Addis Ababa University

College of Education and Behavioral Studies

Department of Special Needs Education

Inclusiveness
Mihiret Ayele (MA)
Addis Ababa University
 Chapter 1
Understanding Disability
and Vulnerability
 1.1. Definitions of disability and vulnerability
• Disability is not uncommon and it is part of human diversity.
• It is estimated that 15 % of the world’s population has a disability, a
percentage that is expected to grow because of poor health care and nutrition
early in life, growing elderly populations and violent civil conflicts.
• Among the population of people with disabilities, approximately 80 % live
in developing countries and are disproportionately represented among the
poor.
• For instance, of the total population of Ethiopia, 17.6% are estimated to live
with some sort of impairment (WHO and World Bank, 2011, p. 272).
• Understanding the concept of disability varies between cultures and
evolves with in a culture over time.
• People are using the two key terms, impairments and disability
interchangeably but there is a visible conceptual distinction between
these terms as described below:
1.1.1. Impairment
• Impairment is the “purely factual absence of or loss of functioning in a
body part.” it can be functional, psychological or physiological part of
body.
• Hence, the term impairment is used to notify the physical condition of
a person such as visual, physical, hearing, and intellectual disabilities.
• It may result in activity limitation based on the degree/ severity, type
and onset of the impairment.
 Impairment
➢ Impairments represent a deviation from certain
generally accepted population standards.
➢The presence of impairments do not necessarily
indicate that a disease is present or that the individual
should be regarded as sick.
➢Impairments can be temporary or permanent;
progressive, regressive or static; intermittent or
continuous.
 1.1.2. Disability
• The concept of disability is defined as “the interaction between persons
with impairments and attitudinal and environmental barriers that hinders
their full and effective participation in a society on an equal basis with
others” (UN CRPD, 2006).
• Disability is, therefore, a negative reaction of people towards persons
with impairments that results in “participation restriction.”
• Disability, as a concept is referred: as an umbrella term that include
impairment, activity limitation and participation restriction.
• Hence, Article 1 of the CRPD describes persons with disabilities as “those
who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual, or sensory impairments
which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective
participation in society on an equal basis with others.”
 1.1.3. Vulnerability
• On the other hand, the term vulnerability refers to state of
being exposed to the possibility of being attacked or
harmed, either physically or emotionally.
• Accordingly, vulnerable groups belong to the people who
are physically and emotionally hurt and attacked as a result
of various forms of social injustice and malpractices.
 Vulnerability is classified into four categories as described below:
A. Physical Vulnerability:
• The physical vulnerability of an area also depends on its
geographic proximity to the source and origin of the disasters
e.g. if an area lies near the coast lines, fault lines, unstable hills
etc.
B. Economic Vulnerability:
• Economic vulnerability of a community can be assessed by
determining how varied its sources of income are, the ease of
access and control over means of production (e.g. farmland,
livestock, irrigation, capital etc.), adequacy of economic fall
back mechanisms and the availability of natural resources in
the area.
C. Social Vulnerability:
• A socially vulnerable community has weak family structures, lack of
leadership for decision making and conflict resolution, unequal
participation in decision making, weak or no community organizations,
and the one in which people are discriminated on racial, ethnic, linguistic
or religious basis.
D. Attitudinal Vulnerability:
• A community which has negative attitude towards change and lacks
initiative in life resultantly become more and more dependent on external
support.
• This brings about disunity and individualism in the society. Thus, they
become victims of conflicts, hopelessness and pessimism which reduce
their capacity of coping with a disaster.
1.2. Causes of impairments and vulnerability
• The issue of disability/impairment is not yet being scientifically
understood and treated by the society particularly in the low-
income countries including Ethiopia.
• As a result, the cause of impairment is not appropriately
comprehended due to the reason that people still believe that
impairment is caused by curse, sin and wrath of God.
• However, even though some causes of impairment are unknown,
scientific research conducted on the issue confirmed that the
cause of impairment is classified into 2 major categories as
described hereunder:
1.2.1. Biological
• Under this category of the cause of impairment, genetically induced
factors are commonly known reasons.
• These include:
- Abnormalities in genes and genetic inheritance that may cause
intellectual disability, down syndrome and other multiple
impairments on children.
- Sometimes, diseases, illnesses, and over-exposure to x-rays can
cause a genetic disorder.
- Pre-term and underweight birth also may result in different forms
of impairment.
 1.2.2. Environmental
• The adverse effect of poverty and starvation such malnutrition, lack of
access to health care and treatment etc. may cause impairment to the child
during pre- and- postnatal period.
• The use of drugs, alcohol, tobacco, the exposure to certain toxic chemicals
and illnesses, toxoplasmosis, cytomegalovirus, rubella and syphilis by a
pregnant mother can cause intellectual and other types of disability to the
child.
• Childhood diseases such as a whooping cough, measles, and chicken pox
may lead to meningitis and encephalitis.
• This can cause damage to the brain of the child.
• Toxic material such as lead and mercury can damage the brain too.
• Unfortunate life accident such as drowning, car accidents, falls,
landmines, war, etc. can result in people losing their sight, hearing,
