the axis of rotation.

3. Plane Motion
CHAPTER 1 - The motion of a rigid body in which all particles in the body
remain at a constant distance from a fixed reference plane.

INTRODUCTION TO DYNAMICS
CHAPTER 2
Dynamics

The branch of mechanics which deals with the motion of bodies under kinematics
the action of forces. The study of dynamics in engineering usually follows
the study of statics, which deals with the effects of forces on bodies KINEMATICS
at rest. A thorough comprehension of dynamics will provide one of
the most useful and powerful tools for analysis in engineering. The motion of the paraglider can be described in terms of its position,
velocity, and acceleration. When landing, the pilot of the paraglider
Galileo (1564- 1642) needs to consider the wind velocity and the relative motion of the
glider with respect to the wind.
- Experiments on uniformly accelerated bodies
- First significant contribution to dynamics Rectilinear Motion
Newton (1642- 1727)
A particle moving along a straight line is said to be in rectilinear
- With the help of Galileo’s experiments, he formulated his motion. The variables involve are time t and distance along the line, x.
fundamental laws of motion.
Two (2) Broad Areas of Dynamics Position, Velocity &
1. Kinematics ACCELERATION
- Study of the geometry of motion without reference to the  Position
cause of motion.
2. Kinetics At any given instant time t, a
- Study of the relation between the forces acting on a body, the particle in rectilinear motion
mass of the body, and the motion of the body.
occupies some position on
Motion of Particles the straight line.
1. Translation
 Position Coordinate
- The motion of a rigid body in which a straight line passing
through any two of its particle always remain to be parallel to Distance x, with appropriate sign,
its initial position. completely defines the position of the particle.
2. Rotation
- The motion of a rigid body in which the particles move in  Velocity
circular paths with their centers on a fixed straight line called
When we know the position coordinate x of a particle for every value The instantaneous velocity is also expressed in m/s or ft/s. Observing
of time t, we say that the motion of the particle is known. The units that the limit of the quotient is equal, by definition, to the derivative of
most often used to measure the position coordinate x are the meter x with respect to t, we have
(m) in the SI system of units and the foot (ft) in the U.S. customary
system of units. Time t is usually measured in seconds (s). Velocity of a particle along a line
v=dx/dv
Now consider the position P occupied by the particle at time t and
the corresponding coordinate x (Fig. 11.2). Consider also the Speed
position P’ occupied by the particle at a later time t + Δt. We can
obtain the position coordinate of P’ by adding the small displacement -Is the magnitude of velocity.
Δx to the coordinate x of P. This displacement is positive or negative Acceleration
according to whether P’ is to the right or to the left of P.
The average acceleration of the particle over the time interval Δt as
the quotient of Δv and Δt as
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =𝛥𝑣/𝛥𝑡

If we use SI units, Δv is expressed in m/s and Δt in seconds; the

average acceleration is then expressed in m/s2. If we use U.S.
Average Velocity of the particle over the time interval Δt as the customary units, Δv is expressed in ft/s and Δt in seconds; the
quotient of the displacement Δx and the time interval Δt as average acceleration is then expressed in ft/s2.

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝛥𝑥 /𝛥𝑡 We obtain the instantaneous acceleration a of the particle at the
instant t by again allowing the time interval Δt to approach zero. Thus,
If we use SI units, Δx is expressed in meters and Δt in seconds;
the average velocity is then expressed in meters per second (m/s). If
we use U.S. customary units, Δx is expressed in feet and Δt in
seconds; the average velocity is then expressed in feet per second
(ft/s). The instantaneous acceleration is also expressed in m/s2 or ft/s2. The
We can determine the instantaneous velocity v of a particle at the limit of the quotient, which is by definition the derivative of v with
instant t by allowing the time interval Δt to become infinitesimally respect to t, measures the rate of change of the velocity. We have,
small. That is, Acceleration of a particle along a straight line

𝑎 =𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡
Sometimes we use the term deceleration to refer to a when the Motion Curve
speed of the particle (i.e., the magnitude of v) decreases; the particle
is then moving more slowly.

