Maribel Fierro/Mayte Penelas

The Maghrib in the Mashriq. Knowledge,

Travel and Identity. Introduction

I am the sun shining in the sky of knowledge

But my fault is to have risen in the West.
Had I risen in the East,
Great would be the plunder of my lost renown.
—Ibn Ḥazm (d. 456 H/1064 CE)1

Are you not unjust in judging us, oh, people of the East? ...
Why do they not admire what is good and stop despising what is of value? ...
We recite what one of our poets said:
“Your merits make us rejoice,
Why do you refuse to accept ours?
Do not envy us if some stars
Shine in our firmament;
And, if you have more outstanding feats to be proud of,
Do not treat with injustice the few we have”.
—Ibn Diḥya (d. 633 H/1235 CE)2

Ha, thou hast had thy day,

Proud jewel of Cathay!
My ruby I acclaim,
My Andalusian flame.
—Ibn Ḥazm3

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1 Ibn Bassām, al-Dhakhīra (1978–81), 1/1: 173–174; al-Maqqarī, Nafḥ al-ṭīb (1968), 2: 81. English
translation by Camilla Adang.
2 Ibn Diḥya, al-Muṭrib (1429/2008), 128. Our English translation is based on the Spanish trans-
lation by Gazi 1953, 180–181, http://institutoegipcio.es/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Vol.-I-Re-
vista-del-Instituto-Egipcio-de-Estudios-Isl%C3%A1micos-1952-1.pdf. We thank Teresa Garulo for
her help.
3 Ibn Ḥazm, Ṭawq al-ḥamāma (1978), 182; English translation by Arberry, http://www.muslim-
philosophy.com/hazm/dove/chp19.html (accessed Jan. 21, 2020).
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Note: This contribution has been written within the project Local contexts and global dynamics:
al-Andalus and the Maghreb in the Islamic East (FFI2016-78878-R AEI/FEDER, UE), co-directed
by Maribel Fierro and Mayte Penelas with funding from the Spanish Ministry of Science, Inno-
vation and Universities. English revision by Nicholas Callaway.

Open Access. © 2021 Maribel Fierro and Mayte Penelas, published by De Gruyter. This work is
licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110713305-001
2 | Maribel Fierro/Mayte Penelas

In his 1970 book The History of the Maghrib, Moroccan historian Abdallah Laroui
pointed to the need “to trace the genesis of the concept of the Maghrib and to
discover how it took on an objective definition”.4 The Maghrib – the ‘West’ in Ara-
bic – inevitably refers to its pair, the Mashriq – the ‘East’ – and is often used in a
binary spatial opposition assumed to convey an inherent meaning on its own.
However, this meaning must nevertheless be contextualized in time, while rec-
ognizing that each element, East and West, likewise involves internal boundaries
and other possible oppositions. For example, does al-Maghrib include al-Anda-
lus? Can it include Egypt? When do Arabic sources use the term al-Maghrib to
refer to the lands that today correspond to parts of Libya, Algeria, Tunisia and
Morocco, and why? Moreover, binary oppositions always run the risk of distorting
the realities on the ground, which inevitably involve shifting boundaries, cross-
currents and interactions.5 If space and time are basic elements to be discussed
when using the terms Maghrib and Mashriq, the latter also convey certain hierar-
chical assumptions about a cultural, intellectual and religious centre and a pe-
riphery, as reflected in the poems quoted above.6 These assumptions, again, need
to be fleshed out in all their details and temporal variations, and should be
opened up to discussion and rethinking. The study of knowledge exchange and
scholarly mobility across regions in the same cultural and/or religious domain
often reveals that binary oppositions between innovative centres and imitative
peripheries obscure flows of exchange that go both ways, not just from the cen-
tres to the peripheries, but also in reverse, and at times using channels that di-
rectly connect periphery to periphery, bypassing the centre altogether.7 One ex-
ample among many is the one that follows below.
The Kufan traditionist Abū Bakr Ibn Abī Shayba (159–235 H/775–849 CE)
compiled many traditions, Prophetic and otherwise, in his Muṣannaf.8 The Cor-
doban Baqī b. Makhlad (201–276 H/817–889 CE) studied this work with its author
during his stay in the East on his journey in search of knowledge, at a time when
ḥadīth and its science (ʿilm al-ḥadīth) were reluctantly being introduced in al-An-
dalus. There is a record of the transmission in al-Andalus of Baqī b. Makhlad’s

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4 Laroui 1977, 8. For the context in which he wrote see Jebari 2015,
https://www.academia.edu/30848750/The_production_of_critical_thought_in_the_Ma-
ghrib_Abdallah_Laroui_and_Hichem_Dja%C3%AFt_1965-1978 (accessed Jan. 9, 2020).
5 See for example the introduction in Hamdani 2014.
6 For an illuminating case of the enduring conception of the Maghrib as an intellectual periph-
ery in the Islamic world see Saleh 2011. Cf. for the case of al-Andalus in a European context, Curta
2011.
7 Melchert 2012.
8 Pellat, “Ibn Abī Shayba”, EI2.
 The Maghrib in the Mashriq. Knowledge, Travel and Identity. Introduction | 3

recension (riwāya) of Ibn Abī Shayba’s Muṣannaf over almost three centuries. In-
deed, the text seems to have been central in the training of scholars who were
interested in the study of ḥadīth and were critical of traditional Mālikism.9 Why
Ibn Abī Shayba’s Muṣannaf disappeared starting in the mid-6th/12th century
from the lists of works transmitted, as reflected in the Andalusi fahāris genre, re-
mains a topic for future research,10 but it can most probably be interpreted as a
reaction against the Almohad policies that aimed at substituting Mālikism with a
return to the original sources of Revelation. Baqī b. Makhlad’s recension of the
Muṣannaf is of great interest for the study of the local transmission and produc-
tion of ḥadīth-related knowledge, but it also transcends the local context. As
such, it has been described as an “Andalusian11 book that records a Kufan per-
spective”.12 Two manuscripts of the work are preserved in Turkish libraries
(Süleymaniye and Topkapı), another indication of the strong presence that
knowledge produced in the Western regions of the Islamic world enjoyed in Ot-
toman centres of learning.13 Another manuscript is located still further East, in
the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, and it was precisely in India that Ibn Abī
Shayba’s Muṣannaf was first printed, by ʿAbd al-Khāliq Khān al-Afghānī. While
the figure of the Iraqi Ibn Abī Shayba is of interest for the many scholars of differ-
ent academic and national backgrounds whose research deals with early Islamic

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9 It was mostly transmitted via a Sevillian family, the Banū al-Bājī al-Lakhmī. The last member
recorded as a transmitter is Abū Marwān ʿAbd al-Malik b. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz b. ʿAbd al-Malik ... b.
Sharīʿa (d. 532 H/1138 CE). Famous Andalusi traditionists such as Ibn Ḥazm (d. 456 H/1064 CE),
Abū ʿUmar Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr (d. 463 H/1071 CE) and Abū Muḥammad Ibn ʿAttāb (d. 520 H/1126
CE) also transmitted Ibn Abī Shayba’s work. The riwāya by al-Wakīʿī (3rd/9th century), another
of Ibn Abī Shayba’s students, also circulated in al-Andalus. This information has been taken
from the Historia de los Autores y Transmisores de al-Andalus (HATA), directed by Maribel Fierro,
available online at http://kohepocu.cchs.csic.es/.
10 At around the same time (first half of the 6th/12th century), another early work, a compilation
of legal questions by the Cordoban al-ʿUtbī (d. 255 H/869 CE), also seems to have stopped being
transmitted. In this case, the fact that Ibn Rushd al-Jadd (d. 520 H/1126 CE) had incorporated its
text into his commentary, which explained and updated the contents of al-ʿUtbī’s work, made
its independent transmission redundant. See Fernández Félix 2003.
11 Since the term “Andalusian” also refers to modern Andalucía, it can lead to confusion when
used in reference to the Arab past. For this reason, throughout this collective volume we have
used the term “Andalusi” in reference to al-Andalus, except in quotations from other authors.
12 Lucas 2008, 287.
13 While imperial dynamics were clearly at work in this process, this Andalusi presence is a
topic that deserves to be studied in its specifics. The presence of mystical works such as those by
Ibn Barrajān can be linked to the impact of Muḥyī al-Dīn Ibn ʿArabī. See Küçük 2013a; Küçük
2013b. For other fields see for example İhsanoğlu 2015; El-Rouayheb 2015; Vázquez Hernández
2018; Riedel (in press).
4 | Maribel Fierro/Mayte Penelas

matters in the central lands of Islam, the figure of the Andalusi Baqī b. Makhlad
has mainly elicited the interest of Spanish and Moroccan scholars.14 While this is
perhaps to be expected, the interest expressed by Pakistani and Indonesian
scholars is less self-evident.15
Are scholars from regions considered peripheral from an Arab point of view
bound to find interest today in what happened in other regions that in the past
were also regarded as peripheral? Does the Andalusi/Maghribi16 scholar Baqī b.
Makhlad’s decisive role in the preservation of a seminal early Mashriqi ḥadīth
work make him, too, a central figure? How does one establish when (and if) pe-
ripheries and peripheral figures cease to be considered as such? How are we to
categorize scholars whose travels and engagement in knowledge networks saw
them overcome barriers of space and time? Can we isolate the study of figures of
the past from their representation in the present?17 These and other questions are
addressed in this collective volume that aims to explore how travel, knowledge
and identity intersected in the circulation and impact of Andalusi/Maghribi
scholars and their works in the Mashriq.
In December 2016, the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universi-
ties granted funding for a research project under our direction entitled Local con-
texts and global dynamics: al-Andalus and the Maghreb in the Islamic East, to be
carried out over four years.18 Drawing inspiration from Richard W. Bulliet’s call to

