DIFFERENT TYPE OF SIGNALS (FUNCTIONS)

1. Step Function
 Consider the signal of following figure 1.
 The signal of the Fig.1 has zero values for t < 0 and it has a value of ‘A’ for t ≥ 0.
 Since the signal look a ‘step’, it is called step function or step signal.
 Step function is also called displacement function.
 The step signal can be defined mathematically as follows :
f(t) = A for t≥0
=0 for t<0
Unit Step Function [u(t)] Fig.1 : Step signal
 A step function is said to be unit step function u(t) if it satisfies two following conditions:
a) The amplitude of unit step function is always equal to unity.
b) Unit step function u(t) is zero wherever t < 0, and is unit when t ≥ 0
 The unit step signal can be defined mathematically as follows:
u(t) = 1 for t≥0
=0 for t<0

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 1

2. Ramp Function
 Ramp function is describe as illustrated if Fig. 2.
 The ramp function is described mathematically by following relation :
r(t) = 0 for t<0
= k.t for t≥0
where k is the slope of the ramp function r(t).
Unit Ramp Function
 The unit ramp function is described by following relation :
r(t) = 0 for t<0
=t for t≥0 Fig. 2 : Ramp function

3. Parabolic Function
 The parabolic function is described mathematically by following relation :
r(t) = 0 for t<0
= k.t2 for t≥0
where k is a constant.

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 2

4. Sinusoidal Function
 The sinusoidal function is described mathematically by following relation :
f(t) = 0 for t<0
= A Sin ωt for t≥0
where A and ω are constant.

5. Impulse Function
 The impulse function is a special limiting case of the pulse function.
 Consider the impulse function
 (t )  lim t0 0 tA for 0  t  t0
0
0 for 0  t, t0  t

 Since the height of the impulse function is A/to and the duration is to, the area under the
impulse is equal to A.
 As the duration to approaches zero, the height A/to approaches infinity, but the area
under the impulse remains equal to A.
 Note that the magnitude of the impulse is measured by its area.

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 3

 TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
 The time response of a control system means a system behaves in accordance with time
when a specified input test signal is applied.
 Time is as independent variable in control system, it is usually of interest to evaluate
the state and the responses with respect to time or the time response.
 A reference input signal is applied to a system and the performance of the system is
evaluated by studying the system response in the time domain.
 The object of the control system is to have the output variable track the signal,
starting at the initial time and initial condition, it is necessary to compare the input
and output responses as function of time.
 The final evaluation of the performance of the system is based on the time responses.
 The time response of a control system is usually divided into two parts:

1. The transient response and

2. Steady-state response

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 4

 Let y(t) denote the time response of a continuous-data system; then it can be written as
y(t) = yt(t) + yss(t)
where yt(t) denotes the transient response and yss(t) denotes the steady-state response.

 The typical time response of a control system for a specified input signal is shown in Fig.1

Fig. 1 : The time response of a control system.

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 5

Transient Response
 The transient response means that the response of a control system goes the initial
state to the final state.
 The transient response is defined as the part of the time response that response goes
to zero as time becomes very large.
 Thus yt(t) has the property
Lim t   yt(t) = 0

Steady-State Response
 The steady-state response is the part of the total response that response that means
after the transient has died out.
 Thus the steady-state response can still vary in a fixed pattern, such as a sine wave
or a ramp function that increases with time
Steady-State Error
 The objectives of most control systems are that the system output response follows a
specific reference signal accurately in the steady-state.
 The difference between the output and the reference input in the steady state was
defined as the steady-state error
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 6
Transient Response of First Order System

 Consider a first-order control system (RC-Circuit) and corresponding block diagram is

shown in Fig. 2.
 The transfer function of the system is
Y(s) 1

R(s) 1  T s
Fig. 2 : Block diagram of a first-
 Output of the system is
order control system.
1
Y ( s)   R( s )
1 T s
A. Unit-Step Response of First-Order System
 The unit-step input function is R(s) = 1/s, the output response is given by
1 1 1
Y ( s)   
s (T s  1) s s  1/ T
 Taking the inverse Laplace transform on both side of the above equation, we have
y (t )  1  e  t / T

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 7

 The output equation states that initially the output y(t) is zero and finally it becomes
unit.
 The output characteristic is shown in Fig. 3.

