al., with hosts, playful and fun activities that could be both
2012). These seven dimensions were sub-divided into 24 staged and real (Walter, 2017).
indicators or scales (see Table 1). This study employs the Cooking classes are a form of third-generation gastro-
experience scale of Kim et al. (2012) to analyse tourist nomic tourism experience as they provide tourists with
experience of the cooking classes in Cinque Terre. opportunities to actively engage in the production and
consumption of food and link tourists with the local
people, place, identity and culture in a way that trans-
Cooking classes and gastronomy tourism cends the producer–consumer relationships (Pratt et al.,
2020; Richards, 2015). As Walter (2017) notes, tourists in
As discussed earlier, cooking classes represent a form of cooking schools resemble learners engaged in hands-on
gastronomy tourism experience and take many forms activities similar to the second-person interpretation
such as part of homestay accommodation, home- seen in living history museums. Prayag et al. (2020)
based cooking classes, professional culinary schools argue that participating in cooking classes represent a
and small restaurants offering cooking lessons along good example of a serious leisure activity that involves
with dining. In cooking classes, tourists typically learn education, personal enrichment and self-gratification, in
the history of local dishes, how to identify local ingredi- other words, reflection and recreation. Walter (2017)
ents and cooking practices, before cooking and consum- suggests that the temporal and spatial staging of
ing local food (Agyeiwaah et al., 2019). Cookery schools cooking schools was similar to that of a living history
provide a hands-on lived experience for tourists seeking museum and represent an intersection of staged authen-
novel, interactive, participative destination experiences ticity, culinary tourism and heritage tourism.

Table 1. Dimensions and indicators of tourism experiences.

Cooking schools of the Cinque Terre
Hedonism Refreshment
- Thrilled about having a new - Liberating Cinque Terre (five towns) is a group of five fishing villages
experience - Enjoyed the sense of freedom
- Indulged in the activities - Refreshing spread along the Ligurian Riviera in the north-western
- Really enjoyed this tourism - Revitalised part of Italy. Overlooked by mountains, the landscape
experience
- Exciting contains a 20 km long rocky coastline with cliffs and
Novelty Meaningfulness
small beaches. The five villages, Riomaggiore, Manarola,
- Once-in-a-lifetime - I did something meaningful Corniglia, Vernazza and Monterosso al Mare, were recog-
experience - I did something important nised as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1997 and are
- Unique - Learned about myself
- Different from previous part of a National Park and Natural Protected Marine
experiences Area (Vegnuti, 2020). The area is known for its local char-
- Experienced something new
acter and heritage which include architecture, beaches,
Local culture Involvement
- A good impression of the - I visited a place where I really wanted to
mountains, ancient footpaths, and food and wine.
local people go Known for its culinary heritage, the area attracts 2.5
- Closely experienced the - I enjoyed the activities which I really million tourists every year (The Local, 2019). With
local culture wanted to do
- Local people in a destination - I was interested in the main activities of ancient recipes passed down from generation to gener-
were friendly this tourism experience ation, the local cuisine remains unchanged and reflects
Knowledge a blend of mountain, rural and fishing traditions
- Exploratory
- Knowledge
(Vegnuti, 2020). A large number of tourists visit Cinque
- New culture Terre to experience its culinary heritage, and cooking
Source: Adapted from Kim et al. (2012). classes have emerged as a major component of the
 TOURISM RECREATION RESEARCH 5