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14 Marín 1980; Ávila 1985; Muʿammar 1988; Muʿammar 1996.
15 Raisuddin 1988; Raisuddin 1993. Muhammad Akmaluddin wrote his MA Thesis on Silsilah
Riwāyah al-Aḥādīth fī al-Andalus: Dirāsah Jīniyālūjiyyah li Taṭawwur Riwāyah al-Aḥādīth fī al-
Qarn al-Thānī wa al-Thālith al-Hijrī, at the Tafsir and Hadith Department, Faculty of Theology
and Humanities, State Islamic University (UIN) Walisongo, Semarang Central Java, 2015. See also
Akmaluddin 2017.
16 As explained by Luis Molina in “The Integration of al-Andalus in Islamic Historiography. The
View from the Maghrib and the Mashriq” (Molina 2020), and by Giovanna Calasso in the paper
here included, while a difference is made between al-Andalus and the Maghrib by some authors
and in certain periods, al-Andalus was also at times considered to be part of the Maghrib. We use
Andalusi/Maghribi to reflect this convergence when appropriate: Baqī b. Makhlad was an Anda-
lusi scholar, but for Moroccans today – who consider themselves the inheritors of the legacy of
al-Andalus – he is a Maghribi scholar. For a general background of the subject see Calderwood
2018.
17 See respectively for the last two questions al-Musawi 2015 and El Shamsy 2020.
18 Contextos locales y dinámicas globales: al-Andalus y el Magreb en el Oriente islámico (AMOI),
FFI2016-78878-R AEI/FEDER, UE. The other members of the project are: Camilla Adang (Profes-
sor of Islamic Studies at Tel Aviv University), José Bellver (post-doctoral researcher at the Uni-
versité Catholique de Louvain), Víctor de Castro (post-doctoral researcher at the Max Planck In-
stitute for the History of Science), Teresa Garulo (Professor of Arabic and Islamic Studies at
Complutense University), Aurora González Artigao (pre-doctoral researcher at the Institute of
 The Maghrib in the Mashriq. Knowledge, Travel and Identity. Introduction | 5

look at the Islamic world from the edge,19 as directors of the project our main in-
terest in this first stage has been threefold: to map what has been written on the
topic in general with the aim of producing an annotated bibliography available
online; to concentrate on the study of the impact that knowledge produced in al-
Andalus/the Maghrib had in the fields of historiography, law and the religious
sciences, poetry and literature, and mysticism; and to explore the possibilities
that the digital humanities have to offer for our study. What we are presenting
here is the result of the first international conference we convened, held on 20–
21 December 2018 at the Residencia de Estudiantes in Madrid.20 Not all the papers
presented there have been included,21 and we have also added some new papers
that were not presented at the original conference. In this process our collabora-
tion with our colleagues in Japan has proven especially fruitful; we are particu-
larly thankful to Professor Kentaro Sato, who organized a panel at the Sixth Con-
ference of the School of Mamluk Studies (Waseda University, Tokyo, 15–17 June
2019) on Intellectual activities across the regions in the Mamluk period: Views from
al-Andalus and Khurasan, which included Maribel Fierro’s contribution to this
volume. We are also very grateful to Professor Giovanna Calasso for contributing
to the volume with her study on how the Maghrib was represented in medieval
Arabic sources, an important step forward along the path indicated by Abdallah
Laroui.
In what follows, we will trace, through the different contributions included
in this volume, the main threads that guided us during the conference in Madrid.
Parts I and II examine how knowledge produced about the Maghrib was inte-
grated in the Mashriq, starting with the emergence and construction of the con-
cept ‘Maghrib’. Parts III and IV discuss how travel not only enabled knowledge
produced in the Mashriq to be received in the Maghrib, but also allowed locally
produced knowledge to be transmitted outside the confines of the Maghrib, in
addition to the different ways in which this transmission took place. In Part V, we
will see how the Maghribis who stayed or settled in the Mashriq manifested their

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Languages and Cultures of the Mediterranean, CSIC), Abdenour Padillo (pre-doctoral researcher
at the School of Arabic Studies, CSIC, and the Institute of Languages and Cultures of the Medi-
terranean, CSIC), Maxim Romanov (Universitätsassistent für Digital Humanities, University of
Vienna), and Iria Santás (lecturer at the Universidad Eclesiástica San Dámaso).
19 Bulliet 1994. Cf. Fierro 2018.
20 http://cchs.csic.es/en/event/conference-maghrib-mashriq.
21 Javier Albarrán’s paper, “From the Islamic West to Cairo: Malikism, Ibn Tūmart, al-Ghazālī
and al-Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ’s death”, will appear in María Marcos Cobaleda, ed., Artistic and Cultural Dia-
logues in the Late Medieval Mediterranean.
6 | Maribel Fierro/Mayte Penelas

identity. Lastly, we will offer our thoughts on future avenues of research that still
lie ahead.

Part I: Establishing Boundaries between the

Maghrib and the Mashriq
In his autobiography, the emir of Granada ʿAbd Allāh b. Buluggīn – a member of
the Berber Zīrid family – recounts the moment when the Almoravid emir, the
Ṣanhāja Berber Yūsuf b. Tāshufīn, had to decide what policy to pursue regarding
the Iberian Peninsula (al-Andalus).22 In this account, when asked about his inten-
tions, Ibn Tāshufīn prefaced his answer by proudly stating, “I am a Maghribī”.23
Indeed, the Maghrib and related terms acquired special saliency and became a
token of pride following the establishment of the Berber empires, first with the
Almoravids and especially under the Almohads (5th–7th/11th–13th centuries).24
However, this had not always been the case, as Giovanna Calasso demonstrates
in the study that opens this collective volume.
Calasso provides us with a historical overview of the conceptualization of
the terms maghrib and mashriq from early times up until the 7th/13th century,
especially in geographical writings and travelogues, and paying attention to the
semantic web formed by other terms through which Muslims made sense of the
world they inhabited, both in its own right and in relation to other human
groups. The expressions dār al-islām (abode of Islam) and dār al-ḥarb (abode of
war)25 that made their first appearance in legal treatises were rarely used by
Eastern geographers active between the 3rd/9th century and the 4th/10th cen-
tury, who favoured expressions such as bilād al-rūm (the lands of the Byzan-
tines/Romans/Christians) and bilād/mamlakat al-islām (the lands/kingdom of
Islam). They inserted in their works well-documented descriptions of the West-
ern regions of the bilād al-islām, most especially Ifrīqiya (Tunisia), which paid
allegiance to the ʿAbbāsids. Al-Yaʿqūbī (late 3rd/9th century) devoted limited
space to the Maghrib, conceived as the westernmost part of the Islamic lands’

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22 On the equivalence of the term “al-Andalus” with the Iberian Peninsula see García Sanjuán
2003.
23 ʿAbd Allāh b. Buluggīn al-Zīrī, al-Tibyān (1995), 167; ʿAbd Allāh b. Buluggīn al-Zīrī, al-Tibyān
(1986), 163.
24 Mehdi Ghouirgate has paid special attention to this issue in, for example, “Al-Lisān al-ġarbī :
la langue des Almohades” (in press).
25 Calasso/Lancioni 2017.
 The Maghrib in the Mashriq. Knowledge, Travel and Identity. Introduction | 7

