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Design for Manufacturability

1. Modularize a product into units
2. Minimize the total number of parts in units
3. Maximize use of standard parts in units
4. Maximize use of symmetry in part design
5. Design parts for easy handling
6. Design parts for easy alignment
7. Design parts for easy location
8. Provide easy access for gripping part
9. Avoid or minimize use of fasteners
10. Design parts for easy assembling (eliminate reorientation and adjustment during assembly)

Table 1: Design for Castings

Mass Minimum Section* Tolerance* Surface Finish
Process Materials
(kg) Thickness (mm) (mm) (µm)
Sand mold All ≥0.05 3–7 ±0.75 – 3.00 5 – 25
Shell mold All 0.05 – 100+ 2-3 ±2.50 1 – 16
Investment All 0.05 – 100+ 0.6 – 1.0 ±0.20 - 1.25 1–3
Centrifugal All 5000+ 2-8 ±0.3 – 0.6 2 – 10
Plaster mold Non-ferrous 0.05 – 50+ ≥1 ±0.45 – 0.65 1–2
Die Non-ferrous ≤50 0.5 – 1.0 ±0.05 - 0.10 1-2
*Depends on size: larger sizes need bigger minimum section thickness and tolerance

Component Surface Roughness Requirements

Surface roughness values vary with applications and mating conditions of components. Table 2 gives surface
roughness values for average applications is some situations. Surface finish is important in high speed
components due to possible fatigue failure. The recommended surface finish for precision bearing applications is
0.8 µm (32 microinches) on shafts of less than 50 mm diameter and 1.6 µm (63 microinches) for shafts of larger
diameter. The suggested surface finish for bearing housing diameter is 3.2 µm (125 microinches) for all
applications.

Table 2: Surface roughness for average applications

Surface Roughness*
Components/Features
Ra (µm) Ra (µin)
Clearance surface (machined) 3.2 – 12.5 125 - 500
Relief areas (turned) 3.2 – 6.3 125 – 250
Mating surfaces (brackets, pads, bosses) 1.6 – 3.2 63 – 125
Tapped or die-cut threads 1.6 - 12.5 63 - 500
Surfaces for soft gaskets 1.6 - 12.5 63 - 500
Housing fits (no gaskets or seals) 1.6 – 3.1 63 - 125
Rolling surfaces-general (cams) 1.3 – 2.0 50 - 80
Slide ways and gibs, sliding surfaces and worm gears (general) 0.8 – 3.2 32 - 125
Ground threads, gear teeth, worms 0.4 – 1.6 16 – 63
Friction surfaces, brake drums, clutch plates 0.4 – 1.6 16 - 63
Sliding surfaces - precision 0.2 – 1.6 8 - 63
Rotating surfaces – precision, fatigue loaded parts 0.2 – 0.8 8 - 32
*Adapted from Budisnki (1989) Engineering Materials: Properties and Selection

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Surface Roughness Production Different

manufacturing processes have different capabilities for producing surface texture quality. Generally, machining
with heavy feeds and slow speeds result in rough surfaces or high roughness values. Machining with fine feeds
and high speeds give smooth surfaces or low roughness values. Often a finish machining process is carried out
after a rough machining process in order to achieve a desired surface finish. Table 3 summarizes typical
roughness height values for some manufacturing processes. Higher or lower roughness values may be obtained
under special conditions.

Table 3: Typical surface roughness height for some manufacturing processes

Roughness height (Ra, µm) Manufacturing Process(es)
12.5 – 1.6 Planning, shaping
6.3 – 1.6 Drilling, milling
6.3 - 0.4 Boring, turning
3.2 - 0.8 Broaching, Reaming
1.6 – 0.1 Grinding
0.8 - 0.1 Honing
0.4 - 0.1 Lapping
0.2 – 0.025 Supperfinishing

12.5 – 6.3 µm: most widely used gasket surface finish. Good for ordinary service conditions.
6.3 – 3.2 µm:
3.2 – 1.6 µm µm: smooth finish, tool marks are invisible to naked eyes.
0.8 – 1.6 µm µm: very smooth, mirror like in appearance [Pressure vessel design, p. 143].