Concept Application
Consider a particle moving in a straight line, and assume that its
position is defined by
Determining the Motion of a Particle
Let us consider three (3) common classes of motion:
𝒙 = 𝟔𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟑
1. Acceleration is a given function of time [𝒂 = 𝒇(𝒕)]
where t is in seconds and x in meters.
We can obtain the velocity v at any time t by differentiating x with
respect to t as,
𝒂 =𝒅𝒗/𝒅𝒕= 𝟏𝟐 – 𝟔𝒕
 2. Acceleration is a given function of x [𝒂 = 𝒇(𝒙)] 2. You throw a ball vertically upward with a velocity of 10 m/s from a
window located 20 m above the ground. Knowing that the acceleration of
the ball is constant and equal to 9.81 m/s2 downward, determine

a) the velocity v and elevation y of the ball above the ground at any time t,

b) the highest elevation reached by the ball and the corresponding value of t,

c) the time when the ball hits the ground and the corresponding velocity.

3. Acceleration is a given function of v [𝒂 = 𝒇(𝒗)]

Sample Problems
1. The position of a particle moving along a straight line is defined
by the relation 𝑥 = 𝑡3 − 6𝑡2 − 15𝑡 + 40, where x is expressed in
feet and t in seconds. Determine

a) the time at which the velocity is zero,

b) the position and distance traveled by the particle at that time,

c) the acceleration of the particle at that time,

d) the distance traveled by the particle from t=4s to t=6s

Special Cases and Relative Motion To obtain the velocity v of the particle, we integrate this equation,

Special cases include uniform rectilinear motion and uniformly accelerated 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑡
rectilinear motion. Meanwhile, the concept of relative motion is important
whenever we consider the motion of more than one particle at the same
time.

Uniform Rectilinear Motion

Uniform rectilinear motion is a type of straight-line motion that is frequently

encountered in practical applications. In this motion, the acceleration a of the
particle is zero for every value of t. The velocity v is therefore constant, Substituting v, we have,

𝒅𝒙/𝒅𝒕= 𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

To obtain the position coordinate x, we integrate this equation,

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡

Also, using this equation,

This equation can be used only if the velocity of the particle is known to be
constant.

Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion

Uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion is another common type of motion. In

this case, the acceleration a of the particle is constant, The three equations we have derived provide useful relations among
position, velocity, and time in the case of constant acceleration, once
𝒅𝒗/𝒅𝒕= 𝒂 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
you have provided appropriate values for a, vo and xo. An important
application of uniformly accelerated motion is the motion of a body in
free fall. The acceleration of a body in free fall (usually denoted by g) is The rate of change of xB/A is known as the relative velocity of B with
equal to 9.81 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2 (we ignore air resistance in this case). respect to A is denoted by vB/A. Differentiating the above equation, we
obtain
It is important to keep in mind that the three equations can be used only
when the acceleration of the particle is known to be constant. Relative Velocity of two particles
Motion of Several Particles
When several particles move independently along the same line, you
can write independent equations of motion for each particle. A positive sign for VB/A means that B is observed from A to move in
Whenever possible, you should record time from the same initial the positive direction; a negative sign means that it is observed to
instant for all particles and measure displacements from the same move in the negative direction.
origin and in the same direction.
The rate of change of VB/A is known as the relative acceleration of B
Relative Motion of Two Particles with respect to A and is denoted by aB/A. Differentiating the above
Consider two particles A and B moving along the same straight line equation, we obtain
(Fig. 11.7). If we measure the position coordinates x A and xB from Relative acceleration of two particles
the same origin, the difference xB-xA defines the relative position
coordinate of B with respect to A, which is denoted by xB/A.

Dependent Motion of Particles

Sometimes, the position of a particle depends upon the position of

another particle or of several other particles. These motions are called
dependent.
0R
For example, in the figure,

Regardless of the positions of A and B with respect to origin, a

positive sign for x B/A means that B is to the right of A, and a negative
sign means that B is to the left of A.
The position of block B depends upon the position of block A. Since Since two of the coordinates can be chosen arbitrarily, we say that the
the rope ACDEFG is of constant length, and since the lengths of the system has two degrees of freedom.
portions of rope CD and EF wrapped around the pulleys remain
When the relation existing between the position coordinates of
constant, it follows that the sum of the lengths of the segments AC,
several particles is linear, similar relation holds between velocities
DE, and FG is constant.
and between the accelerations of the particles. For instance, we can
differentiate the position equation twice and obtain the following:

Since only one of the two coordinates xA and xB can be chosen

arbitrarily, we say that the system has one degree of freedom. From
this, it follows that if xA is given an increment ΔxA (block A is
lowered by an amount of ΔxA), the1coordinate xB receives an
increment

Δ𝑥𝐵 = −2 𝛥𝑥𝐴.