“western rubʿ”, to which Syria and Egypt also belonged, and he did not include
any comparison with the East. There is no indication of a frontier in his work ei-
ther, nor of a hierarchy. By contrast, Ibn al-Faqīh (3rd/9th century) did include a
hierarchical view, according to which the Maghrib corresponded to the “worst
part” of the world – perhaps a reflection of the negative view left by the Berber
rebellions that had caused much trouble to the Umayyads, and by the Andalusi
bid for autonomy from the ʿAbbāsids. Starting in the 2nd/8th century, political
independence under the Cordoban Umayyads in fact gave al-Andalus an identity
of its own that was constructed against the Mashriq,26 but only up to a point. It
could not have been otherwise: after all, the Umayyads came from the Mashriq,
where their ancestors had been caliphs, and their hatred of the ʿAbbāsids did not
stop them from imitating and emulating them. The East – especially Iraq – was
much valued for its cultural achievements, so much so that the poet Ibn Shuhayd
(382–426 H/992–1035 CE), at the time of the collapse of the Cordoban Umayyad
caliphate, criticized the inhabitants of Córdoba for “Berberizing, Westernizing,
and Egyptianizing” (tabarbarū wa-tagharrabū wa-tamaṣṣarū).27 For some Anda-
lusis, it was in fact the ‘other shore’ of the Strait of Gibraltar (al-ʿudwa), the land
of the ‘Berbers’, that functioned as the main focus of alterity.28 Thus, the poet-
king of Seville al-Muʿtamid (d. 488 H/1095 CE), jailed at Aghmāt near Marrakesh
by the Almoravid emir, referred to himself as a “stranger in the land of the ‘West-
erners’” (gharīb bi-arḍ al-maghribiyyīn).29
The distinction/opposition between Mashriq and Maghrib – the latter under-
stood as Northern Africa west of Egypt – emerged in the works of the 4th/10th-
century geographers Ibn Ḥawqal and al-Muqaddasī. Behind it was the boundary
between the Sunnī ʿAbbāsid caliphate and the Ismāʿīlī Fāṭimid caliphate, first es-
tablished in Ifrīqiya. This separation would again resurface in the 6th/12th cen-
tury with the establishment in North Africa and al-Andalus of the Almohad cali-
phate, built against the Almoravids, who had paid allegiance to the ʿAbbāsids.30
By the 5th/11th century, the Andalusi al-Bakrī (d. 487 H/1094 CE) held that al-
Andalus, as a frontier of the mamlakat al-islām with the Christian world, was an

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26 Criticisms of the Mashriq can be documented since early times. See Fierro 2019. See also al-
Munajjid 1963; El Erian El Bassal 2013.
27 Ibn Shuhayd, Dīwān (1969), 110. The term tagharrub has its counterpart in the tasharruq used
to define the Ismāʿīlīs/Fāṭimids in North Africa, a derogatory term through which they were dis-
missed as foreigners. See Ibn al-Haytham, al-Munāẓarāt (2000), 22–23.
28 Rouighi 2010; Rouighi 2019.
29 Apud Ibn Bassām, al-Dhakhīra (1978–81), 3: 75; López Lázaro 2013, 273.
30 On how this period was viewed in the East see Ben El Hajj Soulami 2014.
8 | Maribel Fierro/Mayte Penelas

extension of the Maghrib. Once al-Andalus was incorporated into the Berber em-
pires of the Almoravids and the Almohads, it became, in fact, an integral part of
the Maghrib. Between the end of the 6th/12th century and the 7th/13th century,
authors of travelogues and geographers from the Maghrib such as Ibn Jubayr (d.
614 H/1217 CE), al-ʿAbdarī (fl. ca. 688 H/1289 CE) and Ibn Saʿīd (d. 685 H/1286-7
CE) compared the East and the West of the Islamic world, emphasizing differ-
ences and offering criticism of the Mashriq, admired for its knowledge, but
blamed for its deficiencies in the sphere of religion. This represents the emer-
gence of a new reverse hierarchy, which had its precedents among the North Af-
rican Ibāḍīs, who had been pioneers in praising the merits of the Berbers and
consequently of the land they inhabited.31
In 6th/12th–7th/13th-century geographical works and travelogues, Egypt is
usually represented as the gateway to the East. Ibn Saʿīd (d. 685 H/1286-7 CE),
usually known in Eastern sources as Ibn Saʿīd al-Maghribī, left al-Andalus in
636 H/1238-9 CE and lived the rest of his life abroad, mostly in Egypt. His schol-
arly interests included poetry, belles-lettres (adab), history and geography. As
shown by Víctor de Castro’s contribution, Ibn Saʿīd’s Kitāb Basṭ al-arḍ fī al-ṭūl wa-
l-ʿarḍ, also known as Kitāb Jughrāfiyā, became a source for a number of Eastern
authors such as Abū al-Fidāʾ (d. 732 H/1331 CE), Ibn Faḍl Allāh al-ʿUmarī (d.
749 H/1349 CE), al-Qalqashandī (d. 821 H/1418 CE), and al-Maqrīzī (d. 845 H/1442
CE). In it, Egypt appears sometimes as part of the West, sometimes as part of the
East. The variations in Ibn Saʿīd’s conceptualization of Egypt do not end here: in
his compilation of poetry entitled al-Mughrib fī ḥulā al-Maghrib, the Maghrib is
taken to encompass not only Ifrīqiya, the rest of the Maghrib, and al-Andalus, but
also Egypt. While we find that in general the limits of the Maghrib may vary from
one author to another, this is the only instance where they are taken to include
Egypt. Ibn Saʿīd’s unusual choice in the Mughrib, moreover, was not followed by
other members of his family: for his uncle ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Muḥammad b. ʿAbd
al-Malik b. Saʿīd (d. 616 H/1220 CE), Ifrīqiya represented the door to the East. As
one might expect, Ibn Saʿīd’s ‘Maghribization’ of Egypt led to controversy, espe-
cially among Mamlūk authors in Egypt, with Ibn Faḍl Allāh al-ʿUmarī being the
most forceful in his disagreement. He replied to Ibn Saʿīd by dedicating volume
five of his Masālik al-abṣār fī mamālik al-amṣār to this issue. In it, al-ʿUmarī ac-
cuses Ibn Saʿīd of partiality and favouritism towards the Maghribis. As for scholar
Abū al-Fidāʾ, his criticism was based mainly on issues related to latitudes and
longitudes. The fact that for Easterners the West was often perceived as inferior

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31 Felipe 2018; Aillet (forthcoming; we thank the author for allowing us to quote his un-
published article).
 The Maghrib in the Mashriq. Knowledge, Travel and Identity. Introduction | 9

meant that Ibn Saʿīd’s attempt at integrating Egypt into the Maghrib was doomed
to be rejected by the Egyptians. The reasons that moved him to include Egypt are
still unclear. The Maghrib and Egypt had been politically united under the
Fāṭimids; was Ibn Saʿīd proposing a similar union under the rule of the Ḥafṣids,
who touted themselves as the rightful heirs to the Almohad caliphate?32

Part II: Integrating the Maghrib into Universal

Islamic History
Luis Molina has studied how Eastern Muslim historians, after the period of the
Islamic expansion, almost completely ignored the events taking place in the re-
gions west of Egypt.33 Later Eastern interest in the Maghrib, especially evident in
Ibn al-Athīr (d. 630 H/1233 CE), chronologically coincides with the rise of the Al-
mohad caliphate, and was highly dependent on historical sources written in al-
Andalus and the Maghrib that circulated in the East in close connection with the
travels and emigration of Andalusi and Maghribi scholars.34 At the same time,
some historical works were written in the East by Maghribi authors who had set-
tled there,35 with the patronage of Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn b. Ayyūb (d. 589 H/1193 CE) – bet-
ter known as Saladin – being hugely influential.36
In Abū al-Fidāʾ’s Mukhtaṣar fī akhbār al-bashar, a work that spans from the
creation of the world up to the year 729 H/1329 CE, al-Andalus appears as an un-
stable region on the periphery of the Islamic world. Abdenour Padillo-Saoud
analyses how the Syrian historian approaches al-Andalus in a work in which he
summarizes the information found in his sources on the political events that took
place in a given year. His main sources for al-Andalus were, unsurprisingly, Ibn

