3.

48 Analog Electronic Circuits

The output impedance is equal to

1 r r ri r
zo = = RE || ri || i ª i as RE >> and ri >> i (3.96)
1 1 b bD bD bD bD
+ + D
RE ri ri

Fig. 3.76 Small-signal ac equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.74 to determine output resistance

3.11 MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

Usually, the voltage gain or power gain of a single-stage small-signal amplifier is not sufficient for any prac-
tical applications. Therefore, we have to use more than one stage of amplification to get the desired voltage
gain as well as power gain. Such an amplifier is known as multistage amplifier. The multistage amplifiers are
most commonly used in radio and television receivers and communication equipments.
In a multistage amplifier, the output of first-stage is fed to the next stage as an input. This connection is
called cascade connection of amplifiers. Figure 3.77 shows a two-stage cascade amplifier. In this circuit, vi1
is the input voltage and vo1 is the output voltage of first-stage amplifier and vi2 is the input voltage and vo2
the output voltage of second-stage amplifier. A two-stage common-emitter amplifier is depicted in Fig. 3.78.

Fig. 3.77 Two-stage cascade amplifier

A multistage amplifier using two or more single-stage common-emitter amplifiers is known as cascade
amplifier. The cascade term represents the type of connection used for coupling between two amplifier stages.
When a common-emitter amplifier is used as first-stage amplifier, a common-base or common-collector is
used as second-stage amplifier, this multistage amplifier is called a cascade amplifier. The cascade connec-
tion is not only used in a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) amplifier but also in Field Effect Transistor (FET)
amplifiers. In this chapter, different coupling schemes used in amplifiers and operation of multistage ampli-
fiers are discussed elaborately.
 Transistor Amplifier 3.49

Fig. 3.78 Two-stage common-emitter amplifier

3.12 VOLTAGE GAIN, CURRENT GAIN AND POWER GAIN OF MULTISTAGE

AMPLIFIERS
In a multistage amplifier, the output voltage of the first stage is used as input voltage of the second-stage
amplifier. Again, the output of a second-stage amplifier acts as input to the third stage, and so on. Figure 3.79
shows the simplified representation of an n-stage common-emitter amplifier. The derivation of voltage gain,
current gain and power gain for an n-stage amplifier is explained in this section.

Fig. 3.79 n-stage common-emitter amplifier

3.12.1 Voltage Gain

The voltage gain of a multistage or cascade-connected amplifier is equal to the product of the voltage gains
of the individual stages.
When Av1 , Av2 , Av3 ... and Avn are the individual stage gains of an n-stage amplifier, the overall voltage gain is
Av = Av1 Av2 Av3 ... Avn - 1 Avn
3.50 Analog Electronic Circuits

The voltage gain of a first-stage amplifier is

vo1 Output voltage of first stage V2
Av1 = = = as vi1 = V1 and vo1 = V2
vi1 Input voltage of first stage V1
= | Av1 | –q1 (3.97)

where, | Av1 | is the amplitude of voltage gain, and

q1 is the phase angle of output voltage with respect to input voltage.
Similarly, the voltage gain of a second-stage amplifier is
vo2 Output voltage of second stage V3
Av2 = = = as vi2 = vo1 = V2 and vo2 = V3
vi2 Input voltage of second stage V2
= | Av2 | –q 2 (3.98)

where, | Av2 | is the amplitude of voltage gain, and

q2 is the phase angle of output voltage with respect to input voltage.
In the same way, the voltage gain of n stages of the cascade amplifier is
von Output voltage of the n th stage Vo
Av = = = as vi1 = V1 and von = Vo
vi1 Input voltage of first stage V1
= | Av| –q (3.99)
where, |Av| is the amplitude of voltage gain n stages of the cascade amplifier, and
q is the phase angle of output voltage, von or Vo with respect to input voltage, vi1 or V1 .
Vo V2 V3 V4 V5 ...... Vn Vo
Since = , this equation can be represented by
V1 V1 V2 V3 V4 Vn -1 Vn
Av = Av1 Av2 Av3 ... Avn - 1 Avn

Then | Av | –q = | Av1 | –q1 | Av2 | –q 2 | Av3 | –q 3 ... | Avn - 1 | –q n -1 | Avn | –q n

= | Av1 || Av2 || Av3 | ... | Avn - 1 | | Avn | – q1 + q 2 + q 3 ... + q n -1 + q n

Therefore, | Av | = | Av1 || Av2 || Av3 | ... | Avn - 1 | | Avn | and –q = –q1 + q 2 + q 3 ... + q n -1 + q n
The magnitude of voltage gain is equal to the product of magnitude of the voltage gains of each stage and
the total phase shift of a multistage amplifier is equal to the sum of the phase shifts by each stage.
Sometimes the amplifier voltage gain is expressed in decibels (dB). If Gv1 Gv2 Gv3 ... Gvn - 1 Gvn are the gain
of individual stage in decibels (dB), the overall voltage gain in decibels is
Gv = Gv1 + Gv2 + Gv3 ... + ◊ Gvn - 1 + Gvn
= 20 log10 Av1 + 20 log10 Av2 + 20 log10 Av3 ... + 20 log10 Avn - 1 + 20 log10 Avn
= 20 log10 Av As Gv1 = 20 log10 Av1, Gv2 = 20 log10 Av2 ... Gvn = 20 log10 Avn (3.100)
 Transistor Amplifier 3.51

3.12.2 Current Gain

The current gain of a first-stage amplifier is the ratio of the output current ic1 to the input base current ib1
and it can be expressed as
ic1 I1
AI1 = = as ic1 = I1 and ib1 = I b1 (3.101)
ib1 I b1
Similarly, the current gain of a second-stage amplifier is
ic2 I2
AI2 = = as ic2 = I 2 and ib2 = I1 (3.102)
ib2 I1
Then the current gain of an nth stage amplifier is
ic I
AI n = n = n as icn = I n and ibn = I n -1 (3.103)
ibn I n -1
In the same way, the current gain of an n-stage amplifier AI is defined as the ratio of the output current the nth
stage (last stage) to the input (base) current of the first stage and it can be expressed as
icn In
AI = = as icn = I n and ib1 = I b1
ib1 I b1

