BUILDING MAINTENANCE

By the same author

Building Quantities Explained
Building Economics
Building Technology
Civil Engineering Quantities
Municipal Engineering Practice
Civil Engineering Specification
Outdoor Recreation and the Urban Environment
Planned Expansion of Country Towns (published by George Godwin)
 BUILDING MAINTENANCE

IVOR H. SEELEY
B.Sc., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.I.C.S., C.Eng.,
F.I.Mun.E., F.I.Q.S., M.I.O.B.
Head of Department of Surveying
and Dean of the School of Environmental Studies
Trent Polytechnic, Nottingham

M
 © Ivor H. Seeley 1976

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may

be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without permission.

First published 1976 by

THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
London and Basingstoke
Associated companies in New York Dublin
Melbourne Johannesburg and Madras

SBN 333 17160 8

ISBN 978-0-333-17160-8 ISBN 978-1-349-02355-4 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-02355-4

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The paperback edition of this book is sold subject to the condition that it shall
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 This book is dedicated to my elder daughter
LINDA
for her kind and sympathetic help and encouragement
with my book-writing activities over many years
 CONTENTS

List ofFigures XI

List of Tables XII

Preface XIII

Acknowledgements XV

1 Nature and importance of building maintenance 1

Concept of building maintenance; significance of building main-
tenance; liability for defects in buildings; maintenance needs; re-
sources for building maintenance; nature of maintenance;
research into maintenance; lives of buildings; technology of main-
tenance; consideration of maintenance at design stage; effect of
metrication; relationship of capital, maintenance and running
costs; economics of maintenance.

2 Building maintenance problems and their solution--! 22

Site conditions; foundation problems; settlement of buildings;
shoring; waterproofing leaking basements; maintenance of paved
and grassed areas; maintenance of fencing.

3 Building maintenance problems and their solution--ll 41

Defects in wall claddings; brickwork; stonework; light clad-
dings; structural frames; dampness penetration; condensation;
chimney problems.

4 Building maintenance problems and their solution--m 67

Timber defects; floors; staircases; roofs; sound insulation; ther-
mal insulation; vibration.

S Building maintenance problems and their solution--IV 93

Joinery; corrosion of metals; plasterwork; external renderings;
external wall tiling; internal finishes; decorations; glazing.

6 Building maintenance problems and their solution--V 118

Plumbing; heating and hot water supply; air conditioning;
viii Contents

electrical installations; gas installations; lifts; refuse collection

from flats; drainage; safety; security; fire precautions; cleaning;
repair of flood damage.

7 Alterations and improvements 141

Scope of alterations and improvements; modernisation of dwel-
lings; conversion of other buildings into dwellings; prefabricated
additions; sequence of alteration work; grants for improvements
and conversions; rehabilitation or redevelopment; dilapidations;
technical reports; proofs of evidence.

8 Specification of maintenance work 169

Sources of information; form of the specification; drafting of speci-
fications; typical specification clauses; specifications for new work.

9 Measurement and pricing of maintenance work 190

Measurement of building work; principles and units of measure-
ment; building estimates; approximate estimating; preparation of
estimates by contractors; price build-up; pricing alteration works;
checking builders' accounts.

10 Tendering procedures and contract administration 217

Nature and form of contracts; building contracts; types of building
contract; tendering arrangements; government maintenance con-
tracts; contract documents; parties involved in contracts; con-
ditions of contract; conditions of contract for minor works;
contract procedures.

11 Bullding control 249

Building Regulations; planning control; other statutory require-
ments; control of work in progress; easements.

12 Planning and financing maintenance work 270

Planning, budgeting and controlling the cost of maintenance
work; planned maintenance; recording and dissemination of main-
tenance data; Building Maintenance Cost Information Service;
maintenance manuals; costs in use; effect of taxation and insur-
ance.

13 Execution of maintenance work 296

Choice between direct and contract labour; structure of building
maintenance departments; maintenance depots; programming of
maintenance work; organisation of maintenance work; pro-
gramming and progressing maintenance work; training for main-
tenance; maintenance incentive schemes.

14 Supervision of maintenance work 323

Clerk of Works; site meetings; setting out; supervision of building
work; records.
 Contents IX

Appendix 1 Metric conversion table 340

Appendix 2 Occupancy cost analysis-home for the aged 342

Appendix 3 Occupancy cost analysis--office block 346

Appendix 4 Classification of maintenance operations and repairs 350

Index 353
LIST OF FIGURES

2.1.1 Cracking arising from drying action of tree roots

2.1.2 Cracking associated with shallow foundations on shrinkable clay
2.1.3 Underpinning
2.1.4 Shoring
2.2.1 Dead shore
2.2.2 Raking shore
2.2.3 Detail at head of raker
2.2.4 Flying shore
7.1.1 Modernisation of dwellings-New Earswick
7.1.2 Modernisation of terrace house
7.2.1 Conversion of house into flats
7 .2.2 Conversion of bedroom into bathroom
7.3 .1 Conversion of village school into bungalow
7.3 .2 Conversion of stable into cottage
LIST OF TABLES

1.1 Approximate annual expenditure on maintenance work in

Great Britain in 1969
1.2 Annual equivalent costs in use for typical buildings each pro-
viding 100 units of accommodation
3.1 Selection of mortars for brickwork and blockwork
4.1 Characteristics of wood-rotting fungi
4.2 Characteristics of some of the commoner wood-boring beetles
S.1 Some plastering defects and their causes and remedies
S.2 Mixes of renderings for various situations
S.3 Painting cycle costs on steelwork
S.4 Painting defects on woodwork
6.1 Weaknesses of various types offire alarm systems
13.1 Controlcard
13.2 Tenants'requestcard
13.3 Job request form
PREFACE

Building Maintenance has too often been regarded as the 'Cinderella' of the
building industry. Yet in the early 1970s Britain was spending over £2000m per
annum on the maintenance of buildings and about 40 per cent of the building
labour force was engaged on this class of work.
The maintenance of the built environment affects everyone continually, for it
is on the state of our homes, offices and factories that we depend not only for our
comfort, but for our economic survival. The building stock in the United King-
dom had an estimated replacement value of about £120 OOOm in 1973 and this
alone indicates the importance of effective upkeep. There is still a pressing need
for the improvement of large numbers of older but substantial dwellings which
lack some of the basic amenities.
Maintenance starts the day the builder leaves the site. Design, materials,
workmanship, function, use and their interrelationships, will determine the
amount of maintenance required during the lifetime of the building. Further-
more, the client's economic interests may work against the elimination of high
maintenance costs in the building design. Case studies undertaken by the DOE
Committee on Building Maintenance have shown that about one-third of the
maintenance work on the buildings investigated could have been avoided if suf-
ficient care had been taken at the design stage and during construction. The
design faults resulted either from failure to appreciate how various con-
structional details would perform in use, or because certain parts of the building
that failed through normal wear and tear could not be replaced without extensive
repairs to adjacent parts. A spokesman for the Building Research Establishment
has also commented on the frequent failure by designers to make use of auth-
oritative design guides such as British Standards and Codes of Practice, and of
the tendency to adopt a careless attitude to detail design.
The building fabric has to satisfy different user needs and occupational fac-
tors. The designer should identify what performance is required from the fabric
in terms of weathertightness, noise reduction, durability, resistance to heat loss
and other relevant criteria, in addition to comfort and visual requirements.
Many of the design faults which result in high maintenance expenditure could
conceivably be avoided if a maintenance manager, or someone with similar tech-
nical knowledge, joined the design team. Not many architects or builders revisit
their jobs after the expiry of the defects liability period and few have a continuing
responsibility for maintenance.
There is rarely an obvious end-product in building maintenance, and the effect
of neglected industrial buildings, for instance, will seldom be as serious for the
xiv Preface

owner as the disruption caused by a breakdown in production following neglect

of plant maintenance. For this reason building maintenance is often considered
as one of the first items for budget cuts when retrenchment becomes necessary.
Indeed some building owners regard maintenance costs as part of the debit side of
the balance sheet ana an erosion of legitimate profits, because they fail to ap-
preciate its true value. It is, however, only common sense to ensure that when a
decision is made on maintenance work, account is taken of the aggravation of the
defect which is likely to occur if work is delayed, with consequent increase in cost.
The satisfactory maintenance of a dwelling makes it fit to live in, but the occu-
pant may have a very narrow view of what this entails. If the household equip-
ment works, the internal decorations are cheerful and the external appearance
respectable, he will probably be satisfied. The maintenance manager must take a
deeper view-loose roof tiles, unsound timber, defective damp-proof courses or
powdering mortar are symptoms of a state of disrepair which cannot be cured by
superficial measures. Unless basic repairs are carried out in time, the property
will become damp or its structure will deteriorate so that normal jobbing repairs
and repainting are no longer sufficient to restore even an appearance of well-
being.
Building maintenance is assuming increasing importance which is shown by
the holding of several large national conferences on this subject, the mounting of
diploma and postgraduate courses in maintenance management, and the con-
siderable volume of maintenance research by government departments, universi-
ties and polytechnics, apart from the valuable work undertaken by the leading
professional bodies connected with the building industry. Nevertheless, the DOE
Committee on Building Maintenance has drawn attention to the need to give in-
creased emphasis in appropriate degree and professional examination curricula
to building maintenance. The Committee believes that the main subject areas
that need to be covered are the relationship between the design and performance
of buildings and services; the organisation and control of maintenance work;
economics and finance; law and liability; and technology. These subject areas
form the core of this book which it is hoped will be of value to students and prac-
tising surveyors, builders, architects, estate, housing and maintenance managers,
and environmental control officers alike.
Effective building maintenance requires the correct diagnosis of defects, and
implementation of the correct remedial measures, all based on sound technical
knowledge, otherwise there can be additional waste of materials, labour and
money since the work will in all probability have to be done again. We need more
uniformity in the method of recording maintenance data and greater feedback of
information on the performance of materials and running costs of buildings in
particular. The increased use of maintenance manuals and more regular main-
tenance inspections and schemes of planned maintenance will assist in producing
more efficient maintenance. Effective maintenance control requires the formula-
tion of sound plans, recording of performance, comparison of performance with
the plan and the taking of corrective action where appropriate. Finally there is
the need to make better use of available resources.

Nottingham, IVOR H. SEELEY

Autumn1975
ACKNOVVLEDBEMENTS

The author acknowledges with gratitude the willing co-operation and assistance
received from many organisations and individuals, so many that it is not possible
to mention them all individually.
Crown copyright material is reproduced from BRE Digests by permission of
the Director of the Building Research Establishment; in this connection it should
be mentioned that copies of the digests quoted are obtainable from Her Majesty's
Stationery Office, PO Box 569, London SE 1 or any bookseller.
The Building Maintenance Cost Information Service Ltd, the Property Ser-
vices Agency and Kent County Council have kindly given permission for the
inclusion of the occupancy cost analyses (appendixes 2 and 3) and other valuable
supporting information. Tables 13.1, 13.2 and 13.3 are based on forms prepared
by Bath City Council.
Drawings of improvement schemes are based on the following published ar-
ticles
J. H. Cheetham, Building Trades Journal, 9, 23 and 30 September 1966
J. A. Foreman, Building Trades Journal, 3 May 1968
The Louis de Soissons Partnership, Architects' Journal, 30 January 1974
Reference has been made to articles in various technical journals, of which
Building Maintenance deserves special mention. The proceedings of the DOE
National Building Maintenance Conferences have also provided valuable sources
of information. Some extracts of material prepared by the author for the Ellis
School of Building and NALGO Correspondence Institute and from Building
Technology have been incorporated.
The author is indebted to Celia Farmiloe for so ably typing the manuscript, to
Jack Preite for preparing the final drawings of high quality and to Pamela
Footitt, deputy librarian at Trent Polytechnic, for enthusiastically obtaining a
wealth of supporting data. Grateful thanks are due to the publisher for abundant
help and consideration throughout the production of the book.
1. THE NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF BUILDING MAINTENANCE

Building maintenance has until recently been a neglected field of technology,

being regarded by many as a 'Cinderella' activity. It possesses little glamour, is
unlikely to attract very much attention and is frequently regarded as unproduc-
tive although many of the managerial and technical problems are more demand-
ing of ingenuity and skill than those of new works. A Government Committee on
Building Maintenance 1 has described how this class of work is accorded little or
no merit and that while it remains a neglected backwater, the morale of those
involved in its management and execution must suffer and productivity will
remain low.
Property owners all too frequently endeavour to keep maintenance expendi-
ture to a minimum, ignoring or misunderstanding the adverse long-term effects
of such a policy. Neglect of maintenance has accumulative results with rapidly
increasing deterioration of the fabric and finishes of a building accompanied by
harmful effects on the contents and occupants. Buildings are too valuable assets
to be neglected in this way. Nevertheless, even with the current depressed volume
of maintenance work, one third of the total output of the construction industry is
devoted to this activity.

Concept ofBullding Maintenance

It is highly desirable but hardly feasible to produce buildings that are mainten-
ance-free, although much can be done at the design stage to reduce the amount of
subsequent maintenance work. All elements of buildings deteriorate at a greater
or lesser rate dependent on materials and methods of construction, environ-
mental conditions and the use of the building. 2

Definition ofMaintenance
BS 3811 3 defines 'maintenance' as: 'Work undertaken in order to keep or restore
every facility, i.e. every part of a site, building and contents, to an acceptable
standard'. The British Standard further explains that where there are statutory
requirements for maintenance, the 'acceptable standard' must be no less than
that necessary to meet them, and 'maintained' is defined in the Factories Act
1
2 Building Maintenance

1961 as : 'maintained in an efficient state, in efficient working order and in good

repair'. BS 3811 was drafted by a committee concerned primarily with mechan-
ical engineering and this has, in consequence, reduced the applicability and use-
fulness of the standard to building maintenance. Furthermore, the statutory
requirements provide little guidance on maintenance standards as they are
directed primarily at health and safety.
The Committee on Building Maintenance2 defines 'acceptable standard' as
'one which sustains the utility and value of the facility' and this is found to in-
clude some degree of improvement over the life of a building as acceptable com-
fort and amenity standards rise. Cleaning will also constitute part of building
maintenance activities. BS 3811 subdivides maintenance into 'planned' and
'unplanned' maintenance; the former being further divided into 'preventive' and
'corrective' maintenance. Planned prefJentifJe maintenance is work directed to
the prevention of failure of a facility, carried out within the expected life of the
facility to ensure its continued operation. Planned correctifJe maintenance is
work performed to restore a facility to operation or to an acceptable standard.
'Unplanned maintenance' is work resulting from unforeseen breakdowns or
damage due to external causes.
Maintenance work has also been categorised as 'predictable' and 'avoidable'.4
Predictable maintenance is regular periodic work that may be necessary to retain
the performance characteristic of a product, as well as that required to replace or
repair the product after it has achieved a useful life span. Avoidable maintenance
is the work required to rectify failures caused by incorrect design, incorrect
installation or the use of faulty materials.
Speight' has described how with building services, minimal neglect can result
in potential danger. He suggests that 'appropriate condition' might well be in-
terpreted as the maintenance of buildings in a state which allows them to be used
for the purpose for which they were provided for the minimum capital expendi-
ture. The main problem is to determine the standards to be applied in a particular
situation, and these are more readily assessed for services and finishings than for
the fabric. The appropriate condition will be influenced by many factors, includ-
ing the function of the building, its public image, or even national prestige.
Building maintenance is characterised not only by the diversity of activities
but also of the interests involved. A prime aim should be to obtain good value for
the money spent on maintenance but there are conflicting views on this-
nationaVprivate; long/short term; and landlord/tenant.6

Sipificance ofBulldiq Maintenance

A report of the Committee on Building Maintenance2 estimated annual expendi-
ture on building maintenance in Great Britain in 1969 at approaching £2500
million, as shown in table 1.1.
The output of the construction industry on maintenance work in 1969
(£131Sm) represents 28 per cent of the total construction output for that year. It
has also been estimated that this class of work accounts for about 40 per cent of
the labour force of the construction industry. Hence two-fifths of the total con-
struction work force produces about one quarter of the output in terms of the
 The Nature and Importance ofBuilding Maintenance 3

value of work done.

Capito7 has shown that output per man in the construction industry as a whole

Table 1.1 Approximate Annual Expenditure on Maintenance Work in Great

Britain in 1969

Repair, maintenance and minor improvement work £1315m

(construction industry and directly employed labour in public sector)
Maintenance (unrecorded) by industry and commerce direct labour £200m
House occupants (do-it-yourself repairs )--estimated £350m
Cleaning of buildings (estimated) £ 600m
Total estimated annual expenditure £2465m

Source: Report of Committee on Building Maintenance•

rose steadily in the 1960s by between 3 and 4 per cent per annum, whereas output
per man on maintenance hardly increased at all. The labour-intensive nature of
the work is to some extent inevitable; many maintenance tasks can only be per-
formed manually and demand is seldom other than dispersed and unco-
ordinated. Firms undertaking maintenance are rarely large and often have only
two or three employees. They are generally under-capitalised and are less subject
to market forces than those on new works. These smaller firms have neither the
means nor the incentive to invest in new and more efficient techniques and ma-
terials. For instance, many small contractors have shown considerable reluctance
to invest in labour-saving small power tools.
The Committee on Building Maintenance asserted that building maintenance
was of great significance to the economy not only because of the scale of expendi-
ture involved, but also because it was important to ensure that the nation's stock
of buildings, both as a factor of production and of accommodation, was used as
effectively as possible. The committee saw no early prospect of restoring, let
alone keeping, a majority of buildings to an acceptable standard. It emphasised
that more rather than less maintenance work is necessary if the value and amen-
ity of the nation's building stock is to be kept at present levels.
It has been calculated that arrears of housing maintenance in Great Britain
may amount to eight or nine times the volume of work actually carried out each
year, and there is ample evidence of neglect in other classes of building. 2 Mac-
Naughton8 has described how some post-war public housing is looking alarm-
ingly shabby and to neglect it is to neglect an investment which carries a
considerable capital debt. If serious deterioration is permitted, future gener-
ations could be faced with a major capital burden.
The standard of maintenance achieved has an important influence on the
quality of the built environment and there seems little doubt that society will con-
tinue to expect higher standards in new and existing buildings. Consequently, for
many years to come, maintenance will remain a significant and important part of
the work of the construction industry.
4 Building Maintenance

Liability for Defeets in Buildings

Liability for defects in buildings arises in various ways. It may emanate from the
initial building contract between the contractor and the building owner, the
scheme administered by the National House Building Council (NHBC scheme),
or statutory requirements. Each is now considered.

1 Liability under Building Contracts

A contractor carrying out building work, whether it be new work or repairs or re-
placements, is normally under contract to undertake the work in an efficient and
workmanlike manner using suitable materials. Common law rights permit the
building owner to claim against the contractor up to 6 years from completion of
the work or 12 years in the case of a contract executed under seal. The Standard
Forms of Building Contract• restrict these common law rights and a defects
liability period of six months is common. The majority of building defects are un-
likely to become apparent in so short a period. The extension of the liability
period would result in higher tenders and the building owner would suffer were
the contractor to become insolvent. Persons designing building work also have a
duty of care to their clients in carrying out their professional tasks, as they may
be held liable for damages where any negligent act or omission on their part pre-
judices the client's interests.

2 NHBC Scheme
A substantial improvement in the standard of private housing has been achieved
by voluntary collective action with government support through the National
House Building Council. This scheme applies to the majority of houses built for
private sale or letting, and requires participating house-builders to build to cer-
tain minimum standards of design and workmanship subject to inspection by
NHBC inspectors, and to undertake to make good any defect during the first two
years after the agreement with the purchaser. This latter undertaking is guaran-
teed by the Council itself should a builder fail to honour his obligations. The
Council also insures against any major structural defects up to the end of the
tenth year.
The NHBC Scheme is to be welcomed as unless designers and contractors are
held responsible for the performance of their buildings for a sufficient period,
there is no effective sanction to influence them to take account of the mainten-
ance implications of their designs or to avoid the errors of judgment and quality
control, both in design and in construction, which can lead to unnecessarily high
maintenance costs early in a building's life. 9

3 Statutory Obligations
One of the most important legislative measures concerning building maintenance
 The Nature and Importance of Building Maintenance 5

is the Defective Premises Act 1973 which came into force on 1 January 1974.
This Act placed additional responsibilities on contractors who build, improve or
repair dwellings, and provided an extension in law of the practical steps formu-
lated by the NHBC. It imposes a statutory obligation on all who are involved in
the provision of building work--contractors, subcontractors, suppliers of ma-
terials and the design team. They must all do their work properly and effectively
and ensure that the dwelling will be fit for human habitation. Furthermore, a
subsequent purchaser of the building who was not a party to any contract with
the original contractor or subcontractors is able to sue them.
The Act provides that any person taking on work for or in connection with the
provision of a dwelling (including repairs, maintenance and improvements) owes
a duty to see that the work he undertakes is done in (a) workmanlike, or as may
be applicable, in a professional manner, with (b) proper materials, and (c) so
that, as regards their responsibilities in the work, the dwelling will be fit for habi-
tation when completed. Furthermore, the provisions of the Act extend beyond
the parties to the building agreement to embrace any person who acquires an in-
terest in the dwelling such as a subsequent purchaser.
Professional men are to do their work in a professional manner, that is, with all
due care and skill. Should there be a defect in their instructions, the Act gives the
owner or purchaser a right of action in negligence for breach of statutory duty.
Subcontractors are under the same duties as the main contractor in so far as they
take on work or provide materials or services for a dwelling. Suppliers of pur-
pose-built components incorporated in a dwelling also owe a statutory duty to the
owner or purchaser, but suppliers of materials and mass produced components
are not included in the general liability.
Periods within which a breach of the new statutory duty may be claimed are 12
years in the case of sealed contracts, 6 years in other cases and 3 years where the
claim is for personal injuries arising from the defect. The previous common law
implications were sometimes restricted by the use of exclusion clauses but in fu-
ture there can be no exclusion of the statutory obligations. Some relief is however
offered where a dwelling has been provided or sold under an approved scheme
such as that operated by the NHBC. 36
A contractor who built on his own land and then sold the completed
building was until recently believed to be under no common law liability for
negligence (Dutton v. Bognor Regis Building Company). This distinction is
now removed and all contractors are liable for negligence in accordance with
the principles established in Donoghue v. Stephenson, 1932 (the snail in the
ginger beer bottle). A landlord with an obligation to repair premises also has
to ensure that no one will suffer injury or damage through the landlord's ne-
glect to maintain the building satisfactorily . 10
A considerable amount of building maintenance is inescapable because of
legal requirements. The Cinematograph Regulations, the Factories Acts and
the Offices, Shops and Railway Premises Act impose maintenance obligations
upon owners and occupiers of these classes of buildings. Statutory under-
takings, such as Water Authorities, make their own regulations which often in-
clude maintenance clauses designed to prevent danger or wastage. 1 The object
of the law in requiring maintenance is not usually to preserve amenities or to
safeguard investment, but to protect persons from risk. Public Health Acts
6 Building Maintenance
contain provisions for the compulsory repair of dilapidated property, while
Housing Acts include provisions for the compulsory repair of houses unfit for
human habitation and also for financial assistance towards the cost of improve-
ments and conversions to dwellings. Occupiers of commercial and industrial
properties are often required to assume liability for structural maintenance and
repairs under leases, and even with residential properties, owners and tenants
may make such arrangements for maintenance as they see fit, subject to the pro-
visions of the Housing Acts. 11 Employers are required to ensure the safety of
their employees at work by maintaining safe plant, systems of work and premises,
and by ensuring adequate instruction, training and supervision, under the
Health and Safety at Work Act 1974.

Maintenance Needs
A prime aim of maintenance is to preserve a building in its initial state, as far as
practicable, so that it effectively serves its purpose. Anderson 12 sees the main pur-
poses of maintaining buildings as
(1) retaining value of investment;
(2) maintaining the building in a condition in which it continues to fulfil its
function;
(3) presenting a good appearance.
The amount of necessary building maintenance work could be reduced by
improved methods of design, specification and construction. In addition effective
maintenance management embraces many skills. These include the technical
knowledge and experience necessary to identify maintenance needs and to specify
the right remedies; an understanding of modern techniques of business manage-
ment; a knowledge of property and contract law; and an appreciation of
sociology. 13

Assessing Maintenance Priorities

It is difficult to formulate a precise order of priorities of maintenance activities as
they are so diverse and any assessment is likely to be a subjective evaluation.
Some of the principal functions of maintenance are: to ensure the safety of occu-
pants, visitors and the general public; to maintain services, such as heating, light-
ing, escalators and fire alarm systems; to maintain decorative surfaces and carry
out adequate cleaning; and to prevent or diminish significantly deterioration of
the fabric.
The Local Government Operational Research Unit 14 identified three separate
categories of building maintenance work-fabric maintenance; day-to-day
repairs; and improvements and modernisation. The Unit endeavoured to estab-
lish techniques for determining whether a particular job should be done immedi-
ately or deferred.
For instance to draw up a long-term maintenance programme for the fabric of
buildings, a maintenance manager must make many decisions. First, he must
decide which of the various elements of the building, such as walls, floors, roof,
 TheNature and Importance ofBuilding Maintenance 7

windows and doors, merit detailed inspection. Upon inspection he needs some cri-
teria for ranking them in order of priority coupled with a technique for assessing
their condition. Finally, he must decide in each case whether work is necessary,
and if so whether patching or replacement is more appropriate. To make these
decisions he must not only know the cost implications of the various alternatives
but must also know the minimum acceptable conditions of the elements, appear-
ance being an important factor in deciding what type of repair should be under-
taken. Ad hoc maintenance with an open-ended budget may seem attractive but
it is unlikely to obtain full value for monies spent or an efficient maintenance
system.
There is a need to improve the methods of managing and executing building
maintenance. Maintenance budgets should be clear and well reasoned and sup-
ported by full information on the consequences of neglecting maintenance.
Decision making in building maintenance could be assisted by the application of
operational research techniques. A prime aim should be to improve efficiency
and productivity. There is a backlog of several years in maintenance and the
more effective use of resources will help to reduce these arrears and assist the
national economy.
Feed-back from occupier to designer should be improved in order to assemble
information on both the preference of the user, and the performance of materials,
components and constructional methods. There is a general lack of essential
basic data and appropriate recording systems. Design teams all too frequently ne-
glect consideration of maintenance aspects and there is a great need to reduce the
gulf between design and maintenance. Occupiers of new buildings should ideally
be provided with maintenance manuals listing the materials and equipment used
in buildings, together with precise details of the maintenance required for most
efficient and economic use.