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32 On the political dynamics between Ḥafṣid Ifrīqiya and Egypt see Chapoutot-Remadi 1979.
33 Molina 2020.
34 The literature on this topic is abundant, a representative handful of references being: Pouzet
1975; Marín 1995; Baadj 2019.
35 As in the case of al-Yasaʿ b. Ḥazm (d. 575 H/1179 CE), author of the Kitāb al-Mughrib fī akhbār
maḥāsin ahl al-Maghrib, which he wrote for Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn, and ʿAbd al-Wāḥid al-Marrākushī (d.
after 621 H/1224 CE), author of Kitāb al-Muʿjib fī talkhīṣ akhbār al-Maghrib, which he wrote for a
vizier of the ʿAbbāsid caliph al-Nāṣir (d. 622 H/1225 CE). See respectively Fierro 1995 and Benhima
2009.
36 Not only in the field of history but also in others such as poetry. See Bray 2019a and Bray
2019b.
10 | Maribel Fierro/Mayte Penelas

al-Athīr’s al-Kāmil fī al-tārīkh37 and Ibn Saʿīd’s Mughrib. Abū al-Fidāʾ includes rec-
ords of around one hundred historical events that took place in al-Andalus, in-
terspersed with other information whose only common trait is having occurred in
the same year. Abū al-Fidāʾ’s account begins with the arrival of ʿAbd al-Raḥmān I
(d. 172 H/788 CE), whereas his main source, al-Kāmil fī al-tārīkh, offers an exten-
sive account of the conquest of al-Andalus and its aftermath. Abū al-Fidāʾ largely
skims over the Umayyad period, perhaps because he himself was a prince of the
Ayyūbid dynasty whose founder, Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn, had recognized the pre-eminence
of the ʿAbbāsid caliphate. Abū al-Fidāʾ seems more interested in al-Manṣūr b. Abī
ʿĀmir, or Almanzor (d. 392 H/1002 CE), the de facto ruler of al-Andalus towards
the end of the Umayyad caliphate, whose military campaigns against the Chris-
tians gained him fame and with whom Abū al-Fidāʾ – who took part in multiple
campaigns against the Crusaders – may have felt affinity. After dealing with the
period of the collapse of the Umayyad caliphate (fitna) and the subsequent taifa
kingdoms, when it comes time to cover the Almoravids and Almohads Abū al-
Fidāʾ only focuses on events in North Africa and, likewise, shows no interest in
the Naṣrid Kingdom of Granada.38
Both Ibn al-Athīr and Abū al-Fidāʾ lived in Syria, a region where the memory
of the Umayyad past was likely to arouse interest in al-Andalus,39 as was indeed
the case later on when the Maghribi al-Maqqarī (d. 1041 H/1632 CE) was asked by
a Syrian patron to write about the memory of a land that had by then been irre-
mediably lost to the Christians.40 Such an interest is not to be expected in regions
further east, but, as explained by Philip Bockholt in his contribution, even if they
had wanted to, historians in 10th/16th-century Iran would have been hard-
pressed to find knowledge on far-off regions of the Islamic world like al-Andalus
and the Maghrib. While works like the Tārīkhnāma written by Balʿamī under the
Sāmānids in the 4th/10th century devote only a few lines to the history of the
Islamic West, chronicles composed in Īlkhānid-Mongol times (ca. 655–755 H/
1257–1355 CE) contain more information, even including accounts of Christian
Iberia. Nevertheless, Khvāndamīr (d. 942 H/1535-6 CE) did not have any infor-
mation on hand about events taking place in the western parts of Islam from the
7th/13th century onwards, even though he belonged to a family of historians and
had access to the libraries of Herat, at that time one of the main cultural centres
in the eastern lands of Islam. However, Khvāndamīr’s Ḥabīb al-siyar fī akhbār

||
37 Al-Darwīsh 2015.
38 On this topic see Maḥmūd al-Baṭūsh 2016.
39 Borrut/Cobb 2010.
40 Elger 2002; Moral 2014; Adil 2019.
 The Maghrib in the Mashriq. Knowledge, Travel and Identity. Introduction | 11

afrād al-bashar does include materials about the early times of Islam in the Ibe-
rian Peninsula, and also covers the history of the Berber Muslim dynasties of the
Almoravids and Almohads (ca. 455–668 H/1063–1269 CE) at length. Among the
Almohad rulers, Abū Yūsuf Yaʿqūb (d. 595 H/1199 CE) is given special attention.
Khvāndamīr first presents his life, before going on to provide an account of the
591 H/1195 CE battle of Alarcos, in which the Almohad caliph defeated the Chris-
tians. However, Khvāndamīr mistakenly refers to it as the “the battle of al-Zal-
lāqa”, another victorious Muslim campaign against the Christians that had taken
place in the year 479 H/1086 CE under the rule of the Almoravid emir Yūsuf b.
Tāshufīn (d. 500 H/1106 CE). Khvāndamīr’s only source for the chapters dealing
with the Almohad dynasty, and hence for the battle of Alarcos, was Mirʾāt al-
janān by the Yemenite scholar al-Yāfiʿī (d. 768 H/1367 CE). The latter mainly cop-
ied the information given in Abū Shāma’s (d. 665 H/1267 CE) Dhayl al-Rawḍatayn
and in Ibn Khallikān’s (d. 681 H/1282 CE) Wafayāt al-aʿyān. Among the sources
for Ibn Khallikān’s account were members of the Maghribi community in Damas-
cus, including the famous mystic Muḥyī al-Dīn Ibn al-ʿArabī, who died in Damas-
cus in 638 H/1240 CE. Ibn al-Athīr’s Kāmil contains a similar, though not identi-
cal, strand of Arabic historiography about the battle of Alarcos. Later authors
based their narratives on al-Kāmil, as well as on Abū Shāma and Ibn Khallikān.
It was via their books that authors in Iran had access to knowledge about events
in the West.
If the political history of the Maghrib was of interest to historians writing es-
pecially for a readership at the ruler’s court, the lives of scholars and men of let-
ters from the western regions of Islam were more likely to prove relevant for other
scholars and men of letters living elsewhere.41 This was bound to happen when
Andalusi and Maghribi scholars settled in the East and became part of the local
intellectual and religious landscape.42 But what about those who never left their
homeland, or returned to it after having travelled to the East? Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ (476–

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41 Both types of information were combined by al-Dhahabī (d. 748 H/1348 CE) in his massive
work Tārīkh al-islām. Maxim Romanov has used the ṭabaqāt included in this work to study,
among other topics, the interregional connections between Iberia and the Levant from 1100 to
1600, using digital humanities tools. See Romanov 2017, esp. 241–243, figures 10–13. The Estu-
dios Onomástico-Biográficos de al-Andalus series, published by the CSIC in Madrid and Granada
(with 18 volumes to date, since 1988), includes a number of studies on biographies of Andalusis
found in Eastern biographical dictionaries, information that may now be studied from a digital
humanities approach.
42 A case in point is that of the Jewish man of letters Yehūda al-Harīzī, who left the Iberian
Peninsula and settled in Ayyūbid Aleppo, where he lived until his death, and whose biography
was recorded in Eastern Arabic sources. See Sadan 2002.
12 | Maribel Fierro/Mayte Penelas

544 H/1083–1149 CE), a scholar from Ceuta whose travels for study never took
him outside the region, is among the Maghribi scholars who have elicited the
most sustained attention across the Islamic world through the centuries.43 This
mostly has to do with the huge success of his al-Shifāʾ bi-taʿrīf ḥuqūq al-Musṭafā
– a work on the prerogatives and merits of the Prophet Muḥammad – among Mus-
lims both past and present.44 Even during his own lifetime, entries on Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ’s
life and intellectual production were already included in a number of biograph-
ical dictionaries not only in the Maghrib, but also in the Mashriq. In her contribu-
tion, Maiko Noguchi carries out a detailed comparison of the descriptions of Qāḍī
ʿIyāḍ in these biographies. Through her analysis, she reveals how certain ele-
ments are given more or less emphasis, and how the differences in the resulting
portrayals are related to the biographers’ various contexts. Her study contributes
to our understanding of how intellectual networks are created that transcend di-
rect physical connections. If students of Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ, and students of his students,
were decisive in making him and his work known outside the Maghrib, the inclu-
sion of entries on Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ in Eastern biographical dictionaries gave him – in
connection with the circulation of his work – a ‘life of his own’.