In I I I I I n -1 I n
Since = 1 2 3 4 ...... , the current gain is
I b1 I b1 I1 I 2 I 3 I n - 2 I n -1

AI = AI1 AI2 AI3 ... AI n - 1 AI n

3.12.3 Power Gain

The overall power gain of the n-stage amplifier is
Output power Vo I n Vo I n
AP = = = ¥ = Av AI
Input power V1I b1 V1 I b1
= ( Av1 Av2 Av3 ... Avn - 1 Avn ) ¥ ( AI1 AI2 AI3 ... AI n - 1 AI n )
As Av = Av1 Av2 Av3 ... Avn - 1 Avn and AI = AI1 AI2 AI3 ... AI n - 1 AI n
= Av1 AI1 ¥ Av2 AI2 ¥ Av3 AI3 ¥ ... Avn - 1 AI n - 1 ¥ Avn AI n
= AP1 AP2 AP3 ... APn - 1 APn as AP1 = Av1 AI1...and APn = Avn AI n (3.104)

The overall power gain in decibel is

GP = 10 log10 AP (3.105)
Figure 3.80 shows the kth stage common-emitter amplifier where Vk is input voltage, Vk+1 is output voltage,
Rik is input resistance and RLk is the effective load resistance at the collector of the kth transistor.
3.52 Analog Electronic Circuits

Fig. 3.80 kth stage common-emitter amplifier

RLk
The voltage gain of the kth stage amplifier is Avk = AI k (3.106)
Rik
h fe
The current gain of the nth stage amplifier is AI n = - (3.107)
1 + hoe RLn
The input impedance of the nth stage amplifier is Rin = hie + hreAInRLn where, RLn = RCn
The effective load resistance on the (n – 1)th is equal to RC◊n–1||Rin.
RC ◊ n -1 Rin
Then RL ◊ n -1 = (3.108)
RCn -1 + Rin
RLn -1
The voltage gain the (n – 1)th stage amplifier is Avn - 1 = AI n - 1 (3.109)
Rin -1
h fe
The current gain of the (n – 1)th stage amplifier is AI n - 1 = - (3.110)
1 + hoe RLn -1

Then input impedance of the (n – 1)th stage amplifier is Rin–1 = hie + hreAIn–1RLn–1
In this way, we can compute the voltage, gain current and input resistance and effective load resistance in
each stage.
Example 3.13 Two amplifiers are connected in cascade. When voltage gain of an amplifier is 10 and of the
other
h isi 20,
20 determine
d the overall voltage gain in dB?
Sol. Given: Av1 = 10 and Av2 = 20
The overall voltage gain is Av = Av1 ¥ Av2 = 10 ¥ 20 = 200
The gain dB is Gv = 20 log10 Av = 20 log10 200 = 46.02 dB
Example 3.14 When three amplifiers are connected in cascade with an input 0.025 peak to peak voltage,
the output voltage is 15 V peak to peak. If the voltage gain of the first-stage amplifier is 5 and of the second-
stage amplifier is 7.5, determine (a) the overall voltage gain, (b) gain of third stage amplifier and (c) input
voltage of second-stage amplifier
Sol. Given: Vin1 = 0.025 V peak to peak, Vo3 = 15 V peak to peak, Av1 = 5 and Av 2 = 7.5

Vo3 15
(a) The overall voltage gain is Av = = = 600
Vin1 0.025
 Transistor Amplifier 3.53

(b) The overall voltage gain is Av = Av1 ¥ Av2 ¥ Av3 = 5 ¥ 7.5 ¥ ¥ Av3 = 600
600
The gain of third stage amplifier is Av3 = = 16
5 ¥ 7.5
(c) The output voltage of first-stage amplifier is equal to the input voltage of second-stage amplifier.
Then Vin2 = Vo1 = Av1 ¥ Vin1 = 5 ¥ 0.025 V = 0.125 V

3.13 COUPLING SCHEMES USED IN BJT AMPLIFIERS

Whenever amplifiers are connected in cascade, it is required to use a coupling network between the output of
the amplifier and the input of the next-stage amplifier. This type of coupling is known as inter-stage coupling.
And it is used for the following purposes:
1. It can transfer the ac output of one stage to the input of the next stage.
2. It can isolate the dc operation conditions of one stage to next stage
3. It is required to prevent the shifting of Q points
Usually, four different types of coupling schemes are commonly used in multistage or cascaded amplifiers
as given below:
1. Resistance Capacitance (RC) coupling
2. Transformer coupling
3. Impedance coupling
4. Direct coupling

3.13.1 Resistance Capacitance (RC) Coupling

This coupling scheme is the most commonly used as it has satisfactory frequency response and is less expen-
sive. In this method, the signal developed across the collector resistance of each stage is coupled through
capacitor C into the base of the next stage. Figure 3.81 shows a two-stage RC coupled cascaded ampli-
fier. This circuit consists of two single-stage common-emitter transistor amplifiers. The coupling network
is formed through RC, C and RB as shown in Fig. 3.81. The cascaded amplifier stages can amplify the input
signal and the overall gain of the amplifier is the product of individual stage gains.

Fig. 3.81 Resistance capacitance coupling

3.54 Analog Electronic Circuits

3.13.2 Impedance Coupling

When the collector resistance RC of Fig. 3.81 is replaced by an inductor (L), we obtain impedance coupling
amplifier as depicted in Fig. 3.82. If the frequency increases, the value of inductive reactance moves towards
infinity and each inductor appears as open circuit. Therefore, inductors can pass dc signals but block ac
signals.

Fig. 3.82 Impedance coupling

3.13.3 Transformer Coupling

Figure 3.83 shows the transfer-coupling amplifier circuit. In this scheme, the primary winding of the trans-
former is used as a collector load and the secondary winding of transformer transmits the ac output voltage
signal directly to the base of the next-stage amplifier. In this coupling, there is no requirement of coupling
capacitors.

Fig. 3.83 Transformer coupling

 Transistor Amplifier 3.55

3.13.4 Direct Coupling

The direct coupling scheme is given in Fig. 3.84. In this coupling, the ac output voltage signal can be fed
directly to the next stage. This type of coupling amplifiers are used in low-frequency range. In this scheme, the
coupling devices such as capacitors, inductors and transformers are not used due to low-frequency operation.