 The important characteristic of the

exponential response curve is that the
slop of the tangent line at t = 0 is 1/T,
since t / T
y (t ) e 1
 
dt t  0 T t 0
T
where, T is the time constant of the first
order control system.
 Now, the error response of the first order
control system is given by
e (t )  r (t )  y (t )  1  1  e t / T  et / T
 The steady-state error is given
ess = Lim t e(t) = Lim t e – t / T = 0
 Thus the first order system tracks the unit-step input with zero steady-state
error.
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 8
B. Unit-Ramp Response of First-Order System

 The Laplace transform of the unit-ramp function is R(s) = 1/s2, from the first order
system, the output response is given by
1 1 1 T T
Y ( s)   2  2 
(T s  1) s s s s  1/ T
 Taking the inverse Laplace transform on both
side of the above equation, we have
y (t )  t  T  Te  t / T
 Now, the error response of the first order
control system is given by Fig. 4 : Ramp response of 1st order system.

e (t )  r (t )  y (t )  t  t  T  Te t / T  T (1  et / T )
 The steady-state error is given

ess = Lim t e(t) = Lim t T (1 - e – t / T ) = T

 The first order system under consideration will track the unit-ramp input with a steady-
state error ‘T’, which is equal to the time constant of the system, as shown in Fig. 4.

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 9

C. Unit-Impulse Response of First-Order System

 The Laplace transform of the unit-impulse input function is R(s) = 1, from the first order
system of Fig.2, the output response can be obtain as
1 1 1
Y ( s)   R( s )  
1 T s T s  1/ T
 Taking the inverse Laplace transform on both
side of the above equation, we have
1 t / T
y (t )  e
T
 The response curve given by the above
equation is shown in Fig. 5.
 The unit input functions and corresponding time Fig. 5 : Impulse response of the
response of a first-order control system is given 1st order system.
the table below:
Input Functions Time Response Expression Remarks
1. Unit Impulse , 1 y(t) = e - t / T / T Integrate
2. Unit Step , 1/s y(t) = 1 - T e - t / T
3. Unit Ramp , 1/s2 y(t) = t - T + Te - t/T Differentiate
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 10
Transient Response of Second-Order Control System
 Consider a second-order control system with unit feedback is represented by the
block diagram shown in Fig. 6.
 The transfer function of the system is
Y (s) n 2

R( s ) s 2  2n s  n 2
Fig. 6 : Block diagram of a second
 For a unit-step function input R(s) = 1/s , order control system.
the output response of the system is
n 2 n 2 1 s  2n
Y ( s )  R( s)  2   
s  2n s  n 2 s ( s 2  2n s  n 2 ) s s 2  2n s  n 2

1  s  n n d 
    
s  ( s  n ) 2  d 2  1   2 ( s  n ) 2  d 2 
 n 
1  s  n  d  s 2  2n s  n 2
    2  s 2  2 s  ( ) 2   2  ( )2
s  ( s  n )  d
2 2
1  2 ( s   ) 2
  d 
 n  n n n n

( s  n )2  n 2 (1   2 )
n  natural frequency d  damplig frequency 2
( s  n )  d
2
  damping ratio n  damping factor
where, d  n 1   2
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 11
 Taking the inverse Laplace transform of above equation, we get
  
n t nt
y (t )  1   e cos(d t )  e sin(d t ) 
 1  2

Let ,   cos 
 1
e nt
1  2  1 2
cos(d t )   sin(d t )  and 1   2  sin 
e nt
 1 sin  cos(d t )  cos  sin(d t )
1  2

e nt
 1 sin (d t   )
1  2

 The error signal is

e(t )  r (t )  y (t )  1  1 
e nt
1  2 
sin (n 1   2 t  cos 1  ) 

ent
1  2  sin (n 1   2 t  cos 1  ) 
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 12
A. Undamped Case ( = 0 ) :
 The damping ratio  is equal to the response becomes undamped and oscillations
continue indefinitely.
 At zero damping i.e.  = 0, the output of the system is
y (t )  1  sin (d t  900 )  1  cos d t

 The time response characteristic of the system is shown in Fig. 7, which indicates
sustained oscillations.

Fig. 7 : Time response of a second-order system

at undamped ( = 0).

