Technical University of Mombasa

ECV 2301: CIVIL ENGINEERING COSTRUCTION II

Lecturer : Jackson Muruda

Email : [email protected]

TUNNELS AND TUNNELLING

 Tunnels are artificial underground passages constructed for transportation

purposes.
 Instead of deep cuts being constructed, tunnels often are used to conduct the line
under a natural obstacle such as a hill or ridge.
 In cities, tunnels carry underground railways and highways and thus reducing
traffic congestion above the ground.
 Tunnels are also required for water supply, sewage disposal and production of
hydroelectric energy.
 A tunnel under a river replaces a bridge. The maintenance cost of a tunnel is very
low as compared to that of a bridge or heavy cut.

Advantages of Tunneling
1. Freedom from snow and iceberg hazards.
2. Reduction in overall cost by reducing the distance.
3. Reduction in maintenance cost and provision of easier gradients.
4. Avoids interference with surface and air rights.

DESIGN FACTORS
1. Options for Tunneling:
 For each type of tunnel there are certain geometrical constrains and other
specific factors affecting cost.
  For a road tunnel, acceptable gradients and curves will be related to the
design speed and hence to traffic costs.
 For a pressure tunnel, there is little direct geometrical constraint and the
differential cost of construction in relation to the ground would need to be
considered again the capitalized head losses.
 A general knowledge of the geological structure will indicate whether or not
the most direct route conform to a favourable geological horizon or whether
on the contrary it may encounter unstable ground such as squeezing rock,
running sand, major fault zones, decomposed rock, or similar hazards which
may only be penetrated at great expense.
 Where there is a possibility of adopting an economic method of tunneling,
related specifically to a type of ground with limited variation, there may be a
considerable benefit from diverging from the most direct route, in order to
situate the tunnel throughout in such ground.
 At the earliest stage in planning, such factors should be considered so that the
options may be described, systematically tested and reduced as information
arises from the first stage of site investigation.
2. Design shapes:
 The shape of a tunnel is dependent upon the nature and type of ground
where it is to be constructed.
 Tunnels in solid rocks are self-supporting and are gene4rally designed with
semi-circular arch with vertical side walls.
 Tunnels in soft ground are generally made circular which can resist the
pressure on exposed surfaces.
 A circular tunnel is best suited to resist external and internal stresses. But for
laying railways or highways, the bottom curvature haws to be filled up.
(continue 2b H)
 In soft soils and rocks, a horse shoe shaped tunnel is provided which is a
compromise between the above two types.
 A circular x-section is ideal for full-flowing water tunnels because it provides
the greatest area for flow, and permits use of a high strength tubular steel
liner.
 An elliptical or egg-shaped x-section works well for servers and storm water
drainage tunnels. The small-radius invert acts as a narrow self-scouring
channel during periods of low flow and the upper and larger parts of the
cross section provide a high flow capacity for surge discharge during storms
and floods.
  A transportation tunnel requires a more or less rectangular area for traffic.

3. Alignment and Grade

 Alignment refers to the route followed by the tunnel on plan, and grade
(gradient) refers to the depth and inclination of the tunnel invert (floor) and
crown (roof).
 Alignment and grade are selected according to the function of the tunnels, the
ground conditions, and the excavating methods.
 A tunnel in uniform ground usually follows the shortest route between
portals or shafts to minimize costs for excavation and support.
 Tunnels for gravity drainage are aligned and graded according to hydraulic
requirements.
 Tunnels for vehicles have to satisfy visibility, climbing and breaking
requirements for roads and railways.
 When the ground is variable alignment and grade should be adjusted to
avoid tunneling through unstable ground or formations that are difficult to
excavate or to seal against water inflows.
 Shallow tunnels should be located to pass entirely through either rock or soil,
avoiding the soil-rock interface that frequently coincides with incompetent
ground, difficult excavation, and high water inflows.
 Mixed face tunneling, passing frequently from soil into rock and back again,
is usually costly and slow, and is best avoided.
 Further constrains are imposed by the excavating techniques and equipment.
Tunnel boring machines can negotiate only certain limits of grade and
curvature.
 No restrictions apply to tunnels excavated by road header or by blasting,
although those excavated by blasting may need to be deeper to avoid damage
to this or fragile rock cover or to foundations close to the tunnel crown.