Fig. 3.84 Direct coupling

3.14 ANALYSIS OF RESISTANCE CAPACITANCE (RC) COUPLED AMPLIFIER

Figure 3.85 shows a two-stage RC coupled amplifier. This circuit consists of two single-stage common-
emitter (CE) transistor amplifiers. The transistors T1 and T2 are identical and a common power supply is
used. Resistances R1, R2, and RE are used to provide proper bias. The capacitor C1 is used to feed the ac input
voltage signal to the base of the transistor T1. The capacitor C2 is used to couple the ac output voltage signal
from transistor T2 to load RL. The capacitor CE is connected across RE of T1 and T2 to bypass the emitter to
ground. The voltage gain of each stage will be lost without the above capacitors. The bypass capacitor is also
used to prevent loss of amplification due to negative feedback.

Fig. 3.85 Resistance capacitance coupled amplifier

3.56 Analog Electronic Circuits

When an ac input voltage is applied to the base of the first stage, it is amplified by transistor T1 and ac
output voltage will be obtained from the voltage across RC. Then this output signal is fed to the input of
second stage through a coupling capacitor C and the signal is further amplified by T2. In this way, a multistage
amplifier amplifies the ac input signal and the overall gain of amplifier is the product of each individual-stage
amplifier. The capacitor C serves as the blocking capacitor and it blocks the dc components of the output
voltage of first stage from reaching the input of the second stage and allows the passage of only ac components.
In the first stage of amplification, the amplified output voltage at collector terminal of T1 has 180° phase
shift from input voltage. Similarly, in the second stage of amplification, the amplified output voltage at
collector terminal of T2 has 180° phase shift from second stage input voltage. Hence, the output voltage
signal is the twice amplified replica of the input voltage signal. Consequently, the output voltage of a two-
stage amplifier has zero phase shifts from input signal and is always in phase with the input signal.
The high-frequency p-model representation of transistor T1 is shown in Fig. 3.86 where the stray capaci-
tance due to wiring and proximity components to chassis CS1 and CS2 are present in the circuit. RB = R1 || R2
is the biasing resistance of any specified stage.

Fig. 3.86 Small-signal equivalent circuit of RC coupled amplifier

The circuit as shown in Fig. 3.87 can be modified by Miller’s theorem. The resistance rb¢c and capaci-
tance Cb¢c are connected in parallel and can be represented by corresponding elements in the input circuit
È rb¢c ˘ È Ê A ˆ Cb¢c ( A - 1) ˘
Í1 - A and Cb¢c (1 - A)˙ and output circuit Írb¢c ÁË A - 1¯˜ and ˙ . The modified equivalent circuit of
Î ˚ Î A ˚
Fig. 3.86 is shown in Fig. 3.87.

Fig. 3.87 Modified small-signal equivalent circuit of RC coupled amplifier using Miller’s theorem

Usually, the time constant of the output shunt circuit is negligible compared to that of input circuit and the
C ( A - 1)
value of capacitances b¢c , Cb¢c and CS2 can be omitted from the output circuit.
A
 Transistor Amplifier 3.57

Vce A
As gain is A = and A >> 1, rb¢c ªr .
Vb¢e A - 1 b¢c
Ê A ˆ
Since rb¢c >> rce , rb¢c Á || r ª r .
Ë A - 1¯˜ ce ce
Ê A ˆ
Therefore, resistance rb¢c Á can be omitted from output circuit.
Ë A - 1¯˜
Assume that rbb¢ and rb¢ewill be combined to Ri = hie = rbb¢ + rb¢e. As rce is connected in parallel with much
1
smaller resistance RC, rce may be replaced by = Ro .
hoe
In the input circuit, C is the equivalent capacitance of Cb¢e, CS1 and Cb¢c(1 – A).
rb¢c r
As >> rb¢e , b¢c || rb¢e = rb¢e .
1- A 1- A
r
So b¢c can be omitted from the input circuit.
1- A
Based on the above assumptions, the simplified equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.87 is developed as depicted in
Fig. 3.88.

Fig. 3.88 Simplified small-signal equivalent circuit of RC coupled amplifier

Then in the output circuit, the parallel combination of Ro and RC is represented by resistance RC¢.
Therefore, RC ¢ = Ro ||RC.
Since Ro >> RC, RC¢ = Ro ||RC ª RC
The resistance Ri¢ is parallel combination of Ri and RB.
Therefore, Ri¢ = Ri ||RB
As Ri >> RB, Ri ¢ = Ri ||RB ª Ri.
Subsequently, the small-signal equivalent circuit of RC coupled amplifier can be represented by Fig. 3.89.

Fig. 3.89 Most simplified small-signal equivalent circuit of RC coupled amplifier

3.58 Analog Electronic Circuits

The analysis of RC coupled amplifier in three different frequency ranges such as mid-frequency range,
high-frequency range and low-frequency range has been explained in this section.

3.14.1 Analysis in Mid-Frequency Range

1 1
In the mid-frequency range, the reactance of bypass capacitor (CC) is = XCC = .
w CC 2p fCC
Since XCC is very small in mid-frequency range, the bypass capacitor CC can be omitted from output circuit.
Ê 1 1 ˆ
As the frequency is small enough to provide very large shunt capacitor reactance, Á XC = = Æ `˜ ,
Ë w C 2p fC ¯
the shunt capacitor C will be open circuit. After removing the CC and C, we obtain the small signal equivalent
circuit of RC coupled amplifier in mid-frequency range as shown in Fig. 3.90.