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 13

B. Underdamped Case (0 <  < 1) :
 The time response expression, indicates that for values of 0 <  < 1 the response presents
exponentially decaying oscillations having a damping frequency d = n(1 - 2) and the
time constant of exponential decay is 1/n.
 The error signal exhibits a damped sinusoidal oscillation.
 At steady state, or at t  , no error exists between the input and output.
ess = Lim t e(t) = 0
 The time response and the error for 0 <  < 1 are plotted in Fig. 8(a) and (b).
 As stated above, if 0 <  < 1, the time response presents damped oscillations and such a
response is called “Underdamped Response”.
 The response settles with 2% of the desired value after damping out the oscillations in a
time 4T, where T = 1/n.

Fig. 8(a) : Time response of a 2nd order system. Fig.8(b) : Error signal of a 2nd order system.
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 14
C. Critically Damped Case (  = 1 ) :

 The expression for the response of a second order control system having  = 1 when
subjected to unit step input function is derived.
 Taking limits of the output equation as the value of  approaches 1, the equation
derived below is obtained

 
y (t )  Lim 1 1 

e   n t
1  2
sin (n 1   2 ) t cos   cos (n 1   2 ) t sin   

 
 Lim 1 1 

e   n t
1  2

sin (n 1   2 ) t   cos (n 1   2 ) t 1   2  


where, sin   1   2 and cos   

 Now,

Lim 1 sin (n 1   2 ) t   n 1   2 ) t and Lim 1 cos (n 1   2 ) t  1

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 15

 The output equation is

 e   n t 
y (t )  Lim 1 1 
 1  2
 n 1   2 ) t  1   2  

  Lim 1 1  e   n t nt  1 
 The time response characteristic of the system is shown in Fig. 9.
 The response is called critically damped response.

Fig. 9 : Critically damped response (  = 1 ).

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 16

D. Overdamped Case (  > 1 ) :
 An expression for the response of a second order control system having  > 1 when
subjected to unit step input function is derived hereunder.
 The input is a unit step function R(s) = 1/s and the output for the second-order system is
given by
n 2 1 s  2n
Y ( s)  2  
s ( s  2n s  n 2 ) s s ( s  n  n  2  1) ( s  n  n  2  1)
1 1 1 1 1
    
s 2  2  1 (   2  1) s  (   2  1) 2  2  1 (   2  1) s  (   2  1)
n n

 Taking inverse Laplace transform o both side of the above equation

1 1
 e  (   1)n t   e  (   2 1)n t
2
y (t )  1 
2  2  1 (   2  1) 2  2  1 (   2  1)

 The time response characteristic of system

is plotted in Fig. 10.
 The response is called over-damped
response.

Fig. 10 : Over-damped response (  > 1 ).

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 17
Characteristic Equation
 The general expression for the transfer function of a second order control system is
given by
Y (s) n 2
 2
R( s ) s  2n s  n 2
 The denominator of the above expression is equated to zero and following equation is
formed
 ( s )  s 2  2n s  n 2  0
 This equation is called the characteristic equation of a second order system.
 The characteristic equation is quadratic in s and two roots are

s1 , s2  2n  jn (1   2 )
 The roots s1, s2 and also the poles of transfer function expression by the system
transfer function.
 The study of roots s1, s2 gives a prediction about the nature of time response.
 The real part of the roots represents the damping factor and the imaginary part
represents damping frequency of oscillation.

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 18

 The location of the characteristic equation for various value of  (keeping n fixed)
and the corresponding time response for a second order system is shown in Fig. 11.

Fig.11 : Location of roots of the characteristic equation

and corresponding time response.
 From the Fig. 11 it is inferred that the change over from undamped to overdamped
response takes place at  = 1.
 The value of  from the location of roots is calculated as  = cos .
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 19
Damping Ratio and Damping Factor

 The characteristic equation of the second-order system is

 ( s )  s 2  2n s  n 2  0
 The characteristic equation is quadratic in s and two roots are

s1 , s2  2n  jn (1   2 )
 When the two roots of the characteristic equation are real and equal, we called the
system critically damped.
 The critical damping occurs when  = 1.
 Under this condition, the damping factor is simply  = n.
 The ratio between the actual damping factor and the critical damping factor is known
as the damping ratio.
 It is denoted by .
Actual damping factor n
Damping ratio,   
Critical damping factor n

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 20

Unit-Step Transient Response Specification of Second Order Control System
 For a linear control systems, the characterization of the transient response is often done
by use of the unit-step function as the input.
 The transient response of a second order control system often exhibits damped
oscillations before reaching steady state.
 In specifying the transient-response characteristics of a control system to the step input,
it is common to specify the following:
1. Delay time (td )
2. Rise time ( tr )
3. Peak time (tp )
4. Maximum overshoot (Mp)
5. Settling time, (ts)

Fig.12 : Time response specification of second order system.