Resources for Bullding Maintenance

It is generally recognised that the current rate of spending on building mainten-
ance is at a depressed level, and that many necessary jobs are therefore being
neglected. In consequence considerably increased expenditure is likely to be
needed in the future to rectify defects, which will by then be much more extensive
and serious. Hence more should be spent on fabric maintenance now to save
money in the future.
To accelerate the rate of maintenance work requires an increased quantity of
both labour and materials, both of which were in short supply in the early nine-
teen seventies. Statistics published by the Department of the Environment show
that the building labour force in Great Britain fell from 1 090 000 in 1956 to
835 000 in 1972. More serious still is the drop in the numbers of apprentices and
skilled craftsmen. The failure oflabour and material resources to match demand
caused a sharp rise in building prices and erratic and unpredictable tenders in the
early 1970s. This was followed by a substantial reduction in workload in 1974/
75. Morris 15 has identified the need to make employment in the building industry
more secure and attractive and to train persons to less depth in a number of
trades. This latter proposal would certainly benefit maintenance work. Others
8 Building Maintenance
have suggested a reduction in the apprenticeship period for building trades, by
eliminating some of the tasks that are rarely performed, to help in recruitment.
There are difficulties in estimating the capital resources employed in mainten-
ance as many contractors carry out both new and maintenance work and make
fixed and working capital available to each as required. Official statistics 16 show
that in 1965, 84 per cent of small contractors (employing up to 10 persons) only
did maintenance work, whereas only 17 per cent oflarge contractors (employing
500-1000 persons) undertook more than 25 per cent of maintenance work. The
trades engaged most intensively on maintenance work are painters and plum-
bers. No one measure of output seems both adequate and sufficiently widely used,
be it turnover, materials used, facilities created or value of building stock main-
tained.
The distribution of construction resources as between new work and mainten-
ance and their deployment within maintenance should ideally be determined in
the way most advantageous both to the economy as a whole and to the needs of
property owners and occupants. 13 Unfortunately there are at present no reliable
methods for determining the optimum maintenance cost in relation to the life or
value of the building or of the value of the activities carried on within it.6
Moreover, because responsibility for building maintenance may be organised by
one of a wide range of departments or disciplines--iurveyors, engineers and
architects-there is a general lack of concentrated experience of the special prob-
lems and techniques. The establishment of a separate building surveyors division
in the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors should, however, help to remedy
this deficiency.
The Committee on Building Maintenance2 believed that maintenance policies
of the property owner should be consistent with his main objectives and financial
position, taking into account any plans for new work and the effects of mainten-
ance or its neglect on his operations and the morale of employees. Ideally, the
principles of planned and preventive maintenance should be practised and
reviewed periodically. These policies may well indicate how the actual work
should ideally be performed-by directly employed labour, contractors or a com-
bination of both. It should be borne in mind that caretakers and porters can with
suitable training be usefully employed to carry out simple maintenance tasks
such as internal decorating, re-washering taps and other valves, and clearing gut-
ters and drains.

Nature of Maintenan(le
Harper17 believes that maintenance comprises three separate components-
servicing, rectification and replacement.

Semcing is essentially a cleaning operation undertaken at regular intervals of

varying frequency and is sometimes termed day-to-day maintenance. As more
sophisticated equipment is introduced so more complicated service schedules
become necessary. The frequency of cleaning varies-typical frequencies being:
floors swept daily and polished weekly; windows washed monthly; flues swept
every 6 months; painting for decoration and protection every 4 years.
 The Nature and Importance ofBuilding Maintenance 9

Rectification work usually occurs fairly early in the life of the building and arises
from shortcomings in design, inherent faults in or unsuitability of components,
damage of goods in transit or installation and incorrect assembly. Rectification
represents a fruitful point at which to reduce the cost of maintenance, because it
is avoidable. All that is necessary, at any rate in theory, is to ensure that compon-
ents and materials are suitable for their purpose and are correctly installed.
These seemingly simple requirements are not always easy to achieve. Frequently,
the same component must fulfil many functions, such as weather-shield, load-
bearer, thermal insulant and still be of good appearance. A failure to perform any
one of these functions satisfactorily can result in maintenance work. Typical
examples are the failure of decorative floor coverings on solid concrete ground
floor slabs due to damp penetration and the failure of joints between large slabs
in wall cladding to exclude wind and rain. Rectification work could be reduced by
the development and use of performance specifications and codes of installation.

Replacement is inevitable because service conditions cause materials to decay at

different rates. Much replacement work stems not so much from physical break-
down of the materials or element as from deterioration of appearance. Hence the
length of acceptable life often involves a subjective judgement of aesthetics of
change. Furthermore, the measurement of the durability or length oflife of a ma-
terial is a very different technological problem, due to the complex nature of the
environment and the difficulty of determining how much a material may change
before it is discarded. Some indication can be obtained from observing materials
in buildings, on exposed sites and in simulated exposure or use. A long history of
accelerated tests shows the inadvisability of undertaking simulative tests without
a detailed knowledge of the conditions being simulated. The frequency of re-
placement could often be reduced by the use of better quality materials and com-
ponents, but the economics of this merit careful study.

Maintenance can also embrace renovations which consist of work done to re-
store a structure, service and equipment by a major overhaul to the original design
and specification, or to improve on the original design. This may include limited
additions and extensions to the original building. 18 An element of improvement,
or of new works, is frequently found under a heading of maintenance costs. This
is to some extent unavoidable, since in replacing a fitting, such as a bath, the new
one will be of new design. An analysis of the cost of modernising a typical dwel-
ling showed that 32 per cent was required to repair, maintain and replace to orig-
inal standards, 39 per cent on upgrading to acceptable present day standards and
29 per cent to improvements to above present day standards. 16
One analysis of maintenance costs in buildings not more than 25 years old
showed fair wear and tear accounting for 56 per cent, rectification of design or
specification faults at 20 per cent, repairs due to faulty materials or workman-
ship at 121- per cent and the remaining llt per cent was attributed to sundry
causes. 19 May4 asserts that the annual cost of maintenance is likely to increase
sharply in the future due to many new products by-passing the Agrement Board
and the fact that many traditional products, whose properties and problems are
largely known, are still misused. Finally, correct diagnosis of building defects is
10 Building Maintenance

essential to ensure that the cost of remedial work is not excessive and that it is
successful.

Research into Maintenance

The importance of research into various aspects of building maintenance was
recognised by a former Minister of Public Building and Works when he estab-
lished the Committee on Building Maintenance in 1965. Research and develop-
ment problems in building maintenance spring essentially from the great
diversity of the subjects. In the two decades after the second world war, research
in this field was mainly directed at properties of materials and few of the results
were actually implemented. So much needs to be done concerning the re-
lationship between design and maintenance, execution of maintenance, econ-
omic significance of maintenance and the actual performance of materials and
components under varying conditions. There is also a great need for a continuing
dialogue between research and development workers on the one hand and archi-
tects, surveyors, maintenance personnel and contractors on the other, to ensure
the relevance of research to the realities of construction and the implementation
of the results of research in practice. The Government has initiated a vast
amount of research in this field and has assisted in its dissemination by confer-
ences and publications.
Drakell' has drawn attention to a number of fundamental problems of building
science which are still largely unresolved, such as reliable accelerated weather-
ing, the mechanism of frost action in porous substances and the means by which
dirt adheres to surfaces. The Department of the Environment in association with
a number of universities, polytechnics and other colleges has undertaken studies
of various aspects of performance of materials in use, including moisture in
timber, movement of joints, dirt deposition and falls provided on fiat roofs and
their e1fects. 21 This has been followed by a valuable series of costs-in-use studies.
More needs to be known about the effect of weather on materials and compon-
ents, criteria for visual tolerance and the cost of maintenance related to con-
structional elements, together with the nature of failures and their underlying
causes. Costly items of maintenance such as condensation and mould growth,
plumbing defects and painting cycles justify closer study. Finally, the variety of
problems in maintenance management provides a potentially fruitful area for the
application of operational research. 2

Llvet ofBuildiap
The lives of existing buildings are difficult to assess as all properties have, from
the date of their erection, been the subject of varying amounts and standards of
maintenance, besides being constructed to different standards. Most buildings
are constructed with the intention that they should last at least 60 years and
many exceed this period. 20
Stone22 asserts that buildings have a substantial life in the order of 40 to 80
years. Their possible physical life is often much greater but they may be demo-
lished before the end of this period to permit a more profitable use of the site, or
 TheNature and Importance ofBuilding Maintenance 11

because it is found more economical to clear and rebuild rather than to adapt the
building to meet changed requirements.
Switzerl 3 continues this theme when he distinguishes between 'structural life'
and 'economic life'. Structural or physical life is the period which expires when it
ceases to be an economic proposition to maintain the building, while economic
life is concerned with earning power and is that period of effective life before re-
placement; replacement taking place when it will increase income or reward ab-
solutely. Switzer asserts that optimum life is determined primarily by the earning
power of the building, and only secondarily by the structural durability.
Changing social and economic conditions can have a considerable influence on
the life of a building which can become ill-suited to present day needs and its
demise may also be accelerated by the significant ratio of land to building costs.
Switzer13 suggests that wherever possible the aim should be to extend the econ-
omic life of a building by making the structure adaptable and by careful manage-
ment and control of the surroundings.
Speight' has described how building for less than normal life saves little initial
cost and, in any event, the services are unlikely to have a life of more than a gen-
eration. As a general rule the capital asset of a building is so valuable and is often
appreciating, so that in practice maintenance is frequently directed to prolonging
effective life. A limiting factor is the period ahead that one can plan in detail.
This is seldom more than a decade.

Technology of Maintenance
The technology of maintenance is concerned with all the factors that influence
and cause the need for maintenance work. Cheetham14 has described how the oc-
currence of defects in the fabric of a building can result from many unrelated
design decisions-unsuitable materials, incorrect assessment of loads, inad-
equate appreciation of conditions of use and inadequate assessment of exposure.
Exposure is influenced by rainfall, direction of prevailing winds, microclimate,
atmospheric pollution, and aspect and height of building. The durability of
building materials is also influenced by frost action, crystallisation of salts, sun-
light, biological agencies, abrasion and impact, and chemical action and corro-
sion. In addition to considering the physical and chemical properties of building
materials, the designer should ensure that wherever practicable materials should
be so used as to take full advantage of their potentialities. Where they are un-
likely to last the life of the building, attention should be directed to convenience
of replacement.
Defects may also occur from faults other than structural ones, resulting in in-
convenience and discomfort to the occupant. Typical examples are overheating
and glare due to excessive areas of glass, inadequate sound insulation, incon-
venient layouts and very high operating costs.
Cracks in buildings normally result from failure or defective construction, and
are almost invariably unsightly and unacceptable to occupants. If severe they
may result in loss of stability. Furthermore, cracks frequently give rise to air
infiltration, heat loss and reduced sound insulation, all of which result in reduced
efficiency of the building. Cracking is generally caused by tensile stresses in
12 Building Maintenance
excess of the tensile strength of the materials, produced by externally applied
loads, or internal movements arising from temperature or moisture changes. 24 It
is essential that the cause of the failure is correctly diagnosed, otherwise there is
the possibility of a component being reinstated at considerable expense and incor-
porating the previous deficiencies.
Other important concepts of the technology of maintenance can be illustrated
by reference to roof construction. A good roof which is well maintained should
last the life of the building and it is false economy to save money on the roof
during construction, because, if it ever requires replacement, it will cause serious
dislocation of production and other activities within the building. A leaking roof,
apart from causing considerable inconvenience to users, can lead to accelerated
deterioration of other parts of the building, such as ceilings, floors and walls, and
can cause serious damage to decorations and electrical installations. Traffic over
a roof should be kept to a minimum and, where it is essential, appropriate walk-
ways and access ladders must be provided. To ensure that roofs are adequately
maintained, they should ideally be inspected every three years, or alternatively
one third each year.12
The term 'terotechnology' has been used to embrace the life cycle require-
ments of physical assets. It is a combination of management, financial engin-
eering, and other practices applied to physical assets in pursuit of economic life
cycle costs. It is concerned with the specification and design for reliability and
ease of maintenance <Jf plant, machinery, equipment, buildings and structures
with their installation, commissioning, maintenance, modification and replace-
ment, and with feedback of information on design, performance and costs. It is a
technology that takes into account the marketing and observance of design-
maintenance-cost practice of all assets, the conservation of resources and the
promotion of controlled and calculated life span of assets as against built-in or
unpredictable obsolescence. 36

Consideration of Maintenance at Design Stage

The importance of considering maintenance implications at the design stage of a
building project is now generally recognised and the building maintenance con-
ferences and seminars organised by the Department of the Environment have
done much to draw attention to this. It is at the design stage that the maintenance
burden can be positively influenced for better--or for worse. 25 Skilful design can
reduce the amount of maintenance work and also make it easier to perform-
good maintenance begins on the drawing board. Ideally the design team should
aim to produce a building which is attractive, functionally efficient and con-
structionally sound with a minimum of maintenance. 37
The cost implications of building designs are often far wider than the effects on
initial costs. For some types of buildings the equivalent of first costs is less than
the running costs, and small changes in design have a much larger impact on run-
ning costs than on first costs. 26

Cost Yardsticks
The Government introduced cost yardsticks in 1967 with the aim of keeping
 The Nature and Importance ofBuilding Maintenance 13
building costs in the public sector within reasonable bounds and ensuring ad-
equate cost planning of projects at the design stage. In the early 1970s opposition
to these constraints increased rapidly, forcing the Government to rethink its
policy. The Royal Institute of British Architects claimed that the yardstick
system was 'quite inadequate in balancing capital costs against subsequent costs
in us~conomies in finishes today will undoubtedly lead to inflated mainten-
ance costs in future'. The Association of Municipal Corporations believed that
the yardsticks resulted in lower standards of design which led to serious mainten-
ance problems, abortive work of the design teams and concentration of develop-
ment on high density residential development with consequent lowering of
environmental standards. The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors
objected in 1973 to the use of ad hoc allowances to close the financial gap be-
tween the cost limit and the lowest tender on the grounds that this procedure was
completely discretionary and destroyed the ability to cost plan construction pro-
jects, besides making it difficult to meet building standards, make best use of re-
sources or reduce approval periods. There was unfortunately nothing built into
cost limits to encourage the achievement of a satisfactory balance between initial
and future costs.

Design Needs
It is important that the thread of 'building life' should flow through both design
and construction processes, with effective lines of communication between client,
designer, contractor and those charged with building maintenance. 27 Outdated
administrative procedures often result in the various parties to the building con-
tract failing to appreciate the significance of other functions in the overall con-
cept. This sometimes causes frustration and annoyance to maintenance
personnel when taking over new buildings and finding themselves faced with
bad details, poor choice of finishes, materials and components, and lack of basic
information about the building and its services. Unfortunately, designers rarely
have a long-term interest in the buildings they produce and hence they tend to
become divorced from the maintenance problems that flow from bad design.
There is a pressing need for maintenance surveyors and the like to be represented
on design teams and for much increased feedback of maintenance and perform-
ance information from users and maintenance organisations to design teams.
When information on building defects and failures is fed back to the designer, it is
sometimes inaccurate because the person diagnosing the fault has insufficient
expert knowledge to assess the cause of failure. Furthermore, where manufac-
turers provide a good technical service, designers do not always make full use of
it.
Considerable loss of time and disruption of activities can stem from the failure
of building components or alterations made necessary by poor design. Education
for the designer in the appreciation of maintenance requirements and costs in use
techniques could be most fruitful. Designers could contribute significantly to a
reduction in maintenance costs if they asked themselves four questions when de-
signing each component or part of a building

(1) how can it be reached?

14 Building Maintenance
(2) how can it be cleaned?
(3) how long will it last?
(4) how can it be replaced?
The designer requires a considerable amount of technological data to minimise
the effect of a wide range of agencies, such as moisture, thermal and structural
movement, corrosion, and insect and fungal attack, all of which combine to
reduce the life of the building. Furthermore, the building owner has a right to
obtain a building which will adequately perform the function for which it was
designed. The primary functions are to withstand the effects of weather, to retain
stability, give weather resistance, thermal and sound insulation, and to continue
to function efficiently under the worst possible conditions, with a minimum of
maintenance. The problem is aggravated by an increasing lack of concern
amongst people as to the quality of the work they produce and the wider use of
new and relatively untried materials and components.
High maintenance costs sometimes result from poor detailing at the design
stage, including insufficient allowance for expansion or contraction, absence of
weatherings or throatings, lack of or incorrectly placed damp-proof courses,
unsound foundations, poor jointing between different materials or components,
inadequate falls, incorrect choice or misuse of materials, and poor access or faci-
lities for repairs.
On occasions, failures resulting from faults in design cannot be cured perma-
nently and remain a continuing nuisance throughout the life of the building. The
cause of the failure may result from insufficient consideration to performance in
use aspects, such as the effect of sea air, industrial pollution or even the height of
the building or its proximity to a number of high buildings. The latter situation
may result in the creation of air currents which lead not only to an unpleasant en-
vironment around the building, but also to severe strains on the fabric at unex-
pected points. 28
It is also necessary to take account of the interdependence of the various ele-
ments of a building. For example, the heating, ventilation and insulation of
buildings must be considered in relation to each other if excessive heat losses and
condensation are to be avoided. Similarly the ventilation system may affect
cleaning and the performance of internal finishes. 28 The performance of a build-
ing can also be affected by external factors; for example the provision or reten-
tion of trees can have an appreciable effect on the subsoil and the performance of
foundations and services such as drains.

Etl'ect of Metrication
Metrication of components and materials used in the construction industry will
affect the maintenance of buildings to some extent. Nevertheless, to keep the
changeover in perspective, it must be remembered that some materials and com-
ponents have life cycles, according to their use and visual appeal. For example,
kitchen and light fittings have changed radically in recent years, while ironmon-
gery is constantly changing in style, so that fittings may become outmoded in a
comparatively short time and are not replaceable. Hence the replacement of dis-
 The Nature and Importance ofBuilding Maintenance 15

continued articles is not new.

Many materials or components are manufactured in both imperial and metric
sizes and further changes are still to come in a few cases with rationalised metric
dimensions. In general, metric sizes are slightly smaller than the equivalent im-
perial sizes and so problems may arise in making future replacements of some
products when existing stocks in imperial units have become exhausted.
Stone29 has made an exhaustive study of the problems in future maintenance
and has found them to be comparatively small; he believes that the ingenuity of
maintenance staff will enable most of them to be overcome without too much
difficulty. Sheet materials to determined sizes, such as laminated boards, plaster-
board, hardboard and plywood present few problems as most used in
maintenance are cut on fixing. Partition units can be cut or adjusted to size
within cover strips.
Copper pipes have changed slightly in size but connectors are available for
joining imperial and metric pipes and fittings. Lead pipes can be dressed and sol-
dered to accommodate any variation in the size ofbrasswork.
Clay facing bricks are manufactured to sufficiently wide tolerances to avoid
any problems. Tiles and paving slabs will cause some problems on account of the
smaller metric sizes. Hence where part of a ceiling has to be renewed with discon-
tinued sizes of removable tiles, it may be necessary to renew the whole ceiling and
store the serviceable existing tiles for repairs to other ceilings. In some cases a
thicker joint may suffice. In the case of wood floor blocks, specials may be needed
for small areas of renewal. The introduction of a slightly smaller architrave or
skirting as a complete length between breaks is unlikely to worry the mainten-
ance staff or offend the eye. On the other hand, standard units with lapped or
sliding joints such as roof tiles and gutters, will present no problems as they can
be cut or lapped to the required dimensions.
Ready-made standard units will cause the greatest difficulty. New metric door
set dimensions produce doors 12 mm narrower than the old 2ft 6 in. door. Im-
perial doors will be produced alongside metric doors for a considerable period
while there is a significant demand, but eventually the time will come when it will
be necessary to fit purpose-made doors or adjust or replace the frame, whichever
is the more economical. Similar problems may arise with the replacement of im-
perial standard windows in years ahead. Standard joinery fittings will be wider
and longer but slightly lower, requiring careful planning on replacement.
Sanitary fittings and drainage goods are unlikely to cause problems, but the
size and threads of connections to heating equipment are changing and so cause
difficulties. For example, an obsolete pattern of radiator can be renewed in a
room with several matching radiators by taking one which is fixed in isolation
and installing the new radiator in its place. The use of new threaded fasteners
may involve re-tapping, reamering or re-drilling to accommodate them. With
electrical threaded conduit and fittings, manufacturers will produce special con-
nectors as necessary.

Relationship of Capital, Maintenance and Running Costs

A building owner can reasonably expect a designer to provide a building which
16 Building Maintenance
will satisfactorily meet his needs and will secure a reasonable balance between
first and future costs. Hence it is important for design teams to develop more ef-
fective methods of predicting the functional and economic consequences of
designs and so obtain best value for money. Unfortunately, the total occupancy
costs ofbuildings are frequently difficult to assess and feedback of accurate infor-
mation is very restricted. A variety of payments are made from different funds at
different times and in different ways.

Difficulties in Assessing Total Costs

There are a number of problems in endeavouring to assess total costs or costs in
use at the design stage, and the more important ones are now listed.
(1) It is difficult to assess the probable maintenance costs of different ma-
terials, processes and systems. There is a great scarcity of reliable maintenance
cost data tabulated in a meaningful way. It is not easy to predict the lives of ma-
terials and components in a variety of situations. Even the lives of commonly
used materials like paint show surprising variations and are influenced by a
whole range of factors, including type of paint, number of coats, condition of
base, extent of preparation, method of application, degree of exposure and atmo-
spheric conditions.
(2) There are three types of payment involved-initial, annual and
periodic. All three have to be related to a common basis for comparison purposes,
and this requires a knowledge of discounted cash flow techniques which will be
considered later in this chapter.
(3) The selection of a suitable long-term interest rate is difficult; rates rose
dramatically in the early 1970s.
(4) Inflationary trends may not affect all costs in a uniform manner, thus
distorting significantly the results of costs in use calculations.
(S) Where the initial funds available to a building owner are severely re-
stricted, it is of little consequence telling him that he can save large sums in the
future by spending more on the initial construction.

