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IJCCSM
1,4 Climate change mitigation
through reforestation in Godavari
mangroves in India
340
Raghavendra G. Rao
Centre of Excellence for Environmental Management,
Received 19 January 2009
Revised 17 March 2009 Institute of Management Technology,
Accepted 20 April 2009 Ghaziabad, India

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to emphasise mangrove reforestation as a countermeasure for
climate change mitigation and adaptation in the Godavari Delta in India.
Design/methodology/approach – Restoration of the mangrove forest in the Godavari Delta near
Kakinada town in the south-eastern Indian state of Andhra Pradesh is carried out with participatory
involvement of local communities depending for their livelihood on the mangrove forest. The extent of
habitat restoration through reforestation in this area is explored. The possible contribution of restored
mangroves in minimising the impacts of sea-level rise due to climate change is highlighted.
Reforestation information from 1999 to 2006 is collected from available published work and the Forest
Department of the Government of Andhra Pradesh.
Findings – The positive result of reforestation since the past few years is seen as an increase in
mangrove vegetation. The changing landscape due to restoration could stop erosion and salt water
incursion up to some extent and help in maintaining the biodiversity of this place.
Practical implications – A long-term monitoring with ethnobiological study is required for
managing such projects in future.
Originality/value – The Godavari Delta mangroves are rich in biodiversity and offer a wide range
of ecological services. Adding to habitat degradation, predicted sea-level rise is likely to affect the local
human communities. The role of mangroves as an economically viable barrier against sea-level rise
has been recognised in other Asian countries. The results from this case study too could be
disseminated to various stakeholders involved in sustainable development. The focus of the paper on
India is particularly relevant, as the country is going to be integral in climate change debates.
Keywords India, Seas, Forests, Climatology, Global warming
Paper type Case study

Introduction
Sea-level rising and increasing sea-surface temperatures due to climate change are
displacing coastal ecosystems like mangroves and tidal wetlands further landward
(Christensen et al., 2007). But their landward migration is expected to be constrained by
human infrastructure and human food production systems which will eventually lead
to their disappearance. Mangrove forest is one of those coastal ecosystems that are
International Journal of Climate
threatened by this phenomenon and in Bangladesh already some 7,500 hectares of
Change Strategies and Management mangrove forest have been submerged over the past 30 years due to rising sea level
Vol. 1 No. 4, 2009
pp. 340-355 (Huq et al., 1995, 1999). An United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) study
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1756-8692
DOI 10.1108/17568690911002870 The author thanks anonymous reviewers for their comments on the earlier version of this paper.
estimated that 13 per cent of mangrove forests in the Pacific islands could be lost and Climate change
by the year 2100 half of these resources could be lost in the Pacific region due to mitigation
sea-level rise (Nguyen Dang Vu, 2006).
Coastal communities like fishers and subsistent farmers dependent on mangrove
forests, are particularly vulnerable and their livelihoods will be seriously threatened.
There is a need to protect and restore tidal wetlands that are threatened by sea-level
rise and increasing developmental activities along coastlines (Duke et al., 2007). For 341
saving this ecosystem the UNEP has recommended planting new trees and increasing
the mangrove habitat. This reforestation is mainly being done for improving local
economy through increased environmental and social benefits. However, reforestation
in mangroves has its shortcomings as seen in the Philippines where mortality of
seedlings was high due to planting in biologically unsuitable areas (Malakoff, 2008).
The mangrove plantations are slowly replacing the natural forests and local people are
cutting them for economic benefits rather than conserving them for environmental
protection (Walters, 2004).
The economic value of the goods and services provided by a hectare of mangroves
is estimated to be between US$200,000 and 900,000 (Nguyen Dang Vu Long, 2006). For
the Godavari Delta in India, this service was valued at US$2,700 per hectare, which
extrapolates to approximately US$90,000 annually for the entire area (CORDIS, 2003).
The mangroves in this delta have potential to support an estimated annual catch of
around 50,000 tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) spawners, valued at US$6 million
(Rönnbäck et al., 2003). Similar worldwide observations were recorded by Roy “Robin”
Lewis III from Florida, USA. He further added that involvement of landowners and
political leaders might complicate the issue by ignoring the biology of mangrove trees.
The changing global climate scenario leading to sea-level rise is a potential threat to
overpopulated coastal areas. It could endanger the livelihoods of mangrove-dependent
people in the developing countries. Mangroves are already in a threatened state due to
several developmental activities in the Godavari Delta region in India and there is a
need for restoration through reforestation and proper management. The Forest
Department of the Government of Andhra Pradesh has started restoration of
mangroves in 1991 by identifying degraded mangrove areas and digging canals in the
Coringa area. The M.S. Swaminathan Foundation, a Chennai-based NGO, had initiated
a reforestation project from 1997 to 2004 with funding from India-Canada Environment
Facility. The project aimed at obtaining greater commitment by the forest department
of the state in participation with the local communities for the Joint Mangrove
Management (JMM) programme. The goal of the JMM is to enhance the capacity of the
local communities to manage mangrove resources. The department is actively
pursuing the restoration activities till date.
This study explores the extent of reforestation in the Godavari Delta area and its
possible beneficial effects to mitigate climate change.