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 21
Definitions of Transient-Response Specification:
1. Delay Time(td):
The delay time, td is define as the time required for the step response to reach half
(50%) of its final value.
2. Rise Time (tr):
The rise time tr is define as the time required for the step response to rise from 10% to
90% or 0% to 100% of its final value. For underdamped second-order system, the 0% to
100% rise time is normally used. For overdamped second-order system, the 10% to 90%
rise time is commonly used.
3. Peak Time (tp):
The peak time tp is define as the time required for the step response to reach the first
peak of the overshoot.
4. Overshoot (Mp):
The maximum positive deviation of the output with respect to its desired value is
known as maximum overshoot and denoted as Mp.
ymax  yss
%M P  100  ( y (t p )  1)  100
yss
5. Settling Time (tp):
The settling time ts is define as the time required for the step response to decrease and
stay within a specified percentage of its final value. The settling time is related to the
large time constant of the control system.
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 22
1. The Rise Time (tr) Calculation:
 The rise time is the needed for the response to reach from 0% to 100% of the final
value of the output at the very first instant.
 The rise time for underdamped second order control system is calculated below.
 The expression for the time response of a second order control system is given by

y (t )  1 
e nt
1  2 
sin (n 1   2 t   ) 
 At the instant of time tr , the magnitude of response y(tr) = 1, then

1  1
e ntr
1  2 
sin (n 1   2 tr   ) 

e ntr
1  2 sin (n 1   2 tr   )  0 

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 23

 As e ntr is finite, then,

sin (n 1   2 tr   )  0
 The solution of the equation is

n 1   2 t r    
   
 tr  
d  1  2
n

 This is the expression of rise time of a second order control system.

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 24

2. The Peak Time (tp) Calculation :

 The time need to reach the maximum overshoot is called peak time and denoted as tp.
 We are obtain the peak time by differentiating y(t) with respect to time and letting this
equal to zero.
 Since
d  
 t
dy (t ) e np
 1 
dt t  t p dt 
sin (d t p   )   0

 1  2

n t p n t p
 e cos (d t p   ) d  n e sin (d t p   )  0

 n e
n t p cos ( t   ) 1   2   sin ( t   )   0
 d p d p 
nt p
 In the above equation, since e is finite,

1   2 cos (d t p   )   sin (d t p   )  0

 sin  cos (d t p   )  cos  sin (d t p   )  0
 sin (d t p )  0
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 25
 The general solution of the above equation is
d t p  
 
 tp  
d  1   2
n

 This is the expression for peat time of second order control system.

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 26

3. Maximum Overshoot (Mp) Calculation

 The maximum positive deviation of the output with respect to its desired value is
known as maximum overshoot and denoted as Mp.
 The maximum overshoot occurs at the peak time or at t = tp.
 Assuming that the final value of the output is 1, Mp is obtained as follows:

sin ( 
  n t p
e
M P  y (t p )  1  1  n 1  2t p   ) 1
1  2

 n  
e n 1 2   
sin ( n 1      )
2

1  2  n 1   2 

 
 

1 2 1 2 1 2
e e e
 sin (   )  sin  )   1  2
1 2 1  2 1  2


1 2 
e 
1 2
 The maximum percent overshoot, %Mp  e 100
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 27
Steady State Error
 The steady-state error is an index of accuracy of a control system.
 These error arise from the nature of input, type of the systems and from nonlinearity
of the system components.
 The steady state error should be minimizing as far as possible. Consider a closed-loop
control system is shown in Fig. 16
 The output of the closed loop system is
G( s)
Y ( s)   R( s )
1  G ( s ) H ( s)
 The error of the system is Fig. 16 : A closed-loop control system
Y (s) 1 G ( s) 1
E ( s)     R(s)   R(s)
G ( s) G ( s ) 1  G ( s) H ( s ) 1  G ( s) H ( s)
 The steady-state error, may now be found by using of the final-value theorem as
s R( s)
ess  limt  e(t )  lim s 0 sE ( s )  lim s 0
1  G ( s) H ( s)
 The steady-state error possessed by a closed-loop control system depends on the
input and the open-loop transfer function.
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 28
Static Error Constants
 There are three types of static error constants.
 The error constants are depends upon the input of the system.
 Static error constants are
1. Static Position Error Constant ( Kp )
2. Static Velocity Error Constant ( Kv )
3. Static Acceleration Error Constant ( Ka )