PORTAL AND SHAFT LOCATION

 Tunnel start and end in portals if they penetrate horizontally through a hill or
mountain, or in shafts if they go deep below water or relatively flat terrain.
 At portals adverse factors can combine to give the worst conditions for both
excavation and support.
 The portal is the location of least cover, where any loss of ground quickly migrates
upwards to cause settlements at the surface, where the rock is most weathered and
 the joints most open, and where problems of slope instability combine with those of
tunneling alone.
 It is also the place where the con tractor starts, and therefore has the least experience
of the ground conditions, and where blasting and support are still being adjusted
and may not yet be adequate.
 Pre-reinforcement of the portal area, intensive monitoring of ground movements,
and careful blasting of the initial sections are needed in most cases.
 The ideal portal location, other factors being equal, is at an outcrop where the
quality of rock can be confirmed as sound, and where the rock above the tunnel
crown is at least several metres thick.
 Shafts are acceptable when a tunnel is to carry water, oil or gas, but not usually for
entering or leaving a road or rail tunnel.
 Shafts tend to be more stable than portals and tunnels because gravity acts in a
favourable direction, along the shaft axis, and because horizontal stress components
are often similar in magnitude.
 The worst problems of shaft sinking usually coincide with the soil-rock interface,
where the soils are often boulder and the rock loose, weathered, and permeable.
Pregrouting or even freezing may be needed at this level to contain water inflows
and to stabilize the ground.

CONSTRUCTION OF TUNNELS

 Tunneling in form ground depends upon the shape, size and available equipment.
 Depending upon the type of strata, size of the tunnel and the method adopted,
excavation is supported by temporary wooden supports or permanent steel
supports.

METHODS OF TUNNELING

1. Full Face Method

 Small tunnels whose dimensions are not more than 3 metres, are driven by
this method.
 This method is suitable for comparatively firm soils where the excavated
portion can hold itself for sufficient time to permit mucking and supporting
operations to be completed.
 Sometimes large size tunnels in rock are also driven by this method.
 I

II

III

 The method of construction is illustrated above. The excavation to be done is

divided into three sections.
 The top (section I) is cut and removed followed by similar operation in
section II and section III.
 After completing excavation of one section, work in next section is started.
 In the case of tunneling through rock, the entire face is drilled suitably, the
holes are loaded and the explosives are fired.
 This method is commonly being employed for driving large tunnels with the
development of the jumbo, or drill carriage. A number of drills are mounted
on the front end of a jumbo and operated simultaneously with greater
efficiency.
 Since, the tunneling; is continuous, the work is rapidly carried out and
mucking trucks are laid quickly along with the tunneling operation. This
saves construction time.

2. Heading and Bench Method

 The heading and bench method of driving a tunnel means the driving of the
top portion of the tunnel ahead of the bottom portion.
 Where the excavated rock is strong enough to allow the roof to stand without
supports, the top heading is generally advanced one round ahead of the
bottom heading.

Drill Holes

Heading
Benching
 Mucking

 In case the rock is badly broken, the top heading is driven well ahead of the
bench and the bench is employed in installing timbers to support the roof.
 With the development of jumbo this method is rarely used.

3. Drift Method
 In case of large size tunnels a pilot tunnel or drift is sometimes driven
through full length or a portion of tunnel length before excavating the full
cross-section of the tunnel.
 The drift is then widened by drilling holes on its faces.

 A drift is classified on its position relative to the main cross-section e.g.

centre, bottom, side or top drift.

 This method has the following advantages:

(i) The region of bad rock or excessive water is determined before
excavating the full bore. Thus corrective measures can be taken.
(ii) The drift provides ventilation to the tunnel during later operations.
(iii) The consumption of explosive is reduced.
(iv) Side drift facilitate the installation of timbers to support the roof.

 This method has the following disadvantages.

(i) During of the main tunnel is delayed until the drift is completed.
 (ii) The cost of drilling and handling much in a small drift is higher, as it
involves more of manual labour.