Godavari Delta mangrove ecosystem

Godavari is the second largest river in India with a length of 1,530 kilometres, of which
770 kilometres flows in Andhra Pradesh and its river mouth is located on the east coast
near Kakinada in the East Godavari district, south-west of the port city of Visakhapatnam.
The lower Godavari branches into Gautami-Godavari and Vasishta-Godavari. Over a
period of a century, the Gautami-Godavari branch, changed its main course further south
IJCCSM and the earlier deltaic wetlands became mangrove mudflats. Gradually, due to silting
1,4 activity and accretion, a sand bar was formed that separated the lagoon (called Kakinada
Bay) from the sea (Figure 1).
The older tributaries of the Gautami remained as the Gaderu and the Coringa
channels which are about 21 kilometres and 11 kilometres long, respectively. These are
the most prominent canals through which fresh water is drained into the Kakinada Bay
342 from the Gautami-Godavari during the south-west monsoon period (Figure 2). The
deltaic wetlands of the Gautami-Godavari Estuarine system have many channels and
creeks criss-crossing through the mudflats.
Over a period of many years, these mudflats had developed vegetation exhibiting an
ability for salt-water tolerance (Figure 3). As the Kakinada Bay started becoming
shallower, it promoted further growth of mangroves. Mangroves also exist in the Godavari
River mouth near Bhairavapalem and the Coringa area. Based on the functional
classification they may be described as a mixture of Riverine (Gaderu, Coringa), Fringe
82° 15′ 82° 20′
N

Kakinada
Sand Bar
17° Kakinada Bay 17°

Chollangi
Matlapalem
Coringa

Bay of
Gaderu Bengal

Mangroves Mangroves

Bhairavapalem
Gautami-
Godavari

Figure 1.
Map of the Godavari Delta
with Gautami-Godavari
river and its earlier
tributaries such as Gaderu 82° 15′ 82° 20′
and Coringa
Note: Not to scale
 Climate change
mitigation

343

Figure 2.
Riverbanks of the Coringa
and the Gaderu are dotted
Note: These rivers bring fresh water with sediments during the monsoon, flooding the whole area with
with mangrove vegetation
nutrients
spreading into islands
Source: Photograph by the author

(towards the Bay of Bengal and south-western bay) and Basin (towards the land side)
types. Probably, this is the only place in India where three species of Avicennia, i.e.
Avicennia officinalis, Avicennia marina, and Avicennia alba are found together in mixed
forests. It is a very dynamic system with diverse habitats ranging from fresh water to
brackish and marine. Mangrove forests situated in these deltaic wetlands cover an area of
33,150 hectares. The species structure, landscape and hydrology keep with time and
human activities. There is also significant loss in mangrove area (Malini and Rao, 2004)
but reforestation efforts seem to be compensating this loss (Ramasubramanian et al., 2006).
The main human impacts are from fishing, shrimp culture and oil exploration. The
scenario might be different elsewhere with agricultural expansion (81 per cent),
aquaculture (12 per cent) and urban development (2 per cent) being identified as the major
causes of mangrove deforestation (Giri et al., 2007).
The area near Kakinada, especially the Gaderu, Matlapalem village and the Coringa,
is rich in fisheries as evidenced by intensive fishing practiced by local villagers.
Another main local economic activity is shellfish harvesting for lime production. This
activity is closely associated with the presence of a huge biomass of bivalves and
gastropods in the intertidal mudflats along the west and south-west borders of the
Kakinada Bay facing the mangroves. Mangroves act as breeding, spawning and
nursery grounds for coastal and offshore fish and shellfish. The mangrove wood is
used for construction purposes and mangrove habitat was cleared for agriculture,
aquaculture and salt production. In the mangrove communities, penaeid shrimps were
the most important commercial catch by value (53 per cent), followed by 32 per cent
fish, 15 per cent crabs and 1 per cent shrimp seed (Dahdouh-Guebas et al., 2006).
IJCCSM
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344