Current and Future Payments

As mentioned earlier a major difficulty in making costs in use calculations is that
every building project involves streams of payments over a long period of time--
usually the life of the building. The payments are of three main types
(1) present payments covering the cost of the site, erection of the building
and architect's and surveyor's fees;
(2) annual payments relating to minor repairs, cleaning, and heating and
lighting;
(3) periodic payments such as full internal redecorations possibly every 8
years, external redecorations every 6 years and replacement ofboilers and electri-
cal wiring every 25 years.
All these varying types of payment have to be converted to a common method of
 TheNature and Importance ofBuilding Maintenance 17

expression to permit a meaningful comparison to be made between alternative

designs. The process is often described as discounting future costs and is based on
the premise that if the money were not spent on the project in question it could be
invested elsewhere and would be earning interest. £100 invested today at 8 per
cent compound interest will accumulate to £215.89 after 10 years (the multiplier
of 2.15 89 is found from a valuation table-the amount of £1 table).
In the reverse direction the 'present value of £1 table' shows that it will be
necessary to invest £46.32 now at 8 per cent compound interest to accrue to £100
in 10 years' time. The 'present value of £1 per annum' or 'years' purchase' table
shows that an expenditure of £1 per annum throughout a sixty year period-the
period often accepted as the probable life of a building and also the central
government loan period for buildings owned by local authorities-is equivalent
to a single payment of £12.38 today, taking a compound interest rate of 8 per
cent. Expressed in another way, if £12.38 were invested today at 8 per cent com-
pound interest it would provide sufficient funds to be able to pay out £1 per
annum for each of the 60 years. Hence it could be argued that it would be worth
spending up to an extra £12.40 today on initial construction if this will reduce
the expenditure on maintenance work by £1 per annum throughout the 60 year
life of the building.
There are two possible approaches in making costs in use calculations.
(1) Discount all future costs at an appropriate rate of interest, probably be-
tween 5 and 8 per cent (long-term pure interest rate with no allowance for risk
premium), and so to convert all payments to present value (PV) or present worth,
using valuation tables. Variations in the discount or interest rate selected can
have an appreciable effect on the calculations.
(2) Express all costs in the form of annual equivalents, taking into account
the interest rate and annual sinking fund. A building owner is entitled to interest
on the capital he has invested in the project and requires a sinking fund to replace
the capital when the life of the building has expired.
An example will serve to illustrate the discounting principle. A building is
designed to last 60 years and can either be provided with a roof costing £1000
which will last 30 years and then need replacing, or be covered with a roof costing
£1500 which will last the life of the building. It is necessary to determine which is
the better proposition financially and to do this, payment in 30 years' time has to
be converted to its present value. The present value of a payment of £1000 in 30
years' time is found from the present value of £1 table and is £1000 x 0.17411 =
£174.11, taking an interest rate of6 per cent. The calculations can be summar-
ised as follows:

Cost Present Value

RoofA
Initial construction £1000 £1000
Replacement after 30 years £1000 £ 174.11
Total cost £2000 £1174.11
RoofB
Initial cost £1500 £1500
18 Building Maintenance
These calculations show roof A to be the better long-term proposition. It could
however be argued that this is oversimplified as, for instance, it takes no account
of the cost of demolishing the old roof or any temporary work that may be needed
to protect the occupants and contents of the building during the reconstruction.
The interest rate could also be criticised; also the hypothesis that the effects of in-
flation will be cancelled out through rising costs and values, so that the higher
cost of building work in thirty years' time will be offset by the increased value, in-
cluding rent, of the building itself, may not find ready acceptance. A range of
costs in use worked examples covering building designs, services, external works
and components are given in Building Economics. 30

Initial and Future Cost Relationships

Stone26 has indicated that running costs of buildings can amount to two-thirds of
the annual equivalent of first costs, and in the case of industrial buildings could
be one-and-a-halftimes the initial costs.

Table 1.2 Annual Equivalent Costs in Use for Typical Bulldings Each Provldiq
100 Units of Accommodation

Light
Type of High industrial Secondary
building Offices flats Houses buildings Hospitals schools

Type of Work Bed Bed Work Bed Pupil

unit spaces spaces spaces spaces spaces spaces
£%£%£%£%£ %£%

Construction 2640 53 4750 61 2900 56 4490 56 29600 65 1800 58

Maintenance 700 14 1000 13 800 16 1250 16 8800 19 600 19
Fuel and
attendance 1650 33 2000 26 1450 28 2250 28 7000 16 700 23
Total 4990 7750 5150 7990 45400 3100

Source: Drake, The Economics of Maintenance 31

The annual equivalent costs in use for a wide range of buildings are given in
table 1.2 and these illustrate the variations in cost when tabulated under the
three main heads of construction, maintenance, and fuel and attendance. These
figures relate to the late 1960s but it is the relationships that are particularly im-
portant. The ratio of running to construction costs ranges from about 80 per
cent with houses and light industrial buildings to 90 per cent with offices.
 The Nature and Importance ofBuilding Maintenance 19

A case study of two Crown office buildings32 based on 1969 prices, a notional
life of 80 years and 10 per cent rate of interest showed the following breakdown
of costs, suitably discounted, over the life of the buildings.

Casel Case2
% %
Capital cost 58 71
Repairs, alterations and redecorations 11 11
Fuel oil, electric current and gas supplies 7 7
Operation of plant 2 2
Operation of lifts 11
Cleaning 11 9
100 100

A rough guide to maintenance costs is that they average about 1 per cent per
annum of capital costs. They are not however uniform throughout the life of the
building and generally tend to increase with age. The position is further compli-
cated by the humps that occur when replacements are required.

Economics of Maintenance
Economics examines the process whereby scarce resources or factors of pro-
duction, such as land, labour and capital, are allocated amongst the various
competing claims on their use. Because maintenance involves the use of re-
sources, it follows that decisions have to be made as to the level and nature of
maintenance expenditures. 33
The interdependence and interrelationship of initial and user costs are of
prime importance when planning maintenance expenditure. The relationship of
one to the other is often in inverse proportions. A reduction in future mainten-
ance costs may often be obtained by increasing initial costs; similarly economies
in initial costs may follow from the acceptance of an increased level of mainten-
ance costs. Wright 33 has shown how decisions as to the ratio of initial costs to
future (planned) maintenance costs are influenced by time preferences and
commercial judgement. Speculative development with the objective of sale will
generally show more regard to economies in initial costs than in user costs,
although recognising that too high a level of user costs will jeopardise the oppor-
tunity for sale; purchasers, however, will show more concern for user costs.
Tax payments, reliefs, grants, allowances, subsidies, and the like should
always be included in development and maintenance calculations. Because initial
costs mainly constitute capital expenditure and because depreciation allowances
are extremely limited, it may be worth while incurring additional (tax-
deductible) maintenance and other running costs. Cash flow calculations are
quite complicated and are more so when tax considerations are included with the
distinct possibility offuture changes. 33
Provision of buildings with low maintenance costs will assist in reducing the
demand for scarce building resources since such buildings often possess higher
user and even environmental benefits, when viewed against the visual cost to so-
ciety of deteriorating buildings. Surveyors, maintenance managers and other in-
20 Building Maintenance
terested parties need to identify the items generating the highest maintenance
costs, and to be constantly questioning the suitability not only of materials and
components in meeting their functional requirements but also of the method by
which they are assembled.
Property managers are concerned with the total occupancy costs of properties
over their expected lives. When the cost of maintaining the facilities imposes an
unduly heavy burden upon marginally profitable enterprises it is time to reap-
praise the use of the premises. They may be sold, demolished, let, or used for
other activities for which a different standard and cost of maintenance renders
the premises of economic value once again. 3•

References
1 Department of the Environment, Research and Development Bulletin:
Practice in Property Maintenance Management-A RetJiew (H.M.S.O.,
1970).
2 Department of the Environment, Research and Development Bulletin:
Building Maintenance-The Report of the Committee (H.M.S.O., 1972).
3 British Standards Institution, BS 3811: 1964 Glossary of general terms
used in maintenance organisation.
4 J. 0. May, 'Characteristics of Some New Materials and Components,'
Third National Building Conference, Paper 11, 1971 (Department of the
Environment, H.M.S.O., 1972).
5 B. Speight, 'Formulating Maintenance Policy,' The Chartered Suroeyor,
102.10 (1970).
6 V. Noble, 'More fields to conquer?', Third National Building Conference,
Paper 1, 1971 (Department of the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1972).
7 J. E. Capito, 'The Work of the MPBW (DOE) Committee of Building
Maintenance,' TheQuantitySuroeyor, 25.6 (1969).
8 Joint Contracts Tribunal, Standard Form of Building Contract, 1963 edi-
tion (July 1972 revision).
9 -'Better Protection for Building Owners,' Building Maintenance (Jan-
uary 1970).
1Q J. Boyden, 'Looking Ahead to the Defective Premises Act,' Building Trades
Journal (5 January 1973).
11 Department of the Environment, Research and Development Bulletin:
Building Maintenance-An Interim Report (H.M.S.O., 1969).
12 R. Anderson, 'Good Maintenance Pays off-the Benefits in Efficiency, Pro-
ductivity and Morale,' Profitable Building Maintenance Conference, Paper
5, 1967 (Department of the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1969).
13 J. F. Hill, 'A Review of Maintenance Practice in Property Management,'
The Quantity Suroeyor, 26.3 (1969).
14 Local Government Operational Research Unit, Report C 144: Hospital
Building Maintenance: Can Decision Making be Improved? (H.M.S.O.,
1972)
15 H. Morris, 'The Construction Crisis Analysed,' Building (12 October
1973).
16 Department of the Environment, Research and Development Paper: Build-
 The Nature and Importance ofBuilding Maintenance 21
ing Maintenance Statistics (H.M.S.O., 1970).
17 F. C. Harper, 'Maintenance of Buildings,' Technology of Building Main-
tenance Conference, Bath, 1968 (Department of the Environment,
H.M.S.O., 1969).
18 S.M. Brown, 'Training for Maintenance, Repairs and Renovations in the
Construction Industry,' Profitable Building Maintenance Conference,
1967 (Department of the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1969)
19 E. A. Spencer, 'Building Occupancy Costs,' ThirdNationalBuildingMain-
tenance Conference, 1971 (Department of the Environment, H.M.S.O.,
1972).
20 B. E. Drake, 'Do Buildings Need to Last?', Maintenance by Design
Seminar, 1969 (Department of the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1969).
21 -'Performance Standards-A New Programme', Construction Research
andDevelopmentJournal, 1.3 (1969).
22 P. A. Stone, 'The Application of Design Evaluation Techniques,' Building
(20 March 1970).
23 J. F. Q. Switzer, 'The Economic Life of Buildings,' Proceedings of RIGS
Regional Conference No. 3, Trent Polytechnic, Nottingham (Royal Insti-
tution of Chartered Surveyors, 1967).
24 D. W. Cheetham, 'Defects in Modern Buildings,' Building (2 November
1972).
25 B. A. Speight, 'Maintenance in Relation to Design,' The Chartered Sur-
veyor (October 1968).
26 P. A. Stone, 'The Economics of Building Designs,' The Journal of the Royal
Statistical Society, Series A (General) 123.3 (1960).
27 W. White, 'Design and Maintenance,' Building Maintenance (May 1971).
28 D. B. james, 'Maintenance Technology,' The Quantity Surveyor 26.2
(1969).
29 L. F. J. Stone, 'An Analysis of the Metrication of Maintenance,' Building
Maintenance (April1971).
30 I. H. Seeley, Building Economics: Appraisal and Control of Building
Design Cost and Efficiency (Macmillan, London and Basingstoke, 1974).
31 B. E. Drake, 'The Economics of Maintenance,' The Quantity Surveyor
26.1 (1969).
32 Department of the Environment, Research and Development Paper: The
Relationship of Capital, Maintenance and Running Costs-A Case Study
ofTwo Crown Office Buildings (H.M.S.O. 1970).
33 R. H. Wright, 'The Economics of Building Maintenance,' The Architect
and Surveyor (Jan./Feb. 1973).
34 J.P. Edwards, 'The Economic Significance of Building Maintenance to In-
dustry and Commerce,' ThirdNationalBuilding Conference, Paper 3, 1971
(Department of the Environment, H.M.S.O. 1972).
35 R. C. Compton, 'Defective Premises-A New Law,' Building Technology
and Management (November 1972).
36 H. P. Trenton, 'Terotechnology-The Right Life Span,' Building (25 April
1975).
37 Institute of Building, Maintenance Management-A Guide to Good
Practice (I.O.B., 1975).
2. BUILDING MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTION-I
Foundations, Shoring and External Works

This chapter is concerned with building defects that arise from site conditions
and inadequate foundations, the various types of temporary works and the main-
tenance of external works, such as pavings and fences.

Site Coadidons
Site lnf1estigations
Site investigations should take place before carrying out new building work, in-
cluding alterations and extensions. This aspect is becoming increasingly import-
ant since land that has not been used before is now being considered for building.
Special measures may be needed to deal with difficult site conditions.
The local authority is usually the best source of information, but older editions
of Ordnance Survey maps and old maps and records can give useful information
on features which might cause problems, such as infilled ponds, ditches and
streams, disused pipes, and sites of old buildings, services and workings. Slopes
steeper than 1 in 10 may be subject to creep and this could result in heavy
pressures on walls. In limestone or chalk areas, craters or gentle depressions
usually indicate swallow holes formed by the collapse of sandy or loamy soils into
the fissured rock below .10
A polygonal pattern of cracks about 25 mm wide on the ground surface during
a dry summer indicates a shrinkable soil. Shallow depressions around mature
trees in open ground, repairs to paved surfaces close to trees in built up areas, and
broken kerbs may indicate shrinkage due to drying. Larger cracks approximately
parallel to each other normally result from deeper-seated movements such as
caused by mining, brine pumping or landslips. 1
Low-lying sites may be liable to flood, particularly where they are within the
flood plain of a river, and the highest recorded flood levels should be obtained. It
is highly desirable to keep all excavation work above groundwater level.
Some clays contain sulphates and these may cause corrosion of buried con-
crete, iron and steel. Where the presence of sulphates is suspected, the ground-
water should be analysed.
22
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-/ 23
Soils
Prior to designing foundations, it is necessary to identify the soils present on the
site. Boreholes or inspection pits should be excavated on the site to obtain
samples for soil testing, noting the depths in each case. Various soil charac-
teristics are needed, including colour, smell and texture. Means of soil identifi-
cation are detailed in BRE Digest 64. 1
Soil conditions have an important influence on foundation design and the sub-
sequent behaviour of buildings. Most soils consist of solid particles of varying
shapes and sizes with the spaces between filled by water or air. Large particles,
like sand, are held together mainly by their own weight and when loose have little
strength whereas fine particles, like clay, hold more water in films which lie be-
tween the particles and bind them together. Clays shrink with drying coupled
with an increase in strength, while on wetting they swell and lose strength. 2
A foundation load increases external pressure on the soil, squeezing out water
from between the soil particles. With larger particles, as in the case of sand, the
water movements are rapid and the soil settles fairly quickly after the load is ap-
plied. By contrast, clays offer resistance to water expulsion, and settlement can
continue for years after construction.

Foundation Problems
Movements Resulting from Loading
The extent of foundation movement depends on the nature of the soil and the
amount of imposed loads. Not even uniform ground uniformly loaded settles
evenly and the complex properties of soil make it difficult to assess the degree of
settlement of individual foundations. It has been suggested that with large struc-
tures compression of the foundations may continue for some 20 years after con-
struction, although most significant movements take place within five years. 3
Shallow foundations, such as strip, pad and raft foundations, subject to normal
loadings increase pressure in the soil to a depth and breadth equal to one-and-a-
halftimes the breadth of the foundation. 2

Movements Resulting from Other Causes

Movements of foundations can also result from seasonal weather changes,
growth or removal of vegetation, earth flows and subsidence. The problems are
accentuated with soils composed of fine particles and so different soil conditions
are considered separately.

(i) Clay soils Clays, which shrink on drying and swell again when wetted, are
commonly responsible for the movement of shallow foundations. Where clays are
firm enough to support buildings of several storeys they are known as firm
shrinkable clays.

The roots of trees and shrubs penetrate soil to considerable depths and extract
moisture when rainfall is low in summer, causing drying out of the soil. Beneath
24 Building Maintenance

large trees and shrubs in the United Kingdom permanent drying has extended to
about 5 m and shrinkage of 50 to 100 mm has been measured at the ground sur-
face (figure 2.1.1). To some extent the building protects the clay from seasonal
drying and wetting, and movement is more likely under outer walls and comers.
Shrinkage of clay occurs both horizontally and vertically, so there is a tendency
for walls to be drawn outwards in addition to settling and for cracks to open be-
tween the clay and the sides of the foundations. These cracks permit water to
enter during the following winter and to soften the clay against or beneath the
foundations (figure 2.1.2). Buildings should not be erected closer to single trees
than their height at maturity, or one-and-a-halftimes their height in the case of
groups or rows of trees. New trees should not be planted nearer to existing build-
ings than these distances. 2
When trees are felled to clear a site for building, a period of years should be al-
lowed for the clay to regain water previously extracted by the tree roots. Other-
wise the clay as it swells may lift the building. 18
Boilers and furnaces inadequately insulated from the clay beneath may dry
and shrink the clay, resulting in the fracture of the concrete foundation slab
through lack of support. 2 Short-bored pile foundations are often well suited for
use in shrinkable clay, although deep strip foundations may provide a satis-
factory alternative.

(ii) Sandy soils Dense beds of sand form excellent foundation soils, but under-
ground water can wash out the finer particles, leaving coarser material in a less
stable condition.

During severe winters in the United Kingdom frost may penetrate soil to a
depth of 600 mm or more. Where the water table is close to the ground surface,
the water can become frozen and cause lifting of the ground surface, known as
'frost heave'.

(iii) Organic soils and made-up ground Peat and other soils containing a con-
siderable proportion of organic matter in the form of decaying vegetation vary in
volume as their water content changes, and are also readily compressible. Made-
up ground often settles for many years unless it is good material, carefully placed
and adequately compacted in thin layers. Indeed, poorly compacted fill is unsuit-
able for foundations and these need to penetrate the fill to firm strata beneath,
often using a piled foundation. Steel drums, trunking, paint tins and even car
bodies have been found in uncontrolled tips. The dangers to the structure of a
building on unconsolidated fill or on soft ground are very serious. Further settle-
ment and cracking may occur after repairs have been carried out; with settle-
ments of this kind, movements are often extensive and their timing
unpredictable. 4

Large-scale Movements
Some foundation movements occur in good foundation soil due to natural or geo-
logical phenomena, artificial agencies or a combination of them. For instance,
clay soils on slopes exceeding 1 in 10 are likely to move downhill, albeit slowly,
 dorec!ion of
wall movement

crock ogo•nst foundot •on

perm1tling entry of water uII
o I I I
~ . ___: ..Ll- ~ wa lls drown outward; -l. .:.._
•')
and downward '--~- '
FIGURE 2 11 CRACKING ARISI NG FROM FIGURE 212 CRACK ING ASSOCIATED WITH SHALLO W
DRYING ACTION OF TREE ROOTS FOUNDATIONS ON SHRINKABLE CLAY

exoslong wall

ex1st1ng foundation
pr operty to be
p1nn1ng up on dry cemenl demolished
weak concrete ... mortar 25 lhock
~
new br.ckwork ~ ~ weak concrete
9•
FIGURE 213 '~ . ; new fo un dot 1on
UNDERPI NNING
a ~·

Ill I SECTOON II II
~I~ I ® I ® I ~ I ®
1-
FIGURE 2.1' SHORING
ORDER OF UNDERPINNING
26 Building Maintenance

while in chalk and limestone areas, cavities in the bedrock can be formed by
underground streams or watercourses dissolving the rock. If a sandy overburden
falls into the cavity, a vulnerable 'swallow hole' is formed at the surface.
Large settlements occur in mining areas as the ground subsides over workings.
Normally the ground surface stretches as the front of a subsidence approaches
and buildings start to tilt towards it. Subsequently the tilt decreases but settle-
ment increases as the ground below is affected. Provided structural damage is not
severe, the building will slowly return to an essentially vertical position but at a
lower level. Small brick dwellings on comparatively thin reinforced concrete
rafts can usually resist moderate movements without undue damage. 2

Design ofFoundations
With light traditional buildings, strip foundations, having a width equal to about
twice the thickness of the loadbearing wall, will not impose a pressure in excess of
the permissible bearing pressure on any soils, except very soft clays and silts,
peats and made-up ground. For most soils, considerations of bearing pressure
will only arise with heavier buildings where, for example, heavy load concen-
trations are imposed on pier or pad foundations. Permissible bearing pressures
for different soils are listed in CP 101.5
The depth to which foundations have to be excavated is largely dependent on
the following three factors
(1) to secure adequate bearing capacity;
(2) in the case of clay soils to penetrate below the zone where shrinkage and
swelling due to seasonal weather changes are likely to cause appreciable move-
ment;
(3) in fine silts and sands, to penetrate below the zone in which trouble may
be expected from frost.
The principal types of foundation and their main functions are described and
illustrated in Seeley,Building Technology. 6

Concrete in Foundations
The strength of concrete is influenced by a number offactors
( 1) proportion and type of cement;
(2) type, proportions, gradings and quality of aggregates;
(3) water content;
(4) method and adequacy of hatching, mixing, transporting, placing,
compacting and curing concrete.
The majority of concrete foundations contain ordinary Portland cement,
although this may be varied in special circumstances. For instance in sulphate-
bearing soils and groundwaters it is advisable to use a special cement, such as
sulphate-resisting Portland cement or supersulphated cement. 7 The customary
minimum standard mix of concrete is 1:3:6. The water content should be kept
as low as possible consistent with sufficient workability and water-cement
ratios are generally in the range of 0.45 to 0.65. To secure satisfactory results,
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-/ 27

the concreting materials must be properly hatched, adequately mixed, carefully

transported and placed, adequately compacted and properly cured.
Premature failures of concrete foundations may arise through weak concrete
or insufficiently mixed or unsuitable materials, or through the foundations being
of inadequate cross section or supported on a weak formation. Hence there are
many ways in which the concrete may fail and ample precautions must be taken
to ensure sound work. Concreting can proceed in frosty weather, provided rapid-
hardening cement is used or calcium chloride added to the mix, water heated and
aggregates defrosted.• Work can often be accelerated while at the same time en-
suring a good quality material by using ready-mixed concrete. The ready-mixed
concrete suppliers also have good arrangements for defrosting aggregates and
heating mixing water in cold weather. Ready-mixed concrete also has advantages
on restricted sites or where large quantities of concrete are to be laid in a short
time. 9

Modifications of Existing Foundations to take Increased Loads

It is often necessary, when carrying out alterations to existing buildings, to check
on the adequacy of foundations. This check is carried out by digging down and
exposing the foundations at suitable points and noting the size, depth and general
condition of the existing concrete foundations. In a few cases it may even be
found that the walls merely rest on brick footings with no underlying concrete
foundations.
Where it is found that the existing foundations are insufficient to carry the ad-
ditional loads, measures must be taken to increase the strength of the foun-
dations. This is usually done by constructing new foundations under the existing
foundations in lengths of 900 to 1200 mm as underpinning, and this type of work
is described later in the chapter.

Settlement of Buildings
Causes of Settlement
Buildings may settle for a variety of reasons, including inadequate foundations,
low-bearing or shrinkable clay soil, presence oflarge trees near the buildings, and
the undertaking of extensive excavations or mining nearby. In many parts of the
country, particularly in south-east England, settlement arises through foun-
dations laid on shrinkable clay. This type of clay shows large surface cracks in
dry weather and becomes very sticky in wet weather.
If it can be established that the cracks appeared or that they open and widen
during dry weather in late summer and partially close in winter, and that win-
dows and doors which jam in late summer become easier to open in winter, then
the distortion can usually be attributed to shrinkage of clay below the foun-
dations. Where there are fast-growing trees such as poplar, elm or willow within
30m of the building, or vigorous shrubs or creepers within 1.50 m of it, then the
drying action of the roots on the soil is likely to be substantial and windows and
28 Building Maintenance
doors may remain jammed even in winter.

Remedial Measures for Settled Buildings

Remedial measures are generally difficult and expensive. Each case should be
considered individually on its merits and where movements are detected in the
early stages, further damage can sometimes be prevented at little cost. The
repairs are best covered under four main headings.

(1) Movements associated with direct climatic drying (no tree

roots) Differential movements may be eliminated by underpinning all the
external walls to a depth of at least 900 mm. It is unwise to underpin a fractured
comer in isolation as this may accentuate relative movements in the remainder of
the building. It is generally necessary to underpin the whole of the external walls,
either by continuous underpinning placed in alternate sections or by separate
blocks of underpinning so placed in relation to door and window openings as to
take full advantage of the strength of the existing brick walls.
Before any underpinning work is commenced the building should be carefully
examined and any urgent repairs carried out. 'Tell-tales' should be fixed over
existing cracks to show any further movement. In particular, the thickness and
structural condition of the walls to be underpinned should receive special con-
sideration, as well as the nature of the ground under the existing foundations.
The wall to be underpinned should first be supported with flying or raking shores
(figure 2.1.4 ), loads reduced as far as practicable, and holes then excavated
alongside and under the existing foundations in a suitable sequence, as illustrated
in figure 2.1.3, so that the sections being worked at any one time will be as far dis-
tant from one another as possible. The lengths of excavated sections are usually
about 1.00 to 1.50 m, so that the existing wall can bridge the gap satisfactorily
with a minimum of support. The sum total of unsupported lengths should not
exceed one-quarter of the wall length or one-sixth in the case of heavily loaded
walls.
When excavating each hole sufficient space is allowed in front of the wall to
provide adequate working space. No earth faces must be left unsupported over-
night and it is customary to limit the lengths of poling boards to 900 mm. In some
cases chemical consolidation of the ground or pressure grouting may be used to
ensure stability of the ground. The foundations and brickwork are constructed in
each section and the back timbering removed where possible and replaced with
weak concrete. Steel dowels are often built into the ends of the concrete foun-
dations to key the different sections together. The brickwork is normally con-
structed in English bond and toothings are left at the end of each section for
subsequent bonding to adjacent sections. The top of the new brickwork has to be
pinned up to the underside of the existing wall or concrete foundation. The most
usual method is to ram dry cement mortar about 2S mm thick into the gap using a
piece of board and a club hammer, while another alternative is to use manufac-
tured keying blocks made of dense concrete. Alternatively, concrete 'legs' can be
qsed in place of the lengths of brickwork.
Underpinning of foundations may prove too costly, particularly where the
damage is not severe or the building is very old. In these circumstances it may be
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-/ 29

considered adequate to reduce further movements by surrounding the building

with a relatively impervious apron of precast slabs or in situ concrete to a width of
1.50 m. Mter the laying of the apron, the ground should be left to absorb moist-
ure for a winter before the cracks in the building are repaired. This does not pro-
vide a completely satisfactory solution and is very much a compromise.