1. Static Position Error Constant (Kp) :

Static position error constant Kp is associated with unit-step input [R(s) = 1/s] applied
to a closed-loop control system and is determined below:
s R(s) s
ess  lim s 0  lim s 0
1  G (s) H ( s) s [1  G ( s ) H ( s )]
1 1
 
1  lim s 0 G ( s ) H ( s )] 1  K P

Where K P  lim s 0 G ( s) H ( s ) is defined as the static position error constant.

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 29

2. Static Velocity Error Constant (Kv) :
Static velocity error coefficient Kv is associated with unit ramp input [R(s) = 1/s2]
applied to a closed-loop control system and is determined below :
s R ( s) 1
ess  lim s 0  lim s0
1  G ( s ) H ( s) s [1  G ( s ) H ( s )]
1 1
 
lim s 0 sG ( s ) H ( s )] K v
Where, K v  lim s0 s G ( s ) H ( s ) is defined as the static velocity error constant.
3. Static Acceleration Error Constant (Ka) :
Static acceleration error coefficient Ka is associated with unit-parabolic input [R(s) = 1/s3]
applied to a closed-loop control system and is determined below :
s R( s ) 1
ess  lim s 0  lim s0 2 2
1  G (s) H (s) s  s G ( s ) H ( s )]
1 1
 
lim s 0 s 2G ( s ) H ( s ) K a
Where, K a  lim s 0 s 2 G ( s ) H ( s )is defined as the static acceleration error constant.
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 30
Type of The Systems
 Consider the unity-feedback control system with the following open-loop transfer
function G(s):
K (Ta s  1)(Tb s  1)(Tc s  1)  (Tm s  1)
G( s) 
s N (T1s  1)(T2 s  1)(T3 s  1)  (Tn s  1)

 This transfer function involves the term sN in the denominator, representing a pole of
multiplicity N at the origin.
 The classification scheme is based on the number of integrations indicated by the
open-loop transfer function.
 A system is called type 0, type 1, type 2,. . . , if N = 0, N = 1, N = 2,. . . , respectively.
 Type of the system is increased, then the stability should be effected.
 If G(s) is written so that each term in the numerator and denominator, except the
term sN, approaches unity as s approaches zero, then the open-loop gain K is directly
related to the steady-state error

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 31

Static error constants and Steady state error calculation
1. For a type ‘0’ system
 Consider a type ‘0’ system, the open-loop transfer function with a unity feedback is
given by
K (Ta s  1)(Tb s  1)(Tc s  1)  (Tm s  1)
G(s) 
(T1s  1)(T2 s  1)(T3 s  1)  (Tn s  1)
i) Static position error constant (KP)

K P  lim s0 G(s) H(s)

K (Ta s  1)(Tb s  1)(Tc s  1)  (Tm s  1)
 lim s0
(T1s  1)(T2 s  1)(T3 s  1)  (Tn s  1)
K
 The steady-state error,
1 1
ess  
1 KP 1 K

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 32

ii) Static velocity error constant (KV)
KV  lim s 0 sG(s) H(s)
Ks (Ta s  1)(Tb s  1)(Tc s  1)  (Tm s  1)
 lim s 0 0
(T1s  1)(T2 s  1)(T3 s  1)  (Tn s  1)
 The steady-state error,
1 1
ess   
Kv 0

iii) Static acceleration error constant (Ka) :

K A  lim s 0 s 2 G(s) H(s)
Ks 2 (Ta s  1)(Tb s  1)(Tc s  1)  (Tm s  1)
 lim s 0 0
(T1s  1)(T2 s  1)(T3 s  1)  (Tn s  1)
 The steady-state error,
1 1
ess   
Ka 0
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 33
2. For a type ‘1’ system