In the case of three blocks, we can again observe that the length of
the rope that passes over the pulleys is constant. Thus, the following
relation must be satisfied by the position coordinates of the three
blocks,
Sample Problems 3. Car A is travelling at a constant 90 mi/h when she passes a parked
police officer B, who gives chase when the car passes her. The officer
1. In an elevator shaft, a ball is thrown vertically upward with an initial accelerates at a constant rate until she reaches the speed of 105
velocity of 18 m/s from a height of 12 m above ground. At the same mi/h. Thereafter, her speed remains constant. The police officer
instant, an open-platform elevator passes the 5-m level, moving catches the car 3 mi from her starting point. Determine the initial
upward with a constant velocity of 2 m/s. Determine acceleration of the police officer.
a) When and where the ball hits the elevator

(b) The relative velocity of the ball with respect to the elevator when
the ball hits the elevator.

2. Collar A and block B are connected by a

cable passing over three pulleys C, D, and E
as shown. Pulleys C and E are fixed, but D is
attached to a collar that is pulled downward
with a constant velocity of 3 in/s. At t=0,
collar A starts moving downward from
position K with a constant acceleration and no
initial velocity. Knowing that the velocity of
collar A is 12 in/s as it passes through point
L, determine the change in elevation, the
velocity, and the acceleration of block B when
collar A passes through L.
Curvilinear Motion of Particles Velocity Vector
When a particle moves along a curve other than a straight line, we
say that the particle is in curvilinear motion. We can use position,
velocity, and acceleration to describe the motion, but now we must
treat these quantities as vectors because they can have directions in
Average Acceleration of the particle over the time interval Δt
two or three dimensions.
-Quotient of Δv and Δt
Position, Velocity and Acceleration

 Vectors Position Vector, r Instantaneous Velocity

- Characterized by its magnitude r and its direction with -Limit of average acceleration as the time interval Δt approaches zero.
respect to the reference axes.
 Displacement Vector, Δr
- The vector Δr joining P and P’ represents the change
in position vector during the time interval Δt.
 Average Velocity of the particle over the time interval Δt Acceleration Vector

Derivatives of Vector Functions

1. Sum of two vector functions P(u) and Q(u)

Instantaneous Velocity 2. Product of a Scalar Function f(u) and a vector function P(u)

-Limit of average velocity as the time interval Δt approaches zero.

 3. Scalar Product of two vector functions P(u) and Q(u) Velocity and Acceleration in Rectangular Components

4. Vector Product of two vector functions P(u) and Q(u)

Rectangular Components of Velocity and

Acceleration
Motion of a Projectile

The components of the acceleration for the case of the motion of a

The position vector r of the particle can be written into rectangular projectile are;
components.

If the resistance of the air is neglected. Denoting the coordinates of a

Where x, y, and z are functions of time.
gun by xo, yo, and zo and the components of the initial velocity vo of 3. At time t=10 seconds, the velocity of a particle moving in the x-y
the projectile by (vx)o, (vy)o, and (vz)o, we can integrate twice in t and plane is 𝑣 = +0.1𝑖 + 2𝑗 m/s. By time t=10.1 seconds, its
obtain, velocity has become −0.1𝑖 + 1.8𝑗 m/s. Determine the
magnitude aav of its average acceleration during this interval and
the angle θ made by the average acceleration with the positive x-
axis.

Note that the equations defining the coordinates x and y of a

projectile at any instant are the parametric equations of a parabola.
Thus, the trajectory of a projectile is parabolic. This result, however,
ceases to be valid if we take into account the resistance of the air or
the variation with altitude of the acceleration due to gravity.

Sample Problems
1. A projectile is fired from the edge of
a 150-m cliff with an initial velocity of
180 m/s at an angle of 30° with the
horizontal. Neglecting air resistance,
find the horizontal distance from the
gun to the point where the projectile
strikes the ground,
a) the greatest elevation above the
ground reached by the projectile