(2) Movements associated primarily with the drying action of tree roots The
treatment in this case is usually more difficult. Where the trees have not reached
maturity it is good practice to cut them down and kill the stump, probably using
sodium chlorate. The ground under the fractured part of the building will slowly
swell up during wet weather and tend to lift the building and partially close the
cracks. The filling of the cracks should be delayed for at least one wet season to
permit this movement to take place.
If the trees have reached maturity and the building is fairly old, it is unlikely
that further movements will occur except in exceptionally dry spells. In this situ-
ation it would be best to leave the trees in position and merely fill up the cracks in
the building. It is not often economical to underpin buildings badly affected by
trees as it is frequently necessary to underpin to a depth approaching 3 m and the
cost of this work may exceed the value of the property.
When repairing cracks to brickwork and similar walling materials, the hori-
zontal gaps should first be wedged tight by driving in pieces of slate or tile at
intervals to give support to the upper parts of the structure. The outside face of
the cracks may then be filled with mortar and pointed. Plaster cracks should be
cut back to a reasonable width and filled with gypsum plaster gauged with lime.
The proportion of lime is varied to produce a plaster of similar hardness and suc-
tion to the existing material.

(3) Mining subsidence Ground subsidence often results from the extraction of
minerals, particularly coal. A combination of horizontal movements at the sur-
face coupled with vertical movements can cause serious damage to buildings. An
extracted coal seam 1.30 m thick can cause subsidence at the surface of up to 1m
deep immediately above the seam and reducing on both sides.
A subsidence wave may first cause tension in buildings at the crest, followed by
compression in the trough. The worst effects are with thick seams in shallow
workings. Tensile stresses cause lengthening of structures with fractures in wal-
ling at butt joints and at the corners of window and door openings, followed by
the fracture of pipe joints and displacement of beams. Compressive stresses may
result in buckling of walls and the arching of pipes and paving materials. The use
of flexible pipes or pipes with flexible joints, with provision for movement where
they pass through the structure, is advisable in areas liable to subsidence. An
ideal type of foundation in this situation is a reinforced concrete slab resting on a
bed offriable material such as sand. Fibreboard, hardboard or wallboard should
replace plaster as a finish to ceilings and partitions. Steel frameworks should
have flexible joints such as pin joints, as in the Consortium of Local Authorities
Special Programme (CLASP) buildings, which also contain coiled springs on di-
agonal members. All cladding units are hung free to slide against adjoining units.
The extra cost of this precautionary work has been offset by the savings stem-
ming from bulk purchases.
30 Building Maintenance

With dwellings, smaller units are more stable than larger ones; for example
semi-detached houses are less vulnerable than terraced houses. Outbuildings
should ideally be independent of the main structures and projecting bays,
porches and the like are best avoided. Breaks in long buildings should extend
through the foundations. Paved surfaces should be of flexible materials, such as
tarmacadam and asphalt. Door openings constitute points of weakness and are
best located in short walls avoiding front and back doors opposite one another
and doors in adjoining dwellings from being placed side by side.

The traditional method of underpinning previously described is not well suited

for dealing with buildings subject to mining subsidence, as it does not provide a
solution to the problem of continued settlement after underpinning nor does it
return the building to a truly level and upright position. The following methods
are used in various situations.

(a) Underpinning with concrete stools and ground beams This method is only
really suitable where the settlement is small and unlikely to recur. The stools con-
sist of short struts or columns, often of prestressed concrete about 225 x 225 mm
in section and 450 mm high, spaced at about 900 to 1200 mm centres. A series
ofholes or pockets are cut into the wall to be underpinned and the stools with top
and bottom steel distributing plates are inserted in the holes and packed around
solidly with mortar. Once the mortar has set, the intervening brickwork is cut
away to accommodate in situ reinforced concrete beams, with their tops normally
two courses ofbrickwork below damp-proof course. Finally the tops of beams are
pinned up to the brickwork above and their outside faces are normally rendered
to give the appearance of a plinth. Bored piles or brick piers are often taken down
to a firm base to provide support to the beams.

(b) Underpinning by jacking Where a building needs relevelling and returning

to a truly vertical plane, following extensive and possibly continuing settlement,
jacks or rams replace the stools with the lift reproducing the settlement in
reverse, and a part of the building which has for instance settled 200 mm must be
pushed back into position at twice the speed of a part that has settled 101> mm,
with an average jacking speed of about 25 mm per hour.
A contoured plan is prepared joining all points of equal settlement to produce
'jacking contours'. The apparatus controlling the jacks is based on a system of
moving water levels with manually actuated jacks in small systems and power
operated jacks in large ones. Finally the jacks are replaced by conventional stools
pinned up to existing brickwork, followed by the insertion of ground beams and
probably foundation piles or piers.

(c) Pedatijied foundations When erecting new buildings in areas where ground
movements are continuing or are to be repeated, it is advisable to incorporate
permanent jacking points often using pedatified foundations. One method, suit-
able for two-storey buildings, entails the construction of substantial foundation
piers and bases which support a framework of ground beams. At each jacking
point a steel prop or pedapyn passes through a vertical hole in the beam and rests
upon a pier top. The building is levelled by means of inverted jacks with plungers
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solut£on-I 31

resting on pedapyns and with casings bolted to beams. As the plunger is extended
the casing of the jack rises, lifting the ground beam and the wall above.

(4) Other forms of settlement Buildings may settle for a variety of other rea-
sons and the cause of the settlement may sometimes be difficult to establish. A
poorly constructed concrete foundation might disintegrate under load and would
need replacement in short lengths, strutting the wall above while the replacement
work is in progress, to prevent it slipping.
Settlement could result from soil being washed away from beneath foun-
dations due to leaking drains or water services. The first step must be to locate
and rectify the defective service. Another possible cause is the lowering of natural
groundwater level over a period of years. While the failure of an adjoining owner
ofland at a lower level to provide adequate retaining walls may result in landslips
and consequent settlement ofbuildings at a higher level. 10
Buildings erected on unsuitable or inadequately compacted fill are likely to
settle and where there are varying depths of fill, unequal settlement may occur
unless the fill is well consolidated in layers not exceeding 300 mm thick. On most
fills, pad or strip foundations are rarely suitable and raft or piled foundations are
generally needed. Grouting of the fill would be one method of strengthening the
base material with a view to preventing further settlement. A more expensive but
sounder job could be obtained by underpinning with the supporting stools being
taken down through the fill to a firm base below.

Shoring
Shoring may be needed to give temporary support to walls and floors during
alteration work, demolition work or underpinning, or where a structure has
become unsafe. In the absence of adequate shoring the buildings could collapse,
possibly causing death or injury to persons in or near the building. Shoring may
take a number of different forms-raking shores, flying shores, dead shores,
window strutting and floor propping. Figure 2.1.4 illustrates the nature and uses
of the main forms of shoring.
Shoring members are generally of timber, often pitch pine, with all needles,
cleats and wedges preferably of hardwood. Each type of shoring is now con-
sidered in turn.

Dead Shores
The purpose of dead shores is to support dead and superimposed loads of a build-
ing, mainly while alteration and repair work is in progress. At the same time it is
generally necessary to strut existing floors and roofs to relieve the walls of their
weight, and a suitable framework could comprise 225 x 50 mm headboards and
sole pieces, 225 x 75 mm dead shores and 150 x 25 mm braces. It may be possible
to reduce costs, as timber prices have increased considerably, by using second-
hand timber or combining lighter sections of timber to make up heavier ones,
such as the use of three 225 x 75 mm members to build up one 225 x 225 mm.
Another alternative is to use adjustable steel props which are very strong, easy to
allernabve pasotoon 225 x75 wall pta t e secured -
tor foldmg wedges by wall nooks
l i-----'--'-'-----+--------,
cleat and hardwood needle
225 x 225 top rakN

225 x25 braces

225 x 225 moddle raker

shores may be bound
woth hOop -oron at the
225 x 22 5 dead base on \oeu of braces
shore shown

angle about 95° 225x225 bottom

raker

solod floor _..:..______;.:__ _~;___--;

225x 225 sole plafe _j

FIGURE 2 21 DEAD SHORE FIGURE 2 2 2 RAKING SHORE

housmg far
hardwood cleat 225x75 wall plate
200x100x100 cleat
300 x 100x100 needle

---'- mortice tor needle

150x150 rakmg strut

wall nook

225x75 wa ll plate
FIGURE 223 '
DETAIL AT HEAD OF RAKER FIGURE 22 ' FLYING SHORE
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-/ 33
fix and may be hired at reasonable rates.
A dead shore, as illustrated in figure 2.2.1, supports a wall of a building while
an opening is being formed in it. Needles may be of timber or steel with sizes
depending on their spacing, distance apart of dead shores and the loadings. The
dead shores must be of sound material fixed in an upright position, and in the
case of timber members the minimum width should be at least one-twenty-fourth
of the height and they must be securely fixed to base plates and needles, often by
means of dogs. Clearance of 750 mm between the wall and dead shore is needed
to give adequate working space.
Needles should not be located beneath window openings and the spacing can
vary from 900 mm to 1.80 m, depending on the condition of the brickwork.
Bracings are often of 225 x 25 mm timber on both faces of dead shores, fixed at
an angle of about 45°. Sole plates must be placed on a firm base. The insertion of
folding wedges between needles and dead shores (posts) permits tightening of the
shores without exerting pressure on the structure. Austin 17 describes how to
calculate loads and timber shore sizes.

Raking Shores
Raking shores may be used to provide temporary support to a wall which has
become defective and unsafe, or as a precautionary measure while alteration
work is being undertaken. The arrangement of the shores will depend on the
height of the building, loads to be carried, extent of openings and space available
adjacent to the building. They can consist of single rakers, or a number of them
as illustrated in figure 2.2.2, which are inclined members, principally of timber,
with the upper end terminating against the wall requiring support and the lower
end supported by a sole plate bearing upon the ground. A wall which is out of
plumb to the extent of 1 in 12 or more requires shoring immediately.
The angle of the shores with the ground should, as far as practicable, be be-
tween 45 and 75°. The spacing of flying shores varies between 2.50 and 5.00 m
and it is advisable to position a shore at each end of the wall to be supported. The
centre line of each raker or shore intersects the ends of suspended floor joists and
centre lines of wall plates to provide maximum support at critical points of con-
centrated loads. Support from shores is spread over a larger area of wall by the
use of wall plates or wall pieces, secured with metal wall hooks at about 2.50 m
centres. With tall buildings the top shore may consist of two lengths-a 17 5 x
175 mm rider bearing on folding wedges at the top of a shorter and larger section
back shore.
The connection between the head of a raker and the wall plate is usually
formed with a needle and cleat (figure 2.2.3). A hole is cut in the wall and wall
plate and a hardwood shouldered needle, probably about 300 x 100 x 100 mm,
inserted. This is further supported by a hardwood cleat, often about 225 x 100 x
100 mm, which may be housed or nailed to the wall plate. The sole piece, which
prevents the rakers from slipping, is normally about 100 mm thick and forms an
internal angle of about 85° with the top raker. A grillage is sometimes provided
below it. A crowbar can be used to lever a raker into position after which a dog is
inserted to prevent any subsequent movement.
The usual order of erecting raking shores is as follows.
34 Building Maintenance

(1) Cut holes in the wall to receive needles, taking care not to disturb the
surrounding brickwork or masonry.
(2) Wall plates are prepared, morticed for needles, notched for cleats, and
then fixed to the wall with wall hooks.
(3) Where the wall is bulging badly it is necessary to place packing pieces
behind the wall plate to provide an even bearing throughout.
(4) The needles are prepared and inserted through the wall plate into the
holes in the wall.
(5) A bevelled cleat is inserted in each housing in the wall plates and spiked.
(6) The heads of rakers are cut to the required angle and notched to receive
the needle for a width of at least 75 mm.
(7) The sole plate is fixed in position and the bottom ends of the rakers
tightened against it by levering them with a crowbar fitted into notches cut into
the feet of rakers, after which dogs are inserted to prevent any subsequent move-
ment.
(8) Bracing boards and/or hoop iron binding are then fixed for stiffening
purposes.

Flying Shores
Flying shores are used to provide support between buildings, where an inter-
vening building has been demolished, or across a narrow street or alley, when the
consent of the highway authority will be needed in addition to that of the owner
of the property from which support is required. The use of this type of shore is re-
stricted to spans of 4.50 to 10.50 mat spacings of 2.50 to 4.00 m. A typical flying
shore is illustrated in figure 2.2.4.
The horizontal member is termed a horizontal shore and varies from about
150 x 100mm to225 x 150mmdependingon the span. With tall buildings more
than one horizontal member will be required. These members are supported at
each end by a needle and cleat as described for raking shores. Raking struts, vary-
ing in size from 100 x 100 mm to 150 x 150 mm with the span, ron from hori-
zontal shores to the floors and ceilings in the two buildings. A length of straining
sill and head nailed to the top and bottom of the centre part of the horizontal
shore assist in stiffening the shore and providing support for the raking struts.

Sequence ofShoring Operations

Two examples of shoring work will serve to illustrate the sequence of operations.

(a) Demolition of and rebuilding an intermediate three-storey terrace house It

can be assumed that the adjoining houses are in poor condition so that maximum
care must be taken. Following inspection, raking shores are erected to each upper
floor and eaves opposite each party wall. Flying shores are then erected inside the
building between the party walls, with the outside ones positioned close to the
front and rear walls, with intermediate ones at intervals of 2.50 to 3.50 m, cut-
ting holes in floors as necessary. Once the shoring is complete, demolition can
proceed and the shores will remain in position until the new building work is vir-
tually complete.
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-/ 35

(b) Inserting a shop front in an existing dwelling All window openings in the
front wall are strutted to prevent deformation. Raking shores are then erected
against the party walls and at intermediate points if the brickwork is in poor con-
dition. Floor strutting consisting of 100 x 100 or 150 x 150 mm posts spaced
about 1.20 m apart, wedged between 225 x 75 mm horizontal members (head
and sill) at floor and ceiling level at each storey, will be provided, to relieve the
front wall of floor and roof loads. This strutting is placed as near as possible to
the wall, often 900 to 1200 mm from it, and may be sheeted to form a screen
where the building remains in occupation during the alterations. Holes for need-
les are then cut and dead shores erected and wedged. The ground floor brickwork
is cut away, piers built and steel beams inserted and wedged. After allowing
about two weeks for the mortar to harden, the shoring is removed in the reverse
order to which it was erected and needle holes in the brickwork made good.

Waterproofing Leaking Basements

One of the main requirements of basements is watertightness. Basements may be
constructed in watertight concrete or in brickwork or other materials. These two
broad categories will now be examined from the viewpoint of repairing leaks.

( 1) Watertight Concrete Basements

The DOE advisory leaflet 52 11 describes the difficulties associated with pinpoint-
ing leaks in concrete floor slabs and advocates dividing the slab up with small
dams of bricks-on-edge in cement mortar (1:3) to locate leaks. Temporary steel
tubes usually 20 mm diameter are then inserted in sockets set in the concrete,
first for injecting a detergent solution to delineate the defective area and then for
pressure grouting to seal it. Holes, 45 mm diameter, are drilled through the con-
crete with a portable percussion drill to take the steel sockets at a spacing of about
15 0 mm centres for fine cracks increasing to 600 or even 900 mm for wider cracks
and areas of honeycombed concrete. The sockets are caulked into the holes with
lead wool.
Various grouts are available including Portland cement and pulverised fuel
ash, a chemical such as calcium chloride or sodium silicate, or resin. The grout is
pumped in at a pressure of about 1.50 MN/m2 • After the grout has hardened
satisfactorily, the tubes and sockets are removed and the holes made good.

(2) Other Forms of Damp Basement

Waterproofing a leaking basement with or without asphalt tanking can be both
difficult and costly. The cause of the dampness must first be established and may
arise from a number of causes, such as water pressure from waterlogged ground,
damp penetration or condensation.
Porous drain pipes laid around the building to discharge into a natural water-
course or sewer can reduce the lateral water pressure arising in waterlogged
ground. Latex-siliconate infusion by gravity or pump pressure is useful witb
36 Building Maintenance
porous basement walls free from cracks.
Another remedial measure is to apply dry linings to basement walls fixed on
treated timber battens. Such a lining can prevent dampness and hygroscopic salts
from damaging new decorations, but it will not provide a permanent cure. A
polythene sheet vapour barrier should be fixed immediately behind the lining and
it is desirable to ventilate the airspaces between battens to the outside air.
Bituminous dovetailed lathing (Newtonite) provides another useful alter-
native. It replaces the damp plaster and must be fixed with rust resistant nails. A
rotten suspended wood floor needs replacement with a concrete slab.
A waterproof rendering to the inner surface of a soundly constructed brick
wall may stop damp penetration. Such renderings are usually based on Portland
cement and sand (1:3) with or without admixtures. They must not be excessively
wet or over-trowelled and should be applied in two coats not exceeding 50 mm
total thickness. Angles and junctions in renderings should be coved.
Asphalt tanking requires a dry background which may be difficult to achieve
in a damp or leaking basement. The cost of drying out will be very expensive and
could cost as much as the tanking. The asphalt should be in three coats finishing
not less than 30 mm thick for horizontal work and 20 mm for vertical work.
Horizontal asphalt needs covering with at least 50 mm of concrete, while vertical
work needs supporting by a half-brick or block wall. This reduces the size of the
basement and obscures the source of any possible future leak.

Maintenance of Paved and Grassed Surfaces

The cost and extent of maintenance work on paved surfaces varies with the type
of construction.

Gravel or hoggin needs support at the edges from precast concrete kerbs or
edgings, otherwise displacement of the material is likely to take place. This form
of surfacing is not suitable for heavy loads. It is also expensive in maintenance as
it will require periodic rolling and raking, coupled with occasional making up of
depressions and application ofweedkiller to retain the surface in good condition.
This is one case where low initial costs may be more than offset by high mainten-
ance costs.

Tarmacadam consists of graded stone coated with tar laid hot and compacted by
rolling. It is normally laid in two coats with an average thickness of about
75 mm on a suitable base of hard material. Better quality surfaces can be
obtained by using bitumen macadam, hot rolled asphalt, mastic asphalt or fine
cold asphalt. All these materials have the advantage of being easily laid to ir-
regular shapes and varying falls and cambers. They provide a flexible paving
which is desirable in areas liable to subsidence or where access may subsequently
be required to underground services. They do however need support at edges, as
described for gravel, and periodic surface dressing to seal the surface, with the
frequency depending on the material and amount of wear. Investigations at
Darlington 12 favoured the use of 6 mm whinstone chippings for surface dressing
on grounds of improved appearance and better riding qualities, but greater
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-/ 37

quality control of the binder viscosity is required to prevent the binder creeping
above the smaller chippings. Attention to local weather forecasts determines
whether an adhesive agent should be added to prevent stripping of chippings,
should rain occur.
Defects in carriageway surfaces arise from various causes--exposed trench
reinstatements, potholes and patches, crazing and cracking, edge failure, lack of
roughness (skid resistance) and excessive undulation (ride quality). Some rank-
ing procedure is necessary in determining maintenance priorities. Crazing and
cracking warrant close investigation as they may indicate a need for
strengthening or reconstruction, whereas in other cases a surface dressing may be
economic and assist in arresting deterioration. Excessive undulation can also re-
sult in extensive maintenance work and an assessment of patches as a percentage
of total paved surface will indicate the scale of the problem.
Millard and Lister 13 give four different criteria for determining whether a
road requires maintenance work

(1) structural deterioration threatening to impair its load carrying ability;

(2) poor riding quality, when the riding comfort has deteriorated below an
acceptable standard;
(3) slipperiness, when the surface no longer provides adequate resistance to
skidding;
(4) other surface deterioration, such as surface ravelling, potholes and
opening of concrete joints.

Concrete can be used for both roads and footpaths, but it must be of a suitable
mix, often 1:2:4, laid on a waterproof membrane on a suitable base, and be ad-
equately mixed, compacted and cured, with ample provision for expansion and
contraction. It provides a hard wearing surface, although irregularities some-
times occur at the joints and sun glare from the surface may be a disadvantage. It
constitutes rigid construction and is not well suited for use in areas liable to subsi-
dence or for subsequent service trench reinstatement. joint fillers are often
formed of softwood, medium density chipboard or fibreboard, with a groove at
the top of the joint to take a pliable sealing material, an important function of
which is to keep out grit. 1' Periodic re-sealing of joints forms an important
maintenance item with concrete roads.
Investigations by the Transport and Road Research Laboratory 14 showed the
mean construction costs of concrete to be more expensive than flexible con-
struction particularly for rural secondary and housing estate roads. When dis-
counted maintenance costs over a 50 year period are taken into account, the
differences between these classes of road are insignificant, although concrete
roads have lower maintenance costs in the first 15 to 20 years. With major roads
concrete is likely to be the better long-term proposition.

Precast concrete paving flags are reasonably popular for footpaths because of
their attractive appearance and relative ease of reinstatement. The main faults
occurring with flag footpaths are trips (vertical misalignment of adjoining flags)
and cracks, mainly due to differential settlement, resulting in dangerous con-
ditions for pedestrians. Foundation faults can also cause flags to rock. It is
38 Building Maintenance
necessary for maintenance purposes to establish a maximum permissible height
of trip; 19 mm has been adopted in Darlington. 12
Random events such as vehicles mounting footpaths, contractors' damage and
tree roots, result in broken and uneven paving. Hence frequent inspections and
repairs are often necessary and shorter relaying cycles would not necessarily
guarantee better paths. ·
Other pavings include cobbles, setts and bricks, and these are often laid in
small areas for decorative purposes. If laid on a suitable bed the amount of main-
tenance should not be excessive.
Paved surfaces need periodic sweeping and road gullies require emptying from
time to time to prevent their becoming silted up. In urban areas it is customary to
empty gullies six times a year and to sweep channels to town centre roads daily
and channels to other roads weekly, often using a combination of mechanical and
manual methods, with bonus schemes to secure maximum productivity.
Grass cutting is essential for reasons of amenity. The frequency is determined by
the standard of maintenance adopted and weather conditions. The number of
cuts per year could range from four to thirty, depending on the situation and
standard of maintenance. Gang mowers provide the best equipment for mowing
very large areas of grass, power mowers for medium areas and rotary mowers for
semi-rough grassed areas. Trimming edges are labour intensive and expensive
and the ratio of edges to grassed area should ideally be kept to a minimum.
The provision of grass up to the face of buildings can result in damage to clad-
dings by grass cutting machines. Without adequate drainage, rainwater running
down the face of cladding may result in the grass adjoining the cladding becom-
ing a strip of mud. Mud splashes up the side of the cladding are unsightly and in-
crease maintenance costs. A concrete apron around the building will overcome
these problems and also help window cleaners. 16

Maintenance of Fencing
Some types of fencing are particularly vulnerable from a maintenance aspect.

Interwoven fences with thin slats are liable to damage and fairly rapid deterio-
ration, unless of oak or cedar, or of softwood which is kept regularly treated with
preservative.
Oak close boarded fencing is much more durable but feather-edged softwood
boarding is liable to warp and should be pressure creosoted. The pales should be
kept above ground level with horizontal gravel boards below them, which can be
replaced if required without much difficulty. A capping should be provided at the
top of the fence to protect the end grain at the tops of pales. Softwood posts are
liable to rot at ground level and are better bolted to concrete spurs let into the
ground. All nails should be galvanised to avoid rust stains on the woodwork.
Chestnut pale fences are not very attractive in appearance and maintenance costs
can be high, mainly resulting from sagging of the galvanised wire supporting the
pales.
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-/ 39

Chain link fencing strained from concrete or steel posts is used extensively, as it
provides a good boundary division. It is not very attractive and unless plastic
coated does rust over a period of time. It is important that the straining posts
shall be well bedded in concrete and the chain link adequately strained.

Brickwork boundary walls sometimes become defective through loose or split

copings. It is necessary to use engineering bricks set in cement mortar (1:3) for a
brick-on-edge coping to provide adequate resistance to frost. Ends and angles
may come loose unless the coping bricks are adequately anchored to the wall with
galvanised steel brackets. When a boundary wall also acts as a retaining wall,
frost action may cause spalling and hence the brickwork should be built in engin-
eering bricks or be provided with a vertical damp-proof membrane.