Figure 3.
The deltaic wetlands of
the Gautami-Godavari
Estuarine system have
many channels and creeks
criss-crossing through Notes: This habitat is a nursery ground for juvenile prawns and fishes. Crabs such as Scylla spp. are
mudflats found in these mudflats
Source: Photograph by the author

The importance of mangroves to fisheries and shellfish can be explained as mangrove

area is nursery grounds for juvenile prawns and fishes.
Mangrove leaves decay on the floor and form nutrient-rich organic detritus that
forms the food for many aquatic organisms thriving in this ecosystem. The detritus, as
particulate matter, enters into the food chain and is exported offshore as seen by
tracing stable carbon and nitrogen isotope studies (Dehairs et al., 2000). The mudflats
are habitat for crabs such as mud crabs (Scylla spp., Figure 4). Because of their nutritive
value and good export market, crab culture is becoming widely popular in this area.
Initially, crabs were in demand after shrimp and lobster in the food market. But, due to
growing popularity in the international market, these are currently in the second place
after shrimps. The Gautami-Godavari Estuary dominates all other estuarine mangrove
areas on the east coast in the crab resources.
Mangrove leaves especially of A. spp. are eaten by feral water buffaloes which are
prevalent in this area (Figure 5).
Bhairavapalem, near Gautami-Godavari river mouth, is an exclusively fishers’ village
and a number of fishing boats (mechanised and manual) operate from here. Starting with
the onset of the south-west monsoon, full-scale operation of collecting prawn seed (mostly
Penaeus indicus and P. monodon) begins involving most of the fishermen in this region.
Sometimes, whole family staying on a boat is a common sight (Figure 6).
Apart from ecological benefits as mentioned earlier, mangroves act as protective
physical barriers to cyclonic storms, tidal water incursions and even tsunamis.
However, the magnitude of protection depends on the structure and density of the
 Climate change
mitigation

345

Figure 4.
Notes: Edible crabs are being sold in the local markets as a delicacy. The Gautami-Godavari A mud crab (Scylla
estuary dominates all other estuarine mangrove areas on the east coast by harbouring more serrata) caught in A.
number of crab species mangrove habitat
Source: Photograph by the author

vegetation. O’Hare (2001) demonstrated that “top down” institutional measures to

reduce the effects of storm damage such as those introduced in the aftermath of
tropical cyclone 07B in the Godavari Delta area, including early storm warning and
evacuation procedures and rehabilitation programmes, remain largely ineffective. It is
suggested that introduction of more “bottom up” community-based programmes
which seek to improve the risk awareness and risk-avoiding abilities of affected
individuals and groups would be much more beneficial. In recent years, due to
intensive shrimp-culturing practices, large-scale destruction has been caused to the
mangrove vegetation (Figures 7 and 8). Increasing pressure on the mangrove forests
with intensive prawn culture initially highlighted the threat to this ecosystem as
observed also in other tropical countries. But, intervention from the Indian Government
by declaring ecologically sensitive coastal areas, between low and high tide levels,
including mangroves, as Coastal Regulatory Zone (CRZ) in 1991 has imposed
restrictions on the developmental activities.
Andhra Pradesh Coastal Zone Management Authority is the government body
responsible for protecting and improving the environmental quality of the area through
integrated coastal zone management plans. Once these plans are reviewed by the state
authority, they are forwarded for approval to the National Coastal Zone Management
Authority. But the CRZ has been amended several times and in 2008 the government
superseding the earlier CRZ has come up with a Draft Coastal Management Zone (CMZ)
notification. Although mangroves have been included in Zone 1 under CMZ, there has
been widespread concern from coastal fishing communities about denying them access
IJCCSM
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346

Figure 5. Notes: From a case study, Andhra Pradesh forest department has concluded that this practice reduces the
Feral water buffaloes productivity of the ecosystem and disturbs the mangrove regeneration process. However, there is no
graze on A. leaves. scientific evidence proving such threat
Source: Photograph by the author

to the ocean and housing sites. It will be helpful to enact a legislation along the lines of the
Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights)
Act, 2006, to safeguard the interests and rights of the fishing communities
(Swaminathan, 2008).