Design for Assembly

1. Design for easy gripping of parts
2. Design fasteners into part or minimize their use
3. Avoid nesting or tangling of part features
4. Provide chamfer on both mating parts for easy insertion
5. Provide one correct mating position for parts
6. Design parts for uni-directional assembly, especially in cases of insertion
7. Avoid use of flexible parts
8. Use gravity in assembly whenever possible

Interchangeable Manufacture
Interchangeable manufacture refers to the making of machine components so that they can be assembled without
fitting. This idea was fueled by the mass production of automobile by Ford Motor Company which has become
the preferred manufacturing strategy. It helps to reduce unit cost of components. Interchangeable manufacturing
works only when component sizes are controlled within certain limits. It is practically possible today to design for
100 percent interchangeability. The basic strategies in the manufacturing industry today are:
• Total Interchangeable Assembly: All mass-produced components are assembled without fitting.
• Selected Assembly: All components are mass-produced but members of mating features are individually
sorted and paired for functional assembly.
• Fitted Assembly: Components are made individually and are fitted to achieve functionality. Mating
features are not interchangeable.

Tolerance Allocation in Production

Tolerances established in design and shown on component detail drawings must be adhered to in manufacturing
and inspection for acceptable quality. Hence errors in manufacturing and inspection must be less or at most equal
to the stated tolerances. What portion of these tolerances should be allowed in manufacturing or inspection? It
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seems reasonable that most of the tolerances should be allowed in manufacturing while a small percentage may be
allowed in inspection. The common practice is to allocate 10% to inspection and 90% to manufacturing. This
common rule of thumb is known as the Rule of Ten. Generally if the measurement system error is less or equal to
10% of a tolerance, it is regarded as perfect. The precision of the measurement system is thus a principal factor in
production.

Fits
A fit is a combination of tolerance grades suitable for the functional requirement of two mating components. It is
defined by combining the design size, fundamental deviation letters and tolerance grades of the mating
components. The internal part parameters precede the external part parameters. For instance, a fit may be
specified as 50H8g6. In this case, 50 mm is the design size, H is the fundamental deviation letter for the hole
(internal part) and 8 is the tolerance grade for the hole; g is the fundamental deviation letter for the shaft (external
part) and 6 is the tolerance grade for the shaft.

Fig. 4: Tolerance and fit symbolic designations

Types of Fits
There are three types of fits, namely clearance, transition, and interference fits.
Clearance is a mating condition with a clearance in all tolerance conditions. Largest size of internal
component is smaller than the smallest size of external component.
Transition is a mating condition with either a clearance or interference depending on tolerance conditions.
Largest size of internal component may not be smaller than the smallest size of external component.
Interference is a mating condition with interference in all tolerance conditions. Largest size of internal component
is larger than the smallest size of external component.

Hole-Basis or Shaft-Basis Fits

Hole- or Shaft-basis is used for fit designation. Hole-basis uses the hole as a reference and Shaft-basis uses the
shaft as a reference. Hole-basis is used when internal component has variable cross-sectional sizes along its
length. Shaft-basis is used when internal component has constant cross-sectional size along its length. Using class
“H” fundamental deviation, then for hole-basis, the lower limit hole size is equal to the design size and the upper
limit size is equal to the lower limit size plus the hole tolerance. For class “H” fundamental deviation and using
shaft-basis, the lower limit shaft size is equal to the design size and the upper limit size is equal to the lower limit
size plus the shaft tolerance.