region’s culinary tourism product. The six cooking carried out in which the text was scrutinized to find
schools in the area not only teach visitors how to the existence and frequency of a concept to gain a
prepare a dish but the whole lifestyle that lies behind it. better understanding of the respondents’ views on a
The six cooking schools analysed in this study were: particular product or experience (Colorado State Univer-
two in La Spezia, two in Manarola (Cinque Terre), one sity, 2006). The method involves identifying the occur-
in Monterosso al Mare (Cinque Terre) and one in rence of terms associated with the themes and
Levanto. concepts being examined. In the current study, the
In La Spezia, the two cooking schools are ‘Antica Hos- online review of the cooking schools in Cinque Terre
taria Secondini’ and ‘Osteria della Corte’, which not only and La Spezia area were analysed using Kim et al.’s
hold cooking classes but are full-time restaurants too. (2012) experiential dimensions. The online reviews
Antica Hostaria Secondini is on the hills and serves were coded by looking for specific words and state-
more home-style dishes, focusing on pasta- (and ments that identified with the seven experiential dimen-
pesto-) making. Osteria della Corte is in the city centre sions of Kim et al. (2012) to understand the dimensions
and offers a more polished cuisine, and teach visitors that were most relevant to respondents’ gastronomic
how to cook fish as well as some local dishes. Customers experiences of the cooking classes.
are offered a visit to the local farmer’s market to shop for Posting online reviews is a popular method for consu-
the cooking lessons. … The two cooking classes in Man- mers to provide feedback and reflect on their consump-
arola are ‘A Casa’ and ‘Nessun Dorma’. Both these tion experience. With the ubiquitous information and
schools mainly teach people how to make homemade communication technology and digital empowerment,
pesto. In Monterosso, there is ‘Cinque Terre Cooking online reviews represent one of the easiest ways for con-
School, part of ‘Il Ciliegio’ restaurant. Here, they teach sumers to share their experiences of and satisfaction with
some of the most famous recipes of the area, mainly products and services (Bilgihan et al., 2017). Online
pesto and fish-based recipes. Finally, there is the ‘Pesto reviews assist consumers in decision-making, and firms
Course in Levanto’, which offers classes in pesto better understand customer satisfaction and predict
making. As discussed earlier, these cooking schools sales (Rouliez et al., 2019). Online reviews are consulted
help tourists enjoy authentic experiences by teaching by tourists to learn about their holiday destinations and
them how to make local cuisines and facilitating close other tourism products as these are not accessible until
interaction with local people and culture. The following the moment of consumption (Abubaker, 2016). Successful
section describes the research methods employed. consumer opinion portals (COP) such as Tripadvisor
enable tourists to write reviews on accommodations, des-
tinations and other components of a holiday. Online
Research methods
reviews are considered as the electronic version of word
Adopting a qualitative approach, content analysis of of mouth (eWOM), which is the positive or negative com-
online reviews of the cooking schools in Cinque Terre ments made by potential, actual or former customers
was carried out to gain an insight into the experiences about a product or service that are available on the Inter-
of gastronomy tourists, who participated in cooking net (Hennig-Thurau et al., 2004). Online reviews are
classes. Qualitative approaches help understand a par- increasingly influencing people’s choices, and it is becom-
ticular phenomenon from the perspective of those ing customary for travellers to check online reviews
experiencing it and are appropriate for the present before making their travel decisions (Abubaker, 2016).
study (Vaismoradi et al., 2013). As previously mentioned, the COP that was used for
The seven dimensions of tourism experiences pro- this study was TripAdvisor, which is one of the most
posed by Kim et al. (2012) – hedonism, refreshment, popular websites for online review of holidays. Other
local culture, meaningfulness, knowledge, involvement websites such as Yelp, Airbnb, Expedia, Four Square,
and novelty – were applied as the framework for the Google etc. were considered inadequate in terms of the
content analysis. Content analysis is the systematic and volume of reviews compared to TripAdvisor. TripAdvisor
objective approach employed to explore large was set up to give travellers an opportunity to
amounts of textual information to determine trends, cat- comment on their holiday experiences, which include
egories and patterns of words used, their frequency, reviews of anything from restaurants, to experiences
relationships, structures, characteristics and discourses and activities, to hotels. Moreover, the other COPs did
of communication (Gbrich, 2007; Vaismoradi et al., not have any relevance to this study, since none of the
2013). It helps examine the reflections of people about cooking classes considered for this study was found
an event, product or service (Bloor & Wood, 2006). there at the time of carrying out this research. Reviews
More specifically, a conceptual content analysis was on TripAdvisors’ subsidiary, Viator, were also used as it
6 J. KOKKRANIKAL AND E. CARABELLI