Fig. 3.90 Small-signal equivalent circuit of RC coupled amplifier in mid-frequency range

The voltage vb¢e = ibrb¢e (3.111)

RC
The output current is io = - gm vb¢e (3.112)
RC + Ri
The mid-frequency current gain is
i g v RC
AIm = o = - m b¢e as vb¢e = ibrb¢e
ib ib RC + Ri
gm ibrb¢e RC RC
=- = - gm rb¢e as vb¢e = ibrb¢e
ib RC + Ri RC + Ri
RC
= - h fe as h fe = gm rb¢e (3.113)
RC + Ri
It is clear from above equation that the mid-frequency current gain is independent of frequency.
The output voltage is equal to
R R R R
vo = io Ri = - gm vb¢e C i = - gm vb¢e RCi as RCi = C i = RC || Ri (3.114)
RC + Ri RC + Ri
The input voltage is
vi = ibrbb¢ + ibrb¢e = ib (rbb¢ + rb¢e ) = ib hie as hie = (rbb¢ + rb¢e ) (3.115)
The mid-frequency voltage gain is
v g v R
AVm = o = - m b¢e Ci
vi ib hie
gm ibrb¢e RCi g r R
=- = - m b¢e Ci as vb¢e = ibrb¢e (3.116)
ib hie hie
 Transistor Amplifier 3.59

gm rb¢e RCi h fe RCi

Since gmrb¢e = hfe, voltage gain is AVm = - =- (3.117)
hie hie
It is also clear from above equation that the mid-frequency voltage gain is independent of frequency.

3.14.2 Analysis in Low-frequency Range

In the low-frequency range, the shunt capacitor C provides extremely large reactance and
1 1
XC = = Æ ` . Hence, the shunt capacitor C will be open circuit.
w C 2p f
Then XC || rb¢e ª rb¢e.
1 1
The reactance of bypass capacitor (CC) is XCC = = and it cannot be neglected. Therefore,
w CC 2p fCC
capacitance CC must be present in the output circuit. After removing C, we get the small signal equivalent
circuit of RC coupled amplifier in low-frequency range as shown in Fig. 3.91.

Fig. 3.91 Small-signal equivalent circuit of RC coupled amplifier in mid-frequency range

The voltage vb¢e = ibrb¢e (3.118)

The output current is
RC RC 1
io = - gm vb ¢e = - gm vb ¢e as XCC =
RC + ( Ri - jXCC ) 1 w CC
RC + Ri +
jw CC
RC
= - gm ib rb ¢e as vb ¢e = ib rb ¢e (3.119)
1
RC + Ri +
jw CC
The low-frequency current gain is
io g ir RC RC
AIl = = - m b b¢e = - gm rb¢e
ib ib 1 1
RC + Ri + RC + Ri +
jw CC jw CC
RC
= - h fe as h fe = gm rb¢e (3.120)
1
RC + Ri +
jw CC
3.60 Analog Electronic Circuits

The current gain can also be expressed as

h fe RC RC + Ri
AIl = -
RC + Ri 1
RC + Ri +
jw CC
RC + Ri h fe RC
= AIm as AIm = -
1 RC + Ri
RC + Ri +
jw CC
RC + Ri 1
= AIm = AIm
È 1 ˘ È 1 ˘
( RC + Ri ) Í1 + ˙ Í1 + jw C ( R + R ) ˙
Î jw CC ( R C + R )
i ˚ Î C C i ˚
AIm AIm 1
= =- as fL = (3.121)
È 1 ˘ È fL ˘ 2p CC ( RC + Ri )
Í1 - j 2p fC ( R + R ) ˙ Í1 - j f ˙
Î C C i ˚ Î ˚
Then low-frequency current gain can be represented by
| AIm |
AIl = | AIl | –f Il where, | AIl | = 1
and (3.122)
È Êf ˆ 2 ˘2
Í1 + Á L ˜ ˙
ÍÎ Ë f ¯ ˙˚

Êf ˆ
the phase angle is f Il = Phase angle of AIm + tan -1 Á L ˜
Ë f ¯
Êf ˆ Ê 1 ˆ
= 180∞ + tan -1 Á L ˜ = 180∞ + tan -1 Á ˜ (3.123)
Ë f ¯ Ë 2p fCC ( RC + Ri ¯
)
| AIm |
When f = fL , | AIl | = = 0.707| AIm |
2
Therefore, at f = fL, the low-frequency current gain is 3 dB lower from the current gain of mid-frequency gain.
The output voltage is equal to
RC Ri
vo = io Ri = - gm ibrb¢e (3.124)
1
RC + Ri +
jw CC
The input voltage is
vi = ibrbb¢ + ibrb¢e = ib (rbb¢ + rb¢e ) = ib hie as hie = (rbb¢ + rb¢e ) (3.125)
The low-frequency voltage gain is
vo g ir RC Ri gm rb¢e RC Ri
AVl = = - m b b¢e =-
vi ib hie 1 hie 1
RC + Ri + RC + Ri +
jw CC jw CC
h fe RC Ri
=- as gm rb¢e = h fe (3.126)
hie 1
RC + Ri +
jw CC
 Transistor Amplifier 3.61

The voltage gain can also be expressed as

h fe RC Ri h fe RC Ri
AVl = - =-
hie
RC + Ri +
1 hie È 1 ˘
( RC + Ri ) Í1 + ˙
jw CC Î jw CC ( R C + R )
i ˚
h fe RCi R R
=- as RCi = RC || Ri = C i
hie È 1 ˘ RC + Ri
Í1 + jw C ( R + R ) ˙
Î C C i ˚
h fe 1
=- R
hie Ci È 1 ˘
Í1 + jw C ( R + R ) ˙
Î C C i ˚

AVm h fe RCi
= as AVm = -
È 1 ˘ hie
Í1 + jw C ( R + R ) ˙
Î C C i ˚
AVm AVm 1
= = where, fL = (3.127)
È 1 ˘ È fL ˘ 2p CC ( RC + Ri )
Í1 - j 2p fC ( R + R ) ˙ Í1 - j f ˙
Î C C i ˚ Î ˚
Then low-frequency voltage gain can be represented by
AVm
AVl = | AVl | –fVl where, | AVl | = 1
and (3.128)
È Êf ˆ 2 ˘2
Í1 + Á L ˜ ˙
ÍÎ Ë f ¯ ˙˚
Êf ˆ
the phase angle is fVl = Phase angle of AVm + tan -1 Á L ˜
Ë f ¯

Êf ˆ Ê 1 ˆ
= 180∞ + tan -1 Á L ˜ = 180∞ + tan -1 Á (3.129)
Ë f ¯ Ë 2p fCC ( RC + Ri ) ˜¯
| AVm |
When f = fL , | AVl | = = 0.707| AVm | . Therefore at f = fL, the low-frequency voltage gain is 3 dB lower
2
from the voltage gain of mid-frequency gain.
It is also clear from the above discussion for current gain as well as voltage gain, the lower 3 dB frequencies
1
are same and fL = .
2p CC ( RC + Ri )

3.14.3 Analysis in High-frequency Range

1 1
In the high-frequency range, the reactance of coupling capacitor (CC) is XCC = = . As XCC is
w CC 2p fCC
very small, the coupling capacitor CC can be omitted from the output circuit. At high frequency, the shunt
3.62 Analog Electronic Circuits

1 1
capacitor C provides a reactance, i.e., XC = = and its value cannot be neglected. Hence, the shunt
w C 2p f
capacitor C must be present in the equivalent circuit. After removing the CC, we get the small-signal equiva-
lent circuit of an RC coupled amplifier in the high-frequency range as shown in Fig. 3.92.