References
1 -Building Research Establishment Digest 64 (second series): Soils and
Foundations 2 (H.M.S.O. 1965).
2 -Building Res{!arch Establishment Digest 63 (second series): Soils and
Foundations 1 (H.M.S.O., 1965).
3 P. H. P. Bennett, 'Building Maintenance: from Concept to Demolition',
Building (9 May 1969).
4 -Building Research Establishment Digest 75 (second series): Cracking in
Buildings (H.M.S.O., 1966).
5 British Standards Institution, CP 101 : 1972 Foundations and substruc-
tures.
6 I. H. Seeley, Building Technology (Macmillan, London and Basingstoke,
1974).
7 -Building Research Establishment Digest 90 (second series): Concrete in
Sulphate-bearing Soils and Groundwaters (H.M.S.O., 1968).
8 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 7: Concreting in Cold
Weather (H.M.S.O., 1971).
9 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 60: Ready Mixed Con-
crete and Pumped Concrete (H.M.S.O., 1971 ).
10 Construction Industry Research and Information Association, Develop-
ment and Materials Bulletin 63: Serviceability of Buildings (C.I.R.I.A.,
1973).
11 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 52: Watertight Base-
ments,part2(H.M.S.O., 1971).
12 Local Government Operational Research Unit, Improving Highway Main-
tenance Management: A Pilot Study for Darlington County Borough
(H.M.S.O., 1972).
13 R. S. Millard and N. W. Lister, 'The Assessment of Maintenance Needs for
Road Pavements',Proc. Instn civ. Engrs, 48 (1971).
14 Transport and Road Research Laboratory, The Cost of Constructing and
Maintaining Flexible and Concrete Pavements over 50 Years (H.M.S.O.,
1969).
40 Building Maintenance
15 Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Report 512: The Design and
Construction ofJoints in Concrete PaTJements (H.M.S.O., 1973).
16 D. B. James, 'The Maintenance Manager-And Design', Building Main-
tenance (January 1972).
17 C. K. Austin, 'Using Dead Shores and Calculating Loads', Bldg Trades J.
(28 November 1975).
18 - Building Research Establishment Digest 176: Failure Patterns and
Implications (H.M.S.O., 1975).
3. BUILDING MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTION-II
Wall Claddings, Dampness, Condensation and Smoky Chimneys

Defects in Wall Cladclings

The Building Regulations 1 prescribe that materials used in building work shall
be of a suitable nature and quality, be adequately mixed or prepared, and be ap-
plied, used or fixed so as adequately to perform the functions for which they are
designed. Unfortunately, some modern buildings produce greater maintenance
problems than many centuries-old buildings, even though the climatic conditions
have undergone little change. Entwhistle2 has described how there has been a
failure to learn from experience and to make full use of known science and tech-
nology. When using large building units, sufficient allowance has not always
been made for movement due to thermal and elastic changes and for creep in con-
crete under load. The effect of the rapid drying out of new buildings by central
heating does not always seem to be appreciated. Insufficient attention to de-
tailing and the failure to select suitable materials for use in exposed situations can
have unfortunate effects.
Wall claddings suffer particularly from the following defects
(1) inability to support imposed loads, resulting in distortion or cracking;
(2) inability to keep out the weather;
(3) inability to insulate from cold with resultant condensation;
(4) deterioration of cladding materials.
The external face of a building has to resist the passage of rain and wind, since
moisture penetrating to the inside can result in mildew or mould growth, or pro-
duce conditions conducive to corrosion of metals, fungal attack on timber,
damage to decorations, and even detrimental effects on contents and the occu-
piers themselves. We are concerned not only with the wetting and drying of wal-
ling materials but also the chemical and physical changes in the structure caused
by the complex action of moisture, frost, temperature changes, ultraviolet light,
and formation and transference of salts. 3
Cracking of wall cladding usually indicates failure or defective construction. It
is almost invariably unsightly and unacceptable to the occupants. Cracking often
results in air infiltration, heat loss and reduced sound insulation, all of which
cause a reduction in the efficiency of the building. It occurs when the tensile
stress in a material exceeds its tensile strength, through externally applied loads
41
42 Building Maintenance

or internal movements produced by temperature or moisture changes subject to

external restraint. 4
Water penetration can be exceptionally critical in cold weather, particularly
around vulnerable areas such as cornices and sills. Water expands by about one-
tenth on freezing and can exert very great pressures within the fabric, causing it
to lift and eventually break away. If water finds its way into the fabric through
cracks or bad pointing, it will cause damage on freezing. 44
Carbon accumulates to form soot deposits on the fabric which are both
unsightly and harbour dangerous corrosive elements. Regular cleaning will re-
move these deposits and prevent their build-up, in addition to permitting a check
of the condition of the fabric and enabling the necessary repairs to be under-
taken.44

Brickwork
Clay Bricks
The majority of bricks in general use are made of clay. These are classified in BS
3921 according to variety--common, facing or engineering; quality-internal,
ordinary or special; and type--solid, perforated, hollow or cellular. It is import-
ant to select the correct type and quality of brick for a particular situation. For
example, internal quality bricks laid in weak mortar are suitable for internal
walls where there is no early frost hazard, whereas ordinary bricks in medium
strength mortar are required for the outer leaf of cavity walls. Unrendered brick-
work in parapet walls should contain special bricks laid in a strong mix of mortar,
such as 1 part masonry cement: 2t-3t parts sand.'
BS 3921 specifies a minimum strength of 5.2 MN/m2 for bricks, and this is suf-
ficient for the loadings in low-rise housing and similar buildings. Higher strength
bricks should be specified only when they are required to meet structural needs,
as strength is not necessarily an index of durability. Similarly, water absorption
does not always indicate the behaviour of a brick in weathering. Low absorp-
tion-less than 7 per cent by weight--often indicates a high resistance to
damage by freezing, although some types of bricks of much higher absorption
may also be frost resistant.

Other Bricks
Calcium silicate bricks of sandlime or ftintlime and concrete bricks can be used
successfully in a wide range of situations subject to the selection of the appro-
priate class of brick and mortar. 6 To avoid shrinkage cracks, bricks should be
kept dry prior to laying and a weak to medium mortar should be used as appro-
priate. Long lengths of brickwork should be subdivided by dry movement joints
at intervals of not more than 7 .SO m, to permit movement. A rigid joint filler,
polythene or bituminous felt, should be inserted for the full thickness of the
brickwork but kept back about 12 mm from the outside face. The joints must be
sealed to ensure moisture exclusion and with facing work the joints are ideally
filled with mastic. 7
Shrinkage cracking in brickwork may take two forms-running straight
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-II 43

through the brick and joint in alternate courses or following a zigzag path along
the joints. The latter type of crack is more easily made good and it is accordingly
advisable to make the joint weaker in tension than the brick itself. Furthermore,
with a weak mortar joint there is a greater chance of the bricks shrinking indi-
vidually, without stressing the wall as a whole, with minute hair cracks forming
around each brick rather than wider cracks at greater intervals.

Mortars
The principal requirements of mortars for brickwork and blockwork are good
workability and plasticity but stiffening within a reasonable period, early attain-
ment of strength, with a final strength adequate but not greater than bricks, and
adequate durability. An excessively strong mortar concentrates the effects of dif-
ferential movement by producing fewer and wider cracks and is liable to lead to
increased efflorescence. Stronger mixes are preferable in cold weather to develop
strength more quickly and so resist the effects of frost. 8 The selection of mortars
is influenced by the type of construction and condition of exposure as shown in
table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Selection ol. Mortars for Brickwork and Blockwork

Mortar type and mix Uses

Hydraulic lime: sand Internal walls and partitions of clay,

1:3 calcium silicate and concrete bricks, and
Portlandcement:lime:sand 1:3:1o-12 concrete partition blocks subject to high
Masonry cement:sand 1:7 drying shrinkage.
Portland cement:sand with plasticiser 1:8
Hydrauliclime:sand 1:2 Clay, calcium silicate and concrete bricks
Portland cement:lime:sand 1:2:8-9 or blocks in sheltered positions between
Masonrycement:sand 1:6 eaves and damp-proof course. Also for
Portland cement:sand with plasticiser internal walls of calcium silicate and
1:7-8 concrete bricks or blocks where frost is
possible.

Portland cement:lime:sand 1:1:5-6 Clay bricks, calcium silicate or concrete

Masonrycement:sand 1:4t bricks class A(i) in exposed conditions
Portland cement:sand with plasticiser below damp-proof course, free standing
1:5-6 walls, parapets and similar locations, or
between eaves and damp-proof course in
conditions of severe exposure.

Portland cement:lime:sand 1:t:4-4t Clay bricks in conditions of severe

exposure.

Portland cement:lime:sand 1:0--f:3 Retaining walls and heavy engineering

work using appropriate bricks.

Note: Where a range of sand contents is given, such as 1(}-12: the higher figure applies to well graded sand
and the lower to coarse or uniformly fine sand.

Cement mortar sets quickly and develops great strength, often more than is
44 Building Maintenance

required, and is liable to craze, whereas lime mortar is extremely workable but is
weak and slow hardening. Hence these mortars have been widely superseded by
cement:lime mortar which is workable and sufficiently strong without the risk of
drying shrinkage. A plasticiser may be added to cement mortar to produce an
aerated or air-entrained mortar. The plasticiser entrains bubbles of air in the
mix, increasing workability and permitting the use of weaker mortars in place of
lime. Masonry cement mortar usually consists of a mixture of Portland cement
with a very fine mineral filler and an air-entraining agent. It has good working
properties. Special mortars are used in certain cases, as where soil has a high sul-
phate content, or high early strength or resistance to heat or chemicals is
required. 9
It is important to use an appropriate mortar, properly hatched and adequately
mixed, using the same mix throughout and taking adequate precautions against
frost.

Defects in Brickwork
Brickwork defects arise in a variety of ways, of which the most common are
efflorescence, stains, sulphate attack, frost action, settlement, use of unsound
materials or poor workmanship, corrosion of iron and steel, drying shrinkage,
growth of lichens and moulds, and need for repointing.

Efflorescence
This consists of deposits of soluble salts formed on the surface of new brickwork,
and it usually appears as loose white powder or as feathery crystals, or more oc-
casionally as a hard glossy deposit penetrating the brick faces. It can occur on in-
ternal as well as external surfaces, causing damage to decorations where applied
before the walls have dried out. Efflorescence is generally a temporary spring-
time occurrence appearing as new brickwork dries out for the first time. It some-
times reappears in the second spring of a building's life but on a reduced scale. It
is unsightly but usually harmless and shortlived unless water is able to percolate
into the brickwork, or soluble salts such as magnesium sulphate crystallise just
inside the surface pores. 10
The salts may come from the brickwork, as most clay bricks contain water
soluble salts, from soil in contact with the brickwork particularly in the absence
of an effective damp-proof course, or by contamination with sea-water or spray as
with unwashed sea sand. Bricks can be tested for efflorescence in the manner de-
scribed in BS 3921.
Efflorescence can be minimised by effective damp-proofing, avoiding the use
of facing bricks with a high soluble salts content in very exposed positions, using
suitable mortar, keeping bricks dry and covering new brickwork at the end of
each day's work.
Fortunately surface efflorescence is normally washed away by rain and no
special treatment is needed. To accelerate removal, the brickwork can be dry-
brushed periodically until the soluble salts cease to crystallise. In sheltered situ-
ations, it may be necessary to remove the efflorescence by periodic washings with
a hose with deposits of salt brushed off between washes. 10
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-// 45

Where efftorescence persists there is likely to be abnormal water penetration of

the brickwork and constructional faults, such as leaking rainwater pipes and
defective damp-proof courses, must be repaired. Individual disintegrated bricks
should be cut out and replaced with bricks having a low sulphate content. Where
disintegration occurs over a wider area, the best remedy is probably to render the
face of the brickwork, after raking out joints to a depth of 10 mm. The rendering
should be weaker than the brickwork; for example 1: 1:6 mix of cement:lime:sand
for strong bricks and 1:2:9 for weak bricks.
Efflorescence on internal plaster should be lightly brushed off before decor-
ations are applied. In rare cases where spalling of the plaster occurs, the source of
dampness must be remedied, the plaster removed and it is advisable to provide a
capillary break between the brickwork and the plaster. One suitable method is to
nail corrugated pitch or bitumen lathing to the inside face of the wall; an alter-
native is to use impregnated timber battens and a lining. 10

Stains
These may be white, like efftorescence, but do not disappear when the brickwork
is washed by rain. White stains under concrete and limestone components, such
as string courses and copings, generally result from lime being deposited on the
brickwork by rainwater. The normal remedy is as follows
(1) thoroughly wet brickwork with clean water;
(2) carefully brush on diluted hydrochloric acid;
(3) when stains have dissolved, thoroughly wash wall with clean water;
(4) after removal of stains, flashings should be provided to prevent further
percolation and staining. 10

Sulphate Attack
Sulphate attack on brickwork is the result of the reaction of tricalcium aluminate
present in all ordinary Portland cements, with sulphates in solution. Its effect is
an overall expansion of the brickwork due to expansion of the mortar joints, fol-
lowed in more extreme cases by progressive disintegration of the mortar joints.
Except for earth retaining walls, where the attacking sulphates could emanate
from groundwater, the source of sulphates is usually the clay bricks, with the sul-
phates transferred from bricks to mortar joints by percolating water, usually
rainwater .11
Sulphate attack first becomes evident through horizontal cracking on the
inner face of the wall, which with cavity walls may be concentrated near the roof.
In long stretches of brickwork some oversailing of the damp-proof course is
likely. Subsequently, mortar joints become white and a narrow crack may occur
in the middle of the joints. Later still, the surface of the mortar joint spalls off and
the mortar reduces in strength; while advanced stages of attack are accompanied
by spalling of facing bricks. The expansion due to sulphate attack can be dis-
tinguished from drying shrinkage as it normally takes at least two years to de-
velop.
In the past sulphate attack on unlined chimney stacks serving slow-burning
46 Building Maintenance
appliances, resulting from condensation from flue gases, were quite common, but
the provision of flue liners in new chimney stacks will prevent this. An ash-
blinded sub-base and failure to link damp-proof courses in walls and floor, led to
severe sulphate attack on brick walls in a Scottish bungalow. 12 Sulphate attack
on external renderings to brick walls usually results in a high proportion of hori-
zontal cracks.
Ideally, bricks oflow sulphate content should be used but this is rarely practic-
able. Alternatively, steps should be taken either to increase the resistance to sul-
phate attack or to limit the extent to which the brickwork becomes and remains
wet. The sulphate resistance of mortars can be increased by using either richer
mixes (1:5-6, cement:sand with plasticiser is excellent) or sulphate-resisting or
supersulphate cements. Excessive wetting of the brickwork can be avoided by
improving design details and ensuring a generous overhang at eaves and verges,
adequate flashings, and damp-proof courses and special precautions at parapets
and free-standing walls (low sulphate bricks, good copings, damp-proof courses
under copings and at base of walls, expansion joints not more than 12m apart
and suitable mortar mixes). Brick earth retaining walls should only be built of
special quality bricks laid in a sulphate resisting mortar.
Affected brickwork should be dried out and moisture excluded as far as prac-
ticable, as well as remedying poor design features, such as dlrrecting the de-
tailing on parapets and forming one or two expansion joints. Where attack is
rather more severe but without visible damage to mortar, surface waterproofer
may be applied when the brickwork is reasonably dry and, if successful, repeated
at intervals of a few years. In cases of advanced attack, with brickwork expansion
and severe damage to mortar, some form of cladding should be applied. Weather-
boarding or tile hanging both form suitable treatments, which are equally ap-
plicable to failed renderings. When rebuilding parts of the structure it is essential
to use materials suited to the conditions.

Frost Action
In Great Britain, frost failures are usually confined to partly-built unpro-
tected brickwork or to brickwork subject to conditions of severe exposure,
such as free-standing walls, parapets and retaining walls and, occasionally,
brickwork below damp-proof course. Bricks in these positions should have
good frost resistance and the work should be adequately protected from frost
during construction by using the methods described in DOE advisory leaflet
8, 14 and particularly laying loose bricks on top of the wall overhanging
SO mm on each side and covering the wall with polythene sheeting or other
covering.
Frost can cause spalling of the face of bricks and disintegration of mortar.
On occasions bricks may become detached from the mortar. Brick-on-edge
copings often split if they are not frost resistant and require replacing by en-
gineering bricks laid in cement mortar (1:3). 13 Stronger mortar mixes are
needed when there is a danger of frost.

Settlement
The normal slight overall settlement of a building should not disturb the
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-II 47

brickwork, but differential settlement often resulting in cracked walls, may

occur where there are abrupt changes in ground conditions over the site, or
where there is inadequately consolidated fill under foundations. The effect of
shrinkable clay, fast-growing trees and mining subsidence on foundations has
been described in chapter 2. Repairs to cracked brickwork are examined later in
the chapter.

Stability ofBrick Walls

CP 111 recommends permissible stresses for loadbearing walls and from these
stresses the thickness of walls can be determined in relation to the loads to be car-
ried. To utilise the full capacity of high-strength bricks (69 MN/m2 or more),
cement mortar (1:3) is needed. For lower strength bricks, mortars with a pro-
portion oflime can be used without any great loss in brickwork strength. Walls of
a given thickness and material strength tend to fail at a lower load as the height
increases. In design-the slenderness ratio of effective height to effective thick-
ness-is important. CP 111 recommends that for walls set in other than lime
mortar, the slenderness ratio should not exceed 18, except for dwellings of not
more than two storeys when it should not exceed 24. The strength of a 255 mm
cavity wall with both leaves loaded is approximately 20 per cent less than that of
a 215 mm solid wall. u
Cracked brickwork may not always be unstable. Tests at the Building Re-
search Establishment showed that the capacity of a 215 mm brick wall to carry
vertical loads was reduced by no more than 30 per cent by a stepped or slanting
crack up to 25 mm wide, provided it was not accompanied by considerable trans-
verse movement. On the other hand the resistance to side loading of a half-brick
wall with sound joints but with a visible bulge could be impaired considerably.
With cavity walls the effects ofleaning or bulging, and of eccentricity of loading,
are more serious than with solid walls, and wall ties play an important part in
securing stability .13
The significance of a defect must be judged in relation to the whole build-
ing-loadings, transverse support, openings and piers-all are important. One
must also keep a sense of proportion-a wall which is out of plumb not more than
25 mm or bulges not more than 12 mm in a normal storey height would not
usually require repairing on structural grounds. The following remedies could be
applied to unstable walls.
(1) Insert tie rods through the building in the thickness of a floor, or at roof
level, anchoring the suspect wall to another wall or structural member that is
sound. This is generally the cheapest and most effective method.
(2) Build a buttress or buttresses keyed into and thrusting against the un-
stable wall and carried to a firm base.
(3) Demolish walling that is bulged or out of plumb and replace by new
brickwork, preferably built in cement: lime: sand mortar, 1:1:6. 13

Cracks
Cracks which do not impair structural stability may appear in brick walls. A dis-
48 Building Maintenance
tinction may be made between cracks that run more or less diagonally, following
horizontal and vertical mortar joints alternately, and those that pass straight
down through vertical joints and the intervening bricks and mortar beds. The
latter form of cracking may involve cutting out bricks. Fine cracks (up to 1.5 mm
wide) in joints between absorbent bricks are usually best left unfilled as they are
unlikely to be harmful. With non-absorbent bricks, it may be advisable to rake
out the defective joints and repoint with 1: 1:6 cement: lime: sand mortar.
Wider cracks (1.5 to 3.5 mm wide) will need to be repaired with the method
varying according to the type of mortar in the existing wall. With weak mortar
joints, the joints are raked out deeply on both sides of the wall, and filled and
pointed with cement:lime:sand mortar not richer than 1:3:12. With strong
mortar joints it is customary to cut out the bricks adjoining the crack and rebond
using a 1:1:6, cement:lime:sand mortar. The same procedure would be adopted
where there are cracked bricks. It is important not to use an excessively strong
mortar which is likely to shrink. Where cracks may continue to widen with
further movement, the cracks are best sealed with an oil-based mastic. 13
When examining cracks, care should be taken to record precisely the direction
of the cracks, whether or not they extend through the wall and whether they
taper off in any direction. Horizontal cracks require very careful consideration
particularly to determine whether the part of the building above the crack has
risen or whether the part below has fallen. Cracks of similar appearance can be
due to different causes and this occurs particularly in the case of parapet walls,
where cracking may be the result of expansion due to frost, thermal movement,
sulphate attack or movement of the adjoining roof slab.

Unsound Materials
Occasionally defective brickwork results from unsound bricks or mortar. Bricks
with a high absorption rate used in parapet or freestanding walls or below damp-
proof course are liable to spalling through periodic saturation and frost action,
entailing replacement with more durable bricks. Mortars may be much stronger
than the bricks with the likelihood ofbricks cracking rather than mortar joints in
the event of movement. Imperfectly slaked lime in a mortar can produce effects
ranging from minor pitting of the mortar to general expansion with deformation
and cracking of the brickwork. 13 Repainting of brickwork may be required after
a period of 25 to 40 years depending on exposure and type of mortar. The old
mortar should be raked out to a depth of at least 20 mm and the mortar used for
repointing should not be appreciably stronger than the original bedding mortar.

Corrosion ofIron and Steel

Iron and steel embedded in brickwork may corrode and cause opening of brick
joints or cracking of brickwork and also rust staining. Ferrous metals embedded
in brickwork should be protected from rusting by coating with bitumen, anti-
corrosion paint or metallic zinc paint, or other suitable method. Remedial action
consists of removing brickwork to expose metal, clean metal, prime with rust-
inhibitive primer and paint with bitumen paint, and when rebuilding take steps
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-// 49
to reduce moisture penetration. 13

Drying Shrinkage and Expansion on Wetting

Concrete or calcium silicate brickwork may crack, especially at window and door
openings, due to excessive drying shrinkage. The risk is minimised by using well-
matured, dry bricks and laying in a weak mortar. Conversely, some clay bricks
undergo slight expansion when first wetted and this can cause movement and
cracking of brickwork. Both of these defects occur early irt the life of the building
and are unlikely to be progressive. 13

Lichens, Moulds and Other Growths

These organisms are rarely destructive but they do produce disfiguring stains on
brickwork and other wall surfaces. Such growths can be prevented or destroyed
by applying one of the toxic washes such as sodium ortho-pentachlorophenate de-
scribed in BRE Digest 139, 16 during a dry spell after partially removing any
thick surface growths. The effective life of the treatment depends on the porosity
of the surface and the extent to which it is washed by rain; periods of one to three
years are common.
Climbing and other plants growing on walls can cause damage to walls, but
much depends on the condition of the wall and the extent to which the growth of
the plants is controlled. Each case has to be decided on its merits, balancing the
effect on the appearance of the building against possible damage. Ivy, with its
aerial roots, can penetrate cracks or open joints and cause damage. Virginia
creeper will not harm a sound wall but plants like climbing roses, jasmine and
honeysuckle are usually supported on wires or trellis and the fixings may cause
damage. All plants should be trimmed to below eaves level and be kept clear of
window or door frames.

Stonework
Defects in Stonework
Limestone is generally one of the least durable of stones and offers least resist-
ance to weather. Sandstones are harder and more durable than limestones and
are more difficult to work and clean. In polluted atmospheres they tend to
blacken more readily. Granite weathers extremely well and is extremely dura-
ble.44 Carved work is often of relatively soft stone. 48

Strength Building stones are normally of adequate strength to carry imposed

loads and rarely need special consideration except for lintels and civil engineering
work. On the other hand fixings of stone claddings have not always proved satis-
factory, particularly where reliance has been placed on mortar pats.

Moisture Resistance Slates and granites absorb very little water but limestones
and sandstones may absorb up to 20 per cent. In addition some sandstones a~e
subject to appreciable moisture movement. Penetration of damp through stone 1s
SO Building Maintenance

unlikely, except in situations such as window mullions or jambs, or from the

catchment surfaces of sills, copings, cornices or string courses. Penetration
through joints is more likely to be a problem, particularly with impervious stones
such as granite. There is a need for cavities and adequate damp-proof courses. 17

Compatibility Damage can result from the use of different types of stone in
direct contact with one another. An acid atmosphere can attack limestones form-
ing soluble salts which if washed on to the surface of sandstones can cause decay.

Durability The durability of a stone is influenced by its chemical composition

and structure and the performance of stones in a particular locality give a good
guide. For example a calcareous stone is liable to attack in a polluted atmosphere
containing sulphur dioxide. The principal form of decay is the formation of a
skin of soluble salts often accompanied by blisters. The salts can result from
decomposition of stone by atmospheric pollutants, materials in contact with
stone, or from groundwater. Most mortars contain alkali salts and need care in
selection. Brickwork containing soluble salts is a possible hazard where natural
stone is backed by brickwork and it should be separated by a suitable water-
proof membrane. Stone may occasionally be damaged by frost action in exposed
situations, such as cornices, string courses and copings.

Repairs to Stonework
In some cases a soft stone in decayed condition can be cut back to expose a new,
sound face. This method cannot easily be adopted where there are elaborate
mouldings and difficulty is experienced in dealing with door and window open-
ings and slender columns. With plain wall surfaces in soft stone it does however
provide a relatively simple method of restoring a stone facade at reasonable cost.
The choice between replacement of damaged blocks with new stone and the ex-
ecution of 'plastic' repairs depends on the extent of the damage and the character
of the building. Plastic repairs skilfully undertaken may permit the original ap-
pearance of the stonework to be secured more quickly and completely, and this
method avoids the disturbance of surrounding stonework. Stone used for replace-
ment purposes should be similar in colour, type and texture to the original.
Where only a limited amount of the original stone is sound it will probably be
advisable to replace all the old stone with new. On occasions it is possible to use
similar sound stone from old buildings that are being demolished.
Plastic repairs are usually less costly than replacement with new stone, but
workmanship and supervision needs to be of the highest standard. The principal
materials used for this purpose are
(1) mortars based on Portland cement, lime and sand possibly 1:2:9 and
often containing pigments or 1:8 cement:sand with a vinsol resin plasticiser;46
(2) mortars based on zinc or magnesium oxychloride cement with sand or
crushed stone aggregate;
(3) crushed stone or sand with an organic binder, often based on cellulose.
Various precautions need to be taken, such as cutting the stone back to a sound
surface, using an adequate thickness of plastic material, obtaining sufficient key
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-// 51
and building up large areas gradually.