limbs and other vital parts of their body.
• As in the case of impairment, among several examples of causes of
vulnerability, the following are the most known contributing factors to
vulnerability:
- Poor governance;
- Poverty;
- Discrimination;
- Inequality and inadequate access to resource and livelihood.
 1.3. Types of impairments and vulnerable groups
• Regardless of the existence of a number of types of impairments, the
commonly known and major kinds of impairments are listed below.
1.3.1. Visual impairment (Generic terminology for blindness and low
vision
1.3.2. Hearing Impairment (Generic terminology for deafness and hard
of hearing)
1.3.3. Specific Learning Disability (Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, Dyscalculia)
1.3.4. Speech and Language Impairments including fluency disorder
1.3.5. Autism
1.3.6. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
1.3.7. Intellectual Disability
1.3.8. Physical /Orthopedic Impairments
 1.3.9. Health related Impairments Such as:
- Heart disease;
- Cystic fibrosis(is a hereditary disease that affects the lungs and digestive
system.);
- Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS);
- Hemophilia(is a rare disorder in which your blood doesn't clot normally
because it lacks sufficient blood-clotting proteins (clotting factors) ;
- Asthma;
- Diabetes;
- Nephrosis & Nephritis Kidney disorders nephrosis is (pathology) a non-
inflammatory disease of the kidneys that is characterized by the leaking of
blood protein into the urine, swelling or oedema, and degenerative lesions
while nephritis is (pathology) inflammation of the kidney. ;
-Sickle-cell anemia;
-Leukemia (is a blood cancer caused by a rise in the number of white blood
cells in your body.) ;
-Lead poisoning Disorder (is a type of metal poisoning caused
by lead in the body) ;
-Rheumatic fever (is a disease that can affect the heart, joints, brain, and
skin) ;
-Tuberculosis;
-Cancer;
-Epilepsy;
-Leprosy
1.3.10. Multiple Impairment:
-Deaf blindness.
• Then again, children, pregnant women, elderly people,
malnourished people, and people who are ill or immune-
compromised, are particularly vulnerable when a disaster
strikes, and take a relatively high share of the disease
burden associated with emergencies (WHO, 2020).
• In general poor and socially disadvantaged people are the
most known vulnerable groups throughout the world.
• The following features depict the common characteristics of the
vulnerable groups stated above:
- Less physically or mentally capable (infants, older adults,
people with disabilities);
- Fewer material and/or financial resources (low-income
households, homeless);
- Less knowledge or experience (children, illiterate,
foreigners, tourists);
- Restricted by society to grow and develop according to
their needs and potentials.
 1.4. Historical background of modalities moving towards
inclusion
• In the post industrial period legislations and litigations created opportunities
for children with disabilities to access education in public schools.
• The following modalities were applied to teach children with disabilities.
1.4.1. Specialized and or residential schools
• These schools were established with an intention to provide educational
services in specialized approach only for children with disabilities.
• Consequently, schools for the deaf, schools for the blind etc. came into
being as separate institutions throughout 19th and 20th century.
 1.4.2. Mainstreaming
• In the 1960 and 70s special needs education classes were established in
public schools with an intention to create least restrictive environment for
children with disabilities.
1.4.3. Integration
• The approach was introduced and applied in 1970s with an objective to
integrating students with disabilities in general class setting without the
change of regular school/education system.
• In this situation, students with disabilities are required to fit the system.
• This approach is characterized by the following realities:
- System stays the same;
- Round pegs for round holes;
- Change the child to fit the system;
- Make the square peg round;
- Child must adapt or fail.
Integration
 1.4.4.Inclusive Education
• This approach was applied as of the last quarter of 20th century
focusing on regular education system change to fit the special
educational needs of students with disabilities as discussed in the
next section in detail.
• This approach is characterized by the following factors.
- Flexible system;
- Children are different;
- All children can learn: (Different abilities, Ethnic Groups, Size,
Age, Background, Gender, Persons with disabilities);
- Change the system to fit the child.
Inclusive
 1.5. Evolution of the concept of disability
• In order to understand how disability is currently viewed, it is
helpful to look at the way the concept of disability has evolved
over time as described below.
1.5.1.Traditional/Charity Model
• Historically, disability was largely understood in mythological or
religious terms, e.g. people with disabilities were considered to be
possessed by devils or spirits; disability was also often seen as a
punishment for past wrong doing.
• These views are still present today in many traditional societies.
 1.5.2.Individual/Medical Model
• In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, developments in
science and medicine helped to create an understanding that
disability has a biological or medical basis, with impairments in
body function and structure being associated with different health
conditions.
• This medical model views disability as a problem of the
individual and is primarily focused on cure and the provision of
medical care by professionals.
 1.5.3.Social Model/Human Rights-Based
Model
• In the 1960s and 1970s, the individual and medical view of
disability was challenged and a range of social approaches were
developed, e.g. the social model of disability.
• These approaches shifted attention away from the medical aspects
of disability and instead focused on the social barriers and
discrimination that people with disabilities face.
• Disability was redefined as a societal problem rather than an
individual problem and solutions became focused on removing
barriers and social change, not just medical cure.
 Activities