contained some reviews of the Cinque Terre cooking can be learnt during interaction with the environment
schools. and shaped by individual characteristics (Prayag &
A total of 320 online reviews on the six cooking Ryan, 2012). It indicates the importance attached and
schools from the period of January 2011 to November enduring nature of interest in an activity. Involvement
2020 were retrieved for the content analysis, using Kim is positively related to overall tourist satisfaction
et al.’s (2012) experience framework (see Table 1). This (Hwang et al., 2005) and is an antecedent to place
theoretical framework was chosen as the seven dimen- attachment (Prayag & Ryan, 2012). Therefore, it can be
sions represent important components of tourism a useful measurement of the tourist experience of the
experience that are considered effective to understand cooking classes. Kim et al. (2012) employed three
the tourist experience of cooking classes (Kim et al., scales to measure involvement (Table 1):
2012). These dimensions were used to categorise
online reviews and measure the tourist experience. . I visited a place where I really wanted to go
Each of the dimensions was colour coded and matching . I enjoyed the activities which I really wanted to do
statements and words were counted and highlighted to . I was interested in the main activities of this tourism
identify experiential patterns and trends recorded in the experience
online reviews and draw relevant conclusions.
As Table 2 indicates involvement is decidedly the
most occurring experience dimension, which was
Findings
noted in all of the reviews. It highlights the high level
This section provides the findings for each of the seven of enjoyment, interest and engagement of the partici-
experience dimensions (Kim et al., 2012) from the pants of the cooking classes. Tourists participate in
content analysis of the online reviews of the cooking cooking classes because they enjoy it:
schools of Cinque Terre. Table 2 provides a summary of
This was a highlight of my two weeks in Italy! My niece
the number of times keywords related to each of these and I had the best time learning to make pesto, gnocchi,
dimensions were found in the online reviews. As the sea bass, stuffed vegetables and sweet bread. I would
table indicates, the experiential dimensions that the visitors recommend this to everyone
identified with the cooking classes mostly were involve-
In a sense, involvement seems to overlap all other
ment, hedonism, local culture and knowledge. While
dimensions:
meaningfulness, novelty and refreshment scored consider-
ably lower, which could indicate that the visitors associated We had so much fun at Simone’s pesto making class.
cooking classes less with these dimensions. It was observed Definitely worth the €50 which includes the class itself
at the outset that the reviews contained keywords related and all ingredients, local wine tasting and a generous
serving of cheese and cold cuts per person. Not to
to multiple dimensions and tend to overlap, indicating the mention the breath-taking view!
multiplicity and holistic nature of customer experience and
servicescape (Pareigis et al., 2012).
Hedonism
Involvement Hedonism is the pursuit and prioritisation of pleasure
According to Manfredo (1989), involvement can be over other life and is characterised by openness to plea-
defined as the extent to which tourists are interested surable experiences values (Ksendsova et al., 2015). It
in an activity and the affective responses aroused from reflects the emotional value attached to an experience
the activity. Involvement reflects the degree to which and represents the returns in terms of enjoyment and
an individual is devoted to an activity, product or experi- playfulness (Sthapit & Coudounaris, 2018). Hedonism is
ence (Prayag & Ryan, 2012). As an attitude, involvement an essential aspect of any leisure experience and a
vital variable in tourist satisfaction. It determines the sat-
isfaction of tourists at a destination and their behaviour
Table 2. Occurrences of experiential dimension.
in the future. Kim et al. (2012) suggest the following
Dimensions Occurrences
scales to measure hedonistic experiences (Table 1):
Involvement 320
Hedonism 320
Local culture 260 . Thrilled about having a new experience
Knowledge 230
. Indulged in the activities
Meaningfulness 80
Novelty 51 . Really enjoyed this tourism experience
Refreshment 10
. Exciting
 TOURISM RECREATION RESEARCH 7

It is a key element of the tourist experience, and tour- had expected. This lesson is a great way to learn about
ists attending cooking classes do seek hedonistic experi- cooking and also about the culture. It was also a great
social event, and we did not want the day to end! You
ences. The content analysis of the online reviews
got a real sense of family and what it would be like to
revealed hedonism as a key feature of the cooking live there and be a part of this culture. A fun way to
class experience. learn about the culture and get a great view from up
high. Lovely people and experience.
We had a very enjoyable day cooking with Rusty at the
Cinque Terre Cooking School. A great way to spend the
day up in the mountains making delicious Italian food
[…] Knowledge