Colourless Treatments for Stonework

These treatments are of two categories-water repellents and preservative treat-
ments.
Colourless water-repellent liquids are intended to improve the resistance to
rain penetration of stonework without markedly changing its appearance. They
line the pores and inhibit capillary absorption, but may in the process increase
the degree of penetration through cracks or defective joints. Hence, pointing
should be examined and cracks made good prior to treatment. Soluble salts in a
stone wall could be trapped and cause spalling of the treated surface. Most water
repellents are silicone based in accordance with BS 3826 and there are various
classes for different types of stone. They should be applied to dry surfaces by
brush or spray during dry spells, and they require renewal from time to time. 18
The indiscriminate application of colourless stone-preservatives often results
in disappointment. Some powdering often takes place on the surface of the stone
and the treatment requires periodic renewal. The most common application is
silicone-based masonry water repellents. It is advisable to investigate the per-
formance of preservatives on similar stones exposed under similar conditions
before arranging treatment. Stone decay usually takes place very slowly, so even
after some years an untreated building may look no worse than a treated build-
ing.lB

Cleaning of Stonework
Deposits of dirt spoil the appearance of stonework, retain harmful chemicals and
hide decay. The choice of cleaning method is important as an unsuitable one can
result in damage. Consideration should be given to the type and condition of sur-
face to be cleaned, and the cost, speed and convenience of the cleaning method.

Water spraying softens the deposits of dirt, beginning at the top of the building so
that surplus water runs down and pre-softens dirt below. It is often necessary to
assist the removal of dirt with brushes of bristle and non-ferrous or stainless steel
wire. Abrasive stones may be needed to clean projecting features. It is one of the
cheaper, least harmful but slower methods, well suited for cleaning limestones
and marbles. Poultices of wet powdered clay are sometimes applied. 46

Dry-grit blasting uses abrasive non-siliceous grit blown under pressure to scour
away dirt. Three sizes of nozzle are used according to the nature of the stone-
work. Protection must be provided against dust and re-bounding grit by close
sheeting. It is particularly suitable for sandstones, granites, slates and harder
stones generally, is a fast method but high in cost, and there is a risk of damage to
surfaces being cleaned.

Wet-grit blasting is similar to the previous method except that water is intro-
duced into the air/grit stream, thereby reducing the visible dust. The uses, merits
and demerits are similar to dry-grit blasting.
52 Building Maintenance

Mechanical cleaning makes use of conical-shaped carborundum heads of various

sizes and textures, grinding and buffing discs, and rotary brushes, all used with
power tools. They spin off the dirt and weathered face in one operation. Opera-
tives need to take special precautions and exercise great skill to avoid causing
damage. It is a fast method, useful with hard stones, but the cost is also high.

Chemical cleaning generally makes use of hydrofluoric acid as it leaves no soluble

salts in the stonework, but it is dangerous in inexperienced hands and every pre-
caution must be taken to prevent contamination. Any proprietary chemical
cleaner should desirably be supported by an appropriate Agrement certificate. It
is a moderately fast method at relatively low cost for use with harder stones.

Steam cleaning uses mains water pumped to a flash boiler and the steam gene-
rated is fed to a lance and played on to the stone surface assisted by brushes and
abrasive stones. It has however little to commend it compared with the other
methods, apart from moderate cost. 19

IJpt Claddin&s
Light claddings have been used extensively in the last two decades to form con-
tinuous envelopes or 'curtain walls' suspended from the loadbearing structure or
as panel infillings in the spaces between members of a structural frame. These
components save weight, space and building time, extend the range of archi-
tectural expression and exploit new materials. A danger with new materials is the
absence of adequate experience on which to accurately assess performance.
A light cladding does not require high compressive strength, but must be able
to resist wind loads. Provision must be made for diverting heavy rainwater run-
off from joints, windows and doors. Thermal movement can be extensive and
there may be differential movement between panels and frames. It is desirable to
separate the external waterproof skin from the inner insulating layer, and an in-
tervening ventilated air space helps to lower the temperature of the external skin
in summer and to exclude water and reduce condensation. Joints between panels
need to be flexible as well as watertight; they may be formed of plastic com-
pounds or mastics, mechanical joints or those combining a mechanical outer bar-
rier with an internal airtight seal.

Concrete Panels
Precast concrete cladding may be subject to cracking and crazing which besides
being unsightly may permit water to penetrate to the reinforcement and cause
corrosion. 20 Fixings must be of adequate strength and durability as a number of
failures have been reported. 21 Since rectification of defective joints is expensive,
improved jointing techniques are being developed of which one of the most suc-
cessful is the open drained joint, which reduces the risk of water penetration. 22
Problems arise from variations in dimensions of panels and the need to obtain
jointing which will successfully withstand varying conditions of temperature and
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-// 53

wetness. There is also a need for adequate water shedding drips and projections
to prevent unsightly surface staining. 23

Aluminium Sheeting
The appearance of aluminium as manufactured is satisfactory for many situ-
ations, although dulling of the surface is likely to occur. The original condition
can be preserved by regular washing or abrasive cleaning. The frequency of this
treatment varies from once every few months to once a year, depending on the
composition of the alloy and local atmospheric conditions. Surfaces sheltered
from rain need more frequent cleaning than rain-washed areas to maintain the
same appearance. Various treatments can be adopted for decorative purposes or
to give protection against aggressive conditions, including conversion coatings,
painting and lacquering, stove enamelling, vitreous enamelling and anodising. 24

Plastics
A variety of plastics are used for wall cladding and their main disadvantage is
that of combustibility. Phenolic resin laminates are used extensively for curtain
walling and can be expected to remain structurally sound under normal weather-
ing conditions for upwards of twenty years. The natural surface gloss soon disap-
pears but they can be painted. Others have a decorative melamine formaldehyde
face with good weathering qualities. 25
With glass-fibre reinforced plastics cladding panels, even slight distortion of a
nominally flat surface is noticeable. A textured surface will help to mask it but at
the cost of increased dirt retention. Bright colours are less stable; darker colours
such as greys, browns and near-blacks fade less but have higher surface temper-
atures. Damaged portions can be patched on site but they stand out and it is
better to replace a complete panel. Badly exposed glass fibres must be scrubbed
off before any new surface treatment is applied. Acrylic and polyurethane paints
can be applied to surfaces that have deteriorated. 26

Timber
The most satisfactory forni of weatherboarding is rebated shiplap boarding, pre-
ferably treated with preservative and backed with waterproof paper or felt. Cedar
boarding even where heartwood, tends to weather very badly ifleft untreated, re-
sulting in a streaky appearance. It is advisable to apply a suitable preservative
treatment annually; a linseed oiVparaffin wax mixture containing a fungicide is
satisfactory. Timber weatherboarding fixed vertically is most vulnerable to rot in
the end grain of its lower edges, and water should be allowed to drain freely from
them. BRE digest 18245 gives guidance on natural finishes for exterior timber.

Structural Frames
All large buildings are subject to movement due to compression of foundations,
shrinkage of concrete, thermal movement, variable loadings and wind pressure.
54 Building Maintenance

Cracking of reinforced concrete columns or beams can take the form of surface
cracks, which are influenced by the effective concrete cover to the steel rein-
forcement, and internal cracking where the member is subject to bending. The
latter case is more serious and may result in a breakdown of the adhesion bond
around reinforcing bars. 27
The roof to the assembly hall of the Camden Girls' School collapsed in June
1973. It consisted of prestressed concrete roof beams with insufficient bearing,
insufficient structural cross-tying of the building, inadequacies in prestressing
wires, conversion of high alumina cement and corrosion of continuity rein-
forcement. This incident has highlighted the need for greater care in design and
execution of structural work, periodic inspection of existing structures and the
strengthening of weak points in the manner described in the BRE report. 28
All buildings incorporating high alumina cement in their structures must now
be regarded as suspect following building failures, reports of the Building Re-
search Establishment, and circulars issued by the Department of the Environ-
ment which required local authorities to check every roof or floor member over
5 m in length containing this cement. Conversion or degradation of the cement
hydrate can occur due to the penetration of heat and water, high water/cement
ratio, unsuitable aggregate or high setting temperature.
Steel frames can have defects resulting from a variety of factors such as faulty
material, faulty design, overloading of the structure, bad workmanship, bad
erection and corrosion. Faults resulting from poor workmanship or erection
often cause excessive stresses and could in extreme cases result in failure of the
structure. Typical examples are (a) stanchions that are erected slightly out of
position on their foundations and then subsequently pulled over by floor beams
at first floor level, and (b) grouting under stanchion bases where the full bed of
cement mortar only occurs around the edge of the stanchion base. Periodic in-
spections and the carrying out of remedial works are important.
Weathering steels such as 'Cor-ten' as used on the Wills factory at Hartcliffe,
Bristol are low alloy steels which, although not rustless, are designed to form pro-
tective corrosion when exposed to the wet and dry cycles of normal weather.
They are available in thin metal sheets, plate, rolled and hollow sections. The
uncertain finish, varying from earthy brown to purple-grey depending on con-
ditions and length of exposure, can be very attractive. The run-off of rainwater
from the steel during the initial weathering period will cause rust coloured stains
on other materials, such as concrete, and must be taken into account. Provided
the design problems are successfully overcome, weathering steels should outlast
exposed painted galvanised steel. 42

Dampness Penetration
Causes of Dampness
Damp penetration is one of the most serious defects in buildings. Apart from
causing deterioration of the structure, it can also result in damage to furnishings
and contents and can in severe cases adversely affect the health of occupants.
Dampness may enter a building by a number of different routes and these are
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-II 55

now examined.

Water Introduced during Construction

In building a traditional house several tonnes of water are introduced into the
walls during bricklaying and plastering. The walls often remain damp until a
summer season has passed. As the moisture dries out from inner and outer sur-
faces it is liable to leave a deposit of soluble salts or translucent crystals. A porous
wall with an impervious coating on one surface will cause drying out on the other
surface. Typical moisture contents of some of the more common building
materials are plaster: 0.2 to 1.0 per cent, lightweight concrete: up to 5 per cent;
and timber: 10 to 20 per cent. 29

Penetration through Roofs, Parapets and Chimneys

Tiled roofs may admit fine blown snow and fine rain, particularly in exposed
situations. Both tiles and slates must be laid to an adequate pitch and be securely
fixed. It is wise to provide a generous overhang at eaves. Parapets and chimneys
can collect and deliver water to parts of the building below rooflevel, unless they
have adequate damp-proof courses and flashings. Leakage through flat roofs is
more difficult to trace and needs to be distinguished from condensation.

Penetration through Walls

Penetration occurs most commonly through walls exposed to the prevailing wet
wind or where evaporation is retarded as in light wells. On occasions the fault
stems from excessive wetting from a leaking gutter or downpipe. There must be a
limit to the amount of rain that a solid wall can exclude. In the wetter parts of the
country (for example south-west, western and north-west England, rising to a
maximum in north-west Scotland) and on exposed sites, one-brick thick solid
walls may permit penetration of water. In this connection Lacy has devised
indices of exposure to driving rain. 30 The greatest penetration is likely to occur
through the capillaries between the mortar joints and the walling units. The
more impervious the mortar and the denser the bricks or blocks, the more serious
is the penetration likely to be. Dense renderings can prevent moisture drying out
more effectively than preventing its entry, and this tendency is accentuated in
cracked renderings with moisture penetrating the cracks by capillary action, be-
coming trapped behind the rendering and subsequently drying out on the inner
face of the wall.
Cavity walls when properly detailed and soundly constructed will not permit
penetration of rain. Penetration when it occurs is usually the direct result of
faulty detailing at openings or mortar droppings on wall ties. Finally, disintegra-
tion of brickwork may be caused by the action of sulphates or frost when the
bricks are saturated.

Rising Damp
In older buildings damp may rise up walls due to the lack of damp-proof courses.
56 Building Maintenance
In newer buildings rising damp may occur through a defective damp-proof
course, the bridging of the damp-proof course by a floor screed internally or by
an external rendering, path or earth outside the building, or mortar droppings in
the cavity. Damp may also penetrate a solid floor in the absence of a damp-proof
membrane. These sources are well illustrated in BRE digest 27. 31

Other Causes
Dampness may result from leaks in a plumbing system, although this must not be
confused with condensation on cold pipes.

Curing Rising Damp Penetration

Some causes of rising damp can be dealt with quite cheaply and easily. It may be
possible, for instance, to lower earth, rockeries or paving which extend above the
damp-proof course, or to remove rendering or pointing which bridges the damp-
proof course. Where there is no damp-proof course or where it is defective, more
expensive measures will need to be adopted and these are now described.
Where the wall is stable and not more than 450 mm thick the best method is to
saw a slot in a mortar bed joint, normally just above the floor slab and at least
1 SO mm above outside ground level, and to insert a damp-proof membrane in the
slot, wedging with slate wedges and varying the mortar according to the strength
of the wall. 43 The membrane is normally inserted in 600 mm lengths and both
copper and zinc sheet are used, zinc being suitable where a life not exceeding ten
to fifteen years will suffice. Suitable saws are described in BRE Digest 107. 32 The
ground floor will need to be damp-proofed, and replastering should be delayed
for as long as possible after the damp course is inserted so that soluble salts can
move from the brickwork into the old plaster.36
An alternative process is called electrQ-\,;;motic damp-proofing. Damp rises in
walls from soils by capillarity--osmotic diffusion within the porous substance of
the wall-and by evaporation from its surface. Damp walls are negatively
charged in relation to the underlying soil. The wall acts as an accumulator
which, as long as evaporation losses are replenished from the soil, is virtually on
permanent trickle charge. The electro-osmotic installation consists of 25 mm
holes drilled from the outside with strip electrodes of high conductivity copper
mortared into the drillings and looped into copper strip set into bed joints at
damp-course level along the wall face. Earth electrodes are also installed consist-
ing of 1Smm diameter copper or copper-clad steel rod electrodes driven from
depths of 4 to 6 m at intervals of 10 to 13 m. The object is to provide a bridge be-
tween the wall at damp-course level and the soil, thus destroying the surface ten-
sion and preventing rising moisture. 33
Another process is to inject a siliconate/rubber latex fluid into the lowest
accessible mortar bed joint through drill holes 10 mm in diameter at SO mm
intervals. The siliconate acts as a 'carrier', stabilising the rubber within the wall
and allowing the area to harden off, and so to form an effective damp-proof
membrane. 34 This method could be useful for thick or unstable walls where
damp-proof course insertion might not prove possible.
Another approach would be to reduce the amount of moisture in the wall by
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-II 57

diverting groundwater through land drains or French drains, and possibly to in-
crease evaporation from the wall such as by removing dense external renderings
and defective plaster. These measures would not however remedy a severe case of
rising damp.
Where a building subject to rising damp has only a limited life, a relatively
cheap remedial method is to conceal the rising damp in the walls by battening out
or lining the inside face of the wall to prevent dampness and salts affecting decor-
ations. The lining may consist of wallboard on pressure-impregnated battens or
more likely pitch-impregnated fibre base corrugated to form dovetail keys for
plaster (Newtonite), extending above the present damp level.

Damp-proofing Solid Floors and Dry Rot in Suspended Timber Floors

Dampness may penetrate ground floors and the various remedial measures are
described in chapter 4.

Treatment of Damp Walls due to Rainwater Penetration

The treatment of cavity walls may entail clearing mortar droppings from wall
ties or above the damp-proof course by cutting out bricks in the outer leaf. Alter-
natively it may be necessary to rectify defective damp-proof courses around
window or door openings.
A one-brick thick solid wall is unlikely to withstand severe weather conditions
satisfactorily and it may therefore be necessary to apply a suitable external
finish. The main disadvantage is that the attractive colour and texture of good
brickwork will be lost.
The most common external finish is rendering or roughcast. Rendering may
consist of two coats of Portland cement and sand (1:3 or 1:4), possibly incor-
porating a waterproofing compound, finished with a float to a smooth finish and
often painted with two coats of emulsion or stone paint. This produces a rather
dense coat which is liable to develop hair cracks. Moisture enters the cracks,
becomes trapped behind the rendering and evaporates from the inner surface.
Hence it is advisable to use a rendering of cement:lime:sand in the proportions of
1:1:6 or 1:2:9. These produce porous finishes which absorb waterin wet weather
and permit free evaporation when the weather improves. 35 It will be necessary to
rake out the brick joints to form a key for the rendering.
With roughcast or pebble-dashing there is less risk of the external coat crack-
ing or breaking away from the wall. In roughcast the coarse aggregate, usually
gravel, is mixed into the second coat which is applied to the wall, whereas in
pebble-dashing, the chippings are thrown on to the second coat whilst it is still
'green'. In both cases the appearance is rather unattractive but the need for
periodic decoration is eliminated.
Common brick surfaces can be decorated in a variety of different ways to make
them watertight. Cement paint has good water shedding properties and is avail-
able in a wide range of colours. In more recent times, both emulsion and chlorin-
ated rubber paints have been applied to external brick and block walls with
satisfactory results. Bituminous paints give an almost impervious surface coating
but their use restricts future treatment owing to the bitumen bleeding through
58 Building Maintenance

other applications. Colourless waterproofers can make a wall surface water-

repellent and less porous, without much change in the appearance. The perma-
nence of this protection is variable, depending on the type of waterproofer and
the condition of the wall and the degree of exposure. 18
Vertical tile hanging on the external elevations of buildings can be very at-
tractive if skilfully fixed, but it is expensive. It is extremely durable provided the
fixing battens are pressure-impregnated with preservative. With plain tiling all
tiles must be nailed but a 40 mm lap is sufficient. Angles may be formed with pur-
pose made tiles or be close cut and mitred with soakers, whilst vertical stepped
flashings are usually introduced at abutments to form a watertight joint.
Weatherboarding provides a most attractive finish and may be either of
painted softwood, or of cedar boarding treated periodically with a mixture of lin-
seed oil and paraffin wax. Feather-edge boarding is used extensively but probably
the best results are obtained with ship-lap boarding. The boarding is usually
nailed through a felt backing to vertical impregnated battens. A variety of sheet
claddings are also available in steel, aluminium, asbestos cement and plastics.

Condensation
Nature of Condensation
In years past the major causes of dampness in buildings were rain penetration
and rising ground moisture, but condensation has become an even greater cause
in post-war dwellings. Warm air can hold more water vapour than cold air and
when warm moist air meets a cold surface it is cooled and gives up some of its
moisture as condensation. Air containing a large amount of water vapour has a
higher vapour pressure than drier air and hence moisture from the wetter air dis-
perses towards drier air. This has special significance since (a) a concentration of
moist air as in a kitchen or bathroom readily disperses throughout a dwelling; (b)
moist air at higher pressures inside buildings tries to escape by all available routes
to the outside, not only by normal ventilation exits but also through the structure
when it may condense within it. 37
Condensation takes two main forms--( a) surface condensation arising when
the inner surface of the structure is cooler than room air; (b) interstitial conden-
sation where vapour pressure drives water vapour through slightly porous ma-
terials and then condenses when it reaches colder conditions. The term relative
humidity (rh) expresses as a percentage the ratio between the actual vapour
pressure of an air sample and the total vapour pressure it could sustain at the
same temperature (per cent rh at 0 C). Air is described as saturated when it con-
tains as much water vapour as it can hold. It is then at 100 per cent rh. If moist
air is cooled, a temperature will be reached at which it will become saturated and
below which it can no longer hold all of its moisture. This temperature is the dew
point. 31
The occurrence of condensation depends on a number of factors
(1) the moisture content of incoming air;
(2) the temperature and moisture content of internal air resulting from
how the dwelling is used;
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-[/ 59

(3) the rate of ventilation;

(4) the temperature of room surfaces;
(5) the permeability of the structure;
(6) the temperature within the structure. 37

Causes of Condensation
There are two main reasons for the increase in the frequency and severity of con-
densation-(!) changes in living habits; (2) changes in building techniques.
More housewives now go out to work, resulting in dwellings often being left un-
occupied, unventilated and unheated for much of the day. Moisture-producing
activities such as cooking and clothes washing tend to be concentrated into shor-
ter periods of time. Furthermore, clothes washing and drying are often carried
out within the main dwelling area instead of in a separate washhouse or fairly iso-
lated scullery. Flueless paraffin heaters are used quite extensively for back-
t
ground heating and they emit 1 litres of water vapour for each litre of paraffin
burnt. Furthermore, occupants have become more sensitive to slight dampness in
their dwellings and endeavour to maintain a high standard of decoration, so that
local deterioration assumes greater importance.
Structurally, probably the most significant change is the disappearance of
open fires and air vents which provided valuable ventilation routes. Modern win-
dows reduce ventilation rates and this may be further accentuated by draught-
proofing by occupants. Solid floors without an insulating floor finish or screed
are slow to warm up, and modern wall plasters and paints are less absorptive.
Flat roofs and newer forms of wall construction also need careful design if they
are not to lead to increased condensation.
Surface condensation can lead to unsightly and unpleasant grey-green, black
or brown mould growth which produces many complaints from occupants. On
paint it may show as pink or purple staining. 38 Condensation within the fabric is
slower to show but may be much more serious in the long term.

Diagnosis
Rising damp can be distinguished from condensation by the pattern and pos-
itioning of staining, while moisture penetration through cavity brickwork across
wall ties also shows pattern staining. Gutters and downpipes must be checked for
cracks, defective joints, blockages and the resultant water penetration and over-
flowing. Roofs can also be checked for defects and here again the type and pos-
ition of staining is often a useful guide. Less obvious causes of dampness are
slight weeping at pipe joints and wastes, and pinhole leaks in pipes which are not
run on the surface. 39
Drying out of construction moisture can lead to defects similar to those result-
ing from condensation and it is desirable to allow drying out to finish before
carrying out remedial measures. As this can take up to three years, occupants are
only likely to accept this advice with reluctance.
Condensation frequently occurs as occasional damp patches in cold weather,
although a sudden change from cold to warm humid weather may also cause con-
densation. Apart from investigating the damp conditions, attention should also
60 Building Maintenance
be directed to the heating arrangements, possible use of portable oil or gas-fired
appliances, ventilation, clothes-drying arrangements, means of dispersal of
moisture from kitchen, form of construction of floors, walls and roof, and
whether there is any uninsulated pipework. Measurement of temperatures and
humidities will show whether conditions favourable to condensation exist at the
time of measurement. Suitable charts and useful calculations are contained in
the DOE publication Condensation in dwellings-part 1. 37 A sling or whirling
hygrometer is useful for this purpose and consists of both wet and dry bulb ther-
mometers. 38 Protimeters can also help in indicating the amount of moisture held
beneath the surface of any material. An investigator also needs the capacity to
assess the reliability of information supplied by occupants. 39

Remedial Measures
Remedies normally consist of improved ventilation, insulation or heating, or a
combination of them. If the relative humidity is excessive, the amount of moist-
ure must be reduced or temperatures raised. Alternatively the moisture vapour
should be removed at source, preferably by mechanical means.
Ventilation is normally the cheapest solution and can be very effective provided it
does not result in unpleasant draughts, otherwise it is likely to be rendered inef-
fective by occupants. This is particularly important in kitchens.
Insulation is generally more expensive than ventilation but more acceptable to
the occupier. The main aims are to keep surface temperatures above dew point,
improve U-values and secure better value for money from heating. (U-value is
the rate of transfer of heat through an element of a building.)
Heating is the most effective measure of all but also the most expensive, and may
be opposed by occupants faced with increased running costs. The aim is to raise
air and surface temperatures and so reduce the relative humidity. Living rooms,
even if heated only during evenings, seldom suffer from surface condensation,
while bedrooms, which are frequently very poorly heated, often present prob-
lems.37
A small extractor fan should be adequate to cure condensation in self-
contained kitchens. The price on bulk purchase is comparatively low; installation
is easy, running costs are low and housewives tend to look upon a fan as a social
status appliance. Cooker and washing machine areas need to be within range of
the fan. Ventilated hoods above cookers are valuable in quickly trapping and re-
moving steam from cooking but may be too low and too far from the sink to re-
move steam from this source. Although easily controllable window ventilation
may be of some advantage, opening of windows facing the prevailing wind may
blow moist air to other parts of the dwelling. 38 Larders often receive steam from
kitchens and need good ventilation by high and low level airbricks. Air circula-
tion will be improved if backs of shelves are kept clear of walls. A gloss paint
finish rather than emulsion is a safeguard against mould growth. 39
Condensation should not be serious in bedrooms if the structure has a U-value
of not greater than 1. 7 W/m 2 "C, with reasonable ventilation-one to two air
changes per hour-and where the room temperature is at least 5°C above outside
 Building Maintenance Problems and theirS olution-II 61

air for most of the time. In the case of poor ventilation, heating should be
improved to give 8 to l0°C above outside air in very cold weather. The preva-
lence of condensation in bedrooms is due mainly to lack of adequate heating and
ventilation, and the best remedy is to provide reasonable heating with some night
ventilation. 47 Casual heat gain from other rooms can be important, such as, for
example, a bedroom over a well heated living room. Conversely, a bedroom at
one end of a flat may obtain little benefit from other heating and may also have a
high heat loss if it is an external corner room with two exposed walls. Similarly,
top floor rooms may suffer high heat loss through poorly insulated roofs. 38
Clothes drying cupboards should be heated and well ventilated. Cupboards on
external walls, especially clothes cupboards in poorly heated bedrooms, often
suffer from condensation. They will benefit from high and low level internal
vents and in extreme cases low wattage tubular heaters should be installed.
With bathrooms, rapid ventilation provided by opening windows after bathing
is usually adequate, and particularly so if there is a heated towel rail. Bathroom
doors should be well-fitting and kept closed. Internal bathrooms with fan venti-
lation rarely give trouble if the fan is functioning satisfactorily. Separate WCs
are rarely heated and condensation often occurs on cold fittings. In extreme cases
the provision of a low wattage tubular heater could be considered. In a similar
manner condensation may drip from cold storage cisterns located in cupboards.
A drip tray or insulation at least 12.5 mm thick to the underside of the cistern
should prove effective. Condensation on cold water pipes may also cause drips
and the pipes should ideally be insulated.
There is normally sufficient air movement in halls, passages and stairways to
prevent condensation but additional heat may be needed in extreme cases. Living
rooms which are heated to above 18°C for several hours a day rarely suffer from
serious condensation. If it does occur, it may be caused by an adjacent kitchen
without a fan, very poor ventilation of the living room or poor structural insula-
tion value. In the latter case some background heating for longer periods should
be provided or, alternatively, a low thermal capacity lining should be fixed to the
room face of the structure. 38
The measures necessary to prevent interstitial condensation can be determined
by calculation. Unless there is a vapour barrier on the room side of an external
structure, water vapour will enter and condense when it reaches colder con-
ditions towards the outside. With flat roofs, a vapour check at ceiling level may
be formed of gloss paint or vinyl faced paper. With some composite forms of wal-
ling, a vapour barrier is needed on the inside face, often in the form of polythene
sheeting on impregnated battens with a dry lining, or an insulated lining with an
integral vapour barrier. Anti-condensation paints can be used in certain situ-
ations but their use on a wide scale is rarely justified. Finally, occupants of dwel-
lings should be informed of what is and what is not reasonable so far as living
patterns are concerned. 39

Chimney Problems
Smoky Chimneys
Causes One of the most numerous complaints in the past, and often one of the
62 Building Maintenance
most difficult to cure satisfactorily, is that of smoky chimneys. A normal open
fire requires 115 to 170 m 3 of air per hour for it to burn satisfactorily; air is
drawn into the flue from the room and this must be replaced by further air drawn
in from outside the room. There are many factors or combinations of them which
can prevent chimneys functioning satisfactorily, and the more important ones
are now described.