Fig. 3.92 Small signal equivalent circuit of RC coupled amplifier in high-frequency range

Ê 1 ˆ 1 + jw Crb¢e
The base current ib = vb¢e Á + jw C ˜ = vb¢e (3.130)
Ë b¢e
r ¯ rb ' e
ibrb¢e
The voltage vb¢e = (3.131)
1 + jw Crb¢e
The output current is
RC ibrb¢e RC
io = - gm vb¢e = - gm
RC + Ri 1 + jw Crb¢e RC + Ri
gm rb¢eib RC h feib RC
=- =- as gm rb¢e = h fe (3.132)
1 + jw Crb¢e RC + Ri 1 + jw Crb¢e RC + Ri
The high-frequency current gain is

io h feib RC h fe RC
AIh = =- =-
ib ib (1 + jw Crb¢e ) RC + Ri (1 + jw Crb¢e ) RC + Ri
RC 1
= - h fe
RC + Ri (1 + jw Crb¢e )
AIm RC
= as AIm = - h fe
(1 + jw Crb¢e ) RC + Ri
AIm AIm 1
= = as f H = (3.133)
(1 + j 2p fCrb¢e ) È f ˘ 2p CC rb¢e
Í1 + j f ˙
Î H˚

Then high-frequency current gain can be represented by

| AIm |
AIh = | AIh | –f Ih where, | AIh | = 1
and (3.134)
È Ê f ˆ 2 ˘2
Í1 + Á ˜ ˙
ÎÍ Ë f H ¯ ˙˚
 Transistor Amplifier 3.63

-1 Ê f ˆ
the phase angle is f Ih = phase angle of AIm - tan Á ˜
Ë fH ¯
Ê f ˆ
= 180∞ - tan -1 Á ˜ = 180∞ - tan -1 (2p fCrb¢e ) (3.135)
Ë fH ¯
| AIm |
At f = fH, | AIh | = = 0.707 | AIm |
2
Therefore, at f = fH, the high-frequency current gain is 3 dB lower from the current gain of mid-frequency
gain.
The output voltage is equal to
R R R R
vo = io Ri = - gm vb¢e C i = - gm vb¢e RCi as RCi = C i = RC || Ri
RC + Ri RC + Ri
ibrb¢e ibrb¢e
= - gm R as vb¢e = (3.136)
1 + jw Crb¢e Ci 1 + jw Crb¢e
Assume that input voltage is vi = ibrbb¢ + ibrb¢e = ib(rbb¢ + rb¢e) = ibhie as hie = (rbb¢ + rb¢e)
The high-frequency voltage gain is
v g ibrb¢e g r 1
AVh = o = - m R = - m b¢e R
vi ib hie 1 + jw Crb¢e Ci hie 1 + jw Crb¢e Ci
h fe RCi 1
=- as gm rb¢e = h fe
hie 1 + jw Crb¢e
AVm g r R h fe RCi
= where, AVm = - m b¢e Ci = -
1 + jw Crb¢e hie hie
AVm AVm 1
= = as f H = (3.137)
1 + j 2p fCrb¢e È f ˘ 2p CC rb¢e
Í1 + j f ˙
Î H˚
Then high-frequency voltage gain can be represented by
| AVm |
AVh = | AVh | –fVh where, | AVh | = 1
and (3.138)
È Ê f ˆ 2 ˘2
Í1 + Á ˜ ˙
ÍÎ Ë f H ¯ ˙˚
-1 Ê f ˆ
the phase angle is fVh = Phase angle of AVm - tan Á f ˜
Ë H¯
Ê f ˆ
= 180∞ - tan -1 Á ˜ = 180∞ - tan -1 (2p fCrb¢e ) (3.139)
Ë fH ¯
| AVm |
At f = fH, | AVh | =
= 0.707| AVm | (3.140)
2
Therefore, at f = fH, the high-frequency voltage gain is 3 dB lower from the voltage gain of mid-frequency
gain.
3.64 Analog Electronic Circuits

3.14.4 Frequency Response of an RC Coupled Amplifier

The frequency response of an RC coupled amplifier is depicted in Fig. 3.93. it is clear from frequency
response that the voltage gain drops at low frequency (below 50 Hz) and at high frequency (above 20 kHz)
but, it is constant in the mid-frequency range. The bandwidth is f2 – f1 = fH – fL.

Fig. 3.93 Frequency response of a typical RC coupled amplifier

3.14.5 Advantages of an RC Coupled Amplifier

The RC coupled amplifier has the following advantages:
1. This amplifier requires components such as resistances and capacitors which are least expensive, easily
available, and small in size.
2. This amplifier provides uniform voltage amplification over a wide frequency range from few Hz to few
kHz as resistance values are independent of frequency.
3. This amplifier has minimum possible nonlinear distortion as no coil or transformer is used in this
amplifier.
4. The overall amplification factor of an RC coupled amplifier is higher than that of other amplifiers.

3.14.6 Disadvantages of an RC Coupled Amplifier

The RC coupled amplifier has the following disadvantages:
1. This amplifier gets noisy with duration of usage especially in humid weather.
2. This amplifier provides poor impedance matching as the output impedance of the RC coupled amplifier
is several hundred ohms but the impedance of the speaker is only few ohms. Therefore, less power is
transferred to the speaker.