Climate change and mangroves

India had experienced a warming trend of 0.68C per century with the southern Indian
State of Andhra Pradesh recording a highest temperature of 498C in May 2002
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2002). Andhra Pradesh is home to
the magnificent Godavari (as described earlier) and Krishna mangroves. With an
evident increase in average temperature and threat of global warming this ecosystem
is vulnerable to climate change. The mangrove ecosystem of the east coast of India has
been identified as one of the most vulnerable regional habitats to be exposed to
sea-level rise (Alongi, 2007). Increasing salinity and precipitation patterns also affect
distribution of salt-tolerant mangroves such as A. spp. and Rhizophora spp. The
seedlings of all species require very low salinity for their growth; hence, a rise in
salinity could affect their survival, growth and productivity (Jagtap and Nagle, 2007).
Rising sea-level brings in salts and sulphates; diminution of rainfall reduces mudflow
and nutrient influxes. Increased frequency of tropical cyclones with inundation of
low-lying areas and salt-water incursion is also not ruled out. Increasing temperature
could also cause decreased tree height and leaf size in mangroves (Singh, 2002). These
changes might ultimately result in changed biodiversity and species migration
 Climate change
mitigation

347

Figure 6.
The Godavari Delta
ecosystem is a major
fishing ground for
Note: They depend on these resources for their livelihood living on boats and moving around for fish fishermen community in
catches this area
Source: Photograph by the author

towards land. There are two major problems putting up pressure on mangroves. One is
sea-level rise due to climate change and the other is growing human population in the
coastal areas. The former exerts pressure from the seaward side while the latter from
the landward side. Forests are likely to be squeezed as an ecosystem between these
two. The costal population will be increasingly restricted by economic pressures and
public policies that respond to the issues of global change and population explosion.
Ultimately, if the situation is allowed to be continued, both mangroves and their
dependent human population will stand to lose. The local fishermen belong to one of
the poorest communities in India with an average income of 3,500 Indian rupees (INR)
per annum. With dwindling mangroves and associated fisheries, they feel that their
livelihood is threatened and their survival endangered. Hence, resource management
and land-use planning are to be effectively anticipated and implemented with active
participation of local communities.
Changes to the El Niño effect may lead to increased diseases such as malaria in, for
example, India. Australia and New Zealand are at risk of increases in the existing
arbovirus diseases (Dale and Knight, 2008). Mosquitoes of 12 species belonging to five
subgenera and nine genera were recorded in the Coringa mangrove forest in the study
area (Rajavel et al., 2006). It was further reported that the maximum number of species
(ten) occurred in larval habitats during low-salinity season (October) compared with
only two species in high-salinity season (March). This suggests that these vectors
might migrate landwards with a rise in salinity. This could eventually lead to
proliferation of mosquito-related diseases in nearby habitations.
IJCCSM
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348

Figure 7.
Source: Photograph by the author

Restoration of mangrove habitat

There are several environmental, social and economic benefits arising from
restoration initiated by reforestation. The changing landscape due to restoration
could stop erosion and salt water incursion up to some extent. It could also increase
fish catches as more mangrove area would be available to fishes as they are attracted
to mangroves for protection and food. As mentioned earlier, mangrove leaves are rich
source of organic carbon for many organisms that live in this habitat. Feral buffaloes
graze on mangrove leaves and are milked by local people. The other benefits of
reforestation activity are generation of daily-wage employment through contract
labour and nursery maintenance. It is reported by various sources that the area of
accreted and restored mangroves in India is almost equal to the area of degradation,
land use conversion and erosion. Hence, it comes as no surprise when a recent remote
sensing study reports a marginal increase in mangrove forest cover area in India
(Giri et al., 2007).
The restoration of mangroves in the Godavari area was initiated by canal digging
during the period from 1999 to 2004. There are mainly two agencies involved in this
process. One of these is the Forest Department of the Government of Andhra Pradesh
and the other is the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, an NGO. These agencies
are being assisted by local bodies consisting of villagers and fisherfolk. The starting
phase was the participatory rural appraisal, consisting of transect walks, resource
mapping and analysis of succession in mangrove communities. Information on
hydrology and geomorphology was collected and micro-plans for restoration were
 Climate change
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349