Part III: Maghribi Success in the East

Having risen to power in the far-western and central Maghrib toward the end of
Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ’s life, the Almohads sought to re-centre the Islamic world around the
figure of their Mahdī, the Berber Ibn Tūmart (d. 524 H/1130 CE). Characterizing
him as an impeccable imām and inheritor of the station of prophecy (wārith
maqām al-nubuwwa),45 his successor ʿAbd al-Muʾmin (d. 558 H/1163 CE) promoted
the view that the centre of Islam had shifted from the Mashriq to the Maghrib,
touted as the new Hejaz, with a sanctuary in Tinmal in the Atlas mountains where
the Mahdī and his successors, the Muʾminid caliphs, were buried. This shift inev-
itably bolstered Maghribi identity and pride, and lent new significance to an oft-

||
43 There is a famous saying that states: “If it were not for Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ, the Maghrib would not
have been known”. See, e.g., al-Ifrānī 2000, 33; Ibn Tāwīt 1402/1982, 59.
44 Dagmar Riedel studied the spread of this work as a Marie-Curie fellow at the Institute of Lan-
guages and Cultures of the Mediterranean, CSIC (2017–2019), with a project entitled Making
Books Talk: The Material Evidence of Manuscripts of the Kitāb al- Shifāʾ by Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ (d. 1149) for
the Reception of an Andalusian Biography of the Prophet between 1100 and 1900.
45 Fierro 2016, 83.
 The Maghrib in the Mashriq. Knowledge, Travel and Identity. Introduction | 13

cited Prophetic tradition whereby Muḥammad predicted a special role for the Ma-
ghrib.46 Ibn Jubayr’s (d. 614 H/1217 CE) Riḥla reflects this new attitude of confi-
dence and pride, and finds confirmation in the fact that, in a variety of ways, the
Ayyūbids showed an inclination to Maghribi emigrant scholars and favoured
them.47
Before Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ’s time, it was by no means guaranteed that Andalusi and
Maghribi scholars – no matter how relevant their contribution to Islamic learning
and culture – would make their way into general ṭabaqāt and tarājim works, nor
that their accomplishments would be celebrated or recorded. For example, Ibn
al-Nadīm’s (d. 380 H/990 CE) Fihrist, a bio-bibliographical repertoire document-
ing authors and works known to him in Baghdad, includes only one author from
Ifrīqiya.48 We have seen how the 3rd/9th-century geographer Ibn al-Faqīh de-
scribed the Maghrib as the worst part of the world, and, to be sure, it seems that
in the Baghdadi cultural sphere there was a prevailing notion that the West had
little to offer,49 an idea that still resonated in Ibn Khaldūn’s (d. 808 H/1406 CE)
time.50 Andalusis and Maghribis often complained about this state of affairs, put-
ting down in writing their conviction that in the East – and especially in Bagh-
dad – their contributions were purposely ignored or dismissed.51 This conviction
led some of them to record their achievements in the religious and intellectual
domains, as in the case of Ibn Ḥazm’s (d. 456 H/1064 CE) Risāla fī faḍl al-Andalus,
which lists authors and titles intended to demonstrate that Andalusis were equal

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46 “The inhabitants of the West (ahl al-gharb) will always be on the side of truth until the Hour
comes”. See, for example, Dhikr bilād al-Andalus (1983), 15 (Sp. trans. 22). In Almohad times it
acquired special saliency. See Buresi 2020.
47 Ibn Jubayr, Riḥla (1907), 278, 285; Ibn Jubayr, Riḥla (1952), 289, 298. See also Cahen 1973.
48 Maribel Fierro, “The Maghreb and al-Andalus in Ibn al-Nadīm’s Fihrist”, paper presented at
the 29th Conference of the Union Européenne des Arabisants et Islamisants, Münster University,
10–14 September 2018; see also Fierro 2018, 357, n. 2. One of the first biographical dictionaries to
include Andalusi scholars was that of Ibn Mākūlā (d. 430 H/1038 CE); see Marín 1985. Before
him, the Egyptian historian Ibn Yūnus (d. 347 H/958 CE) had written on the foreigners who trav-
elled to Egypt, including Maghribis and Andalusis, but his work is lost (although there has been
a recent attempt at reconstructing it on the basis of quotations by later authors). See Fierro 1987.
49 This is illustrated by a famous anecdote about the vizier al-Ṣāḥib b. ʿAbbād (d. 385 H/995 CE),
whereby when an adab work by the Cordoban Ibn ʿAbd Rabbihi (d. 328 H/940 CE), al-ʿIqd al-
farīd (The Unique Necklace), fell into his hands, he exclaimed: “This is our merchandise brought
back to us! I thought it would contain notices on their country (al-Andalus) but it merely contains
notices about our own country. We do not need it!” See Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, Muʿjam al-udabāʾ
(1414/1993), 1: 464; trans. by Toral-Niehoff 2015, 64.
50 Ibn Khaldūn, al-Muqaddima (2006–2007), 2: 180; Ibn Khaldūn, al-Muqaddima (1967), 2: 431.
51 As shown in the poems quoted at the beginning of this contribution. See also Fierro 2009; al-
ʿĀmirī 2015.
14 | Maribel Fierro/Mayte Penelas

and sometimes even superior to their Eastern counterparts.52 For all his pride in a
(possibly made-up) Iranian background, Ibn Ḥazm was in fact not much inter-
ested in what the East had to offer – for example, in the field of theology, he was
an acerbic critic of Ashʿarī doctrines;53 he never performed the riḥla and in his
quotations of Prophetic traditions in his work al-Muḥallā, he made a point of
quoting local riwāyāt. The idea that former cultural centres could decline and
new ones arise seems to have been very much present in 5th/11th-century al-An-
dalus, perhaps in connection with the collapse of the Cordoban Umayyad cali-
phate, and the myriad of new courts that arose in the newly formed taifa king-
doms. The decline of the ʿAbbāsid caliphate also contributed to this appraisal,
even under the Almoravids, who paid allegiance to them. Ibn al-Sīd al-Baṭalyawsī
(d. 521 H/1127 CE), who wrote a commentary on Ibn Qutayba’s (d. 276 H/889 CE)
Adab al-kātib, put it succinctly: li-kull dahr dawla wa-rijāl (‘each period has its
dynasty and its men’).54
One of Ibn Ḥazm’s students, al-Ḥumaydī (d. 488 H/1095 CE), left al-Andalus
never to return and, having settled in Baghdad, became one of the mediators who
helped integrate Andalusi and Maghribi scholarship into the worldview of Islam.
He accomplished this in different ways, for example through his biographical dic-
tionary of scholars, Jadhwat al-muqtabis fī dhikr wulāt al-Andalus wa-asmāʾ ruwāt
al-ḥadīth wa-ahl al-fiqh wa-l-adab wa-dhawī al-nubāha wa-l-shiʿr, which he wrote
in Baghdad, having to rely heavily on his memory for lack of relevant sources in
the local libraries. It was later used by Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī (d. 626 H/1229 CE), al-
Dhahabī (d. 748 H/1348 CE) and al-Suyūṭī (d. 911 H/1505 CE).55 There is, however,
little hard evidence that al-Ḥumaydī was instrumental in spreading Ibn Ḥazm’s
works in the East.56 This is one Camilla Adang’s conclusions in her contribution
to this volume. In it she concentrates on al-Ḥumaydī’s al-Jamʿ bayn al-Ṣaḥīḥayn,
in which the author rearranged the traditions found in the ḥadīth collections
(Ṣaḥīḥ) of al-Bukhārī and Muslim. The book, although not the first in this genre,
was much praised. As shown by Adang, from the 5th/11th century to the 9th/15th
century it was constantly being copied, studied, taught, excerpted and com-
mented upon by members of all four Sunnī schools of law, and to a lesser extent

||
52 Pellat 1954.
53 Schmidtke 2012.
54 Ibn al-Sīd al-Baṭalyawsī, al-Iqtiḍāb (1996), 1: 138; see also Soravia 2019.
55 Al-Najmī 2015.
56 In addition to the influence of Ibn Ḥazm’s student Shurayḥ (d. 539 H/1144 CE) indicated by
Adang in her contribution to this volume, Chodkiewicz 1991 has highlighted Muḥyī al-Dīn Ibn
ʿArabī’s influential role in making the work and doctrines of the Andalusi Ẓāhirī school known
in the East.
 The Maghrib in the Mashriq. Knowledge, Travel and Identity. Introduction | 15

also by Twelver Shīʿī scholars, who used al-Ḥumaydī’s work mainly for apologet-
ical or polemical purposes, as a source for traditions about ʿAlī and his family.
Among the Sunnīs, Mālikīs were the ones who showed the least interest in al-
Ḥumaydī’s work, due on the one hand to the fact that the Jamʿ was mainly trans-
mitted in the Mashriq, where the Mālikīs were a minority, and on the other hand,
because in the predominantly Mālikī West one could find several works from the
same genre by local scholars. The fact that al-Ḥumaydī was associated with Ibn
Ḥazm and Ẓāhirism may have been an additional reason for Mālikīs’ reluctance
to study and transmit the work.
It took some time for the science of Prophetic tradition and the Prophetic tra-
dition itself to circulate in earnest in the West. There were exceptions, such as
Abū ʿUbayd’s (d. 224 H/838 CE) Gharīb al-ḥadīth, which enjoyed great popularity
in the Maghrib since very early times.57 By the 4th/10th century, however, the
transmission and study of ḥadīth flourished, and soon this important branch of
religious knowledge saw a great deal of local output. Khaoula Trad traces in her
contribution both the history of the ḥadīth-commentary tradition in the Maghrib
and the impact that some of these ḥadīth commentaries had on the rest of the
Islamic world, focusing in particular on Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ’s Ikmāl al-Muʿlim fī sharḥ
Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim and on Abū al-ʿAbbās al-Qurṭubī’s (d. 656 H/1258 CE) al-Mufhim li-
mā ashkala min talkhīṣ kitāb Muslim. These works reflect the fact that Ṣaḥīḥ Mus-
lim seems to have been preferred over Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī in the western Islamic
lands, one of many features that differentiated the Maghrib from the other re-
gions.58 While Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ’s Ikmāl al-Muʿlim was read and used by the famed Syr-
ian author al-Nawawī (d. 676 H/1277 CE) in his Minhāj al-ṭālibīn, Abū al-ʿAbbās
al-Qurṭubī’s works on both Muslim and al-Bukhārī (namely, Ikhtiṣār Ṣaḥīḥ al-
Bukhārī) were used by Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī (d. 852 H/1449 CE).
Importantly, Abū al-ʿAbbās al-Qurṭubī settled in Egypt, where he taught and
died. Having students in the East was a determining factor in establishing his
fame and reputation, as was also the case with al-Ḥumaydī, Abū al-Qāsim al-
Shāṭibī and Ibn Saʿīd al-Maghribī.59
Together with Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ, Abū al-Qāsim al-Shāṭibī (d. 590 H/1194 CE) is one
of the most successful Andalusi/Maghribi authors of all times.60 Zohra Azgal
highlights in her paper the profound impact that the field of Qurʾānic readings,