(1) Blockage of the flue by soot or debris.

(2) Air starvation-insufficient air to carry the smoke into the flue.
(3) Adverse flow conditions resulting from poor design of the fireplace
through which the smoke passes. For example the throat over the fire may be too
large or badly formed, thus reducing the velocity of the smoke and gases; the fire-
place opening may be too large in relation to the flue size (more than six times
area of flue); flue pipe may project too far into flue and so restrict the free flow of
smoke and gases; or the fireplace opening may be too high (possibly 610 mm)
thus assisting smoke to enter the room.
(4) Unsuitable size of flue; flues larger than 230 mm square may cause
smokiness because they never really get warm.
(5) Air leaks into flue through defective brick joints and cracked parging,
cooling gases and reducing draught.
(6) Poorly constructed flue--offset too low, bend too abrupt or traversing
length too long-resulting in poor chimney draught and a smoky fire.
(7) Unsuitable chimney pot-possibly round base pot on a square flue
causing obstruction to flow.
(8) Steady downdraught due to chimney top being in a high pressure zone,
such as a chimney pot lower than a nearby ridge and on the windward side.
(9) Downdraught due to doors, windows or ventilators being in a low
pressure zone, occurring mainly with short chimneys serving inset open fires in
bungalows and the top two storeys ofblocks of flats.
(10) Intermittent downdraught caused by downward striking wind cur-
rents near chimney tops where there are higher buildings, trees or hillsides
nearby. 40

Remedies
The various remedial works are now described.
(1) Ensure that the chimney has been swept--excessive quantities of soot
may result from the use of unsuitable fuel-and that the flue is free from debris
by lowering a metal coring ball down the flue.
(2) Open the room door or window. If smoke ceases to enter the room the
trouble is probably due to air starvation and the removal of draughtproofing
and/or provision of air inlets in the floor are likely to cure the problem.
(3) Where the throat is too large, a thin sheet of metal can be wedged across
the front of the throat reducing the entry aperture to about 100 x 25 0 mm. If this
produces an improvement, an adjustable throat restrictor can be fitted. Where
the fireplace opening is too high, place a thin piece of metal or cardboard, about
150 mm high, across the top of the opening to reduce its height to 510 to 560 mm.
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-/] 63

If smoking ceases, a permanent metal canopy can be installed.

(4) Excessively large brick flues can be lined with fireclay or refractory
concrete pipes with spigot and socket or rebated joints.
(5) A flame of a lighted candle will be drawn in by an air leak in a flue and
defects in the chimney can be located by a 'smoke bomb test'. Defective joints are
made good with asbestos rope dressed with fire cement.
(6) The run of a flue can be checked with a chimney sweep's rods. In bad
cases, the chimney breast is opened up and the faulty section rebuilt.
(7) An unsatisfactory round base pot can be replaced with a square base
pot.
(8) With steady downdraught due to the chimney pot being in a high
pressure zone, a door or window opened on the windward side will probably bal-
ance the pressure and restore updraught. The chimney can be extended tempor-
arily with sheet metal pipes and, if satisfactory, the chimney stack can then be
raised.
(9) By producing sufficient smoke in the room, the movement of air can be
traced and in this instance it will show air being drawn out of the room. Remedies
include a draught-inducing cowl, a throat restrictor, or finally an openable room
heater or a free-standing convector fire.
(10) With interm,ittent downdraught, the usual remedy is to fit a draught-
inducing cowl or a 'dovecote', consisting of a concrete capping at the top of the
chimney supported by small piers at each corner and gaps in between. 40

Domestic Boiler Chimneys

Many pre-war dwellings were built with parged brick flues serving solid fuel boi-
lers, and sulphates, acids and water vapour forming the products of combustion
have often attacked the parging and brick joints. This has resulted in staining of
brickwork and decorations, distortion and cracking of brickwork in the chimney,
and general expansion of the brickwork sometimes allowing the pot to sink into
the chimney stack. Furthermore, these chimneys were often built alongside
external walls with long lengths of exposed chimney which aggravated conden-
sation problems.
All defective brickwork must be cut out and replaced with new materials, and
the flue needs lining, usually either with a flexible metal lining or an in situ light-
weight concrete lining. The flexible metal linings are made of stainless steel, but
their use is restricted to oil and gas-fired flues, and they are pulled down existing
flues by means of a cord attached to a temporary tapered plug. The top of the
lining is secured by a sealing plate bedded upon the stack upon which the ter-
minal construction is built. The air space between the lining and the chimney
fabric can be filled with loose insulation.
Lightweight concrete linings can be cast in situ using a temporary inflatable
rubber core centred by metal spacers to form the flue. The bottom is sealed with a
metal plate and the annular space around the rubber core filled by pumping
lightweight concrete through a hose. When the concrete has set, the tube is
deflated and removed.
Clay, refractory concrete and asbestos cement rigid pipe linings are only really
feasible where the existing chimneys are in straight runs.
64 Building Maintenance
New brickwork must be allowed to dry out before plastering. Brick joints
should be raked out to a depth of at least 15 mm, and the plaster often consists of
cement and sand (1:3) undercoat finished with a suitable gypsum plaster. Where
staining is severe, adhesive-backed metal foil or foil-backed plasterboard coated
with bitumen paint may be used to enclose the brickwork prior to plastering.41

Closing Fireplace Openings

Occupiers of dwellings sometimes request permission to block up fireplace open-
ings in pre-war houses. A number of precautions need to be taken to avoid later
trouble.
(1) The chimney must first be swept, as if soot is left in the flue it will
become damp and the salts and tarry matter it contains may pass through the
brickwork and cause stains and damp patches on the chimney breast.
(2) An unused flue provides an easy means of access for rainwater, and it is
advisable to provide some form of capping, such as a half-round ridge tile, over
the head of the chimney to prevent direct entry of rain.
(3) Ventilation is needed and so the flue should not be sealed at either top
or bottom, and a ventilator should be provided in the blocked up opening.
(4) Where the opening is blocked up with bricks or blocks and plastered
over, this entails the use of a large quantity of water, and the surface should not
be decorated until it has had ample time to dry out. The use of sheet materials
will overcome this difficulty and they should preferably be easily removable to
allow for the extraction of any debris that may accumulate behind them.

References
1 -The Building Regulations 1972, SINo. 317 (H.M.S.O., 1972).
2 F. Entwhistle, 'Building Failure: Why is it a Modern Phenomenon?,' Build-
ing Maintenance, 7.3 (1973).
3 T. W. Parker, 'The Technology of Maintenance,' Building Research Estab-
lishment. Design Series Current Paper 53 (H.M.S.O., 1967).
4 D. W. Cheetham, 'Defects in Modern Buildings,' Building (2 November
1973).
5 -Building Research Establishment Digests 164, 165: Clay Brickwork: 1
and 2. (H.M.S.O., 1974).
6 -Building Research Establishment Digest 157: Calcium Silicate (Sand-
lime, Flintlime) Brickwork (H.M.S.O., 1973).
7 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 65: Calcium Silicate
Bricks (H.M.S.O., 1970).
8 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 16: Mortars for Brick-
work andBlockwork (H.M.S.O., 1970).
9 -Building Research Establishment Digest 58 (second series): Mortars for
jointing (H.M.S.O., 1965).
10 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 75: Efflorescence and
Stains on Brickwork (H.M.S.O., 1972).
11 -Building Research Establishment Digest 89 (second series): Sulphate
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-If 65
Attack on Brickwork. (H.M.S.O., 1968).
12 W. M. Kirkpatrick, 'A Case of Sulphate Attack in a Private House,' Civil
Engineering and Public Works Review (September 1967).
13 -Building Research Establishment Digest 4 (second series): Repairing
Brickwork (H.M.S.O., 1962).
14 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 8: Bricklaying in Cold
Weather (H.M.S.O., 1972).
15 -Building Research Establishment Digest 61 (second series): Strength of
Brickwork, Blockwork and Concrete Walls (H.M.S.O., 1965).
16 - Building Research Establishment Digest 139: Control of Lichens,
Moulds and Similar Growths (H.M.S.O., 1972).
17 National Building Agency/Building Commodity File, 'Stone: Natural,'
Building(15 March 1974).
18 -Building Research Establishment Digest 125: Colourless Treatments for
Masonry (H.M.S.O., 1971).
19 -Building Research Establishment Digest 113: Cleaning External Sur-
faces of Buildings (H.M.S.O., 1970).
20 -Building Research Establishment Digests 45, 46 (second series): Design
and Appearance (H.M.S.O., 1964).
21 -Construction Industry Research and Information Association Bulletin
63: Serviceability of Buildings (C.I.R.I.A., 1973).
22 -Building Research Establishment Digest 85 (second series): Joints Be-
tween Concrete Wall Panels: Open Drained Joints (H.M.S.O., 1967).
23 B. A. Speight, 'Maintenance in Relation to Design,' The Chartered Sur-
veyor(October 1968).
24 -Building Research Establishment Digest 30 (second series): Aluminium
in Building-2: Finishes (H.M.S.O., 1963).
25 - Building Research Establishment Digest 103: Plastics for Building
(H.M.S.O., 1957).
26 - Building Research Establishment Digest 161: Reinforced Plastics
Cladding Panels (H.M.S.O., 1974).
27 J. M. Illston and R. F. Stevens, BRE Current Paper 14/73: Long-term
Cracking in Reinforced Concrete Beams (H.M.S.O., 1973).
28 Building Maintenance Cost Information Service, Research and Develop-
ment paper 3a: Report of the Roof Collapse at Camden Girls' School
(R.I.C.S., 1973).
29 -Building Research Establishment Digest 33: The Causes of Dampness in
Buildings (H.M.S.O., 1951).
30 R. E. Lacy, Building Research Establishment Digest 127: An Index of
Exposure to Driving Rain (H.M.S.O., 1971).
31 - Building Research Establishment Digest 27 (second series): Rising
Damp in Walls (H.M.S.O., 1962).
32 -Building Research Establishment Digest 107: Damp-Proof Course In-
sertion (H.M.S.O., 1958).
33 Rentokil, Damp-proofing (undated).
34 H. Hurst, 'A Method of Damp-proofing Masonry by Injecting a Latex/
Siliconate Fluid,' Civil Engineering (September 1962).
35 -Building Research Establishment Digest 41: The Treatment of Damp
66 Building Maintenance

Walls (H.M.S.O., 1952).

36 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 58: Inserting a Damp-
proof Course (H.M.S.O., 1972).
37 Department of the Environment, Condensation in Dwellings, part 1: A
Design Guide (H.M.S.O., 1970).
38 Department of the Environment, Condensation in Dwellings, part 2: Reme-
dial Measures (H.M.S.O., 1971).
39 W. E. Humphreys, 'Condensation Troubles--Causes and Cures,' Second
National Building Maintenance Conference, London, 1969 (Department of
the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1970).
40 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 44: Curing Smoky Chim-
neys (H.M.S.O., 1972).
41 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 50: Chimneys for Dom-
estic Boilers (H.M.S.O., 1971 ).
42 Department of the Environment, 'Weathering Steels,' DOE Construction,
4 (H.M.S.O., 1972).
43 -'Installing Damp-proof Courses,' National Builder (February 1974).
44 R. Withers, 'Regular Inspection Will Prevent Major Fabric Repairs,' Build-
ing Maintenance (July/August 1974).
45 - Building Research Establishment Digest 182: Natural Finishes for
Exterior Timber (H.M.S.O., 1975).
46 -Building Research Establishment Digest 177: Decay and Conservation
of Stone Masonry (H.M.S.O., 1975).
47 - Building Research Establishment Digest 176: Failure Patterns and
Implications (H.M.S.O., 1975).
48 -'Maintenance Technical Study 2: Stone Handbook', Architects' J. (16
July 1975).
4. BUILDING MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTION-Ill
Timbers, Floors, Roofs, Sound and Thermal Insulation, and Vibration

Timber Defects
Nature of Timber
Botanically trees are grouped into two classifications
(1) Broad leaved trees (hardwoods) are generally hard, tough and dark-
coloured with acid, aromatic or even poisonous secretions, although not all hard-
woods are hard. Typical examples of hardwoods are oak, teak, mahogany,
walnut and elm.
(2) Needle leaved trees (softwoods) are coniferous with cone-shaped seed
vessels and narrow, needle-shaped leaves. They are usually elastic and easy to
work, and have resinous or sweet secretions. Some softwoods such as pitch pine
are quite hard. Typical examples of softwoods are European redwood, yellow
pine, Douglas fir, whitewood and Canadian spruce.
Trees are generally felled between mid-October and mid-January and are
converted into suitably sized timbers by using a variety of sawing techniques.
The 'quartering' method is the most expensive but shows the grain to best ad-
vantage, while the 'slash' method is extremely economical. The 'through and
through' method, with all cuts parallel, reduces waste to a minimum but some
boards will twist on shrinking.

Seasoning ofTimber
In 'green' timber large quantities of free water are present in the cell cavities
and the cell walls are also saturated. Seasoning consists of drying out the free
water and some of the water from the cell walls, which on withdrawal causes
the timber to shrink, with the object of reducing the moisture content to a level
consistent with the humidity of the air in which the timber will be placed.48 The
importance of seasoning can scarcely be exaggerated. It is vital that timber is
dried to an appropriate moisture content,49 and care in drying will be wasted
unless the timber is adequately protected in transit and storage and after fixing
in a wet building. 1 There are two principal methods of seasoning timber.
(1) Air seasoning whereby the 'green' timber is stacked with laths or
67
68 Building Maintenance

'stickers' between the timbers to allow the passage of air and to assist in the
evaporation of moisture from the timber. A suitable roof is needed to protect the
timber from sun and rain. Air seasoning is unlikely to reduce the moisture con-
tent below 17 per cent even under ideal conditions and may take up to 2 years.
Timber used internally in centrally heated buildings should not have a moisture
content exceeding 10 per cent to prevent shrinkage and warping.
(2) Kiln seasoning is normally carried out in a forced draught compartment
kiln, in which the air is heated by steam pipes and humidified by water sprays or
steam jets. The temperature, degree of humidity and rate of air flow are all con-
trolled from outside the kiln.

Preseroation of Timber
Few timbers are resistant to decay or insect attack for long periods of time, and in
many cases the length of life can be much increased by preservative treatment.
The principal protective liquids are toxic oils, such as coal tar creosote; water
soluble salts, such as sodium fluoride and magnesium-silico fluoride which are
cleaner than toxic oils and odourless; and solvent type preservatives which con-
sist of toxic compounds dissolved in a solvent such as naphtha.
Preservatives can be applied by non-pressure methods such as brush appli-
cation, spraying, cold submersion, hot submersion or hot and cold steeping. In
the latter process the timber is placed in a tank of preservative, heated to 95°C
expelling air from the cells or pores of the timber; on cooling preservative is
drawn into the pores. For lasting preservation, a pressure method should be used.
In the 'full cell' process, the timber is placed in a closed cylinder and a partial vac-
uum applied to draw out air from the cells, hot preservative admitted, an air
pressure of0.7N/mm2 applied for 2 hours and a partial vacuum re-applied tore-
move excess liquid. The 'open cell' process is cleaner and more economical and a
deeper penetration can be obtained with only limited excess preservative. The
timber is subjected to a pressure of 0.28N/mm2, the preservative admitted and a
higher pressure applied causing the liquid to penetrate the timber and compress
air in the cells. When the timber is extracted, the air trapped in the cells forces out
excess liquid leaving the cells empty but impregnating the cell walls.
A survey of damage to timber by insects and decay, other than dry rot, in hous-
ing showed an incidence of0.6 per cent. 2 The 1967 prices for dry rot treatments
in the 1900-09 agegrouprangedfrom£20 to £1960, while those in the 1930-39
group varied between £40 and £440.
Present day experience contradicts the extreme view that preservation treat-
ment of building timber is never justified. The annual expenditure of some £70m
on remedial treatment and consequent repair following insect and fungal attack
indicates the size of the problem, and newer and non-traditional forms of con-
struction generate additional maintenance problems. Recent trends of lower
timber quality, higher timber prices and increased costs of remedial and repair
work in relation to initial costs, strengthen the economic case for timber preserv-
ation. Preservation forms a second defence if the protection afforded by design
and maintenance proves inadequate. 3
Some timber components justify treatment more than others. Where timber is
exposed to a continually hazardous environment unprotected by design, the
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-III 69
Building Regulations require that it be treated, and where experience shows a
high risk of failure in loadbearing structures, preservation is essential, especially
in such cases as joists, firring and decking of sealed flat roofs. Furthermore,
preservation is desirable where there is a high risk of failure through faults
in design or workmanship and where remedy is difficult and expensive, as in the
cases of timbers in pitched roofs, where there is a high risk of condensation, and
loadbearing concealed frames of external walls. Preservation is clearly optional
where there is a low risk of attack or where remedial action or replacement is
simple, as in the case of timbers in normal pitched roofs and unsealed flat roofs of
unoccupied buildings, and ground floor joists. Preservation of floor boards, skirt-
ing boards and internal joinery is unnecessary. 3

Timber Defects and their Rectification

The strength and usefulness of timber can be affected by a wide variety of
defects, some of which can occur during natural growth, others during seasoning
or manufacture, while others result from attack by fungi or insects. The principal
defects are listed and described, with some definitions extracted from BS 56 5. 4

A. Defects Arising from Natural Causes

(1) Knots. These are portions of branches enclosed in the wood by the
natural growth of the tree; they affect the strength of the timber as they cause a
deviation of the grain and may leave a hole. This is particularly important where
they occur in critical parts of structural timbers subject to high tension, and it is
sometimes helpful to turn the timber so that the defect is on the compression
edge. Large knots on edges or arrises which penetrate deeply into structural tim-
bers are particularly harmful. 5 There are several types of knot. A sound knot is
one free from decay, solid across its face and at least as hard as the surrounding
wood. A dead knot has its fibres interwoven with those of the surrounding wood
to an extent ofless than one-quarter of the cross-sectional perimeter; a loose knot
is a dead knot not held firmly in place. Rind gall is a surface wound that has been
enclosed by the growth of the tree.
(2) Shakes. These consist of a separation of fibres along the grain due to
stresses developing in the standing tree, or during felling or seasoning. A cross
shake occurs in cross-grained timber following the grain; a heart shake is a radial
shake originating at the heart; a ring or cup shake follows a growth ring; and a
star shake consists of a number of heart shakes resembling a star.
(3) Bark pocket. Bark in a pocket associated with a knot which has been
partially or wholly enclosed by the growth of the tree (inbark or ingrown bark).
(4) Deadwood. Timber produced from dead standing trees.
(5) Resin pocket. Cavities in timber containing liquid resin (pitch pocket or
gum pocket).

B. Defects due Mainly to Seasoning

(1) Check. A separation of fibres along the grain forming a crack or fissure
in the timber, not extending through the piece from one surface to another.
70 Building Maintenance
(2) Ribbing. A more or less regular corrugation of the surface of the timber
caused by differential shrinkage of spring wood and summer wood (crimping).
(3) Split. A separation of fibres along the grain, forming a crack or fissure
that extends through the piece from one surface to another.
(4) Warp. A distortion in converted timber causing departure from its orig-
inal plane. Cupping is a curvature occurring in the cross-section of a piece and a
bow is a curvature of a piece of timber in the direction of its length.

C. Defects due to Manufacture (Including Conversion)

(1) Chipped grain. The breaking away ofthe wood below the finished sur-
face by the action of a cutter or other tool.
(2) Imperfect manufacture. Any defect, blemish or imperfection incidental
to the conversion or machining of timber, such as a variation in sawing, torn
grain, chipped grain or cutter marks.
(3) Torn grain. Tearing of the wood below the finished surface by the
action of a cutter or other tool.
(4) Waney edge. This is the original rounded surface of a tree remaining on
a piece of converted timber.

D. FungalAttack
(1) Fungal decay. This is decomposition of timber caused by fungi and
other micro-organisms, resulting in softening, progressive loss of strength and
weight and often a change of texture or colour. Fungi are living plants andre-
quire food supply, moisture, oxygen and a suitable temperature. A fungus is
made up of cells called hyphae and a mass of hyphae is termed mycelium. It also
contains fruit bodies within which very fine spores are formed. When timber is
infected by spores being blown on to it, hyphae are then formed which penetrate
the timber and break down the wood as food by means of enzymes. BRE Techni-
cal Note 536 distinguishes two main forms of decay in wood according to the
colour of the decayed timber (brown rots and white rots).
(2) Dote. The early stages of decay are characterised by bleached or dis-
coloured streaks or patches in wood, the general texture remaining more or less
unchanged. This defect is also known as doaty, dosy, dozy and foxy.
(3) Dry rot. This is a serious form of timber decay caused by a fungus,
Merulius lacrymans. The fungus develops from red-coloured spores, which can
be carried by wind, animals or insects, and throw out minute hollow white silky
threads (hyphae). The fungus also produces grey-coloured strands up to 5 mm
diameter which can travel considerable distances and penetrate brick walls
through mortar joints. The strands throw off hyphae whenever they meet timber
and carry the water supply for digestion of the timber, which becomes friable,
powdery and dull brown in colour, accompanied by a distinctive mushroom-like
smell. 7 The fungus needs a source of damp timber with a moisture content above
20 per cent, oxygen, and a temperature between freezing point and blood heat.
To eradicate an outbreak of dry rot, all affected timber and timber for 600 mm
beyond the rotten parts must be cut away and burnt on the site. Surrounding
masonry must be sterilised, preferably with a suitable fungicide, such as sodium
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-Ill 71

orthophenylphenate or sodium pentachlorophenate, saturating badly infected

walls with fungicide. Ends of sound timber and all replacement timber must be
treated with a suitable preservative, preferably by applying three coats. The
cause of the outbreak must be established and rectified, usually by preventing
damp penetration and improving ventilation. The most vulnerable locations are
cellars, inadequately ventilated floors, ends of timbers built into walls, backs of
joinery fixed to walls and beneath sanitary appliances. The design of timber
floors to prevent dry rot is covered in BRE Digest 18 .8 •9
Dry rot frequently starts near a damp wall, behind woodwork or under a floor.
Look particularly for irregularities or waviness in the surface of panelling, skir-
tings, window linings or other woodwork, as they may be caused by dry rot. A
knife blade will easily penetrate and be withdrawn from infected timber. At-
tacked wood becomes light in weight, crumbles under the fingers, has a dull
brown colour and often breaks up into pieces by splitting along and across the
grain. Sometimes the silky grey or white fruiting bodies can be seen on skirting
boards, panelling and even outside walls near ventilators. Spore dust in the form
of reddish-brown powder may penetrate between floor boards or cracks in wood-
work, and the distinctive smell may also be detected.
The causes of dampness must be positively established and rectified. Typical
sources of dampness are buried or obstructed airbricks, flower beds or rockeries
formed against walls above damp-proof course, blocked or defective gutters,
downpipes and gullies, broken pavement lights and windows, badly fitting cellar
flaps, missing weatherboarding, damaged flashings, soakers and valleys, dis-
lodged pointing, cracked masonry and plumbing leaks. 9 Regular inspections of
existing buildings should prevent these defects occurring for more than short
periods.
(4) Coniophora cerebella (cellar fungus). This is a fungus which attacks
wet timber and is mainly found in badly ventilated basements and bathrooms.
The strands are never thicker than fine twine and soon become dark brown or
almost black. The fruit body consists of an irregular, thin skin, olive green when
fresh, but soon darkening to dull olive brown. The spores are somewhat plumper
than those of merulis lacrymans and are pale olive brown in colour. 7
(5) Wet rot. Originally this was defined as chemical decomposition gener-
ally arising from alternate wet and dry conditions, as occur with timber fencing
posts at ground level. The decay may be accelerated by fungus attack. More re-
cently the term has been applied to fungus attacks other than dry rot, that is,
Coniophora cerebella, Poria vaillantii (white strands) and Paxillus panuoides
(pale yellow strands and reddish-brown wood).
A comparison of the characteristic features of the three most important
species of wood-rotting fungi are listed in table 4.1.