1. Read the following short story and identify the phrase that clearly shows the
meaning of impairment and disability.

Ten-year-old Mesfin’s eyes are damaged = ________________ due to an

eye disease, and he develops difficulties in seeing =
_________________________. His school refuses to take him back as they
don’t have the resources to support a child with visual impairment
=_______________. There are no other schools in his community and
therefore Mesfin cannot go to school = ______________________.
2. Which modality applied to teach children with disabilities isolated
children with disabilities from their non disabled peers? Why?
3. What factors make inclusive education as a modality to teach children
with disabilities and other vulnerable groups different from
integration?
4. Who are exposed to vulnerability? Why?
5. What are the major and common characteristics of vulnerable groups?
 Chapter 2
Concept of Inclusion
2.1. Definition of Inclusion
• The principle of inclusion is simple.
• It is the opposite of exclusion and also alienation.
• It is the principle that says that whatever benefits accrue to
members of a society are the heritage of all people, not just those
who are able-bodied.
• Inclusion means that all people are entitled to full membership of
the human family.
• Fundamentally, inclusion is the principle that:
- We are all entitled to participate fully in all aspects of society;
- We all have the same rights and responsibilities;
- We all have something to contribute.
• It is the principle which demands valued recognition of all
people and the entitlement of all meaningful interaction,
involvement and engagement in every part of the complex
and multifaceted societies in which we live.
• Inclusion is the right of the individual and the responsibility of
society as a whole.
• Inclusion requires the removal of barriers and social structures
which impede( restrict) participation.
• It requires proactive policy making, lateral thinking and on-going
commitment.
• The principle of inclusion accepts disability as human
diversity. Inclusion is not a one-time project, rather it is a
process which is ultimately intended to pass through or
achieve the following organically linked steps or processes:
- Developing Inclusive plan or policy/legal frameworks;
- Developing Inclusive culture with in communities and
institutions; and
- Evolving inclusive practice.
• There are three dimensions need to be considered for the effective
implementation of inclusive services that accommodate the special
needs of persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups:
- Create non-discriminatory attitude within communities towards PWDs
and other vulnerable groups;
- Develop accessible and or barrier free physical as well as service
environments for equal participation of PWDs and other vulnerable
groups in socio-economic activities;
- Empower physical and psychosocial capacity of PWDs and other
vulnerable groups.
• In accordance with the analysis of WHO regarding environment in
reference to disability, it includes both the physical and service
environments as listed briefly below:
- Technology and product
- Natural environment and human made change to it
- Social support and relationships
- Attitude
- Policy, system and services
 2.2. Principles of Inclusion
• In accordance with UNESCO (2005) the following are four major
principles of inclusion:
1. Inclusion is a process.
It has to be seen as a never-ending search to find better ways of
responding to diversity.
It is about learning how to live with difference and learning how to
learn from differences.
Differences come to be seen more positively as a stimulus for fostering
learning amongst children and adults.
❖2. Inclusion is concerned with the identification and removal
of barriers that hinders the development of persons with
disabilities.
❖ It involves collecting, collating and evaluating information
from a wide variety of sources in order to plan for improvements
in policy and practice.
❖ It is about using evidence of various kinds to stimulate
creativity and problem solving.
❖3. Inclusion is about the presence, participation and
achievement of all persons.
❖ ‘Presence’ is concerned with where persons are provided and
how reliably and punctually they attend; ‘participation’ relates to
the quality of their experiences and must incorporate the views of
learners/and or workers and ‘achievement’ is about the outcomes
of learning across the curriculum, not just test and exam results.
4. Inclusion invokes a particular emphasis on those who may be
at risk of marginalization, exclusion or underachievement.
❖This indicates the moral responsibility to ensure that those ‘at
risk’ are carefully monitored, and that steps are taken to ensure
their presence, participation and achievement.
5. It promotes the two dimensions of inclusion, equality and
equity.

Equality is equality of equals.

Aristotle defined equality as “treating equal people equally.”

Whereas, equality refers to the provision of special support for

the ones who were (are) neglected in the participation of socio-
economic activities of the society they live in.
2.3. Rationale for Inclusion
• The following rationales justify why inclusion is needed to be applied as a
strategy to make the participation of PWDs and other vulnerable groups
visible in all aspects of life of the society.
2.3.1. Educational Foundations
- Children do better academically, psychologically and socially in
inclusive settings.
- A more efficient use of education resources.
- Decreases dropouts and repetitions.
- Teachers competency (knowledge, skills, collaboration, satisfaction).
 2.3.2. Social Foundation
- Segregation teaches individuals to be fearful, ignorant and
breeds prejudice.
- All individuals need an education that will help them
develop relationships and prepare them for life in the wider
community.
- Only inclusion has the potential to reduce fear and to build
friendship, respect and understanding.
 2.3.3. Legal Foundations
- All individuals have the right to learn and live together.
- Human being shouldn’t be devalued or discriminated
against by being excluded or sent away because of their
disability.
- There are no legitimate reasons to separate children for
their education.
 2.3.4. Economic Foundation
- Inclusive education has economic benefit, both for individual and for
society.
- Inclusive education is more cost-effective than the creation of special
schools across the country.
- Children with disabilities go to local schools.
- Reduce wastage of repetition and dropout.
- Children with disabilities live with their family and use community
infrastructure.
- It facilitates better employment and job creation opportunities for people
2.3.5. Foundations for Building Inclusive Society
- Formation of mutual understanding and appreciation
of diversity.
- Building up empathy, tolerance and cooperation.
- Promotion of sustainable development.
 2.4.Features and barriers of inclusive environment
• Inclusive environment is characterized by the following
features that revolve around the formation of
accommodative and barrier free atmosphere.
• An inclusive environment is one in which members feel
respected by and connected to one another.
• An inclusive environment is an environment that welcomes
all people, regardless of their disability and other
vulnerabilities.
•
 Features and barriers Cont’d …
❖It recognizes and uses their skills and strengthens their abilities.
❖An inclusive service environment is respectful, supportive, and
equalizing.
❖An inclusive environment reaches out to and includes
individuals with disabilities and other vulnerable groups at all
levels of services and community life.