||
57 Abū ʿUbayd, Gharīb al-ḥadīth (2019).
58 As already noted by Goldziher 1967–71, 2: 234.
59 As already pointed by Takeshi Yukawa, who highlighted the importance of differentiating
between two types of scholars: transit and settler. See Yukawa 1979.
60 Fierro (in press).
16 | Maribel Fierro/Mayte Penelas

as developed in al-Andalus, had on the Islamic East, a process that can be traced
back to scholars such as Makkī b. Abī Ṭālib al-Qayrawānī (d. 437 H/1045 CE) and
Abū ʿAmr al-Dānī (d. 444 H/1053 CE),61 and one that culminated with Abū al-
Qāsim al-Shāṭibī’s versification of al-Dānī’s al-Taysīr fī al-qirāʾāt al-sabʿ. Known
as al-Shāṭibiyya, this didactic poem became “the teaching handbook’s bestseller
for Qurʾānic readings” as Azgal describes it. The spectacular development of the
qirāʾāt genre in al-Andalus deserves further study in order to explain why it hap-
pened when it happened: mostly in the 5th/11th century, reaching its peak in al-
Andalus in the 6th/12th century.62 Abū al-Qāsim al-Shāṭibī left al-Andalus in
572 H/1176 CE. Having settled first in Alexandria before moving on to Cairo, he
devoted himself to teaching and transmitting Qurʾānic readings. In the ṭabaqāt
books, Azgal has identified thirty-one of al-Shāṭibī’s students from different re-
gions of the Islamic world, many of whom attained important positions that
helped them spread their teacher’s work on a large scale. The success of his work
and the centrality it acquired in the pedagogical process across space and time
explains the fact that in al-Qasṭallānī’s (d. 923 H/1517 CE) book on al-Shāṭibī, the
latter is presented as a walī, a saint who never sinned and was endowed with
many divine gifts. Azgal has also identified a large number of copies of al-
Shāṭibiyya and in her PhD dissertation will focus on studying the production of
manuscripts of his work in order to clarify its uses and functions, as well as the
process through which the Andalusi qirāʾāt school eventually prevailed in the
Muslim world.
We have seen above that Abū al-Qāsim al-Shāṭibī left al-Andalus in 572 H/
1176 CE, supposedly under the pretence of performing the ḥajj. In fact, it was not
uncommon for scholars who found themselves in trouble with the authorities to
use the pilgrimage as an excuse to leave the country, with the hope of returning
once the political situation had settled down. In the meantime they also accumu-
lated useful cultural capital, as the example of the reputed scholar Abū Bakr Ibn
al-ʿArabī (d. 543 H/1148 CE) has shown.63 A century later, problems with the new
Naṣrid ruler made Ibn Saʿīd al-Maghribī and his father decide to leave al-Andalus
in 636 H/1238-9 CE for the East, as explained by Iria Santás de Arcos in her con-
tribution. She focuses on the continuous writing and rewriting of Ibn Saʿīd’s most
famous book, al-Mughrib fī ḥulā al-Maghrib, in terms of its sources, its authorship
by different members of the same family, its structure and methodology, and its

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61 Nasser 2013.
62 This has been shown by Zanón 1997, 556.
63 Garden 2015.
 The Maghrib in the Mashriq. Knowledge, Travel and Identity. Introduction | 17

impact on the East.64 While in Egypt, the Ayyūbid ruler al-Malik al-Ṣāliḥ (d.
647 H/1249 CE) gave Ibn Saʿīd access to the royal libraries and in 640 H/1243 CE
he was able to complete a first version that was very well received in Cairo. An
important moment in Ibn Saʿīd’s life that contributed to the dissemination of his
work was the year 644 H/1246 CE, when he met the scholar Ibn al-ʿAdīm (d.
660 H/1262 CE) and left Cairo to accompany him to Aleppo. From there he went
on to Damascus, Homs, Mosul, Baghdad, Basra, Armenia, Mecca and Iran. In
675 H/1276 CE he finally returned to Tunis, where he stayed until his death in
685 H/1286-7 CE. Besides Ibn Saʿīd himself, three other scholars played a promi-
nent role in the spread of the Mughrib: Muḥammad b. Hamūshk al-Tinmalī,
Sharaf al-Dīn Abū al-ʿAbbās Aḥmad b. Yūsuf al-Tīfāshī, and Ibn al-ʿAdīm. For
Mamlūk authors the Mughrib constituted a valuable source, especially the part
covering al-Andalus and North Africa. However, not many copies appear to have
existed; today there is only one extant manuscript, preserved at Dār al-kutub al-
miṣriyya in Cairo, which seems to have been produced by the author himself.
Later, this copy reached al-Ṣafadī’s (d. 764 H/1363 CE) hands and those of other
scholars, including Ibn Duqmāq (d. 809 H/1407 CE). The notes they left in the
copy confirm that at the end of the 8th/14th century the manuscript was already
in Cairo. Of fundamental importance in this process was the presence of a copy
(perhaps the one preserved today) in the 9th/15th century in the library of the
Muʾayyadiyya, which granted many scholars access to it, thus rendering the pro-
duction of new copies less necessary. A number of other copies are known to have
existed, in particular those made by Ibn Hamūshk and perhaps by al-Tīfāshī, but
no Maghribi manuscript has been preserved.
Verses included in Ibn Saʿīd’s Mughrib were transmitted orally, having been
committed to memory. The ways in which poetry spreads are not always easy to
trace, just as it is not always apparent why specific poems or verses struck a chord
with audiences of the past. An Andalusi invention in strophic poetry, the mu-
washshaḥa, is a case in point. Brought by Andalusi/Maghribi travellers to Egypt,
Syria, Iraq and beyond, the muwashshaḥāt were embraced outside their place of
origin in the second half of the 5th/11th century and especially during the
6th/12th century.65 Ibn Khaldūn wrote how much the Easterners liked these poetic
compositions,66 but gave no explanation as to why. Ibn Ẓāfir al-Ḥaddād (d. ca.

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64 On the impact of Andalusi works on the literary field under the Mamlūks see Sālim al-Na-
wāfaʿa 2008.
65 Afandī 1999. As for the related form of the zajal, see Özkan 2018.
66 Ibn Khaldūn, al-Muqaddima (2006–2007), 2: 566–602; Ibn Khaldūn, al-Muqaddima (1967),
3: 440–480.
18 | Maribel Fierro/Mayte Penelas

525 H/1131 CE), an Egyptian Fāṭimid poet from Alexandria, composed at least two
muwashshaḥāt that seem to be the earliest examples from the East. Teresa
Garulo’s contribution concentrates on a specific muwashshaḥa by ʿUbāda b. Māʾ
al-Samāʾ (d. 421 H/1030 CE). His muwashshaḥāt were a novelty within the new
genre, as he was the first poet to insert internal rhymes in the parts of the poem
called the aghṣān; so successfully, in fact, that the previous rhyme schemes seem
to have been forgotten. In Mamlūk Egypt and Syria, Cordoban poet ʿUbāda b. Māʾ
al-Samāʾ’s muwashshaḥa beginning with the words “Man walī” became hugely
popular, and yet there is no trace of it in Andalusi or Maghribi sources. Perhaps
al-Ḥumaydī, whose teacher Ibn Ḥazm praised ʿUbāda’s book on the poets of al-
Andalus in his Risāla fī faḍl al-Andalus, was instrumental in transmitting it east-
ward. Ten emulations (muʿāraḍāt) of Man walī were produced in Syria and Egypt,
in addition to one by a Yemeni poet, from the 6th/12th century all the way to the
20th century. Nobody found it necessary to explain why this poem attracted such
attention. It probably had a musical accompaniment: Kallilī, the muʿāraḍa by Ibn
Sanāʾ al-Mulk (d. 608 H/1211 CE) – or Muẓaffar al-ʿAylānī (d. 623 H/1226 CE) – was
sung from the beginning, and continues to be sung even today. As an Andalusi
song, Kallilī’s prelude and first strophe appear in Kunnāsh al-Ḥāʾik, the compila-
tion of the texts of songs deriving from Andalusi music still sung during the life-
time of its author, Muḥammad al-Andalusī al-Tiṭwānī (12th/18th century). Per-
haps the music itself was the greatest attraction of the muwashshaḥāt.