2. A projectile is fired with an initial

velocity of 800 ft/s at a target B
located 2000 ft above the gun A
and at a horizontal distance of
12,000 ft. Neglecting air
resistance, determine the value of
the firing angle α needed to hit the target.
 B simultaneously exerts a force on A with the same magnitude in the
CHAPTER 3 opposite direction. The strong form of the law further postulates that
these two forces act along the same line.
Kinematics of particles:
newton’s second law of motion Newton’s Second Law of Motion
We can state Newton’s second law as follows:
If the resultant force acting on a particle is not zero, the particle has
Newton’s Second Law and Linear Momentum an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the resultant and in
In statics, we used Newton’s first and third laws of motion extensively to the direction of this resultant force.
study bodies at rest and the forces acting upon them. We also use these
two laws in dynamics; in fact, they are sufficient for analyzing the motion of
bodies that have no acceleration. However, when a body is accelerated––
that is, when the magnitude or the direction of its velocity changes––it is The constant value obtained
necessary to use Newton’s second law of motion to relate the motion of for the ratio of the magnitudes
the body to the forces acting on it.
of the forces and accelerations
First law: If no net force acts on a particle, then it is possible to is a characteristic of the
select a set of reference frames, called inertial reference frames, particle under consideration; it
observed from which the particle moves without any change in velocity. is called the mass of the
particle and is denoted by m.
Second law: Observed from an When a particle of mass m is
inertial reference frame, the net force acted upon by a force F, the force F and the acceleration a of the
on a particle is proportional to the particle must therefore satisfy the relation
time rate of change of its linear
momentum: F = d[mv] / dt.
Momentum is the product of mass When a particle is subjected simultaneously to several forces, the
and velocity. This law is often stated equation should be replaced by
as F = ma (the net force on an
object is equal to the mass of the
object multiplied by its acceleration)

Third law: Whenever a particle A

where ∑F represents the sum or resultant of all the forces acting
exerts a force on another particle B, on the particle.
Linear Momentum of a Particle and its Rate Systems of Units
of Change International System of Units (SI Units). In this system, the base
Suppose we replace the units are the units of length, mass, and time and are called,
acceleration a in the equation respectively, the meter (m), the kilogram (kg), and the second (s).
by the derivative dv/dt. We have

Since the mass m of the The weight W of a body, or the force of gravity exerted on that
particle is constant, we can body, should, like any other force, be expressed in Newton.
write this as

The product mv is called the linear momentum, or simply the

momentum, of the particle. It has the same direction as the velocity
of the particle, and its magnitude is equal to the product of the U.S. Customary Units. Most practicing American engineers still
mass m and the speed v of the particle (Fig. 12.3). The equation commonly use a system in which the base units are those of length,
says, force, and time. These units are, respectively, the foot (ft), the pound
The resultant of the forces acting on the particle is equal to the rate (lb), and the second (s). The second is the same as the corresponding
of change of the linear momentum of the particle. SI unit. The foot is equal to 0.3048 m. The pound is defined as the
The second law of motion was originally stated by Newton in this weight of a platinum standard, called the standard pound, which is
form. Denoting the linear momentum of the particle by L, we have kept at the National Institute of Standards and Technology outside
Washington, D.C. The mass of this standard is 0.453 592 43 kg

It follows that the rate of change of the linear In the study of kinetics, which involves forces, masses, and
momentum mv is zero when ∑F=0. Thus, we have the statement: accelerations, we will often have to express the mass m of a body in
If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, the linear slugs, the weight W of which is given in pounds. We have
momentum of the particle remains constant in both
magnitude and direction.
where g is the acceleration due to gravity (g = 32.2 ft/s2).
This is the principle of conservation of linear momentum for a
particle.
Conversion from One System of Units to Another Support Forces: Replace supports or constraints with appropriate
forces (e.g., two perpendicular forces for a pin, normal forces, friction
forces).

Applied Forces and Body Forces: Draw any applied forces and body
EQUATIONS OF MOTION forces (also sometimes called field forces) on your diagram (e.g.,
weight, magnetic forces, a known pulling force).

Dimensions: Add any angles or distances that are important for solving
the problem.

In statics problems, we deal with bodies in equilibrium, and the inertial

term in Newton’s second law is zero. For dynamics problems, this is
not the case. We utilize the kinetic diagram to visualize this term.

Body: This is the same body as in the free-body diagram; place this
beside the free body diagram.

Inertial terms: Draw the ma term to be consistent with the coordinate

system. Generally, draw this term in different components (e.g., max
and ma y or man and mat). If they are unknown quantities, it is best to
draw them in the positive directions as defined by your coordinates.
Steps:
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Body: Define your system by isolating the body (or bodies) of
1.A 200-lb block rests on a horizontal plane. Find the magnitude of
interest. If a problem has multiple bodies, you may have to draw
multiple freebody diagrams and kinetic diagrams. the force P required to give the block an acceleration of 10 ft/s2 to
the right. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the
Axes: Draw an appropriate coordinate system (e.g., Cartesian, normal plane is μk = 0.25.
and tangential, or radial and transverse).
2.A 0.5-kg fragile glass vase is dropped onto a thick pad that has a
force deflection relationship as shown. Knowing that the vase has a
speed of 3 m/s when it first contacts the pad, determine the maximum
downward displacement of the vase.