4. Multiple Drift Method:

 This method combines side drift and top drift.
 Frequently employed to get through crushed rock in fault zones which may
behave like earth, even though the rock be compact enough to require high
blasting.
 The operation is carried out in the following two ways:

Method 1:
 A crown drift is made first
 It is supported by two vertical posts which are removed later and a
segment of steel ribs is provided which forms part of the ultimate ribs.
 Drifts on either side of the central drift are then made. These drifts are
supported by steel rib segments in such a way that along with the segment
over the central top drift a complete semicircle above the springing is
formed. This is followed by bending.

Method 2:
 A side drift is driven through the zone at subgrade on each side.
 A support in steel or concrete is construed in each drift with suitable
provision for drainage.
 If the height of side walls be too great to build the concrete wall in a single
lift, another side drift may be driven immediately above the concrete side
wall carried on up to springline.

DRILLING ROCK

 Drilling through rock is essential for keeping explosives that loosen the rock.
 A drifter is commonly used for this purpose. It is equipped with steel drill and
detachable bits.
 Various types of drills and bits are employed under different circumstances
 Water is used to remove the cuttings from the holes.
 For a particular project the depth and spacing of holes over the tunnel face are
determined experimentally.
 The depth of holes varies with
  the size and shape of the tunnel
 The type of rock and
 The drilling equipment likely to be employed.
 The depth advanced during one drilling and shooting operation is known as a
round and it varies from 1.3 to 6 metres.

DRILL JUMBOS
 A drill jumbo is a portable carriage with one or more working platforms.
 It is equipped with beams, columns and booms support the drills. These are
designed to allow the drills to be spaced to any desired pattern.
 A number of holes can be drilled simultaneously with jumbos.
 A jumbo may be mounted on wheels for travelling on rails or on pneumatic
tyres.
 Tyre mounting provides a jumbo freedom of movement and thus facilitates
spotting the positions of the holes to be drilled.

DRILLING PATTERN
 May be defined as the position of the holes drilled into the face of a tunnel in
advancing on road.
 The best drilling pattern under a given circumstance will break the greatest
volume of rock with the least total length of holes and quantity of explosives.
 To obtain this result, a number of factors such as size of tunnel, depth of holes
drilled, the type of rock and the method of mounting drills needed proper
consideration.
 It should be determined experimentally for each project.

PUTTING EXPLOSIVES IN THE HOLE AND FIRING

 After drilling operation, holes are cleaned by blowing high air pressure to make
them free from dust, loose rock and water.
 A cartridge of explosive is inserted into the hole and tamped well by a wooden
pole.
 A detonator is put inside the hole pointing towards the collar of the hole so that
on firing it may shoot into the dynamite.
 The remaining portion of the hole is plugged with clay. Now the detonator is
ready for firing.
 The explosives may be fired with electricity, using instantaneous or delay caps,
or with prim cord fuse.
  The cut holes are fixed first to remove the cuttings, then the relief holes and
finally the rim holes are fired to shape the outline of the tunnel.
 All equipment are removed to a safe distance prior to shooting a round of
explosives.

DETONATORS OR BLASTING CAPS

 Powerful explosives are put into them and are employed for firing the
explosives.
 Plain detonators are used with safety fuse which has rate of burning as
1.5m/min.
 Electric system of firing detonator is more common as it is safe and can be fired
from long distances.
 A detonator may be instantaneous or delayed action.
 Delayed action detonator is used to have suitable interval between several
blasting fired at a time.

BORING
 Is less disruptive than blasting and produces a more stable tunnel requiring less
support.
 Full-face boring machines nowadays can cut economically through most types of
grand.
 Their disadvantages include:
(i) they are expensive to by and transport
(ii) they are expensive to assemble on site.