 Consider a type ‘1’ system, the open-loop transfer function with a unity feedback
is given by
K (Ta s  1)(Tb s  1)(Tc s  1)  (Tm s  1)
G(s) 
s (T1s  1)(T2 s  1)(T3 s  1)  (Tn s  1)

i) Static position error constant (KP)

K P  lim s 0 G(s) H(s)

K (Ta s  1)(Tb s  1)(Tc s  1)  (Tm s  1)
 lim s 0
s (T1s  1)(T2 s  1)(T3 s  1)  (Tn s  1)


 The steady-state error,

1 1
ess   0
1 KP 1 

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 34

ii) Static velocity error constant (Kv)
K v  lim s 0 sG ( s ) H ( s)
Ks (Ta s  1)(Tb s  1)(Tc s  1)  (Tm s  1)
 lim s 0 K
s (T1s  1)(T2 s  1)(T3 s  1)  (Tn s  1)
 The steady-state error,
1 1
ess  
Kv K

iii) Static acceleration error constant (Ka)

K a  lim s 0 s 2G ( s ) H ( s )
Ks 2 (Ta s  1)(Tb s  1)(Tc s  1)  (Tm s  1)
 lim s 0 0
s (T1s  1)(T2 s  1)(T3 s  1)  (Tn s  1)
 The steady-state error,
1 1
ess   
Ka 0
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 35
3. For a type ‘2’ system

 Consider a type ‘2’ system, the open-loop transfer function with a unity feedback
is given by
K (Ta s  1)(Tb s  1)(Tc s  1)  (Tm s  1)
G(s) 
s 2 (T1s  1)(T2 s  1)(T3 s  1)  (Tn s  1)

i) Static position error constant (KP)

K P  lim s 0 G(s) H(s)

K (Ta s  1)(Tb s  1)(Tc s  1)  (Tm s  1)
 lim s 0
s 2 (T1s  1)(T2 s  1)(T3 s  1)  (Tn s  1)


 The steady-state error,

1 1
ess   0
1 KP 1 

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 36

ii) Static velocity error constant (Kv)
K v  lim s 0 sG ( s ) H ( s )
Ks(Ta s  1)(Tb s  1)(Tc s  1)  (Tm s  1)
 lim s 0 
s (T1s  1)(T2 s  1)(T3 s  1)  (Tn s  1)
2

 The steady-state error,

1 1
ess   0
Kv 

iii) Static acceleration error constant (Ka)

K a  lim s 0 s 2G ( s ) H ( s )
Ks 2 (Ta s  1)(Tb s  1)(Tc s  1)  (Tm s  1)
 lim s 0 K
s (T1s  1)(T2 s  1)(T3 s  1)  (Tn s  1)
2

 The steady-state error,

1 1
ess  
Ka K
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 37
Summary
 The following table summarizes the steady-state errors for type-0, type-1, and type-2
systems when they are subjected to various inputs.
 The finite values for steady state errors appear on the diagonal line.
 Above the diagonal, the steady-state errors are infinity; below the diagonal, they are
zero.

Input Step Input Ramp Input Acceleration Input

and r(t) = 1 r(t) = t r(t) = (1/2)t2
System
Kp ess Kv ess Ka ess
Type-0 K 1/(1+K) 0 ∞ 0 ∞
Type-1 ∞ 0 K 1/K 0 ∞
Type-2 ∞ 0 ∞ 0 K 1/K

Table : Static error constants and steady state error in terms of gain K.

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 38

 Numerical Examples
Example-1 : A unity feedback control system is characterized by a open loop transfer function
100
G( s) 
s( s  10)
Determine the natural frequency, damping ratio, damping factor, damping frequency, rise time,
peak time, settling time and maximum overshoot of the control system for a unit step input.
Example - 2: A unity feedback system is characterize by an open loop transfer function
K
G(s) 
s ( s  10)
Determine the gain K so that the system will have a damping ratio of 0.5. For the value of K
determine settling time, peak time and peak overshoot for a unit step input.
Example -3 : The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is given by
K
G(s) 
s (1  sT )
where T and K are positives. By what factor, the amplifier gain be reduced so that the peak
overshoot of unit-step response of the system is reduced from 75% to 25%.
Example 4 : Determine the error constants and steady state error for the system whose open
loop transfer function with unity feedback is
16( s  4)
G(s) 
s ( s  2)( s  8)
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 39
Example-1 : A unity feedback control system is characterized by a open loop transfer
function
100
G( s) 
s ( s  10)
Determine the natural frequency, damping ratio, damping factor, damping frequency, rise
time, peak time, settling time and maximum overshoot of the control system for a unit step
input.
Solution : The characteristic equation of the system is
100
1  G (s ) H ( s)  1  0
s ( s  10)
 s 2  10s  100  0 (1)
The general characteristic equation of a second order control system is