Figure 8.
Source: Photograph by the author

prepared for each village identified near the degraded area. A mangrove management
unit was identified for each village which included both degraded mangrove habitat
and existing vegetation. Two types of village level institutions (VLI) were constituted,
namely, Eco-Development Committee (EDC) and Vana Samrakshana Samiti (VSS)
(literally, Forest Preservation Society). Members of these two VLIs were being trained
in nursery maintenance and fieldwork. The soil salinity of the degraded area is
normally about 140 parts per thousand (ppt) during summer, and for reducing this
high-salinity tidal flushing was facilitated by constructing canals. The restoration
practice involved digging of main canals at an angle of 458 to the natural creeks and
side canals at 308 to the main canals. A fish-bone design of canals was introduced
which seemed to be more efficient in tidal flushing than the rectangular pattern. The
predominant endemic mangrove species of this area were chosen for plantation. These
species are A. marina, A. officinalis and Excoecaria agallocha. A few other species such
as Aegiceras corniculatum, Bruguiera spp., Rhizophora spp. and Xylocarpus spp. were
also occasionally planted. The plantings were mostly carried out during October and
November just after the retreat of the south-west monsoon when the salinity of the
creek water is in the range of 10-15 ppt. The eight-month-old saplings from the nursery
were used for planting along the slopes of the canals with a spacing of 2 metres.
Nurseries were well established (Figure 9) and about 55,000 mangrove saplings were
planted till October 2006. The members of VLIs were employed as daily-wage
labourers in this work. Detailed information and data about mangrove reforestation are
provided in Table I.
IJCCSM
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350

Figure 9.
Mangrove nurseries are
established by the forest
Notes: Saplings are raised, maintained and shifted to the degraded areas identified for restoration. Men
department by involving
and women from local fisherfolk are employed as wage labourers in this project
local community members
Source: Photograph by the author

The positive result of reforestation since the past few years is seen as an increase in
mangrove area.
The key stakeholder in this activity is the fishermen community. The
mangrove-dependent fishermen were involved in raising mangrove saplings and in the
selection of degraded mangrove areas, canal alignment, digging and planting (Ravishankar
and Ramasubramanian, 2004). Since then, fish catches have been greater than before and
biodiversity of the area has enhanced as indicated by an increase in crab, otter and avian
populations. Looking at the economic aspects of the operation the average cost of restoring
one hectare of degraded area is estimated to be in the range of 20,000-30,000 INR. According
to existing published information the net gain from restoring one hectare of fully
established mangrove forest is estimated to be US$2,226 (see Appendix).

Conclusions and recommendations

Climate change disrupts the livelihood of mangrove-dependent communities. The
effects may not be visible immediately but take a long time to manifest. The mangrove
ecosystem is naturally adapted to cope with fluctuations in sea-level as glacial and
interglacial periods alternated over the last two million years. With a rising sea-level
survival of mangrove forest depends on its ability to accrete soil or to migrate inland.
Currently, soil accretion rates in mangrove forests are keeping pace with mean
sea-level rise (Alongi, 2007). In the Godavari Delta, the survival of the mangrove forest
is endangered by a lack of sufficient sedimentation due to the construction of dams
(Malini and Rao, 2004).
 Other organisations Area restored Cost of restoration through
Implementing agency involved hectares (year) community participation Benefits to the local people

Andhra Pradesh Forest Eco-development 200a (2006-2008) 20,000 INR for 1 hectares Direct
Department (AP Forest Committees; Common Enterprise Groups; 1. Increase in fish and crab
Department, 2007) Vana Samrakshana Samitis catches
2. Fodder for feral buffaloes
3. Daily wage employment
4. Alternative livelihoods
through eco-tourism are being
proposed
M.S. Swaminathan Research Sravanthi-OXFAM; self- 165 hectares Data not available Ecological
Foundation (Ravishankar and help groups (women) (1999-2001) 3,50,000 INR for 10 hectares 1. Protection against sea-level
Ramasubramanian, 2004; 10 hectares (2006- rise
Ramasubramanian and 2007) 2. Protection from cyclonic
Ravishankar, 2004; M.S. storms and tsunamis
Swaminathan Research 3. Increase in biodiversity
Foundation, 2007) 4. Erosion and salt-water
incursion reduced
Note: aTarget for 2008 (data for 2008 not available)