The participants in cooking classes seem to have found a Knowledge is a cognitive aspect of the tourist experience
really great way to spend their time enjoying that involves learning and education (Sthapit & Coudou-
themselves: naris, 2018). Travel represents an opportunity to learn
about places, people and self, in the form of newly
Wonderful day and a great experience! This was such a acquired practical skills, knowledge, practical wisdom
wonderful experience! We made delicious pesto,
and self-consciousness (McKercher & Du Cros, 2002).
mussels, fresh anchovies and pan dolce. It was a
hands-on experience, and I learned a ton about the Knowledge development is implicit in motives such as
cuisine of the region. Everyone was friendly and self-development through involvement with hosts or
accommodating the site, personal self-development and self-actualisation
(Pearce & Lee, 2005). In fact, developing new skills and
knowledge and their application to their creative endea-
Local culture vours is an integral part of creative and experiential
tourism (Duxbury & Richards, 2019). Guest–host encoun-
Food is a gateway to the local culture and a major attrac- ters which are crucial to tourism experience are a major
tion of culinary experiences lie in its connection with the source of knowledge and value creation (Wall & Mathie-
local people (Richards, 2012). An important element of son, 2006). Kim et al. (2012) suggest the following scales
local culture is the local population, who mediate all to evaluate the experiential dimension of knowledge:
social interactions at a destination. Social interaction
between locals and tourists is one of the determinants of . Exploratory
a holiday experience at the destination, both positive and . Knowledge
negative (Lu et al., 2015). As a third-generation experience, . New culture
gastronomy tourism involves a convergence of tourists as
consumers and local community members as producers Cooking classes represent an educational experience,
and representatives of the living culture and participants where tourists learn about the local cuisine, culture,
in the co-creation of cultural experiences (Richards, 2015). ingredients, diet and develop skills in making food. A
Kim et al. (2012) proposed the following scales to consider large number of reviews did mention knowledge and
local culture as a part of the tourism experience (Table 1): learning as an important part of the cooking class experi-
ence (Table 2). Tourist not only was involved in learning
. Good impression about the local people how to cook but also in the grocery shopping at a typical
. Closely experienced the local culture Italian farmer’ market and had an immersive experience
. Local people in a destination were friendly of the local culture:

Cooking classes involve extensive interaction We learned a lot about the ingredients we were using
between tourists and the service providers in the co-cre- and the dishes we were going to prepare. We were
also provided with the recipes to take home. We made
ation of culinary experiences that are gateways to auth- delicious pesto, swordfish cakes, swordfish Ligurian
entic cultural experiences. style, and tiramisu. Very much enjoyed our class … Not
A majority of reviews indicated interaction with the only for the cooking lessons but understanding the
local people and local culture as an important part of “why” of many things. We walked away with not only
the cooking class experience (Table 2) as the following an excellent meal but an education.
statements reveal:
The staff was so friendly and made this a wonderful Meaningfulness
experience for us. We prepared anchovies in lemon,
pasta with pesto, Seabass with potatoes and Tiramisu. Participating in tourism activities is one of the ways by
We really enjoyed the day; it was far better than we which individuals seek meaning about life and
8 J. KOKKRANIKAL AND E. CARABELLI

experiences that give them a sense of physical, lower mention of novelty (50 times, Table 2) as part of
emotional or spiritual fulfilment (Yu et al., 2019). Mean- cooking school experience might indicate tourist’s pre-
ingful experiences are sought by tourists as an inner vious experience of cooking classes as part of their pre-
journey of personal growth and development, self-dis- vious culinary tourism experiences and may not be a
covery and inner transformation (Sheldon, 2020). They once-in-lifetime experience. The experience articulated
last longer in memory and give a new perspective to in the online reviews clearly note the uniqueness and
one’s everyday life after the holiday (Sthapit & Coudou- novelty of their cooking class experience:
naris, 2018). Kim et al. (2012) proposed followed scales to
It was one of the highlights of our trip to Italy. Will
measure meaningfulness of an experience: remember this experience for many years to come. If
you are looking for a fun, relaxing and unique cooking
. I did something meaningful experience, this is the place to come! Overall a top
. I did something important choice to have a unique experience!
. Learned about myself
Refreshment
As a form of serious leisure, cooking classes provide
opportunities to understand the regional cooking prac- Refreshment means a break from everyday mundane
tices and functions as a means for learning and engage- activities and is one of the key motivations in tourism
ment (Prayag et al., 2020). Meaningfulness was (Sthapit & Coudounaris, 2018). A refreshing holiday is
mentioned in 80 online reviews, indicating a relatively engaging and emotionally intense, and helps the indi-
lower occurrence compared to the previous four dimen- vidual feel relaxed, recharged and escape from the
sions (Table 2). This could be attributed to the nature of boredom of daily life (Yu et al., 2019). As Kim et al.
cooking classes as experiences that were memorable (2012) note, it is an enduring aspect of a holiday that
and educative: makes the experience unforgettable. The following indi-
cators have been proposed by Kim et al. (2012) to
We attended the 11:00 am pesto making class and had
measure refreshment:
an awesome experience. We had a long afternoon
lunch and ultimately, a beautiful and memorable experi-
ence. If you enjoy exploring, learning and having fun . Liberating
experiencing the culture through food and great . Enjoyed sense of freedom
people this tour is not to be missed. A memory for a . Refreshing
lifetime. . Revitalised