s 2  2  n s  n 2  0 (2)
Comparing Eqs. (1) and (2), we get
n2  100 and 2 n  10
 n  10 rad./ s    0.5
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 40
 Natural frequency, n  10 rad ./ s
Damping ratio,   0.5
Damping factor,  n  5 rad ./ s
Damping frequency, d  n 1   2  10 1  0.25  8.66 rad ./ s
    cos1 (0.5)
Rise time, tr    0.24 s
n 1   2 10 1  0.25
 
Peak time, tp    0.36 s
n 1   2 10 1  0.25
   0.5
 
1 2
Maximum overshoot, % M p  e 100  e 0.75
100  16.35%
4 4
Settling time, ts    0.8 s ( for 2% error )
 n 0.5 10

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 41

Example–2: A unity feedback system is characterize by an open loop transfer function
K
G (s) 
s ( s  10)
Determine the gain K so that the system will have a damping ratio of 0.5. For the value of K
determine settling time, peak time and peak overshoot for a unit step input.
Solution : The characteristic equation of the system is
K
1  G( s) H ( s)  1   s 2  10s  K  0 (1)
s ( s  10)
The general characteristic equation of a second order control system is
s 2  2  n s  n 2  0 (2)
Comparing Eqs. (1) and (2), we get
10
2 n  10  n   10 rad./ s and K  n2  100
2  0.5
 
Peak time, tp    0.36 s
n 1   2 10 1  0.25
   0.5
 
1 2
Maximum overshoot, %M p  e 100  e 0.75
100  16.35%
4 4
Settling time, ts    0.8 s
 n 0.5 10
3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 42
Example -3 : The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is given by
K
G(s) 
s (1  sT )
where T and K are positives. By what factor, the amplifier gain be reduced so that the
peak overshoot of unit-step response of the system is reduced from 75% to 25%.
Solution : Let, the value of damping ratio ζ1 when maximum overshoot is 75%
and the value of damping ratio ζ2 when maximum overshoot is 25%.
For maximum overshoot 75%,
 1

1 12  1  12
Mp e  0.75    0.288   0.0915   1  0.09
1   12 1  1 2

For maximum overshoot 25%,

 2

1 22  2  22
Mp e  0.25    1.386   0.1947   2  0.4
1  2 2 1 2 2

Let us consider K1 for 75% overshoot and K2 for 25% overshoot, while T remains constant
in both the cases.

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 43

The characteristic is
K 1 K
1  G (s ) H ( s)  1   s2  s   0
s (1  sT ) T T
K
Now, n  rad ./ s
T
1 1 1
and 2  n     
T 2 nT 2 KT
Now, dividing and putting the value of

 1 1/ 2 K1T K2 0.091
     0.2254
 2 1/ 2 K 2T K1 0.4037
K2
  0.0508
K1
K1
  20.
K2
The amplifier gain has to be reduced by a factor 20.

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 44

Example 4 : Determine the error constants and steady state error for the system whose
open loop transfer function with unity feedback is
16 ( s  4)
G(s) 
s ( s  2)( s  8)
Solution :
16( s  4)
(i) Position error constant, K P  Lim s  0 G ( s )  Lim s  0 
s ( s  2)( s  8)
1 1
The steady state error, ess   0
1 KP 
16 s ( s  4)
(ii) Velocity error constant KV  Lim s  0 s G ( s)  Lim s  0 4
s ( s  2)( s  8)
1 1
The steady state error, ess    0.25
KV 4
2 16 s 2 ( s  4)
(iii) The acceleration error constant, K A  Lim s  0 s G ( s )  Lim s  0 0
s ( s  2)( s  8)
1 1
The steady state error, ess   
KA 0

3/25/2022 1:39 PM Applied Physics, University of Calcutta 45