2. MECHANICAL VENTILATION METHODS

(a) Blowing in fresh air:

 A positive means of supplying fresh air to the working face.
 The location of the air intake should not be such as would short-
circuit foul air coming from the tunnel.
 It is the most convenient method of ventilation during drilling and
mucking operations, when persons working at face requirement
fresh air.
 Main disadvantage is that foul air, while being expelled through
the tunnel, itself makes the approach to the working face from the
portal rather unhealthy with poor visibility.
 (b) Exhausting Foul Air By Ducts
 Useful after blasting when it is desirous that blasted fumes should
be removed expeditiously without being diffused along the whole
length of tunnel.
 Location of duct should be such as not to pollute the air going into
the tunnel.
 Main disadvantage is that the fresh air while travelling along the
length of tunnel absorbs heat moisture and foul gases if the hauling
equipment resulting in an unpleasant working

(c) Combination of Blowing Air and Exhaust System

 Two systems of piping are required with their own mechanical
blows.
 The exhaust system will have a large capacity whereas the blowing
system may have a smaller diameter duct sufficient for providing
enough fresh air to workmen on face to tunnel.
 This method requires complete duplication of ventilation system.
This may be achieved by providing reversible ventilation fans,
whereby with the same installation of ducts and blows, the
exhausting blowing air may be achieved.

DUCTS

(i) Fabric Ducts:

 For blowing system fabric ventilation ducts made out of high resistant
nylon can only be used since during suction the fabric collapses.

(ii) Metal ducts:

 Duct line may be laid either in the floor or hung from the side wall
excavation depending upon convenience and other economic aspects of
ventilation.
 Care should be exercised to see that all the joints of the duct line are
airtight to avoid losses due to leakage.
VENTILATION SHAFTS
 May be provided at the intermediate section of a tunnel or at the extreme end of
the underground work say power-house, after studying the economies of the
area.
 Amount of dust in air is limited by
(i) Wet drilling instead of dry drilling.
(ii) Use of a vacuum hood. The hood fits around the drill steel at the rock face
and removes the dust that comes from the hole during the drilling
operation.
(iii) Sprinkling the muck pile with water to keep down the dust, during
mucking operations.
(iv) Adequate and efficient ventilation near the portal of the tunnel.

LIGHTING
 Adequate lighting should be provided at
 The face and at any other point where work is in progress at equipment
installation, such as pumps, fans and transformers. Along the length of
the tunnel also adequate lighting should be provided.
 Any obstructions such as formwork, etc inside the tunnel should be well lighted
to avoid accidents when hauling units are moving.
 Lighting at working face should be profuse. No single light however, should be
so powerful as to cause temporary blinding effect when looked at.
 Incandescent lamps should be fixed in the centre of the roof of tunnel. In case
the lamps are to be fixed on sides of the tunnel, they should be so high as
possible and well above ventilation ducts, so that the shadow of the duct is not
formed on the road surface.
 The electric circuit of the lighting in tunnel should be divided into a number of
independent circuits with their insulators and fuse boxes separate. With the
separation of the circuits, the repair work in the electric lighting system can be
easily done by switching of the desired circuits while the other circuits are still in
operation.
 In addition to the fixed lighting system, all hauling equipment should have their
own lighting system. These lights not only give indication to the personnel in
the tunnel of the approach of the hauling equipment but also permit them to
negotiate the tunnel without any danger in case of emergencies when the fixed
light system are turned out.
  In addition to the normal lighting, provision of flood lights should be made at
suitable intervals for detailed inspection for any particular length of spot.

TUNNELLING IN SOFT GROUND

 In the case of soft soil requiring instantaneous support, drilling and blasting is not
done.
 Continuous support has to be provided to the periphery of the excavated section.
The type and method of support depends on the nature of ground.
 In extremely running materials like dry or quick sand, the soil is first supported and
then excavation of the tunnel is taken up.
 In moderately firm materials, like dry earth, cemented sands and gravels, the roof
and side walls of the tunnel may be left unsupported for a short period.
 In self-supporting materials like sandstones and cemented sands and gravels, the
roof side walls can remain unsupported till the full cross-section is excavated.

Methods of supporting the roofs and side walls:

1. Forepoling: (Fig.1 Handout)

 5cm x 8cm thick planks are driven side by side, partly into the tunnel face to
hold the side and the roof.
 The one end of planks are sharpened.
 These forepoles are supported by struts.
 Excavation within forepoles in the tunnel is then carried out.
 Forepoling is a tedious operation and it is becoming obsolete now-a-days.