Refreshment as a holiday experience was the least

Novelty
mentioned (10 out of 320 reviews, Table 2) dimension
The pursuit of new experiences has always been a major in the online reviews. These reviews indicated a
tourist motivation. It is the extent of new experiences (in thorough sense of enjoyment, which can be a refreshing
amount and manner) that a tourist acquires while on and rejuvenating experience.
vacation (Sthapit & Coudounaris, 2018). Novelty indi-
We have now been to this amazing Cooking School 2
cates unique, never-before, once lifetime and new years running and both times have been a most enjoy-
experiences (Kim et al., 2012). Such experiences are able and memorable experience. Overall, we very
remembered and recalled more than ordinary familiar much enjoyed the class. What a wonderful day!
experience (Yu et al., 2019). The opportunity to sample
novel foods is a major reason why tourists engage in
Conclusion
gastronomy. The following variables indicate novel
experiences (Kim et al., 2012): Experiences involve sensorial engagement, and create
takeaway impressions formed by people’s encounters
. Once-in-a-lifetime experience with products, services and businesses and involve the
. Unique consolidation of sensory values in the four realms of
. Different from previous experiences entertainment, education, escape and aesthetics (Pine
. Experienced something new & Gilmore, 1999). The growing demand for immersive,
embodied, emotionally rich and authentic experiences
As one of the most sought-after activities in gas- that involve greater human interactions and connec-
tronomy tourism, cooking classes could help address tions with the local culture have seen a growing interest
tourists’ quest for novel experiences. The surprisingly in experiencing local cuisines (Sheldon, 2020). The local
 TOURISM RECREATION RESEARCH 9

cuisine is an important consideration in tourists’ choice were associated less with cooking class experiences. It
of a destination and a major travel motivation. Gas- was also evident from the reviews that the participants
tronomy tourism facilitates tourists’ participation in the of cooking classes experienced multiple dimensions of
communal production and consumption of food and the experience framework.
provides an immersive, authentic and creative experi- The fact that involvement scored the highest number
ence of the destination and its culture (Rachao et al., of mentions and was mentioned in all 320 reviews ana-
2021). lysed would suggest the extent to which participants
As a tourist product, gastronomy tourism provides experienced a heightened state of motivation, arousal
tourist destinations with opportunities to offer a wide and devotion to the cooking classes. Hedonism was ident-
range of activities. It helps in destination branding and ified with the cooking classes in all reviews, revealing the
many tourist destinations consider food-related playfulness, fun and pleasure that the participants experi-
tourism as a strategic resource that helps differentiate enced. Local culture was mentioned in a large number of
their product offerings (Lai et al., 2019). Gastronomy reviews (280), which highlight the role of cooking classes
also have a strategic role in tourist destinations, in facilitating social interactions and cultural exchanges,
especially in establishing a gastronomic image, a sense and the value attached to these by the participants. A sig-
of place and as a key part of the differentiation strategy nificant number of reviews contained knowledge (230) as
(Kim & Iwashita, 2016; Seitoglu & Ivanov, 2020). an experience, suggesting how the cooking classes
Cooking classes are a form of participative gastro- helped participants to learn something new about the
nomic tourism, which are popular for their experiential food and local way of life. While being important dimen-
and authentic value (Agyeiwaah et al., 2019; Walter, sions of tourist experience and motivation, meaningful-
2017). Tourists perceive gastronomic experiences such ness, novelty and refreshment were not identified with
as cooking classes as a cultural activity. They are the cooking class experience as much as the other four
examples of serious leisure and third-generation experiential dimensions (Table 2). The lower score for
tourism experiences (Pratt et al., 2020; Prayag et al., meaningfulness could be an indication of the fact that
2020; Richards, 2015). As a form of experiential and crea- cooking classes may not have been found to offer inten-
tive tourism, they help provide immersive and authentic sive life-changing experiences of self-discovery. Partici-
experiences that involve interactions and human con- pants’ previous experience of culinary tourism and
nections with the local community (Richards, 2015). As cooking classes could be attributed to lower mention of
Kim et al. (2010) note, individuals who closely experience novelty as a dimension of the cooking class experience.
local culture are more likely to have memorable tourism Refreshment, which involves experiencing a sense of
experiences. Cooking classes in a country such as Italy freedom, enjoyment and revitalisation, was the lowest
are so closely connected to its regional and local identi- scored experiential dimension in the reviews. This was a
ties, and cuisines play a very important role in their surprising revelation, and it could be attributed to the
retention and making the cultural heritage accessible potential overlap between its variables and hedonism,
to visitors. which is associated with enjoyment and pleasure.
This study analysed experiential dimensions of The online reviews analysed contained responses that
cooking classes in Cinque Terre using the experiential could be associated with multiple dimensions of the
framework proposed by Kim et al. (2012), which experiential framework. This can be attributed to the
contain seven dimensions, vis. Involvement, hedonism, complex nature of experiences, which contain a
local culture, knowledge, meaningfulness, novelty and number of sub-experiences that happen at several
refreshment. These seven dimensions were employed levels, involving various human faculties. The complexity
to analyse online reviews of the cooking classes in of human experiences reflects the complex nature of
Cinque Terre retrieved from TripAdvisor from the human beings, their social systems and the wide range
period of January 2011 to November 2020. The of interactions that are normally seen in every experi-
findings reveal that out of the seven experiential dimen- ence. As explained earlier, the potential overlap
sions, involvement, hedonism, local culture and knowl- between the experiential dimensions (e.g. hedonism
edge found more mentions in the online reviews, and refreshment) and the overlapping experiences of
which reflects their importance to the cooking class the respondents point to the complexity of human
experience. A large majority of the reviews identified experiences that the current study clearly demonstrates
these four experiential dimensions with their cooking in the context of gastronomy tourism. Complexity would
class experiences. The remaining three dimensions, vis., thus appear fundamental to a dynamic industry such as
meaningfulness, novelty and refreshment, scored con- tourism, which is characterised by frequent changes,
siderably less in the reviews, which suggest that they crises and chaos (Zahra & Ryan, 2007) and the notions
10 J. KOKKRANIKAL AND E. CARABELLI