3.14.7 Applications of an RC an Coupled Amplifier

The RC coupled amplifier has the following applications:
1. Since an RC coupled amplifier has very good frequency response from few Hz to few kHz, it is exten-
sively used as a voltage amplifier in initial stages of public address systems.
2. This amplifier cannot be used as a final amplifier as it has poor impedance-matching characteristics.
 Transistor Amplifier 3.65

3.15 IMPEDANCE-COUPLED AMPLIFIER

Figure 3.94 shows a two-stage impedance-coupled amplifier. This circuit has two single-stage common-emit-
ter amplifiers. If the collector resistance RC of Fig. 3.94 is replaced by an inductor (L), we get an impedance-
coupling amplifier. The functions of C1, C2, and C are same as RC coupled amplifier.
The individual stage gain and the overall voltage gain can be derived in the same way as obtained for an
RC coupled amplifier. The one change in the expression is that RC has to be replaced by inductive reactance
(XL = wL).

Fig. 3.94 Impedance coupling

The advantage of an impedance coupled amplifier is that it is able to operate at low collector supply volt-
age as the voltage drop across the inductor (L) is very small.
The disadvantage of an impedance coupled amplifier is that it is comparatively expensive due to use of
inductors. At low frequency, voltage drop across inductance is very small. An impedance-coupled amplifier
is used only at radio frequency which is above 20 kH.

3.16 TRANSFORMER-COUPLED AMPLIFIER

Figure 3.95 shows the two-stage transformer-coupled amplifier circuit. This circuit consists of two single-
stage common-emitter transistor amplifiers. In this amplifier, the primary winding of the transformer TRA1 is
used as a collector load and the secondary winding is used to transmit the ac output voltage of the first-stage
amplifier directly to the base of the second-stage amplifier. The transformer TRA2 couples the output signal
to the load RL. CE is used as the emitter bypass capacitor.
When an ac input signal is applied to the base of the transistor T1, the amplified output signal appears
across the primary winding of the transformer TRA1. Then, the primary winding voltage of TRA1 is trans-
ferred to the input of the next stage by the secondary winding of the transformer TRA1. The second-stage
amplifier then continues the process in the same way.
3.66 Analog Electronic Circuits

Fig. 3.95 Two-stage transformer-coupled common-emitter amplifier circuit

In practical circuits, a bypass capacitor is used at the bottom of each primary winding of transformers to
provide ac ground. These keep away from the load inductance of the connecting line that returns to the dc
supply ground. Similarly, a bypass capacitor is also used at the bottom of each secondary winding to provide
ac ground and prevents the signal power loss in the biasing resistances. The small-signal equivalent circuit of
cascaded transformer-coupled common-emitter amplifier circuit is shown in Fig. 3.96.

Fig. 3.96 Small-signal equivalent circuit of cascaded transformer-coupled common-emitter amplifier circuit

Assume RL is the load resistance. For maximum power transfer, the load resistance of transistor T2 should
be equal to the output resistance of T2 and its value is RL2, which can be determined by taking into account
the turn ratio of transformer TRA2. The input resistance of transistor T2 is Ri2 which is approximately hie2
and it can be used to determine the load across the inter-stage transformer TRA1. When the turn ratio of TRA1
is known, RL1, the effective load of the transistor T1, can be determined.
The analysis of a multistage transformer-coupled common-emitter amplifier can be done in three fre-
quency regions such as mid-frequency range, high-frequency range and low-frequency range.

3.16.1 Analysis in Mid-frequency Range

Figure 3.97 shows the approximate equivalent circuit of transformer-coupled amplifier assuming that all
capacitor reactances are negligible. The transformer turns ratio of TRA1 reflects load impedance hie2 on the
secondary.
 Transistor Amplifier 3.67

Fig. 3.97 Approximate equivalent circuit of transformer-coupled amplifier

2
ÊN ˆ ÊN ˆ
The load impedance of the transistor T1 is equal to Á 1 ˜ hie2 = n2 hie2 as Á 1 ˜ = n :1 . (3.141)
Ë N2 ¯ Ë N2 ¯
1
The output impedance of transistor T1 is equal to . According to maximum power transfer, two imped-
hoe1
ances (load impedance and output impedance) must be equal.
1 1 N 1 N1
Therefore, n2 hie2 = , or n = , or 1 = as n = . (3.142)
hoe1 hie2 hoe1 N2 hie2 hoe1 N2
Then the modified small-signal equivalent circuit of transformer-coupled amplifier (Fig. 3.97) is depicted in
Fig. 3.98.

Fig. 3.98 Modified small-signal equivalent circuit of transformer-coupled amplifier

Due to impedance-matched condition, the current flows through the transformer’s primary winding
h fe ib
ic1 = 1 1 .
2
N N h fe ib h fe ib h fe ib N
The base current ib 2 = 1 ic1 = 1 1 1 = n 1 1 as ic1 = 1 1 and n = 1 (3.143)
N2 N2 2 2 2 N2

ib 2 nh fe1ib1 1 nhfe1
The mid-frequency current gain of the transistor T1 is AIm = = ¥ = . (3.144)
ib1 2 ib1 2
The above expression for current gain can also be used for second-stage when load impedance RL matches
the output resistance of the transistor T2.
h fe1 ib1 h fe1 ib1
The voltage vc1 = - ic1n2 hie2 = - n2 hie2 as ic1 = .
2 2
3.68 Analog Electronic Circuits

vb1 h fe1 vb1

Since ib1 = , vc1 = - n2 hie2 (3.145)
hie1 2hie1

vc1 h fe v N
Then the voltage ratio = - 1 n2 hie2 and the voltage ratio c1 = - 1 = - n .
vb1 2hie1 vb2 N2
The mid-frequency voltage gain is
vb 2 vb 2 vc1 Ê 1 ˆ Ê h fe1 2 ˆ
Avm = = ¥ = Á- ˜ ¥ - n hie2 ˜
vb1 vc1 vb1 Ë n ¯ ÁË 2hie1 ¯
h fe1 h fe1
= nhie2 = n as hie1 = hie2 (3.146)
2hie1 2

3.16.2 Analysis in Low-frequency Range

At low frequency, the primary inductance LP will be incorporated in the small-signal equivalent circuit of a
transformer-coupled amplifier. Figure 3.99 shows the equivalent circuit of a transformer-coupled amplifier
in low frequency.

Fig. 3.99 Equivalent circuit of a transformer-coupled amplifier in low frequency

The reactance of LP is XP = wLP = 2pfLP.