Part IV: Pathways of Reception from the Maghrib

to the Mashriq
Ibn Khaldūn pointed to the linguistic barriers to Easterners’ appreciation of the
zajals written by Andalusis because they were written in Andalusi colloquial Ara-
bic. Likewise, among the texts that travelled with the scholars from al-Andalus
and the Maghrib, those dealing with pharmacology involved foreign medical
terms that required identification and clarification. Juan Carlos Villaverde
Amieva concentrates in his paper on the Andalusi Romance terms found in the
book by the physician ʿIzz al-Dīn Abū Isḥāq b. Muḥammad b. Ṭarkhān al-Suwaydī
(or Ibn al-Suwaydī) (d. 690 H/1291 CE), Kitāb al-Simāt fī asmāʾ al-nabāt, a reper-
tory of names of simple medicines that is known for its linguistic richness. Arabic
and its numerous dialectal variants is the language best represented in it, to-
gether with other languages from the Middle East (Nabataean, Coptic) and other
geographical regions (Nubia, Armenia, the land of the Turks, Greek...), as well as
 The Maghrib in the Mashriq. Knowledge, Travel and Identity. Introduction | 19

Berber. Al-Suwaydī’s references to al-Andalus exceed by far his references to any

of the other regions, including the author’s native Syria. These are references to
different plants or medicinal substances found in the Iberian Peninsula and to
these substances’ Andalusi names and synonyms. The information provided re-
flects an Arabic/Romance duality in al-Andalus that, however, does not neces-
sarily reflect a persistent bilingualism in al-Suwaydī’s times. In fact, together
with the Arabic terms used specifically by Andalusi botanists, some of which be-
long to the Andalusi dialect, there are also references to their synonyms in Ro-
mance, generally referred to as laṭīniyya (‘Latin’), but also as ʿajamiyyat al-Anda-
lus. Al-Suwaydī’s source is the famed Andalusi botanist Ibn al-Bayṭār (d. 646 H/
1248 CE), and his book is another piece of evidence to add to our knowledge of
the extraordinary textual dissemination of Ibn al-Bayṭār’s pharmacological work.
There are many copies of his Kitāb al-Mughnī fī al-adwiya al-mufrada and even
more of his Kitāb al-Jāmiʿ li-mufradāt al-adwiya wa-l-aghdhiya.67 These books
must have already become widely distributed during their author’s lifetime, es-
pecially in Damascus where Ibn al-Bayṭār settled and died, and where al-Suwaydī
may have studied with him.
The 7th/13th-century catalogue of the Ashrafiyya Library in Damascus has
revealed that books from the western Islamic world were abundant in the original
collection, either brought to Damascus by Maghribi travellers, or transcribed in
Syria by Maghribi migrants.68 We have also seen how the first non-Andalusi mu-
washshaḥāt were written in Alexandria, a Mediterranean commercial entrepôt
where many Muslims, Christians and Jews from inside and outside dār al-islām
arrived both by land and by sea.69 Like other port cities, Alexandria was trans-
regional, trans-religious and trans-cultural, a trading zone in which knowledge
flowed in all directions. How did the transmission of knowledge interplay with
long-distance trade routes, different forms of economic exchange and flows of
merchants, pilgrims and travellers in general?70
Some of these travellers were mystics from the Maghrib and al-Andalus, from
such towering figures as Muḥyī al-Dīn Ibn al-ʿArabī (d. 638 H/1240 CE) down to
minor saints.71 José Bellver studies in his paper a specific case of the vast influ-
ence that Andalusi and Maghribi Ṣūfism had outside the Iberian Peninsula, an

||
67 Fierro (in press).
68 Hirschler 2016, 38 (the works of Ibn al-Bayṭār and of Ibn Sabʿīn’s son, studied by Bellver, are
not listed).
69 Walker 2014.
70 Marín 1998–99.
71 Ṣafī al-Dīn ibn Abī al-Manṣūr, Risāla (1986); Marín 1994.
20 | Maribel Fierro/Mayte Penelas

influence that affected not only Muslims but also other religious communities,
especially the Jews.72 Yaḥyā b. ʿAbd al-Ḥaqq b. Sabʿīn was the son of the most
renowned intellectual mystic born in al-Andalus after Ibn al-ʿArabī, Ibn Sabʿīn
(d. 668 or 669 H/1270-1 CE), who had settled in Mecca, where he lived until his
death. Thus, his son Yaḥyā may therefore have been born in the East. Yaḥyā b.
ʿAbd al-Ḥaqq b. Sabʿīn’s Kitāb al-Sulūk fī ṭarīq al-qawm – edited and translated
by Bellver – is a short Ṣūfī text that summarizes some of his father’s insights into
Ṣūfism, developing the concept of muḥaqqiq and depicting some metaphysical
correspondences of the pair muḥaqqiq/murīd, i.e. realizer/aspirant. Although
written from a Neoplatonic perspective, it manages to avoid the use of philosoph-
ical terminology. The only known manuscript is preserved today at the Süley-
maniye library in Istanbul. Its copyist was ʿAbd al-Qādir b. Muṣṭafā al-Ṣafūrī al-
Dimashqī (d. 1081 H/1670 CE), the teacher of the Ṣūfī scholar ʿAbd al-Ghanī al-
Nābulusī (d. 1143 H/1731 CE), thus providing a new context for the latter’s interest
in Ibn Sabʿīn.
Textual transmission as explored in the previous contributions is also pre-
sent in Kentaro Sato’s study of how Ibn Khaldūn presented himself in Mamlūk
Cairo as a Maghribi scholar in possession of a Maghribi tradition of knowledge.
In his first lecture on Mālik b. Anas’s (d. 179 H/796 CE) Muwaṭṭaʾ at the Ṣar-
ghitmish madrasa in Cairo, he made use of an isnād in which only Maghribi and
Andalusi scholars appeared as transmitters, stretching back to Yaḥyā b. Yaḥyā
al-Laythī’s (d. 234 H/849 CE) riwāya, the quintessential ‘Western’ recension of the
foundational text of the Mālikī legal school. As pointed out by Sato, almost no
Mashriqi – including Egyptian – scholars ever went to the Maghrib to study this
riwāya. Those who were interested – such as Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī – could study
it in Cairo under Maghribi scholars, but its value was limited in the Egyptian con-
text, where it lacked the strong emotional resonance it had in the Maghrib. More-
over, it had to compete with other recensions that attached Mālik b. Anas’s Mu-
waṭṭaʾ to other regional contexts.
One of Ibn Ḥajar’s teachers had an isnād of Mālik’s Muwaṭṭaʾ that went back
to the Andalusi Abū Bakr al-Ṭurṭūshī (d. 520 H/1126 CE), a seminal figure in the
re-establishment of the Mālikī legal school in Egypt after he settled in Alexandria.
The presence of Mālikī jurists from the Maghrib and al-Andalus in post-Fāṭimid
Egypt is studied by Maribel Fierro in her paper. Statistics drawn from the ṭabaqāt
works by Qāḍī ʿIyāḍ and Ibn Farḥūn (d. 799 H/1397 CE) clearly show that the
Ayyūbid and Mamlūk periods saw an increase in the numbers of Mālikīs, some of
whom were of Maghribi origin. Whatever their background, the Egyptian Mālikīs

||
72 Wasserstrom 2000.
 The Maghrib in the Mashriq. Knowledge, Travel and Identity. Introduction | 21