2. Needle beam method: (Fig.2)

 Suitable when the roof and side walls of a tunnel can stand unsupported for
short period (say 30 minutes).
 Needle beam may be built of two rolled steel joints or channels.
 The needle beam is driven in the centre of the tunnel x-section. (fig.2)
 The insertion depth of needle beam is at least 1m deeper than the one day’s
drive.
 At first, the excavation is done in zone PQRS and the load of the roof is
transferred to the needle beam through a trench jack which is set on the
middle beam.
 The x-section of the tunnel is widened on both sides.
  Beams, laggings and trench jacks are used to support the excavated portions
of the tunnel.

3. American Method: (Fig.3)

 Useful for long tunnels.
 A drift is made at the top of the tunnel.
 Sides of the drifts are excavated and the excavated portion is supported by
timbers and struts.
 The excavation is carried out up to the springing level and wall plates (about
5m long) are placed at this level to support the timbering of arch portion.
 Vertical wooden posts are driven into the ground to carry the loads of wall
plates.
 The vertical posts of the drifts are taken out and the tunneling is advanced
further.

4. Austrian Method: (Fig 6)

 Also suitable for long tunnels, particularly at great depths where the side
walls may yield to the weight of cover.
 The whole section is excavated for a short length.
 The side walls are lined and the roof is cover with arch.
 The sequence of placing strutting may be in order of a, b, c, d and e as
illustrated in fig.6.

5. Belgian Method: (Fig.4)

 Useful where the overburden height is small and the surface is not to be
disturbed.
 The arch offers little resistance to side pressure, and thus this method should
not be adopted for more than 1500m depth.
 First of all, the heading [PQRS] is driven and supported on crown bars,
laggings and posts.
 Excavations on both the sides are done and they are supported on some more
laggings, crown bars and posts.
 Finally, the arch lining is constructed with a horizontal brace fixed between
the ends of arch [at springing level].
 The springing trench ABCD is excavated up to level of the grade required.
 Before underpinning the arch, shores at suitable intervals are inserted, into
small pockets out in the trench sides.
  The spacing between shores is removed and the side masonry walls are
erected.
 At the end, the shoring is also removed and the invert is constructed.

6. English Method: (Fig.5)

 Heading is driven at the top of the tunnel about 5-6m ahead of the existing
arch lining. This portion of roof is supported on crown bars and posts [as
illustrated in fig.5].
 The sides are excavated and the sill is extended across the tunnel and in t urn
supported on underpinning.
 The whole load on arch is thus transmitted through the posts on to the sill.
 Method requires lot of timber and frequent shifting of timber from open place
to the other.

SHIELD DRIVEN TUNNELS

 Shields are employed for tunneling through soft rocks.
 Generally made of braced steel cylinders and equal to the x-section of the proposed
tunnel.
 Shield driven into the face of the proposed tunnel by any one of the following
methods.

(i) Non-rotary Type:

 The hydraulic rams are used to drive the shields forward into the
working face of the tunnel.

 The hydraulic rams are fixed against the complete primary lining.
 The whole procedure is repeated as the excavation proceeds.

(ii) Rotary Types:

 A rotary excavation is combined with the shield.
 6-8 radial arms on a central shaft are used to cut the tunnel face as the
shield is forced forward by rams.
 The electric or oil motor is used to drive the rotor at 4 to 6 r.p.m.
Note:
 In both methods of driving shields, the soft material is forced out through
working pockets which is fixed in the face of the shield. These soft materials are
taken out for final disposal on a belt conveyor.
 A gap is left between the outer edge of primary lining and the excavated
periphery, as the shield advances forward. The gap is quickly packed in by
gravel or cement grouting through the holes in the primary lining, to avoid
settlement of the surface.

TUNNEL LINING
Tunnel lining is provided to take the following loadings:
(i) Weight of lining
(ii) Weight of internal structure (if any)
(iii) Weight and presence of surrounding ground along with water and
superimposed loading.
(iv) Loadings related to the use of tunnel such as weight and impact of traffic, or
internal pressure.

