Structure .

15.1 Introduction
Objectives
15.2 Reflection and Refraction at a Boundary Between Two Dielectric Media
Boundary Conditions
Reflection and Refraction at Normal Incidence
Laws of Reflection and Refraction
15.3 Generation of Electromagnetic Waves
Radiation from an Oscillatory Electric Dipole
Antenna
15.4 Summary ,
15.5 Terminal ~ h t i o n s .
15.6 Solutions &swers

1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 14, you have studied Maxwell's equations and derived equations for
electromagnetic waves from them. You have learnt that light and several other
forms of radiation, viz. radiowaves, infrared, X-rays and gamma-rays are
electromagnetic radiations. You have also obtained plane wave and sinusoidal
solutions of the electromagneticwave equations in empty space devoid of free
charges and currents, and in dielectrics.
In this unit we come to another interesting question related tb electromagneticwaves in
dielectric media. What happens when an electromagnetic wave passes from one
dielectric medium to another? For example, you~howwhat happens when light p a s s 8 '
from air to glass or air to water. You get a reflected wave and a refracted wave, which
we also call the-transmitted wave. We shall derive the equations for the reflected and
transmitted electromagneticwaves, when such waves are incident perpendicular to the
boundary of the media. So far we have not talked about how electromagnetic waves are
generated. In the last section of this unit, you will study how an oscillating electric
dipole produces electromagnetic waves. Finally we shall briefly discuss the antenna -
a device widely used to transmit and receive electromagneticwaves.

0bjec tives
After studying this unit you should be able to
I
solve problem based on reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves at
. the boundaries of dielectric media
e explain qualitatively the generation of electromagneticwaves from an
oscillating electric dipole antenna.

15.2 REFLECTION AND IWFRACTION AT A

By the term linear, we mean $at
D and H are proportional to E
BOUNDARY BETWEEN TWO DIELEC
and B . Also e and p are MEDIA
I
I
I inaependeot of position and
direction.Thus, we are takiig
I about linear, homo~enaousand Let us consider the situation in which uniform plane electromagnetic waves are
isotropic media.
incident on a boundary beisveen two linear, dielectric media, e.g., light passing from air
 Reflection aud k e f r a d m d
to glass, or from oil to water. Let us assume that there are no free charges or Electromagnetic Waves
currents in the materials.

rctkded (Irnsmitted) waves.

Fig. 15.1 shows a plane boundary between two dielectric media having different
material properties: E, , p1for medium 1 and E~ , p2for medium 2. A uniform plane
wave travelling to the right in medium 1 is incident on the interface of the media,
normal to the boundary. What happens to the wave? As in the case of waves on a
slring, and from our experience, we can expect to get a ref ected wave propagating
back' into the medium a11da transmitted (or refracted) wave travelling in the sedond
medium. We would like to determine the expressions for the reflected and refracted
waves in terms of the incident wave. We would also like to know what fraction of
the incident energy is reflected and what transmitted? In order to do this we would
need to know the boundary conditions satisfied by the waves at the interface of the
media. These are the conditiotts we obtaitt wtteta we stipulate tltat Maxwell's
equations must be satisfied at the boundary betweett the media. So let us first obtain
the appropriate boundary conditions.

15.2.1 Boundary Conditions

We will derive these boundary conditions from Maxwell's equations in a dielectric
fr& of charge and currents. The relevant equations are:
(a) ESS E , d S - 0 (15.l.a)
over a closed surface S.
Fb) J l 3 . d ~= 0
S
(15.1b)

(c) #C ~ . - -;iiSs
d
d
B.dS (15.1~)
for any surface S bounded
by the closed loop C. @)
1 d Fb.lJ.2~The pcmitivc d i d o n for
(d) -f
P c
~ . =d
r-S
dt s
E . ~ s (15.16) S m d E l in (a) i s kcinn m d u m 2
lowanla 1,

Let us apply Eq. (15.la) to a tiny, thin Gaussian pill box extending just a little bit
(hair-like) on either side of the bougary df the niedia (Fig. 15.2a). Eq. (15.1a) implies
 The edge of the wafer contributes nothing in the limit as the thickness goes to zero.
Thus, the components of the electric fields perpendicular to the interface satisfy the
condition
E ~ E ~ - =E0 ~ E ~ (15.21)
Using the same process, we obtain from Eq. (15.lb) the following boundary
condition for the magnetic fields:
Bu-Bu 0 (15.2b)
We now apply Eq. (15.1~)to a thin Amgrian loop across the surface(Fig. 15.2b)
and obtain