❖ An inclusive environment is a place which is adjusted to

individuals’ needs.
Cont’d…
❖It acknowledges that individual differences among individuals
are a source of richness and diversity, and not a problem, and that
various needs and the individual pace of learning and
development can be met successfully with a wide range of flexible
approaches.
❖Besides, the environment should involve continuous process of
changes directed towards strengthening and encouraging different
ways of participation of all members of the community.
 Cont’d …
❖An inclusive environment is also directed towards developing
culture, policy and practice which meet pupils’ diversities,
towards identifying and removing obstacles in learning and
participating, towards developing a suitable provision and
supporting individuals.
Cont’d….
• Regardless of these positive features and qualities of inclusion in
terms of the promotion of the issue of disability and vulnerability in
public services, there are three types of barriers preventing persons
with disabilities from participating in society on equal terms with
non-disabled people:
- Social and attitudinal barriers;
- Environmental and technical barriers; and
- Institutional barriers.
 Social and attitudinal barriers
• Attitudinal barriers, including prejudice and discrimination cause
the biggest problems to persons with disabilities.
• Disability is associated with shame, fear and/or pity, easily leading
to isolation or overprotection.
• Disability is often also seen as a curse and punishment of wrong
doing and wrath of God.
Cont’d…
• PWDs are assumed as incapable/inadequate and dependent upon
others who deserve passion and charity.
• In order to avoid discrimination, the family may keep the person
with a disability hidden at home.
• Negative language reflects and can reinforce prejudices.
 Environmental and technical barriers
• Environmental barriers include natural or technical barriers that
prevent persons with disabilities from participation.
• PWDs encounter these barriers in areas such as: public transport,
hospitals and clinics, schools and housing, shops and marketplaces,
places of worship, media and communications etc. due to the physical
inaccessibility of such service areas.
• Technical barriers include high steps and concrete platforms, narrow
entrances, lack of or too heavy doors, narrow cubicles, lack of light
and handrails.
• Natural barriers include uneven, rough or steep paths on muddy and/or
slippery ground.
 Institutional barriers
• Institutional barriers are related to legislation, policies and action
plans.
• Even if policies and legislation take persons with disabilities into
account, the challenge is that they often lack directives, strategies
and guidelines for implementation.
• In addition, the relevant ministries/ bureaus responsible may not
be aware of these policies.
• Consequently, persons with disabilities are frequently left out of
planning, implementation and management of different public
services.
 Addis Ababa University
College of Education and Behavioral Studies
Department of Special Needs Education

Inclusiveness
Mihiret Ayele (MA)
Addis Ababa University
 Chapter 3
Identification of the Impact of
Disability and Differentiated
Services
3.1. The Impact of Disability and Vulnerability on
Daily Life
❖People respond to disabilities in different ways. Some react negatively.
❖Thus, in this situation the quality of life of PWDs will be negatively
affected.
❖Others prefer to focus on their abilities as opposed to their disabilities
and continue to live a productive life.
❖There are several factors that affect and impact of the life an
individual with disability.
❖The following are considered as the most known factors in
determining the impact of disability on an individual.
 ❖3.1.1.The Nature of impairment

❖Impairment can be acquired as a result of an accident, or

disease that may be congenital or acquired (pre-natal, or post-
natal).
❖If the impairment is acquired, it is more likely to cause a
negative reaction than a congenital impairment.
❖The acquired impairment requires more rehabilitation service
than the congenital ones.
 3.1.2. The Individual’s Personality

❖The individual personality can be typically positive or

negative, dependent or independent, goal-oriented or laissez-
faire.
❖Someone with a positive outlook is more likely to embrace
impairment then someone with a negative outlook.
❖Someone who is independent will continue to be independent
and someone who is goal-oriented will continue to set and
pursue goals.
 3.1.3. The Meaning of the impairment to the
Individual
➢Does the individual define himself/herself by his/her
looks or physical characteristics?
➢If so, he/she is more likely to feel defined by his/her
impairment and thus it will have a negative impact.
 ❖3.1.4. The Individual’s Current Life Circumstances
❖The influence of this situation manifests through the following
factors:
❖The condition that the individual is independent or dependent on
others (parents) in his/her living;
❖The economic and academic status of the individual with
disability or his/her caregivers;
❖If the individuals with impairments are happy with their current
life circumstance, they are more likely to embrace their
impairment, whereas, if they are not happy with their
circumstances, they often blame their impairment.
3.1.5. The Individual's Support System
❖The individual’s support from family, a significant other, friends, or
social groups contribute to minimize the impact of impairment on
their overall personality