Fit Selection
After design sizes are determined, the fits between mating parts need to be considered. The functional requirement
of a fit depends on the tightness between the mating components and this controls the required tolerance on the
components. Determining tolerances on components is a standard engineering task [54]. Reference may be made
to previous drawings or general engineering practice when determining fits. Fits have been standardized
nationally and internationally and the International Standardization Organization (ISO) standards are the most
preferred. ISO recommends two fits systems of Hole-basis and Shaft-basis and 18 tolerance grades. In Hole-basis

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system, the size of hole is fixed while the shaft size can change to meet tightness requirement of a fit. In Shaft-
basis system, the shaft size is fixed while the size of hole can change to meet tightness requirement for a fit. The
position of the reference or basic size for a tolerance group is indicated by a letter. Capitalized or upper-case
letters are used for holes while lower-case or small letters are used for shafts. The tolerance grade is indicated by a
number. A Fit is made up of a combination of letters and numbers such as H9-f8. Hole-basis system is generally
preferred by manufacturers because it minimizes the variety of cutting tools such as drills, reamers, broaches, and
gauges required for production activities. Smaller tolerances and fine surface finishes require use of high-
precision machine-tools, therefore production cost becomes higher. Hence small tolerances and high surface
finish need to be justified when specified.

Preferred Fits
The Hole-basis fits have four preferred hole tolerances: H11, H9, H8, and H7. The Shaft-basis fits also have four
preferred shaft tolerances: h11, h9, h8, and h7. To specify a fit, determine the basic size, select the fit (based on
functionality) and determine the size limits and allowances. Clearance fits for hole-basis are H11c11, H9d9, H8f7,
H7g6, and 7h6. Clearance fits for shaft-basis are C11h11, D9h9, F8h7, G7h6, and H7h6. Hole-basis transition fits
are H7k6 and H7n6. Shaft-basis transition fits are K7h6 and N7h6. interference fits for hole-basis are H7p6, H7s6
and H7u6. Interference fits for shaft-basis are P7h6, S7h6 and U7h6. Table 4 summarizes the application of these
fits.

Table 4: Preferred Fits (ANSI B4.2)

ISO SYMBOL Application
Fit Description
Hole Basis Shaft Basis
For wide commercial tolerance or allowances on external
H11c11 C11h11 Loose Running
components
Good for large temperature variations, high running speeds,
H9d9 D9h9 Free Running
or heavy journal pressures. Not when accuracy is important.
For running accurate machines and for accurate location to
H8f7 F8h7 Close Running
moderate speeds and journal pressures.
For free linear and turning movement, accurate location but
H7g6 G7h6 Sliding
not for free running.
For locating stationary parts where assembly and disassembly
Snug
H7h6 H7h6 can be freely done.
Locational For accurate location. Clearance or interference is likely
H7k6 K7h6
Transition
Locational For greater interference where more accurate location is
H7n6 N7h6
Transition desired.
For rigid and proper alignment of parts and where accuracy
in location is a prime factor. No special bore pressure in
H7p6 P7h6 Push
assembly. The hole basis is commonly used for transition fit
for basic sizes in the range of 0 to 3 mm.
For ordinary steel parts or shrink fits on light sections. The
H7s6 S7h6 Drive
tightest fit for cast iron parts.
For parts that can resist high stresses or shrink fits where
H7u6 U7h6 Force
heavy pressing forces required are impractical.

Table 5: Shaft and Gear Fits

Gear Type Non-reversible Drives Reversible Drives
Spur H7p6 H7r6
Helical/Worm H7r6 H7s7
Bevel H7s7 H7t6
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Table 6: Keys and Keyseats Tolerances

Key Width Keyseat Width
Fixed & Non-reversible Fixed & Reversible Movable
Rectangular
Tapered h9 Js9 P9 D10
Woodruff

Rolling Bearing Fits

• Rotating ring should have interference fit with shaft or housing
• Non-rotating ring should have close push fit with shaft or housing
• Adhere to manufacturer’s guidelines on fits and tolerances
• Axial fixation of ring may require shoulders, spacer sleeves, collars/snap rings, nuts, and lock washers
• A pair of bearings for a shaft
• Locate one bearing axially and radially
• Locate second bearing radially only

Inner Ring Loading Type

• Local: Ring is stationary with respect to load, load is applied at a fixed point
• Circulating: Points on raceway periphery loaded successively in one revolution
• Vibrational: Only a certain ring area is loaded repeatedly
R
• κ = eq
C
• κ = load ratio
• Req = equivalent radial load
• C = dynamic load capacity