Note:
 If the strata of the tunnel, is such that the excavated portion is able to support itself,
the lining would only serve as a veneer.
 If also provides a smooth friction reducing surface and a protective cover against
spalling or deterioration of the rock due to chemical and physical changes that occur
due to weathering.

Materials for Lining:

1. Brick Lining:
 Used in many old tunnels constructed before concrete technology was
evolved.
 Not popular for the following reasons.
(i) Requires a heavy and large entering.
(ii) The ground has to stand for a comparatively long time with
permanent support.
(iii) Unsuitable in shield tunneling.
2. Stone Masonry Lining:
 Stone and timber were only materials available before bricks were
introduced.
 Limitation of use of stones similar to those of thick lining.

3. Timber Lining:
 Due to cheapness and availability, it is often used in the earlier stages of
tunneling as temporary lining or support in other types of lining.
 Unsuitable in shield tunneling and also in water proof lining.

4. Cast Iron Tunnel Lining:

 Particularly useful for the lining of shield driven tunnels.
 Advantages:
 Has full strength immediately upon erection
 Withstands jacking thrusts
 Accurately machined for structural fit and tight joints.
 For protection, appearance and easier maintenance on interior lining of
concrete is normally provided with a primary lining of cast iron.
 Cast iron lining for tunnel of circular section consists of successive segmented
rings bolted to one another by means of circumferential flanges to form a
tube.
 A form may be used for the construction of an invert, the side walls, the roof
or any combination.

Tunnel Lining by the Pumpcrete:

 Conc. lining in a tunnel is commonly placed by a pumpcrete machine. The
machine is a combination of an agitator, or remixer hopper a single-or-double
cylinder piston pump and a discharge pipe through which conc. is pumped to
the form.
 Conc. is mixed by any convenient method and is fed to the remixer hopper. This
hopper serves as a storage of the pump and is equipped with an agitator to
ensure that a conc. of uniform quality enters into the pump. T6he pump consists
of one or two horizontal cylinders, each with a single action piston.
 As the piston is pulled back in a cylinder, conc. flows by gravity from the
remixing hopper through a value-controlled opening into the cylinder.
 The inlet value is closed and an outlet value is opened by a system of levers
which is mechanically operated. This forces conc. into the entire length of the
discharging pipe and into the formworks.
 A pumpcrete machine may be driven by a gasoline engine or an electric motor.
 The output of a pumpcrete machine varies form 0.5m3 to 3m3 per hour.
 A pumpcrete is set up outside a tunnel, though it may be installed inside the
tunnel also, in case of longer tunnels.

Tunnel Lining with Pneumatic Placers:

 In case of a small x-section tunnel, the pumpcrete machine cannot be set up in it
and if the length is more, the conc. cannot be pumped through the pipe.
 In such cases, a pneumatic placer is used to place the conc. lining.
 Pneumatic placing of conc. for a tunnel lining involves using compressed air to
force the conc. out of an airtight hopper through a discharge pipe.
 Conc. is mixed outside the tunnel, loaded into cars and hauled by a locomotive
to the placing, equipment.

Construction Joints:
The following two types of construction joints should be provided.

(i) Bulkhead:
These are provided at the end of each pour and therefore its length depends
on the length of the formwork.
(ii) Longitudinal
These have to be provided at the junction of the sides and the invert and at
haunches of arches when the sides and arches are placed separately for
various considerations.

Compaction:
It is advisable to vibrate conc. through the window by immersion type vibrators
and also by fixing vibratos to the formwork.

Curing:
May be generally done by spraying water.
Pack Grouting:
 Conc. and steel lining for underground works should be grouted to pack
the spaces between rock and conc. lining and between the steel lining and
conc. lining.
 It should be done not earlier than 21 days after placement of conc. lining.
 The pressure of grouting should not exceed 5Kg/cm2.

Pressure Grouting:
When it is found that the rock strata is highly fissured or poor or there is
seepage of water, it would be necessary to do high pressure grouting with deep
holes either before the lining is placed or after the lining is placed according to
the circumstances.

The numbers 1, 2 and 3 show the sequence of conc. placing in the tunnel lining.