of complexity may help better understand the social and proposed by Pine and Gilmore (1999), Schmitt (1999),
cultural elements of gastronomic experiences. as well as from the perspectives of authenticity (Wang,
2009), experience design (Tussyadiah, 2014), experience
encounters (Sørensen and Jensen, 2015), customer
Implications of the study
journey (Yachin, 2018) and the tourism experience cre-
This paper contributes to the literature surrounding cul- ation framework (Stienmetz et al., 2021)
tural tourism, gastronomy tourism, tourist experience, This study highlights the distinctive place that
serious leisure and cooking classes, and represents an cooking classes have as a form of creative and experien-
expansion of the relatively limited research on cooking tial tourism. They represent a key strategic resource for
classes in the European context. tourist destinations and can be an important variable
in designing immersive, experiential and creative
holiday experiences. The findings of the study clearly
Management implications
indicate that the experiencescape of cooking classes
The conclusions of the study highlight the importance of represent multiple experiences proposed by Kim et al.
cooking classes for destination development, destina- (2012) and point to the complex nature of tourism
tion branding and as a strategic destination resource. experiences.
The findings are of value to tourism policymakers and
destination managers in formulating their tourist
product and experience-development strategies. The Notes on contributors
managers of cooking classes and culinary tourism Jithendran Kokkranikal is a Principal Lecturer in Tourism and
businesses will find the putative hierarchy of experiential Hospitality Management at the University of Greenwich and
dimensions revealed in the study useful in designing a Chartered Management and Business Educator. His research
and teaching interests relate to tourism and hospitality man-
their culinary products, services and experiences.
agement with a particular focus on policy, strategy, entrepre-
neurship, culture, human resource, diversity and
sustainability. Jithendran gained a PhD from the University of
Research implications
Strathclyde, where he was a Lecturer in Tourism at the Depart-
The study suggests a number of areas for further ment of Hospitality and Tourism Management (formerly, The
research to develop greater insight and knowledge Scottish Hotel School).
related to experiential aspects of culinary tourism. To Elisa Carabelli graduated from the University of Greenwich
begin with, further investigations are necessary to with a master’s degree in International Tourism Management.
She currently works in the hospitality industry in the Cinque
understand the factors behind the lower level of associ- Terre region of Italy. She has a strong interest in the fields of
ation of meaningfulness, novelty and refreshment cultural tourism research, especially related to experiential
dimensions of tourism experience with cooking classes. dimensions of culinary tourism.
Detailed studies focusing on each of the seven experien-
tial dimensions within the context of cooking classes and
culinary tourism will help appreciate their implications Disclosure statement
to experience development in gastronomy tourism. No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
The study could be replicated in other cultural and geo-
graphical contexts. As this study applies Kim et al.’s
(2012) experiential dimensions, it shows the way to References
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