❖Common effects of impairment/disability may include:

❖Limited to health conditions of the person;
❖Mental health issues including anxiety and depression;
❖Loss of freedom and independence;
❖Frustration and anger at having to rely on other people;
❖practical problems including transport;
❖Choice of activities;
❖Accessing buildings;
❖Unemployment;
❖Problems with learning and academic study;
❖Loss of self-esteem and confidence especially in social
situations.
❖But most of these negative effects do exist due to restricted
environments, not as a result of direct impact of the
impairment.
❖Persons with disabilities are diverse and heterogeneous,
while stereotypical views of disability emphasize wheelchair
users and a few other “classic” groups such as blind people
and deaf people.
❖Disability encompasses the child born with a congenital
condition such as cerebral palsy or the young soldier who
loses his leg to a land-mine, or the middle-aged woman with
severe arthritis, or the older person with dementia, among
many others.
❖Health conditions can be visible or invisible; temporary or
long term; static, episodic, or degenerating; painful or
inconsequential.
❖Note that many people with disabilities do not consider
themselves to be unhealthy.
❖Persons with disabilities have diverse personal factors with
differences in gender, age, language, socioeconomic status,
sexuality, ethnicity, or cultural heritage.
❖Women with disabilities experience the combined disadvantages
associated with gender as well as disability, and may be less likely
to marry than non-disabled women.
❖People who experience mental health conditions or intellectual
impairments and severe/multiple impairment appear to be more
disadvantaged in many settings than those who experience
physical or sensory impairments.
 3.1.6. Economic Factors and Disability
❖There is clear evidence that people living with poverty are exposed to
health problems that may cause impairment and disabling environment.
❖This is true even in advanced economies.
❖The impact of absolute or relative economic deprivation on the onset of
pathology crosscuts conditions with radically different etiologies,
encompassing infectious diseases and most common chronic conditions.
❖The lack of resources can adversely affect the ability of an individual to
function with a disabling condition.
❖For example, someone with an amputated leg who has little money
or poor health insurance may not be able to obtain a proper
prosthesis, in which case the absence of the limb may then force the
individual to withdraw from jobs that require these capacities.
❖Similarly, economic resources can limit the options and abilities of
someone who requires personal assistance services or certain physical
accommodations.
❖The individual also may not be able to access the appropriate
rehabilitation services to reduce the degree of potential disability
either because they cannot afford the services themselves or
cannot afford the cost of specialized transportation services.