Due to shunting effect of LP, the effective load for the transistor T1 will be reduced with reduction in vC1 and
voltage gain.
1 2
R is the parallel combination of and n hie2 , and
hoe1
the reactance value of LP is equal to R at lower 3 dB frequency fL.
Therefore, XP = wLP = 2pfLLP = R
1
where, R= || n2 hie2
hoe1
R R
Then LP = and fL = (3.146)
2p fL 2p LP
 Transistor Amplifier 3.69

3.16.3 Analysis in High-frequency Range

At high frequency, the shunting effect of a transformer’s primary inductance LP is negligible but the trans-
former leakage inductance and distribution capacitance become significant. Figure 3.100 shows the equiva-
lent circuit of a transformer-coupled amplifier at high frequency and its simplified representation is depicted
in Fig. 3.101(a).

Fig. 3.100 High-frequency equivalent circuit of transformer-coupled amplifier

The equivalent inductance referred to primary is

2
ÊN ˆ N1
L1 = L1P + L1S Á 1 ˜ = L1P + n2 L1S as n = . (3.147)
Ë N2 ¯ N2
Similarly, the equivalent capacitance referred to primary is
2
ÊN ˆ N
C1 = C1P + C1S Á 1 ˜ = C1P + n2C1S as n = 1 , (3.148)
Ë N2 ¯ N2
This circuit has a series resonant effect at high frequencies.
1
At resonant XC1 = X L1 , the resonant frequency is fo = .
2p L1C1
The upper 3 dB frequency fH is much greater than fo.
Figure 3.101(b) shows the frequency response of voltage gain with respect to frequency for a transformer-
coupled amplifier. It is clear from this response that the voltage gain drops at low as well as high frequencies,
but in mid-frequency range, the voltage gain remains constant. It is also noticeable that voltage gain increases
at resonance frequency fo, and after that voltage gain continuously decreases with increasing frequency.

Fig. 3.101 (a) Simplified equivalent circuit of transformer-coupled amplifier (b) Frequency response of
transformer-coupled amplifier
3.70 Analog Electronic Circuits

3.16.4 Advantages of a Transformer-Coupled Amplifier

The transformer-coupled amplifier has the following advantages:
1. There is no power loss of signal in the collector or base resistance due to low winding resistance of
transformer.
2. This amplifier provides higher voltage gain compared to the RC coupled amplifier.
3. This amplifier provides very good impedance matching between two stages. This impedance matching
is used for maximum power transfer in the amplifier.

3.16.5 Disadvantages of Transformer-Coupled Amplifier

The transformer-coupled amplifier has the following disadvantages:
1. When this amplifier operates in audio-frequency range, the coupling transformer is bulky in size and
expensive.
2. In radio-frequency range, the winding inductance and distributed capacitance generates a reverse fre-
quency distortion. It generates hum in the amplifier circuit.

3.16.6 Applications of a Transformer-Coupled Amplifier

The transformer-coupled amplifier has the following applications:
1. This amplifier is used as input stage.
2. It has excellent impedance matching between two intermediate stages.
3. This amplifier is commonly used to transfer power to the low impedance load like a speaker. The
impedance of the speaker varies in between 4 ohms to 16 ohms, but the output resistance of the transis-
tor amplifier is several hundred ohms. To develop proper match with the load impedance and amplifier
output, a step-down transformer of required turn ratio is used. For this, the secondary winding resis-
tance should be equal to the speaker impedance and primary winding resistance must be equal to the
output resistance of the amplifier.

3.17 DIRECT-COUPLED AMPLIFIER

The two-stage direct-coupled common-emitter amplifier is shown in Fig. 3.102. In this coupling, the ac
output signal of the first stage is directly fed to the base of the next-stage transistor. In this type of coupling
amplifiers, there are no coupling devices such as capacitors, inductors and transformers. This amplifier is
known as dc amplifier and it is used to amplify very low-frequency signals including dc.
During the design of dc amplifiers, the designer should ensure that dc levels of each individual stage are
compatible with the next stage. For example, consider that two identical common-emitter amplifiers are con-
nected directly, as shown in Fig. 3.102. When VCC1 = 12 V, VB1 = VB2 = 2.2 V, VE1 = VE2 = 1.5 V and VC1 =
VC2 = 5 V, VBE = 0.7 and VCB = 3 V. Therefore, there is a difference of 3 V between the collector of T1 and the
base of T2.
In ac operation, a capacitor C is connected between the collector of T1 and base of T2 as depicted in Fig.
3.103. The ac output signal of first stage is coupled to the second-stage amplifier and the capacitor C must be
charged to 2.8 V. Subsequently, VC1 will remain at 5 V and VB2 will remain at 2.2 V.
In dc operation, the capacitor should be removed, but the collector of T1 cannot be connected directly to
the base of T2 as the voltage VC1 is not equal to VB2. To connect directly, no change is made in the first stage,
but the voltage level of the second-stage is increased by 2.8 V with respect to ground so that, the value of VB2,
VE2 and VC2 becomes 2.8 V higher than their original value.
 Transistor Amplifier 3.71

Fig. 3.102 Two-stage direct-coupled common-emitter amplifier

Fig. 3.103 Two-stage common-emitter amplifier coupled by the capacitor C

This is possible by collecting a 2.8 V battery in series with RE2 and 14.8 V supply in place of 12 V supply
as shown in Fig. 3.104.
It is clear from Fig. 3.104 that VB2 = 5 V and VC2 = 7.8 V. Therefore, VC1 is equal to VB2 and the amplifiers
can be connected directly. Due to increase of base, emitter and collector voltages by the same value, the VBE =
0.7 V and VCB2 = 2.8 V. Therefore, the Q-point of the transistor will be same. This type of direct coupling has
a lot of disadvantages. Since VCC1 (12 V) and VCC2 (14.8 V) are not same, a 2.8 V battery must be connected in
series with RE2. The 2.8 V battery can be replaced by a 2.8 V zener diode and it can be removed by increasing
the RE2. Then the input resistance increases to T2 and gain is reduced due to increase of negative feedback.
Since VCC2 is larger than VCC1, in a three-stage amplifier VCC3 must be larger than VCC2. Consequently, the
required dc voltage supplies are impractically high in a multistage amplifier.
3.72 Analog Electronic Circuits

Fig. 3.104 Direct coupling

The alternative solution of the above problem is shown in Fig. 3.105 where alternative polarity transistors
are connected in cascade and the dc voltages are adjusted in such a way that each transistor operates at the
same Q-point.