El . I - E 2 . 1 - --$ s
d
dt
B,dS

Now in the limit as the width of the loop goes to zero, the flux vanishes and the

.
contribution of the two ends to$ E dl is zero. Therefore,
C

(El-EZ).I 0
which implies that

This means that the coiponents of E parallel to the interface ar2 continuous across
the boundary. In the same way, from Eq. (15.ld) we can obtain the condition that

which yields

Thus, we have derived the boundary conditions satisfied by the electric and
magnetic fields at the interface of two linear dielectric media where there is no free
charge or current. Let us put them together :

Ell s &I (15.2~)

We shall now use these boundary conditions to study reflection and refraction
(transmission) at normal incidence.

15.2.2 Reflection and Refraction at Normal Incidence

Consider Fig. 15.3. Suppose theyzplane forms the boundary between the two linear
dielectric media. Let a sinusoidal incident plane wave of frequency w,travelling in
the x direction approach the interface from the left. Suppose its electric field is
along they direction. The electric and magnetic fields of the incident wave are
given by
Wl=,A
cl-c
-*wave ibddent
EI(x,t) 5 ~ , f e x p [-i(wt-kIx)] (15.3a)
nom.Uy at the boundyy of two
m& ,
-
 At the interface of the media, the incident plane wave gives rise to a reflected wave R d l d o a and Rt&diw d
Electromagnetic Waves
and a refracted (or transmitted) wave. The reflected w a ~ e ' ~ r o ~ a ~back
a t e sinto the
f i t medium and can be represented by the following E and B fields:
A
E R ( x , t )= EORjexp[-i(wt+kl~)] (15.4a)

Why have we put the minus sign in Eq. (15.4b)? This is because the direction of
, propagation is reversed and the fields of the wave must obey the relation

Will you now like to try writing down the E and B fields of the transmitted wave
which travels to the right in medium 21 Fill in the following blanks.

These three electric and magnetic field vectors must satisfy the boundary conditions
given by Eqs. (15.2) at every point on the plane interface at all times. Thus, at
x = 0, the combined field to the left, viz. E, + ERand BI + BR,must join the fields
to the right, E, and B, according to the boundary conditions. In this case there are
no field components perpendicular to the interface, since neither E nor B field i's in
the x direction. Thus, Eq. (15.21 and b) are trivial. ?'he remaining Eqs. (15.2~and d)
require that

Cl1 Vl Cll n2
where
P2 "2 P2 n1

You may like to solve Eqs. (15.6a) and (15.6b) to obtain the reflected and
transmitted amplitudes in terms of the incident amplitude. Try the Iollowing SAQ.

SAQ 1 Spend
5 min
Show that
I
l- a
= (%)EN

For most dielectric media, the permittivities are close to their values in vacuum. In
such -es a -- v1
"2
and we have
n, ~ : r ! m
(a) d k d 1,
wave j4 in phase with the
inddent wave (b) the rtflcclrd J
/"
wave bout or pburc with (be
i d e n t wave.

69
Electromagnetism The reflected wave is in phase with the incident wave if v2 > v , and out of phase if
C
v2 < v1(See Fig. 15.4). In terms of the index of refraction n = -,
v
we can write Eqs.
*
(15.8) as

when nl< nz, i.e.,when the wave passes from a less dense medium to a more dense
medium, the reflected wave is 180 "out of phase with the incident wave. This is well
known in optics.
What fraction of incident energy is reflected and what fraction transmitted? You
may like to work out this result yourself!
Spend
10 mi11 SAQ 2
Given that the intensity (average power per unit area) is
1
I = - F v &, and p1 = k2 = pO,show that the ratio of reflected intensity to
2
incident intensity is

and the ratio of the transmitted intensity to the incident intensity is

Show that R + T = 1. (15.10~)

R is called the reflection coeEciemt and T,the transmission coefficient of the

surface. They measure the fraction of incident energy that is reflected and
transmitted, respectively. You can now explain why most of the light is transmitted
when it passes from air ( n, = 1 ) to glass ( n2 = 1.5 ). You only need to calculate
R and T to know the answer! Why don't you do so before studying further?
We will end this section by deriving the laws of reflection and refraction in a simple
manner for the case of oblique incidence.