❖The advanced economy of the communities and the country at

large significantly make available enabling environment in
infrastructure, public services and job opportunities for the
participation of PWDs.
❖In the countries having advanced economy, governments may
apply disability compensation policy.
3.1.7. Political Factors and Disability
❖The political system, through its role in designing public policy,
can and does have a profound impact on the extent to which
impairments and other potentially disabling conditions will result
in disability.
❖If the political system is well enforced it will profoundly improve the
prospects of people with disabling conditions for achieving a much fuller
participation in society, in effect reducing the font of disability in work
and every other domain of human activity.
❖Thus, the political good will of the government that manifests at policy
and implementation level creates enabling environment for full and
effective participation of PWDs in all aspects of life of the society by
reducing the impact of the impairment and forms of impediments.
 3.1.8. Psychological Factors of Disability
❖There are five constructs that may result in psychological influence
on the psychological makeup of PWDs in reference to disabling
conditions.
I. Social Cognitive Processes
❖Cognition consists of thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and ways of
viewing the world, others, and ourselves.
❖Three interrelated cognitive processes have been selected to
illustrate the direct and interactive effects of cognition on disability.
❖These are self-efficacy beliefs, psychological control, and coping
patterns which all these are socially constructed.
II. Self-Efficacy Beliefs
❖Self-efficacy beliefs are concerned with whether or not a person
believes that he or she can accomplish a desired outcome
(Bandura, 1977, 1986).
III. Psychological Control
❖Psychological control, or control beliefs, is akin to self-efficacy
beliefs in that they beliefs regarding one's ability to exert control
or change a situation.
IV. Coping Patterns
❖Coping patterns refer to behavioral and cognitive efforts to
manage specific internal or external demands that tax or exceed a
person's resources to adjust.
V. Personality Disposition
❖Optimism in contrast to pessimism is the general tendency to
view the world, others, and oneself favorably.
❖People with an optimistic orientation rather than a pessimistic
orientation are far better across several dimensions.
❖Optimists tend to have better self-esteem and less hostility
towards others and tend to use more adaptive coping strategies
than pessimists.
3.1.9. The Family and Disability
• The family can be either an enabling or a disabling factor for a person
with a disabling condition.
• Although most people have a wide network of friends, the networks of
people with disabilities are more likely to be dominated by family
members.
• Even among people with disabilities who maintain a large network of
friends, family relationships often are most central and families often
provide the main sources of support.
• This support may be informational (providing advice or referrals), or
emotional (giving love and support).
❖Families can also fulfill their responsibilities in meeting the special
needs of their children with disabilities by making available
specialized services and assistive devices and technologies
❖It is important to note, however, that families may also be disabling.
❖Some families promote dependency.
❖Others fatalistically accept functional limitations and conditions that
are amenable to change with a supportive environment.
• In both of these situations, the person with the potentially
disabling condition is not allowed to develop to his or her fullest
potential.
• Families may also not provide needed environmental services
and resources.
• For example, families of deaf children frequently do not learn to
sign, in the process impeding their children's ability to
communicate as effectively as possible.
 3.2. Special Needs of Persons with Disabilities and other
Vulnerable Groups
• The special needs of PWDs are emanated from different factors.
• These are:
- Personal experience of individuals with impairments;
- Type of the impairment;
- Severity /degree of the impairment; and
- Onset of the impairment.
• Hence, professionals as per their discipline should give response
differently to the needs of PWDs considering these realities.
❖Analyzing the human beings, Maslow has identified five categories of
needs, with different priority levels, in the following order:
❖Survival (physiological);
❖Safety;
❖Social needs;
❖Esteem; and
❖Self-actualization (fulfillment).
❖Maslow’s model is also valid for persons with disabilities and other
vulnerable groups, whose needs are regular and or similar to those of
ordinary persons.
❖It is obvious that survival is a priority need for PWDs due to the
existing disabling condition such as lack of opportunity for personal
hygiene, feeding and Adaptive Daily Living skills ( ADL).
Abraham’s Maslow Hierarchy
❖Persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups have socio-
emotional, psychological, physical and social environmental and
economic needs in general.
❖However, the following are the basic and special needs of PWDs
and other vulnerable groups needed to be available to ensure their
equal participation in all activities of the society:
❖Full access to the environment (towns, countryside &
buildings);
❖Accessible transport system;
❖Technical aids and equipment;
❖Accessible/adapted housing;
❖Personal assistance and support;
❖Inclusive education and training;
❖Adequate income;
❖Equal opportunity for employment;
❖Appropriate and accessible information;
❖Advocacy (towards their human right);
❖Counseling;
❖Appropriate and accessible health care;
❖Assistive appliances.
 3.2.1. Belongingness and disability
❖Family relationships as a means of connecting to community and
being known by others, and knowing others outside the family are
important.
❖Different kinds of relationship contributed to this sense of belonging,
ranging from the more superficial nodding acquaintances to specific
informal support from known others, to the intimacy of close friends
and kin.
❖Historically for people with disabilities, rurality was once the site of
exclusion, rather than belonging, where identity and gender were
disregarded in favor of ensuring protection of people with disabilities
and of the society in which they lived.
❖People with disabilities and marginalized groups feel isolated.
❖Some persons with disabilities have actively sought to migrate to
urban environments, to escape from the confines and constraints of
small rural environments and to build broader social networks away
from the farm.
 3.3. Disability Inclusive Intervention and Rehabilitation
Services
❖A ‘One-size-fits-all’ approach to provide services for persons
with disabilities and vulnerable groups is no longer enough.
❖Including people with disabilities in everyday activities and
encouraging them to have roles similar to peoples who do not
have a disability is disability inclusion.
❖This involves more than simply encouraging people; it
requires making sure that adequate policies and practices are
in effect in a community or organization.
❖Inclusion should lead to increased participation of PWDs in