Mangrove reforestation
mitigation

1999 to 2007
during the period from
in the Godavari Delta
Climate change

351

Table I.
IJCCSM The reforestation effort, at a local level, described in the study is an initial step towards
1,4 adaptation aimed at coping with ongoing rapid sea-level rise. Implemented
successfully, this kind of participatory activities eventually leads to mitigation and
disaster preparedness. If reforestation can take place with the added benefit of
employment to the local villagers, it is the best option. But restoration activities that
use local people as contract labour only and not involving them in the long-run
352 management of the restored ecosystem may not be successful (Rönnbäck et al., 2007).
Apart from being prepared for facing the consequences of sea-level rise the
long-term benefits of establishing the original mangrove communities are enormous
for the local people and the coming generations. The question whether changing the
landscape by reforestation will address the issue of climate change or not will only be
answered after a long-term monitoring.
The increase in mangrove biomass is not only beneficial for mitigating sea-level rise
but also for enhancing carbon sequestration. It was also suggested by Chmura et al.
(2003) that mangrove forests sequester carbon faster than terrestrial forests. Moreover,
the role of mangroves as carbon sinks may be ecologically important since
decomposition in mangrove soils occurs mainly through sulphate reduction, which
would contribute less to greenhouse gases. This is an extra advantage of increasing
mangrove biomass. Apart from mitigating the ill effects of climate change, there are
several other benefits accruing from restoration activity. Environmental advantages of
restoration are protection from storms, tsunamis and erosion and increase in green cover.
The direct returns are increased fish catches, preservation of breeding grounds and
nurseries and conservation of commercially important species. Restoration activity also
brings in social paybacks such as employment to the local villagers and prevents mass
migration towards already overpopulated urban agglomerations in the neighbourhood.
In the context of the above discussion, it could be concluded that changing the landscape
by planting more trees will definitely aid in restoring the original habitat with multiple
long-term returns to the local people. Restoration could eventually lead to the
preservation of biodiversity of the area and sustainable development of the human
communities that are dependent on these resources for their livelihood. As a follow-up of
this successful reforestation programme, it is recommended that:
.
Other degraded areas in the Godavari Delta region may be identified for starting
similar activity with the formation of more EDCs and involving more NGOs.
.
Research on the biology of propagation and restoration of mangrove species to
decrease the mortality rate of the planted young saplings may be initiated.
. Carbon sequestration process in restored mangroves may be studied in detail
and potential carbon credit benefits to the stakeholders, if any, highlighted.
.
Spreading of awareness for climate change to local children through school
education may be initiated. Schools may also organise awareness camps in the
restoration areas so that children can participate in field activities and
understand the significance of the project.
.
Results from this project may be disseminated to a wider audience and target
groups in those areas where mangrove ecosystems and livelihoods of the local
people are threatened.
.
Information generated by ethnobiological research may also be used to
strengthen the management of ecosystems.
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Appendix. Economics of restorationa

. Total area restored in hectares ¼ 375.
.
Total cost of restoration in INR at three different restored sites (200, 10 and 165 hectares as
reported in Table I):

¼ ð200 £ 20; 000Þ þ ð10 £ 35; 000Þ þ ð165 £ 27; 500b Þ þ 88; 87; 500 ¼ US$177; 750
 .
For fully established community of 375 hectares, the estimated value of goods and Climate change
services:
mitigation
¼ 375 £ 2; 700c ¼ US$1; 012; 500

.
Estimated net gain (3-2)¼ US$834; 750 ¼ 834; 750=375 ¼ 2; 226=hectares: 355
a b
Notes: Data from Table I was used for estimating the cost of restoration; For 165 hectares, an
average cost of restoration (based on reported high and low costs) was used for estimation; cRefer
to Anon. (2002). For converting INR to US$, an exchange rate of US$1 ¼ 50 INR was used
(January 2009).

About the author

Raghavendra G. Rao received his MS and PhD from Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium in
Human Ecology. He was a recipient of the European Unions Doctoral fellowship and initiated
research in international scientific cooperation project of European Union (EU) between Belgium
and India. Prior to that, he has also worked in a science and technology for developing countries
program of EU between Belgium and Kenya. His teaching and research interests are wide and
multidisciplinary in nature mostly focusing on environmental management, environmental
policy, sustainable development and business ethics. Currently, he is associated with the Centre
for Environmental Management at Institute of Management Technology, Ghaziabad, India.
Raghavendra G. Rao can be contacted at: [email protected]

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