Fig. 3.105 Three-stage direct-coupled amplifier

3.17.1 Advantages of a Direct-Coupled Amplifier

The direct-coupled amplifier has the following advantages:
1. This circuit is very simple as very few resistances are present in an amplifier circuit.
2. The cost of this amplifier is low due to absence of coupling devices.
3. This amplifier operates in very low frequency including zero frequency.
 Transistor Amplifier 3.73

3.17.2 Disadvantages of a Direct-Coupled Amplifier

The direct-coupled amplifier has the following disadvantages:
1. This amplifier cannot operate in high-frequency range. Hence, it cannot amplify the high-frequency
signals.
2. This amplifier has poor temperature stability. Due to this, Q-point of transistors shifts. Therefore, in a
multistage amplifier, the last-stage transistor is to be operated in either cut-off or saturation.
3. All integrated circuit (IC) amplifiers are direct-coupled due to the difficulty of fabrication of capacitors.

3.17.3 Applications of a Direct-Coupled Amplifier

The direct-coupled amplifier has the following applications:
1. This amplifier is used in analog computation.
2. It is used in linear integrated circuits.
3. It is used in regulated dc power supply.
4. It is used in bioelectric measurements.

3.18 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF BJT AMPLIFIERS

The small-signal analysis of BJT amplifier is already discussed in this chapter. In this section, low-frequency
and high-frequency response of BJT amplifiers are discussed in detail. The gain of an amplifier is a func-
tion of frequency. In this section amplifier gain versus frequency plot is given where gain factor is given in
terms of decibels and frequency in terms of Hz on logarithmic scale. To obtain the frequency response of
an amplifier, capacitors and transistor capacitors are incorporated in circuit analysis. Usually, we determine
the bandwidth of the amplifier circuit from the frequency response. For this, initially transfer function of the
circuit is derived in s-domain or in complex frequency domain. Using the Bode plots of the transfer function,
the magnitude response, phase response, time constant and 3 dB cut-off frequencies are computed.

3.19 GENERAL FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF AMPLIFIERS

The frequency of the applied input signal has a significant effect on the frequency response of the single-stage
and multistage amplifiers. At low frequency, the effect of coupling and bypass capacitors cannot be neglected
due to the capacitive reactance value. At high-frequency response, frequency dependent parameters will be
present in the circuit and stay capacitance will be associated with small-signal model of BJT and FET.
During plotting the frequency response of the amplifier circuit, the logarithmic scale along the x-axis per-
mit a plot extending from low frequency to high-frequency regions. Usually, any frequency response can be
divided into three regions such as
1. Low-frequency region
2. Mid-frequency region
3. High-frequency region
Actually, the frequency response curve of any amplifier is a plot between the magnitude of gain and loga-
rithmic frequencies. Figure 3.106 shows a frequency response curve of an RC coupled amplifier. The drop in
gain at low-frequency region is due to increase in capacitive reactance in this region. In the high-frequency
region, the drop in gain is due to parasitic capacitance or the frequency-dependent gain on active device in
those regions. The frequencies corresponding to fL and fH are called cut-off frequency, corner frequency or
half-power frequency. fL is called lower cut-off frequency and fH represents the higher cut-off frequency.
3.74 Analog Electronic Circuits

Fig. 3.106 Gain vs frequency plot of a RC coupled amplifier

At cut-off frequencies fL and fH, the output power is half of the mid-band power output. The power output at
mid-frequency is equal to
| v2 |
Poutput(mid) = o (3.149)
R
|v | | v 2 | | A v |2
As voltage gain at mid-frequency is Avmid = o , Poutput(mid) = o = vmid i (3.150)
| vi | R R
At half-power frequencies fL and fH, the power output is
|0.707 Avmid vi |2 | A v |2
Poutput-HPF = = 0.5 vmid i (3.151)
R R
Then Poutput–HPF = 0.5Poutput(mid) (3.152)
The bandwidth of amplifier can be determined by fL and fH and it is expressed by
Bandwidth = fH – fL
This is also called passband of the amplifier. Usually, a decibel (dB) plot of voltage gain with respect to fre-
quency is very useful in most applications. Before the logarithmic plot, the magnitude should be normalised.
The gain at each frequency is divided by the mid-band gain. Figure 3.107 shows the normalised plot of gain
vs frequency in log scale.
1
Assume the mid-band gain is 1. At half-power frequency, gain is equal to 0.707 = . A decibel plot can be
2
obtained by the following transformation.
Av A
| = 20 log10 v (3.153)
Avmid dB Avmid
The gain at half-power point in decibel is
AvHPF A 0.707 Avmid
|dB = 20 log10 vHPF = 20 log10 as AvHPF = 0.707 Avmid
Avmid Avmid Avmid
= 20 log10 0.707 = – 3 dB (3.154)
The decibel plot of the normalised gain vs frequency for an RC coupled amplifier is depicted in Fig. 3.108.
 Transistor Amplifier 3.75

Fig. 3.107 Normalised plot of gain vs frequency for an RC coupled amplifier

Fig. 3.108 Decibel plot of the normalised gain vs frequency for an RC coupled amplifier

3.20 BODE PLOT OF RC CIRCUIT

The cut-off frequencies of a single-stage BJT amplifier depends on the RC combinations formed by coupling
and bypass capacitors C1, C2, C, CE and resistive parameters. For circuit analysis, each capacitor can be mod-
elled and its frequency response can be studied. If we know the cut-off frequency of each capacitor, we can
determine the lower cut-off frequency of the amplifier circuit.
The method for determining the lower cut-off frequency fL is presented in this section. The upper cut-off
frequency fH can be determined with some extension in the frequency response. fL and fH are also known as a
cut-off and b cut-off frequency.
1 1
The capacitive reactance value is presented by XC = = as w = 2pf (3.155)
w C 2p fC
1 1
At very low frequency, f = 0 and capacitive reactance value is XC = = =`.
2p fC 2p ¥ 0 ¥ C
Hence, this is equivalent to open circuit as shown in Fig. 3.109(b).