15.2.3 Laws of Reflection and Refraction

Consider Fig. 15.5. An incident plane wave in medium 1, at an angle €II, results in a
reflected wave in 1 at an angle 9, and a transmitted wave in medium 2.
We represent the waves by the following plane wave forms:

Recall that in Sec. 15.2.2 we had said that the boundary conditiohs (Eqs. 15.2) must
hold at every point on the interface at all times. If the boundary conditions hold at
one point and at one time, they will hold at all points and all times only if the phases
of the three waves are equal, i.e. . '
 Refledon and Rtnprtioo oP
Electromnpetic Wnves

( sir .
H~15.51A p h wave, represenledby propegi&onvector k, encountem m Lntedmcc bttwep two m d i
and 8% pz ) ?lhe normal to the interface,pointing into medium 2, is the unit vedor n.

The equality of phases at all times requires that the three angular frequencies must
be the same:

0
Since k = - n, we have
C

Equality of phases for all points on the interface requires that

k,.r - b.r- kT.r (15.12)
for all r on the interface. These equations yield
(k,-b).r = 0 and ( k , - k T ) . r = 0
Since r * 0, the above equation tell us that either
i) k, = h a n d k , - kT
or
ii) ( k, - k, ) and ( k,- kT) are perpendicular to r, for all r on the surface.
Case(i) is the trivial case of no reflection and no refraction. So we consider only
case (ii). Since r is any vector in the plane interface, condition (ii) will be satisjied
only if (*k,- k,) and ( k, - kT) are along the normal to the plane interface. If n
represen'ts the unit vector normal to the plane, it will be parallel to
( k, - b - )and ( k,- k,. ). So we can write that
 and k(&-k,) 0
This gives us that

3
kxk, - A
nxk, = Cxk, (15.i3)
Eq. (15.13) gives us the followinginformations.
1. -
;x k, ;x k,says that the plane iefined by i,4(the p h n e of incidence)
coincides with the plane defined by n, kT(the plane of refraction).
2. The equality of magnitudes
I ;x k, I = 1 ;x k, ( gives the condition that
kIsin 8; P kTsin 8,
3. Similarly the relation

A
tells us that the plane of incidence coincides with the plane formed by n and
b,the plane of reflection and
kIsin 0, - k, sin 0, (15.15)
Since k, = kR from Eq. (15.llb), Eq. (15.15) yields
OR = 01 (Law of reflection) (15.16)
Substituting Eq. (15.14) in Eq.(15.11b) we get
sin 8, n2 '
'P- (Snell's L a w of refraction) (15.17)
sin eT nl
Thus, we have arrived at the well known laws of reflection and refraction in optics.
We end this section with an SAQ for you.

spend SAQ3
10 min
(a) A uniform plane wave whose electric field is given by

is incident from a region having = 4 ,E pl = pOnormal to the plane

surface of a material having EZ = 9 E& ~ 4 1 4 po. 1

Write complete expressions for the incident, reflected and transmitted electric
and magnetic fields.
(b) A plane electromagnetic wave propagates from one dielectric to another at
normal incidence. Find the ratio of the indices of refraction of the two
dielectrics for which the reflection and transmission coefficients are both equal
to 0.5.

15.3 GENERATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC

WAVES
So far you have studied aboui the existence of electromagneticwaves, their
properties in free space and in dielectrics, and their reflection and refraction at the
boundaries of dielectric media. But how are these electromagneticwaves ,
generated? This is the question we are going to answer in the present section.
From what you have studied about the nature of electromagnetic waves, you can
--
72
-
guess that to generate such a wave, we must create a changing electric or magnetic
field. Once we do so, the self-regeneratingprocess described by Amp6re-
Maxwell's Law and Faraday's law occurs, and the wave propagates on its own. So
how do we create a changing electric or magnetic field?
We create changing fields when we aldr the motion of an electric charge. This can
be done by accelerating an electric charge. It is also possible to create such fields
when an electric dipole oscillates. Let us now study qualitatively how
electromagnetic waves are generated from oscillating electric dipoles.