who left behind a written production could not but refer in their works to the An-
dalusi/Maghribi Mālikī tradition. However, Baybars’s novel 663 H/1265 CE crea-
tion of four judgeships representing the four Sunnī legal schools led to a specific
development, which Mohammed Fadel has called “the rise of the mukhtaṣars”,73
legal handbooks that offered the predominant doctrine of the school to be applied
in the judicial court. Because this predominant doctrine had most often been es-
tablished in the Maghrib, one would expect the Maghribi Mālikīs to have wel-
comed the mukhtaṣars with open arms. However, the introduction of the
mukhtaṣar genre from Egypt to the Maghrib coincides with the composition of
numerous compilations of Mālikī fatāwā – a genre that is absent among the Egyp-
tian Mālikīs. Fierro’s proposal is to see in such activities a way of deflecting the
potential impact of the Egyptian mukhtaṣars on the Maghrib.
The impact that Andalusi and Maghribi Mālikism had in West Africa is well
known, given the north-south direction of the process of Islamization in the re-
gion.74 Adday Hernández’s contribution focuses on a less explored area, the Horn
of Africa, and on more recent times (19th and 20th centuries). Works from the
Islamic West represented in the libraries and collections selected are classified
into five categories: Ṣūfism and theology; linguistics and grammar; Qurʾānic sci-
ences; jurisprudence; and others, including adab and medicine. As one might
expect, her research has turned up an abundance of basic summarized texts on
easy-to-memorize subjects, such as versified didactic works, which were very
common in al-Andalus and the Maghrib. Specifically, we find Ibn Faraḥ’s (d.
699 H/1300 CE) poem on ʿilm al-ḥadīth, the Shāṭibiyya, Ibn Mālik’s (d. 672 H/
1273 CE) Alfiyya, and al-Sanūsī’s (d. 895 H/1490 CE) Umm al-barāhīn. A Mālikī le-
gal manual that falls into this category of user-friendly and easy-to-consult
books, Ibn Abī Zayd al-Qayrawānī’s (d. 386 H/996 CE) Risāla fī al-fiqh, is also rep-
resented. The establishment of the Tijāniyya order in the area explains the pres-
ence of certain Ṣūfī works that travelled mainly from Mecca-Yemen and second-
arily from Egypt-Sudan. The two most popular Ṣūfī works throughout the Horn
– both of Maghribi origin – are al-Jazūlī’s (d. 869 H/1465 CE) Dalāʾil al-khayrāt
and Ibn ʿAẓẓūm’s (d. 960 H/1552 CE) Tanbīh al-anām, consisting of collections of
prayers for the Prophet Muḥammad. The works studied represent around ten per-
cent of those catalogued within the project Islam in the Horn of Africa: A compar-
ative literary approach (dir. Alessandro Gori), that is, approximately 200 out of
the more than 2,000 works analysed.

||
73 Fadel 1996.
74 See Anderson 1954, and more generally Usman 2009.
22 | Maribel Fierro/Mayte Penelas

Part V: Remaining Maghribi while in the Mashriq

Andalusi identity in different areas and from different perspectives has been the
subject of a number of studies.75 For example, focusing on the specific field of
astronomy, Abdelhamid I. Sabra has stated that “the Andalusian sense of identity
went further than self-praise and actually expressed itself in the creation of sys-
tems of ideas that were distinctly Andalusian and consciously directed against
intellectual authorities in the Eastern part of Islam”.76 The case of the Maghrib,
however, is more complex, as it covers a broader geographical area and a variety
of different polities, at times even encompassing al-Andalus, as was the case dur-
ing the period of the Berber empires. Travelogues by Andalusi and Maghribi au-
thors, then, are one tool that offers particular insight into how these travellers
viewed themselves.77 For example, famous Jewish Andalusi thinker Mūsā b. May-
mūn al-Qurṭubī, better known as Maimonides (d. 1204), discusses the regional
divide in explicit terms, highlighting the difference between the customs in
Egypt, where he finally settled, and those “chez nous in the West (ʿindanā fī al-
maghrib)”.78
In his contribution, Umberto Bongianino offers a preliminary survey of man-
uscripts that reveal Maghribi emigrants’ use of their local scripts as enduring ve-
hicles of cultural identity in the Mashriq. Some of these manuscripts were
brought from back home in the West, while others were produced in the East, and
all of them were read, annotated, and deposited in the mosques and madrasas of
the eastern Islamic Mediterranean between the 6th/12th century and the 7th/13th
century (in Bongianino’s study we once again see the crucial role of Alexandria).
The distinctive appearance of such manuscripts reflects the intellectual pursuits
and identity of scholars for whom the use of Maghribi scripts was a way to main-
tain a link with the cultural background from which they came. It was a trait they
shared with others, and a link that was not at odds with adaptation and even ac-
culturation to their new contexts, as with some of Muḥyī al-Dīn Ibn al-ʿArabī’s
autograph manuscripts, whose script and layout include a number of distinctive
Mashriqi features.
Josef Ženka’s contribution also revolves around manuscripts and identity,
being part of a wider, innovative and seminal research project that is recovering
the manuscript legacy of Naṣrid Granada. In this case, he concentrates on a

||
75 For example, in Martínez-Gros 1997; Marín 1999; Weber 2000; Marín 2001.
76 Sabra 1984, 143. Cf. for the field of grammar Carter 2011.
77 Ferhat 2001; Marín 2005; Ghouirgate 2010; Calasso 2014.
78 López Lázaro, 2013, 263, quoting Anidjar 2002. See also Brann 2000 and Alfonso 2008.
 The Maghrib in the Mashriq. Knowledge, Travel and Identity. Introduction | 23

unique manuscript – a holograph of the Marīnid Chancellor Muḥammad Ibn Ḥizb

Allāh al-Wādī Āshī (d. 788 H/1386 CE) – that offers a valuable example of how
Maghribis in the East represented themselves and were represented by others. By
skilfully combining different types of source material, Ženka opens up new pos-
sibilities for assessing the cultural acts of expression that migrants performed ac-
cording to their context and the persons involved, and the transformations in
meaning that writings were subject to in time and space. In these circumstances,
the evidence of how these migrants related to one other is of particular interest.
Takao Ito brings us back to another famous Maghribi, Ibn Khaldūn (d.
808 H/1406 CE), paying attention to the biographies written by his contemporary
and near-contemporary authors. He shows how Maghribi sources from the 9th–
10th/15th–16th centuries refer to him less than those produced in the East, espe-
cially in the Mamlūk sultanate. Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī – who as noted above was
partial to the Maghribi isnād of Mālik’s Muwaṭṭaʾ – criticized Ibn Khaldūn for
stubbornly clinging on to Maghribi-style clothing instead of adopting the clothes
worn by Egyptian judges.

Next steps forward

The Eastern legal scholar and theologian al-Juwaynī (d. 478 H/1085 CE), when
dealing with the nature and requirements of consensus (ijmāʿ), defined it as “the
consensus of all those upon whom the sun has shone in the East and the West
and by the agreement of the views of all scholars collectively”.79 This inclusive
attitude in the fields of law and theology was not always paralleled in other
spheres: of Ibn Diḥya (d. 633 H/1235 CE) it is said that he wrote his Muṭrib min
ashʿār ahl al-Maghrib because Eastern authors of poetic anthologies routinely ex-
cluded poets from the West.80 The engagement of Eastern scholars with the
knowledge produced in the West took some time, one of the first cases being the
writing of a refutation of the Cordoban Ibn Masarra’s (d. 319 H/931 CE) works by
the Eastern author Abū Saʿīd Ibn al-Aʿrābī (d. 341 H/952 CE). This started a long
chain of such reactions that later included, for example, al-Dhahabī’s refutation
of Ibn al-Qaṭṭān’s (d. 628 H/1231 CE) commentary on Ibn al-Kharrāṭ’s (d. 581 or
582 H/1185-6 CE) al-Aḥkām, al-Radd ʿalā Ibn al-Qaṭṭān fī kitābihi Bayān al-wahm

||
79 Al-Juwaynī, Ghiyāth al-umam (1401/1980), 23; trans. by Hassan 2016, 101.
80 Gallega Ortega 2004, 66.
24 | Maribel Fierro/Mayte Penelas

wa-l-īhām.81 The study of this type of works – especially when not limited to big
names such Muḥyī al-Dīn Ibn al-ʿArabī and Ibn Khaldūn – will do much to ad-
vance our knowledge about the reception of Andalusi/Maghribi intellectual pro-
duction outside the Maghrib. Attention should be paid not only what was re-
jected, but also to what was absorbed or found useful, as in the case of Ibn
Taymiyya’s use of Ibn Rushd.82 There is certainly room for a monograph on the
inclusion of Andalusi/Maghribi scholars in Eastern biographical dictionaries,83
and about Eastern scholars who travelled to the Maghrib.84 We have already men-
tioned the question of how the transmission of knowledge interplayed with long-
distance trade routes, different forms of economic exchange, and the flows of
merchants, pilgrims and travellers in general. In terms of the wave of migration
to the East that took place especially from the 6th/12th century onwards, a study
is needed into any networks of solidarity that the emigrants may have estab-
lished, as well as the consequences that this ‘brain drain’ had on the Maghrib.
The impact that the emigrants had outside scholarly circles is also in need of
study.85 Finally, a comparative perspective with similar processes affecting other
regions of the Islamic world would considerably enrich our understanding of the
case of the Maghrib. It is our hope to continue this project over the coming years
in order to produce some of the studies here listed as desiderata.

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