3.The two blocks shown start from rest. The horizontal plane and the
pulley are frictionless, and the pulley is assumed to be of negligible
mass. Determine the acceleration of each block and the tension in
each cord.

4.The 12-lb block B starts from rest and slides on the 30-lb wedge
A, which is supported by a horizontal surface. Neglecting friction,
determine (a) the acceleration of the wedge, (b) the acceleration of
the block relative to the wedge.
NEWTON’S LAW GRAVITATION rmv sin θ= r0mv0 sin θ0.
Angular Momentum of a Particle and Its Rate of Change 2. In space mechanics problems involving the orbital motion of
a planet about the sun or of a satellite about the earth, the
The linear momentum of the particle at a given instant is defined as
moon, or some other planet, the central force F is the force
the vector mv that is
obtained by multiplying the of gravitational attraction. This force is directed toward the
velocity v of the particle by center of force O and has the magnitude
its mass m. The moment
about O of the vector mv is Note that in the particular case of the gravitational force exerted by
called the moment of the earth, the product GM can be replaced by gR2, where R is the
momentum, or the angular earth’s radius.
momentum, of the particle The following two cases of orbital motion are frequently encountered:
about O at that instant and is a. For a satellite in a circular orbit, the force F is normal to
denoted by HO. the orbit and you can write F = man. Substituting for F
and observing that an = v2/ρ = v2/r, you obtain

Note that HO is a vector

perpendicular to the plane
containing r and mv and has a magnitude
b. For a satellite in an elliptical orbit, the radius vector r and
where f is the angle between r and mv (Fig. 12.12). We can determine the velocity v of the satellite are perpendicular to each
the sense of HO from the sense of mv by applying the right-hand rule. other at points A and B, which are closest and farthest
to the center of force O, respectively. Thus, the
The unit of angular momentum is obtained by multiplying the units of
conservation of angular momentum of the satellite
length and of linear momentum. In SI units, we have between these two points can be expressed as

In this section, we introduced the angular momentum or the moment

NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION
of the momentum, HO, of a particle about O as
The gravitational force exerted by the sun on a planet or by the
1. Solving problems involving the motion of a particle under a earth on an orbiting satellite is an important example of a central
central force. In problems of this type, the angular force.
momentum HO of the particle about the center of force O is
conserved. Therefore, we can express the conservation of
angular momentum of particle P about O by
 Newton’s law of universal SAMPLE PROBLEMS
gravitation states that two
particles of masses M and 1. A satellite is launched in a
direction parallel to the surface of
m at a distance r from each
the earth with a velocity of
other have a mutual 18,820 mi/h from an altitude of
attraction of equal and 240 mi. Determine the velocity of
opposite forces F and 2F the satellite as it reaches its
directed along the line maximum altitude of 2340 mi.
joining the particles (Fig. Recall that the earth’s radius is
3960 mi.
12.17). The common magnitude F of the two forces is

where G is a universal constant, called the constant of gravitation. 2. A space tug travels a circular orbit with a 6000-mi radius
Experiments show that the value of G is (66.73 ±0.03) x10-12 around the earth. In order to transfer it to a larger orbit with a
24,000-mi radius, the tug is
m3/kg.s2 in SI units or approximately 34.4 x 10-9 ft4/lb.s4 in U.S.
first placed on an elliptical path AB by firing its engines as it
customary units.
passes through A, thus increasing its velocity by 3810 mi/h.
Gravitational forces exist between any pair of bodies, but their Determine how much the tug’s velocity should be increased as
effect is appreciable only when one of the bodies has a very large it reaches B to insert it into the larger circular orbit.
mass. The effect of gravitational forces is apparent in the cases of
the motion of a planet about the sun, of satellites orbiting about
the earth, or of bodies falling on the surface of the earth.
Since the force exerted by the earth on a body of mass m located
on or near its surface is defined as the weight W of the body, we
can substitute the magnitude W = mg of the weight for F, and the
earth’s radius R for r. We obtain

where M is the mass of the earth.