15.3.1 Radintio~lfrom an Oscillatory Electric Dipole

Fig; 15.6 shows an experimental arrangement depicting an oscillating electric
dipole. Since an ac source of current is connected to the wires, charges will move
back and forth along the vertical wires. This will produce an electric dipole,
alternately pointed up and then down. Currents also flow in the wires, producing a
magnetic field B around the wires. The B field also reverses direction periodically.
Let us now examine the electric and magnetic fields produced near the oscillating
dipole. When the charges near the ends of the wire are at a maximum, the current
will be zero. Consider a point P near the wire. The E field at P will be a maximum
when B is zero, and vice-versa. Thus, near the wire, E and B are 90 " out of phase
in time. Hence, the direction of energy flow which is determined by the Poynting .
I
1
vector S = - ( E x B ) alternates between outward and inward directions. So the
h
net energy flow at P is zero. Thus, the near field of an oscillating dipole moves
energy in and out equally and does not result in a radiated wave. -
What happens at distances far away from the oscillating dipole? Recall that b l L 6 1 An 0dll.ting
time-varying E and B fields can produce B and E fields, respectively. he time- electric dlpde. 'Zbe E rod B
varying electric and magnetic fields generated by the oscillating dipole continue IkW mdting ltom CURYULS
and cb~rgeson the wlrr are
moving outward, because the local time-varying E fields produce in-phase B fields shown dongwlth Ibe Poynting
and in-phase E fields are produced by the local time-varying B fields (in vectors. At the instu~tshown,
accordance with the two Maxwell equations for induced electric and magnetic Ulc PoynUng vector isdirrdtd
outward at the point P. At
fields). Thus, the total E and B fields at P are the vector sums of the out-of-phase p a t e distance6 them i s a nd
components generated by the oscillating electric dipole and in- phase fields induced llorrof urtrlly,p l a d d by
locally by the local time-varying fields. The energy density of out-of-phase tbe t h e - v a y l n g E and B
1 lklda
components falls off rapidly with distance as The in-phase components provide
r
the net transfer of energy'and become the dominant fields at large distances from
the dipole. We can see that the time-varying fields near the dipole serve to launch
the electromagnetic waves at large distances.
An interesting device based on this simple process of generating electromagnetic
waves is the antenna. Can you think of any modem ~ommunicationnetwork
without an antenna? An antenna is used for the generatjon (transmission) as well as
for the reception of electromagnetic waves. In the last subsection of this Unit we are
briefly going to discuss the antenna. I
/
15.3.2 Antenna
The antenna based on the mechanism i of an oscillating electric dipole is termed the
oscillating electric dipole antenna. It is, perhaps, the simplest of antenna systems.
Such an antenna consists of two conducting rods connected to an ac generator as
shown in Fig. 15.6. Fig. 15.7 shows the electromagneticwave generated by this
kind of antenna. The field pattern shown in the figure holds for all radial distances r
from the antenna such that r z k,where A is the wavelength of the electromagnetic
wave. Remember that certain electromagnetic radiations such as X-rays, gamma
rays and ligbt come from atomic and nuclear sources.

(I -
In this case, we have restricted outselves to the region of the spectrum
lmm to l m ) in which the source of radiation is both macroscopic and of
manageable dimensions. Essentially we are speaking of radio wave aisd microwave
generation.
FTg.15.7: lht k d r i c m d magndic field lines associated with tbc clcrtnom.gn& wave rsdtttd by la
oscillating dipok rnlcnn~ Ibc doh and crcrsses representUdd lines a n e d n g f m m rad entering into (be
phne of the flgarr The Uekl pattern close to (he antenna is not shown.

Antennas are made of metals as well as dielectrics and come in different shapes. In
fact, any metallic or dielectric structure which is designed s o as to launch (or
radiate) waves efficientIy into space and to focus (or concentrate) these waves in a
particular direction is referred to as an antenna. Two common antennas in use today
for various purposes are shown in Fig. 15.8.

(a> @)
Q.15.8: (a) Monopdc (Made) mttnna d on (b) log-paiodie mtmnr.