Reinforcing steel:
 Steel ribs, bars, etc. are used as reinforcement in conc. lining when and
where required.
 In design of a thick conc. lining, two layers of reinforcing bars, one near
the inner and the other near the outer surface of the lining, are provided.
 The gap between two layers, specially near the roof, should be large
enough to allow the insertion of a pipe through which the conc. will be
placed.

Forms for Concrete Lining:

 Formwork may be of steel or timber or a combination of both the
materials.
 The initial cost of steel forms are higher but their several reuses make the
total cost cheaper.
 The initial of wooden forms are less but they can be used only for limited
number of times.
 Travelling type form consists of preassembled and mounted travelling
frame fixed with wheels running on a track. Screw jacks are provided for
collapsing the formwork. This type is easy and economical to move. It is
fabricated of steel members, lined with steel plate or timber to obtain a
surface which conforms with the shape of the inside surface of the tunnel.
5. Cast Steel Lining
 Used where additional strength is requirement to meet special conditions in
tunnels.
 Liners are encased in concrete.
 Grouting is done behind the steel lining to fill the gap between the rock and
conc. and between conc. and steel.

6. Structural steel
 For the same strength requirements, it is lighter than cast iron lining and
hence the number of segments can be reduced.

SEQUENCE OF LINING A TUNNEL

 It is desirable to start conc. lining after the tunnel excavation is completed, in
driving tunnel through solid rocks. The roof and side walls are self-supporting in
such cases.
 If the ground is unstable, the lining is done as quickly as possible after blasting and
mucking each round.
 The sequence of lining around the perimeter of a tunnel depends on several factors.
Some of the sequences of tunnel lining are shown below..

TUNNEL VENTILATION
 The purpose of ventilation in tunnel is to make the working space safe for workers
by providing fresh air which is free from harmful obnoxious gases and dust.
 The diesel engines working inside the tunnel cause rise in temperature. Ventilation
helps to bring down this temperature.

1. Natural Ventilation
 Applicable to tunnel with straight alignment and uniform gradient, up to
100m length.
 Natural drafts are depended on to renew the air inside the tunnel.
 If the tunnel dips under an obstruction, or the grades are changing or the
alignment contains curves, the quantity of natural air expected to provide
natural ventilation is considerably reduced and the length of the tunnel upon
which natural draft can be expected to take care of ventilations drastically
reduced.
  Another factor that restricts the length upon which natural ventilation would
suffice is whether the traffic in the tunnel is one directional or it is either
direction of the tunnel.
 In the case of one directional traffic, comparatively longer length of tunnel
(>100m) may not need mechanical ventilation.

FANS
 Types of ventilation fans include:
 Reversible or Non-reversible
 Externally driven or Internally driven.
 For ventilation of tunnels the reversible type axial blowers with fan fitted directly on
totally enclosed electric motor is recommended. It is a normal practice to fit two
such units in one shell to increase the total output.
 In the use of ventilation system the pressure under which the air is to be pumped
into other tunnel may be mentioned. The diameter of the pipe should be fixed after
taking into account the pipes and other relevant factors.
 Some length of the air duct near the working face should be kept flexible. For long
length of tunnel, addition of boosters at suitable place may be necessary.
 For some length from the portal, no elaborate ventilation system is necessary for
excavation of tunnels.

VENTILATION BUILDINGS
 Usually located near the portals of the tunnels or at intermediate shaft or both as
considered necessary from the overall economy of the arrangement in each case.
 Generally arrangement of ventilation equipment is to locate the blower fans on
floors with large openings to the outside atmosphere with louvers in the openings to
protect against rain and snow. The exhaust fans are situated in airtight chambers
with expanding exhaust stacks to the outside atmosphere.
 Floor heights of the buildings are based on the considerations of the longest
equipment/machinery to be installed. Additional space should be available for air
ducts without having to bend the duct to provide elbows in the line.
 Ventilation equipment and lighting of tunnel are controlled from a central control
station which is located either in one of the ventilation buildings or in a separate
service building.
DUST CONTROL
 Dust in the tunnel is formed due to the various operations connected with tunneling:
 Drilling
 Blasting
 Loading and
 Hauling of muck