socially expected life roles and activities such as: being a student,
worker, friend, community member, patient, spouse, partner, or
parent.
❖Disability inclusion means provision of differentiated services for
persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups.
❖Differentiated service means a multiple service delivery model that
can satisfy the most needs of persons with disabilities and other
vulnerable groups.
❖This includes the availability of accommodative public services in
infrastructure, health care, education, social protection etc.
❖Persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups are often
excluded (either directly or indirectly) from development processes
and humanitarian action because of physical, attitudinal and
institutional barriers.
❖The effects of this exclusion are increased inequality, discrimination
and marginalization.
❖3.3.1. Definition and components of Rehabilitation Intervention
❖Rehabilitation is a process designed to optimize function and
improve the quality of life of those with disabilities.
❖There are general underlying concepts and theories of rehabilitation
interventions.
❖Examples of these theories and concepts include movement and
motor control, human occupation models, education and learning,
health promotion and prevention of additional and secondary health
conditions, neural control and central nervous system plasticity, pain
modulation, development and maturation, coping and adjustment,
biomechanics, linguistics and pragmatics, resiliency and self-reliance,
auditory processing, and behavior modification.
❖The conduct of rehabilitation intervention is not a simple process. It
involves multiple participants, and it can take on many forms.
❖The following is a description of the individual components that, when
combined, comprise the process and activity of rehabilitation:
❖Multiple Disciplines;
❖Physicians;
❖Occupational Therapists;
❖Physical Therapists;
❖Speech and Language Therapist;
❖Audiologists;
❖Rehabilitation Nurses;
❖Social Workers;
❖Case Managers;
❖Rehabilitation Psychologists;
❖Neuropsychologists;
❖Therapeutic Recreation Specialists;
❖Rehabilitation Counselors;
❖Orthotists and Prosthetists;
❖Additional Rehabilitation Professionals;
❖Persons with the Disability and His or Her Family;
❖Community Based Rehabilitation Workers.
3.3.2. Strategies to Disability Inclusive Intervention and Rehabilitation
A)Prevention
• This includes primary Prevention (Action intended to avoid the causes of
impairment), Secondary prevention (Early Intervention) and tertiary prevention
(Rehabilitation).
B) Implementing the Twin-track Approach
• One of the strategies relevant for the implementation of inclusion in terms of
disability is Twin-track approach.
• The twin-track approach involves:
(1) Ensuring all mainstream programs and services are inclusive and
accessible to persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups time; and
(2) Providing targeted disability-specific support to persons with
disabilities.
C) Implement Disability Inclusive Project/ Program
❖As public service provider all sectorial strategies, program, projects
and services must be disability-inclusive.
❖The sectors operations should be largely framed within broad
programs, making it very important to ensure that disability inclusion
is reflected in program strategies and design documents.
❖This in turn ensures the mainstreaming and implementation of
disability issues at program level.
❖However, persons with disabilities are often not considered in
crucial stages of most sectorial and developmental program and
projects because of lack of awareness about the special needs of
people with disabilities, and other vulnerable groups.
❖The following tips will help to overcome the challenges as key
considerations for including persons with disabilities in all program
and project cycle management stages of Assessment, Planning,
Implementation and Monitoring, and Reporting/Evaluation:
❖Education and vocational training;
❖Health;
❖Relief and social services;
❖Infrastructure and camp improvement, shelter, water and
sanitation and environmental health;
❖Livelihoods, employment and microfinance;
❖Protection;
❖Humanitarian and emergency response.
D)Community Based Rehabilitation (CBR)
❖Community Based Rehabilitation (CBR) is a strategy crafted for
developing countries with an intention to bringing children with
disabilities who are kept at home to public services such as:
education, self-employment, health care etc. through providing them
multi-dimensional home-based rehabilitation services.
❖For this purpose, there is a need to recruit and deploy CBR workers
from and within the local communities respectively.
E) Inclusiveness and Assistive Technology
❖There are various organizational definitions for assistive technology:
❑ The international standard ISO 9999 defines AT (referring to AT as
“technical aid”) as “any product, instrument, equipment or technical
system used by a disabled person, especially produced or generally
available, preventing, compensating, monitoring, relieving or
neutralizing the impairment, disability or handicap”.
❖For persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups,
technological developments such as the proliferation of the internet
and the provision of services for accessing digital television such as
audio description (video description), closed signing, and the
availability of subtitles (captions) in live broadcasts enabled by
speech-to text technologies can make an important contribution to
facilitating independent living.
❖Technologies promote independence for people with disabilities and
other vulnerable groups.
❖The use of devices, computers, robots, and other established assistive
technology (AT) can potentially increase the autonomy of people with
disabilities and other vulnerable groups, by compensating for physical
limitations and circumventing difficulties with normal activities of
daily living (ADL).
❖In modern societies, persons with disabilities, and other marginalized
and other vulnerable groups can attain some components of wellbeing
such as access to services using assistive technology (AT).
❖Other components, such as freedom of navigation and travel, are
much more difficult because of environmental obstacles encountered
by the disabled.
❖Surgery, generic therapy, rehabilitation, human assistance, and the
use of assistive technology (AT) help disabled people cope with their
disabilities.
❖Unfortunately, such assistance is not always available and not
necessarily cost-effective.
❖AT can increase the autonomy, independence, and quality of life for
Persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups and can also
enable the integration of social, professional, and environmental
aspects of life for Persons with disabilities and other vulnerable
groups.
❖Assistive technology affords Persons with disabilities and other
vulnerable groups’ greater equality of opportunity, by enhancing and
expanding their communication, learning, participation, and
achievement with higher levels of independence, wellbeing, and
quality of life.
❖Assistive Technology varies from low-tech devices such as a cane or
adapted loop, to high-tech systems such as assistive robotics or smart
spaces.
❖Assistive technology encompasses all systems that are designed for
Persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups, and that attempt
to compensate the handicapped.
 3.4. Implement Inclusive Job Opportunities and Employment
❖The right to work is fundamental to being a full and equal member
of society, and it applies to all persons, regardless of whether or not
they have a disability.
❖A decent job in the open labor market is a key bulwark against
poverty.
❖It also enables people to build self-esteem, form social relationships,
and to gain skills and knowledge.
❖Despite the fact that the majority of jobs can be performed by
individuals with disabilities, the pathways to their employment are
often strewn with barriers.
❖Studies indicated that there is high rate of unemployment within
working age PWDs compared with non-disabled productive forces
even in industrialized countries.
❖Most of PWDs and other vulnerable groups are forced to work in
informal works without legal contract and job security.
❖Even when persons with disabilities are formally employed, they are
more likely to be in low-paid, low-level positions with poor prospects
for career development.
❖The recently adopted 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
calls on governments around the world to promote full employment
and decent work for all, including persons with disabilities and other
vulnerable groups.
❖Persons with disabilities may be prevented from working due to the
following barriers:
❖Inaccessible transportation services;
❖Lack of accessible information and communications services;
❖Preference of employers for candidates without disabilities;
❖Legal stipulations that prevent individuals with particular
impairments from working in certain fields;
❖Discouragement of family and community members;
❖Lack of opportunity to education and vocational training to
meet the requirements of labor market;
❖Benefit trap.
❖The following are key strategies needed for the promotion of job
opportunity for PWDs and other vulnerable groups.
❖Anti-Discrimination Legislation;
❖Vocational Education and Training;
❖Wage Subsidies;
❖Workplace Accommodation Schemes;
❖Workers’ Compensation;
❖Quota Systems;
❖Sheltered Workshops;
❖Private Sector Initiatives;
❖Employer Networks;
 ❖Support Disability-Inclusive Business;
❖Support Persons with Disabilities in the Workplace;
❖Building a More Inclusive Society;
❖Improve Data Collection on Disability and Employment.
❖Regardless of those challenges that may affect the stamina and
motivation of PWDs, studies confirmed that PWDs seriously want to
work to:
❖Livelihood;
❖Ensure their social contacts; and
❖Develop their self-esteem.
 Chapter 4
Promoting Inclusive
Culture
 4.1. Definition of Inclusive Culture
❖As stated in chapter 2, inclusion promotes the creation of
accommodative community that ensures the belongingness and
social networking among members of the community.
❖Culture is “the ideas, customs, and social behavior of a particular
people or society.”
❖Culture plays a huge role in accommodating the diverse needs of
individuals and groups.
❖An inclusive culture involves the full and successful integration of
diverse people in different forms of areas where people will work
and live together such as work place, schools, villages etc.
❖Inclusive culture encompasses both formal and informal policies and
practices, and involves several core values such as:
❖Representation: (The presence of people with disabilities
across a range of membership and leadership within the
community and given institution);
❖Receptivity: (Respect for differences);
❖Fairness: (Equitable access to all resources, opportunities,
networks and decision-making processes).
 4.2. Dimensions of inclusive culture
• There are three dimensions/elements of an inclusive culture:
1.Universal design refers to the construction of structures,
spaces, services, communications and resources that are
organically accessible to a range of people with and without
disabilities, without further need for modification or
accommodation.
2.Recruitment (Training and Advancement Opportunities)
• This dimension of inclusive culture refers to the promotion
of recruitment and training of PWDs for a certain position
and advance their professional knowledge and competence.
Cont’d….
3. Workplace Accommodations and Accessibility (Policy &
Practice) plays a critical role in generating meaningful
inclusion of people with disabilities.
•In addition to recruitment, training and advancement,
workplace policies need to be carefully planned for the
provision of reasonable accommodations
 4.3. Building inclusive community
❖An inclusive community:
❖Establishes foundation that respects all citizens, gives them full
access to resources, and promotes equal treatment and opportunity;
❖Works to eliminate all forms of discrimination;
❖Engages all its citizens in decision-making processes that affect
their lives;
❖Values diversity; and
❖Responds quickly to racist and other discriminating incidents.
❖An inclusive society aims at empowering and promoting
social, economic, and political inclusion of all, irrespective
of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion,
economic, or other status.
❖It is a society that leaves no one behind.
❖We work to ensure that societies are open and inclusive to
all.
❖The following factors justify why building an inclusive
community is important:
❖Acts of exclusion and injustice based on group identity
and other factors should not be allowed to occur and/or
continue;
❖All people have the right to be part of decisions that affect
their lives and the groups they belong to; and
❖Diversity enriches our lives, so it is worthwhile to value
our community's diversity.
❖An inclusive community is characterized by the following features:
❖Integrative and cooperative;
❖Interactive;
❖Invested;
❖Diverse;
❖Equitable;
❖Accessible and Sensitive;
❖Participatory;
❖Safe.
❖In an inclusive society or institution having inclusive
culture, there is a need of leaders having inclusive
behavior such as:
❖Empowerment;
❖Accountability;
❖Courage;
❖Humility.
 4.5. Inclusive values in terms of cultural norms
❖Inclusion is most importantly seen as putting inclusive values into action.
❖The seven pillars of inclusion are:
❖Access;
❖Attitude;
❖Choice;
❖Partnership;
❖Communication;
❖Policy; and
❖Opportunity.
❖Alongside these pillars of inclusion, the following are the
frameworks of inclusive values:
❖Equality;
❖Rights;
❖Participation;
❖Community;
❖Respect for Diversity;
❖Sustainability;
❖Non-violence;
❖Trust;
❖Compassion;
❖Honesty;
❖Courage;
❖Joy;
❖Love;
❖Hope/Optimism; and
❖Beauty.
 4.6. Indigenous Inclusive Values and Practices
❖Indigenous values are customs and norms of a society developed
in the course of the past cultural practices and enriched and
transferred from generation to generation.
❖Incorporating Indigenous ways of learning into educational
practices has potential to benefit both Indigenous and non-
Indigenous learners.
• In modern curriculum the following skills are needed
to be included:
− Collaboration;
− Creativity;
− Innovation;
− Problem-solving;
− Inquiry;
− Multicultural literacy, etc.
• Indigenous knowledge and practice should be carefully
treated avoiding harmful cultural beliefs.
 Activities
1.What are the manifestations of inclusive culture?
2.What are the key values of inclusive culture?
3.What are the benefits of inclusive culture to PWDs?