Let us now summarise what you have studied in this unit.

e The boundary conditions satisfied by electromagnetic wavei at the interface of

'
two charge-free and current-free dielectric media charaderised by el, p1
(medium !) and €2, (medium 2) are given as follows:
 RdlcdIau and Reeradim d
EkctnoolagneticWaves

The boundary conditions are consequences of Maxwell's equations.

o The iacident, reflected and transmitted waves at the interface of two

dielectric media can be represented as follows:
E, = E,exp [ - i ( w , t - b . r ]

ER - EORexp [ - i ( o R t + k , . r ]

ET = EOTexp [ . - i ( o $ - k ~ . t ]

. The amplitudes of the electric fields of the reflected and transmitted waves
when the incident wave is normal to the interface of the dielectric media are:

where

The reflection and.transmission coemcients are defined as the ratio of

reflected intensity to incident intensity, and that of transmitted intensity to

-
incident intensity, respectively. For the dielectric media for which
p1 ~1;?= pchthese are given as

0 The law of reflection and Snell's law of rekaction for oblique incidence are
derivable from boundwy conditions in electromagneticfields.
0 An oscillating elhctric dipole generates electromagnetic waves. The antenar,
a device used for radiating.and receiving electromagnetic waves in the radio
. and micro frequency region is based on this principle.
 15.5 TEFWINAL QETESTIONS Spend 20 min

1.
dielectric for which p 4.7 x
the dielectric.
-
A uniform plane wave has a wavelength of 3 cm in free space and 2 cm in a
NA-~.Determine the dielectric constant of

A uniform plane wave of 200 MHz travelling in free space strikes a large
2.
-
block of a material having E 4 E, , p = 9 and a = 0 normal to the
surface. If the incident magnetic field vector is given by

write complete expressions for the incident, reflected, and transmitted field vectors.

115.6 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)
1. Summing Eqs. (15.6a and b) we get

Substituting EoTin Eq. (15.6a)

Em - (&-I)& - l-a
(=)GI

P1 n2
where a = -
P z n1
-- "2
n1
in this case,since b1= p2

since n: - c/vl , n, - 2
c / v , , vl E
1
- , v22
CLlE1
=
1
-
CL2 €2

A
Since k is in the x-direction, BIwill be in the y-direction. Its magnitude&
given by the relation
.
-
lEIl = vl, where v,
,
=
1
IBII Tr
It is given that 5 4E ~ p1
, = p0
The reflected wave travels back in the negativex- direction in medium 1. The
E and B fields of the reflected wave are

where EM - (-
L:)E~~

where V2- --6

1 r
C C
-ms-1

and

Thus,

ER =
loo
-cos('ut+6xr)~~rn-'
7
and

,TheE and B fields of the transmitted wave are

Y

where

and

and

b) It is given that R T - 0.5

Let
 Then we have that

or I-p+p2 = o
whence fl 5.83.
1

Terminal Questions

1. The dielectric constant is given by u = -.E ' It is given that the plane wave has
€0
wavelength 3 cm in free space and 2 crn in the dielectric. Hence, the speed of I
the wave in the dielectric is

Thus

2. The incident magnetic field is given by

0 2 -1
whereo = 200MHz and (3 = - = -m .
c 3
Titus, the wave is travelling in the y-direction. So the electric fiefd is in the
x-direction.
a
The magnitude of the electric field can be obtained from

The reflected wave travels in the negative x-direction with amplitude

where
 . .

and
A
B, = - 2 x 1 0 ~ c o s ( o l + ~ ~ ) z t e s 1 a
The E and B fields of the transmitted wave are

where

and *

and

FURTHER ING
1. Electricity and Magnetism - Volume 2; Edward M. Purcell; International
Student Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company; 1985.
-
2.. Introduction to Electrodynamics. David J . Griffiths; Prentice.Hal1of India
Private Limited, 1984
3. Fundamentals ofElectricity and Magnetism - Arthur P. Kip; International
Student Edition; McGraw-Hill International Book Company; 1984
 Table of Constants
I_
/
Symbol QusnUty Vnlue
I

c speed of light in vacuum 2.998 x 10' m s-'

PO permeability of free space 1.257 x I O ~ N

I
So permittivity of free space 8.854 x lo-" C ~ N - ' ~ - ~
I
c chargeof the proton

--c chargeof the electron

Planck'sconstant
- 1 . ~ 2 l0l9c
I
h
m

elmtron rest mass

electroncharge to mass ratio - kg-'

-1.759 x 1 0 ' ' ~

"'P proton rest mass 1.673 x

I
mn neutron rest mass 1.675 x l ~ - ~ ~ k ~
I
Bohr radius

Avogadro constant

R Universal gas constant 8.314 J K-'mol"

I
b
G
a Boltmann constant .

Universal gravitational constant

1.381 x 10-"J K-'

6.673 x 1 0 - " ~ , r n ~ k ~ - ~
I1.
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35 ol)?H(lt) N a t i ~ n ~In*.ti!ulc
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