E. InsectAttack
The life cycle of an insect is in four stages: the egg, the larva, the pupa and the
adult. The egg is laid on the surface of the timber in a crack or crevice and the
larva when hatched bores into the wood which provides its foed. The larva
makes a special chamber near the surface and then changes to a pupa. Finally it
 Table 4.1 Charau:teristics of Wood-rotting Fuagi
Type Usual effect Strings on Other growths
of on the the surface of on the surface
decay Fungus wood the wood of the wood Fruit-bodies

Merulius lacrymans Rotted wood shrinks Strinss grey, In damp, dark places, Fleshy, soft, but
and becomes split up someumes as thick as soft wh1te cushions or rather tough; shaped
into cubical pieces by lead pencil, becoming silky tassels, in drier like pancakes or
deep cross cracking. brittle when dried. places, thick silver- brackets. Spore-
Generally occurs in grey sheets or skins bearing surface yellow
damp, not wet usually showing to red brown with
Dry situations. Spore patches of lemon wide pores or
Rot dust is a light rust yellow and tinges of labyrinthine ridges
colour, later reddish lilac. and furrows. Margin
brown may be first in- white.
dication.
Poria fJQillantii Rot similar but less Strings white or White or cream- Shaped like sheets or
widespread than that whitish, seldom coloured sheets and plates, white in colour.
(and other related produced by Merulius. thicker than stout growths, never show- Spore-bearing sur-
species of Poria) Various species of twine, remaining flexi- ing coloration. face, white, showing
Poria occur in houses, ble when dried. numerous minute
all requiring rather pores.
more moisture than
Merulius.
Wet
Rot Coniophora cerebella Causes darkening Strings slender, usual- Occasionally very thin Rarely found in
Longitudinal cracking ly thread-like, at first skin-like growths. buildings. Sheet-like
often predominates. yellowish, soon Yellowish or dark in shape. Spore-
Cross cracks that form becoming deep brown brown (or greyish bearing surface olive
are often covered up or nearly black white under imper- brown, bearing spores
by a thin surface skin vious floor coverings). on small rounded
of relatively sound lumps or pimples.
wood. Usually found
in very damp
situations, especially
cellars, solid floors and
roofs.
Often there are little or no visible growths of
fungus on the surface of the wood.
Source: BRE Technical Note 44'
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-III 73
develops into the adult insect and bores its way out through the surface. The
principal wood-boring insects are as follows.
(1) Common furniture beetle or wood worm. This is about 2.5 to 5 mm
long and dark brown in colour. Eggs are laid during June to August and larvae
subsequently bore into the timber for a year or two, before the beetle emerges,
chiefly in June and July leaving a 1 to 2 mm diameter exit hole. 10 They prefer old
timber, both hardwood and softwood; plywood made from birch or alder and
bonded with animal glues is particularly susceptible. Dampness and incipient
decay in timber encourages attack.
(2) Death watch beetle is about 6 to 9 mm long, chocolate brown in colour
and attacks mainly hardwood, especially in large structural timbers (3 mm diam-
eter holes). 12
(3) Lyctus powder-post beetle is about 5 mm long and reddish-brown in
colour. Sapwood of new hardwood is particularly vulnerable (1 to 3 mm diam-
eter holes).
(4) House longhorn beetle is about 15 mm long and is generally brown or
black in colour. It is a most destructive pest on the Continent but, except in some
parts of Surrey, is rare in this country. This beetle favours sapwood of new soft-
wood, especially in roof spaces. Exit holes may vary from 3 to 10 mm in diameter.
Table 4.2lists the main characteristics of the principal wood-boring beetles to
aid distinguishing between them.

Prevention and detection of insect attack Timber can be protected against all
timber-boring beetles, as well as rot, by treating with a preservative before use. In
certain districts where the house longhorn beetle is prevalent, this is a require-
ment of the Building Regulations.
Early detection of insect attack can reduce both expense and inconvenience,
for once established in a building it can spread rapidly. Ideally, timber and furni-
ture should be inspected annually, preferably during warm summer weather
when the beetles are most likely to be active, looking particularly for exit holes
and small piles of powdery sawdust-like material (frass) emitted from workings.
Particular attention should be directed to damp or inconspicuous places such as
under stairs, in roof spaces, under sanitary fitments, backs and undersides of fur-
niture and the like. Dampness, incipient decay and excessive sapwood all render
timber more susceptible to attack.

Treatment of infested timber There are many proprietary preparations avail-

able for treating infested timber, most of which contain chemicals such as
chlorinated naphthalenes, metallic naphthenates and pentrachlorophenol.
Insecticides brushed over the surface and worked into all cracks and crevices
during spring and early summer will destroy eggs and newly-hatched larvae, but
may not reach larvae located deeper in the timber. A single thorough application
normally eradicates common furniture beetle in softwood, but death-watch
beetle in oak may need several applications.
In furniture, interior joinery and small timber sections, an injector should be
inserted into exit holes at about 150 mm centres and all timber in the vicinity not
already painted, varnished or polished should be brushed with insecticide. Care
74 BuildingMaintenance
should be taken to penetrate all open joints, splits and shakes and to treat all
inconspicuous areas. This treatment should be repeated at least once each year
during the months when beetles are active until there is no sign of continued ac-
tivity.

Table 4.2 Characteristics of some of the Commoner Wood-Boring Beetles

Insect Timbers attacked Exit holes Bore dust

Common Seasoned hardwoods Circular 1 to 2 mm Ellipsoidal pellets

furniture and softwoods, sound diameter
beetle or decayed. Usually
sapwood only.
Death-watch Old decayed Circular 3 mm Coarse, bun-shaped
beetle hardwoods; softwoods approximate diameter pellets
rarely. Heartwood
and sapwood.

Lyctus Seasoned and partly Circular 1 to 3 mm Fine talcum-like

powder-post seasoned sound diameter powder
beetle hardwoods. Usually
sapwood only but
emergence may occur
through heartwood.
House Seasoned sound Oval 10 x 5 mm Larger compact
longhorn softwoods, usually diameter approx- cylindrical pellets and
beetle sapwood only, es- imately powder
pecially in roof spaces.
Ambrosia Fresh, unseasoned Circular (entrance Absent, but tunnels
(pinhole hardwoods and holes). Variable in darkly stained, the
borer) softwoods. Heartwood diameter according to stain sometimes
beetles and sapwood. species of insect but spreading into sur-
usually 1 to 3 mm rounding wood
Wood-boring Hardwoods and Oval or slit-shaped Ellipsoidal pellets
weevils softwoods, decayed or with a ragged edge, of smaller than those
in very damp varying size, 0.5 to 1.5 produced by full-
situations mm wide grown common furn-
iture beetle larvae
Source: BRE Technical Note 4710

Structural timbers under attack but not seriously weakened should be thor-
oughly brushed or sprayed. Holes, 3 to Smm diameter, should be drilled at
vulnerable points, such as connections of members or where they are built into
walls, for the injection of insecticide, particularly in the case of death-watch
beetle attack. Structural timbers which have been seriously weakened by infesta-
tion should be removed and immediately burnt. Replacement timber must be
suitably impregnated. Gloves should be worn when applying insecticide and care
taken not to inhale the fumes; ventilation should be good, smoking and naked
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-III 75

lights avoided. 11

Floors
Suspended Timber Floors
The most serious defect that is likely to occur in a suspended timber ground floor
is an outbreak of dry rot. As described earlier in the chapter this would entail the
removal and destruction of all infected timber and also adjoining timber, to-
gether with the treatment of infected masonry. It may be necessary to improve
ventilation by inserting new airbricks in external walls below floor level, prefer-
ably 215 x 140 mm terracotta at 3m centres. Cast iron ventilators will corrode
unless painted regularly. Airbricks are needed on all walls to avoid stagnant cor-
ners and where suspended floors adjoin solid ones, it is advisable to lay air ducts
under the solid floor. Sleeper walls under suspended floors must be honeycombed
to permit a free flow of air under the timber floor. Internal partition walls will
also need openings in them below floor level.
Any sources of damp penetration must also be dealt with, such as the replace-
ment of defective damp-proof courses and lowering of outside ground or paved
levels where they adjoin or extend above damp-proof course. All new timbers
must be impregnated and it is advisable to treat existing timbers that are being
retained. Where a defective suspended timber floor is constructed below ground
level, the best remedy is probably to replace it with a solid floor incorporating a
suitable waterproof membrane. In old buildings there may be no concrete over-
site or damp-proof courses and full remedial work could be very expensive. A sus-
pended timber floor should not move perceptibly when walked upon nor should
furniture or ornaments placed on them vibrate. These deficiencies can result
from inadequately sized joists or insufficient support to or fixing of the joists.
Where floorboards have 'curled' across the grain resulting in wide open joints
( 1.5 mm or more gap), the fault may be due to various causes
(1) use of unsuitable, wet or insufficiently seasoned timber;
(2) boards insufficiently cramped on laying;
(3) insufficient nailing.
A large gap between the bottom edge of a skirting and floor boards generally
stems from excessive shrinkage, both in the floor and the skirting. The squeaking
of floorboards causes annoyance to occupiers and is usually due to loose fixing or
the accidental contact of nails or screws with other metal components. Loose
boards should be fixed more securely by nailing or screwing. In industrial build-
ings, badly worn floorboards may be lined with good quality plywood.
Joists to upper floors are rarely attacked by dry rot but outbreaks can occur in
damp cupboards or other enclosed spaces or through leaks in rainwater, waste or
service pipes. More common faults in upper timber floors are sagging and
springiness resulting from overloading, inadequate size of joists or lack of strutting.
Herringbone strutting should be provided to all floors with spans exceeding 3 m
to stiffen the joists. A slightly springy upper floor can be strengthened by taking
up floorboards and inserting solid strutting between joists, with each row of
strutting wedged against the wall at each end. Another approach is to bolt new
76 Building Maintenance
joists alongside existing ones, keeping the new joists shallower and packing at
their ends to avoid disturbing the ceiling. An old floor can be strengthened by
screwing chipboard slabs over the existing floorboards.

Solid Floors
There is always some risk of rising damp with concrete floor slabs supported on
the ground. It is important with new floors to insert an effective damp-proof
membrane to prevent possible damage to the floor finish. Different floor finishes
offer varying degrees of resistance to dampness. Pitchmastic and mastic asphalt
flooring both provide an effective damp-proof membrane in themselves, while
concrete, terrazzo and clay tiles transmit rising damp without dimensional, ma-
terial or adhesion failure. Thermoplastic and PVC (vinyl) asbestos tiles may
suffer dimensional and adhesion failure under severe conditions, while mag-
nesium oxychloride, PVA emulsion/cement, rubber, flexible PVC flooring, lino-
leum, cork carpet and tiles, wood blocks in cold adhesives, wood strip and board
flooring, and chipboard are all particularly susceptible to damage in damp con-
ditions.13
Concrete beds may also be adversely affected by soluble salts in the ground or
hardcore below. In severe cases it may be necessary to replace the concrete slab
and the fill beneath, with a sheet of polythene between them.

Solid Floor Coverings

A granolithic finish is best laid monolithically with the concrete base, that is,
within three hours oflaying the base, to avoid subsequent cracking and lifting. In
some situations, as with suspended floors, monolithic construction is imprac-
ticable and the finish with a minimum thickness of 38 mm should be applied to a
hardened base, in bay sizes not exceeding 14m2 • The base should be mechan-
ically roughened, cleaned, wetted and covered with a slurry of neat cement or of
cement and sand to ensure a good bond with the finish. Even the best granolithic
concrete will wear and produce some dust, and this can be substantially reduced
by applying two or three coats of sodium silicate solution or three applications
of magnesium or zinc silicofluoride. 14 When repairing small patches of granoli-
thic concrete, the defective material should be cut out in a rectangle with clean,
straight edges, the exposed concrete covered with cement slurry and the recess
filled with new granolithic. In extreme cases it may be necessary to take up all
the old granolithic and replace with new, taking all the precautions previously
described.
Terrazzo is best laid immediately after the screed has been placed and it
should not be richer than 1 part of cement to 2 parts of aggregate by volume.
To reduce the risk of shrinkage cracking, the flooring should be divided into
panels not exceeding 1.12 m2, with the lengths of the sides in a ratio not greater
than 3:1. The panels are normally separated by strips of metal, ebonite or plas-
tics set into the screed before placing the terrazzo. 14
Alternatively terrazzo may be provided in the form of tiles, similar to con-
crete floor tiles, usually bedded in mortar on a wetted concrete base or screed.
Occasionally the tiles lift owing to shrinkage of the base and to avoid this the
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-III 77

bedding mortar is best separated from the base with building paper or plastics
sheeting. Properly designed and laid terrazzo flooring has good wear resistance
and attractive appearance, and is easily cleaned. The surface should be kept dry
and free from soap or wax. Disinfectants containing phenols and cresols may
react with iron in the cement to produce indelible pink stains. 14
Stores, wash-houses, garages and external paved areas are frequently finished
in concrete. These may crack or wear unevenly. Cracks may be undercut on each
side with a cold chisel to form a key for the cement mortar which is worked into
the crack, after cleaning and wetting. Rough patches should be cut out and the
exposed surface brushed and wetted, and covered with fine concrete to a mini-
mum depth of20 mm floated to a smooth finish.
Clay tiles may fail due to arching or ridging as the tiles separate cleanly from
the bedding, when the newly laid screed shrinks but the tiles remain constant.
Where the tiles are firmly bonded by their bedding to the screed surface, con-
siderable stresses may develop which are eventually relieved by areas or rows of
tiles lifting. This normally occurs during the first year after laying and thin tiles
rise more readily than thick ones. This defect can be avoided by introducing a
separating layer of polythene or building paper over the base as described for
concrete tiles. If the base is subject to high temperatures, as around boilers, bitu-
minous bedding is recommended. Expansion joints are needed around the per-
imeter of a clay tiled floor. 15 If an old tiled floor becomes uneven or tiles are loose
and cracked, the defective tiles should be removed, the surface of the base hacked
to form a key, brushed and wetted, and covered with bedding mortar to receive
the new tiles. Treatment with linseed oil or polishes is not recommended as they
tend to make the tiles slippery.
Thermoplastic and PVC tiles need polishing, preferably with emulsion
polishes, to retain their initial appearance. Excessive use of polish should be
avoided as it leads to slipperiness and high dirt retention. Worn or dirty coats of
polish can be removed by washing with a solution of neutral detergent and subse-
quently rinsing with clean water. These tiles can be marked by black rubber in
footwear, castor tyres and protective thimbles on the legs of metal furniture.
These markings are best removed by rubbing with scouring powder and fine steel
wool. 16 Thermoplastic tiles are less resistant to oils and grease than PVC
flooring.
Linoleum may be washed with warm water using mild soap or neutral deter-
gent. Harsh, alkaline or abrasive cleaners and scrubbing brushes should be
avoided. When the linoleum has dried it should receive two thin coats of paste
or emulsion polish. The frequency of application of polish may vary between
one and six weeks depending on the amount of traffic. 17
Rubber flooring may be made from natural or synthetic rubber in varying
thicknesses and is fixed with adhesive. Oils, fats and grease may prove harmful,
but it has good wearing, resilience and sound absorption qualities. It is best
maintained by cleaning with a damp cloth and occasional use of water emulsion
polishes.
Mastic asphalt and pitchmastic both provide dustless, jointless and imper-
vious floors, but are liable to soften if in prolonged contact with fats, greases
and oils. They are maintained by washing with warm water and suitable deter-
gents.
78 Building Maintenance
Cement rubber-latex is maintained in the same way as mastic asphalt. Mag-
nesium oxychloride is available in various colours and patterns and requires ad-
equate protection against damp. Maintenance is carried out by scrubbing with
warm water and the occasional use of mild household soap.
Timber finishes to solid floors are now quite common, but special care is
needed in their construction to prevent damp penetration and in extreme cases
outbreaks of dry rot. Boarding may be nailed to timber fillets which are either
embedded in or resting on the upper surface of the concrete slab or screed. The
fillets must be pressure impregnated with a suitable preservative and the upper
surface of the concrete or screed effectively waterproofed. The underside of the
boards should be treated as an additional precaution. Excess water in washing
such floors should be avoided.
Hardwood strip flooring provides an attractive finish and requires sealing and
polishing. Another alternative finish is wood blocks fixed with a suitable adhesive
a
to screed. The most common defects are unevenness resulting from unequal
wear which is normally cured by planing or sanding, loose blocks often caused by
shrinkage or expansion with subsequent loss of key, cured by resetting the blocks
in adhesive, and dry rot caused by damp penetration and requiring removal of
the infected blocks, treatment of adjoining flooring and renewal with suitably
treated blocks on a substantial bed of bitumen or other appropriate material. It is
advisable to leave an expansion joint between the edges of the block flooring and
adjoining walls, often with a cork strip under the skirting, to allow room for
movement if the blocks expand on absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. 18
Cork is available as tiles, mainly 300 and 450 mm squares in thickness from
3 mm upwards, or as carpet 1.80 m wide in various thicknesses. A damp-proof
membrane is needed when laid on a solid sub-floor and an underlay of hardboard
may be provided on softwood flooring. Fixing is by adhesive and sealing is im-
portant to prevent dirt absorption. Maintenance consists of sealing and waxing.
Carpets are becoming a popular finish in offices, educational buildings and
shops, where comfort and colour is an important consideration. This approach
has been assisted by new carpet manufacturing processes and materials. Carpet
tiles are particularly popular made up of 400, 500 or 600 mm squares usually of
synthetic fibres on a woven polypropylene backing making them dimensionally
stable and hard wearing, but they do result in higher maintenance and replace-
ment costs than most other types of finish. For instance in the Royal Berkshire
Hospital, carpets account for 17 per cent of the floor area but 4 3 per cent of total
floor maintenance costs excluding cleaning. 19 Wharton20 has described how car-
pets are particularly useful at the entrance to shops to create a pleasant atmo-
sphere and filter off dirt to protect more brightly coloured and delicate floor
coverings further inside the shop. He advocates cleaning by vacuum cleaner daily
and shampooing only when necessary. Care is needed to select the right fibre,
colour, weave and backing for the particular situation.
Floor seals are needed with wood, wood composition and cork surfaced floors
in particular for protection, hygiene and decoration. A seal is a semi-permanent
material which protects the floors from dirt, absorption, stains and foreign
matter. Most floor finishes are porous to some degree and the filling of the pores
extends the life of the floor. There are four main categories of floor seal--oleo-
resinous, one-pot plastic, two-pot plastic and pigmented, and a knowledge of
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-Ill 79

these seals and consideration of the prevailing conditions are needed in making a
choice. 21
Where a floor may be subject to spillage of chemicals, a chemically-resistant
floor seal such as two-pot polyurethane should be used, whereas a pigmented seal
would be ideal for brightening up a concrete floor. Conventional solvent based
seals soften thermoplastic, PVC and quarry tiles and may cause bleeding of
colours, whereas wood, wood composition and cork can readily be sealed with
any type of seal, although new wood block floors should be pre-treated with wax
if one of the harder plastic seals is to be used. When re-sealing, compatibility of
seals is important, as an oleo-resinous seal should never, for example, be applied
on top of a two-pot polyurethane seal as it is likely to flake off. In locations such
as hospitals, where long life is essential to reduce to a minimum interference with
the use of the floor, a very durable seal such as two-pot polyurethane is desirable.
From an appearance aspect with light coloured floors, a plastic seal is preferable.
All seals should be maintained with a floor wax to prolong their life, but if waxing
is a problem then a very durable seal such as two-pot polyurethane should be
used. 21

Staircases
The main defects found in timber staircases are worn nosings, creaking treads,
cracked balusters and handrails, and loose newel posts. On uncarpeted stairs
nosings may become worn and a suitable remedy is to cut out a length of tread
and nosing about 50 mm wide, insert a replacement piece and nail it to the old
tread and riser.
Creaking treads probably result from the lack of angle blocks between treads
and risers and the insertion oftwo or three angle blocks to each step should pro-
vide a cure. In the case of wide stairs, in excess of 900 mm, the insertion of a
rough carriage, usually about 100 x 75 mm, centrally under the flight may be
required. Cracked balusters and handrails are normally repaired by splicing and
joining by screws or wood dowels. Loose newel posts can generally be stiffened by
fixing angle brackets at their feet.

Roofs
Pitched R oofTimbers
The design and construction of timber roofs are controlled by the Building Regu-
lations but weaknesses still occur. In some cases there is extravagant use of
timber coupled with haphazard nailing which is neither effective nor economical.
The design of a roof is influenced by the clear span, type of building, covering
material, and situation and shape ofbuilding.
Roof timbers may be affected by wet rot resulting from leaks in the roof cover-
ing or condensation, normally involving the replacement of the defective sections
of timber, and splicing old to new where necessary. In cases where the rot has not
penetrated too deeply into the timber, it is possible to treat the affected timber
and to strengthen it with timber or steel members bolted to it. Timbers should
80 Building Maintenance
also be closely examined with the aid of a powerful torch or hand lamp for pos-
sible insect attack. The most vulnerable parts of the roof structure are those
under gutters or partly buried in masonry.
With softwood roofs not more than 10 years old, the most likely form of attack
is Ernobius mollis which can be effectively dealt with by cutting away all timber
to which bark is adhering to a depth of about 6 mm. Where a modem softwood
roof has been damaged by fire and soaked with water, look for dry rot, particu-
larly in wall plates. With older softwood roofs the most common form of damage
results from the common furniture beetle. Damage by house longhorn beetle is
mainly confined to a fairly clearly defined area of north-west Surrey. Old hard-
wood roofs suffer many forms of insect attack particularly under gutters, at
ridges, and where timbers are built into masonry and this can make necessary the
expensive treatment and replacement of timbers.
Where a roof has sagged or, through insufficient ties, has forced walls out of
plumb, it is not feasible to force the structure back into its original position. In
extreme cases reconstruction will be necessary. Further movement can be pre-
vented by inserting wood or steel ties between the ridge and ceiling beams or
joists, between wall plates or feet of rafters, or under purlins. Roofs of semi-
detached or terraced houses sometimes show a hump over party walls and this
may be caused by inadequately sized timbers, insufficiently strutted purlins, ex-
cessive shrinkage in purlins, or raising of upper raking surface of a party wall
above upper face of rafters with tiling or slating battens bent over the wall. Move-
ment may occur at the eaves if rafters are not suitably birdsmouthed over wall
plates and adequately nailed to ceiling joists.

Pitched Roof CofJerings

Often the first indication of trouble is a damp patch on a ceiling or in the top
comer of a wall. Localised leakage may occur as a result of defective flashings,
cement fillets which have shrunk or broken away from adjoining surfaces,
choked or defective gutters or slipped or broken slates or tiles. Defective flashings
need redressing, raking out the brick joint and rewedging and repointing the
flashing. Zinc flashings may perish and become pitted in industrial atmospheres
and are best replaced with lead, copper or other suitable flashings. An alternative
material is 'zincon' which is cheaper than lead or copper, soft, ductile, easily cut
and worked, relatively lightweight and has a guaranteed life of 25 years but is
expected to last much longer. Defective cement fillets should be replaced with
metal flashings. Paint extends the life of plastic rainwater goods. 50
Clean out all choked gutters and check that they are satisfactory. Eaves gut-
ters may need resetting to falls and rejointing, and defective lengths replaced.
Coating all internal surfaces of parapet and valley gutters with bituminous com-
position may extend their useful life. Check on adequacy of tilting fillets and
cover at junctions of gutter coverings with adjoining slating or tiling, and ensure
that horizontal damp-proof courses are provided under copings to parapet walls.
Slipped or broken plain tiles are fairly readily replaced as the tiles are usually
only nailed on every fourth or fifth course, and adjoining tiles can be lifted suf-
ficiently to permit a replacement tile to be hooked over a tiling batten. The re-
placement of slates is more difficult as it entails removing the defective slate by
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-Ill 81

cutting off the nail heads with a slater's ripper and fixing the new slate at its tail
with a copper clip or tack bent over the head of the slate in the course below.
Rain and snow may penetrate a pitched roof because the slates or tiles are laid
to too flat a pitch without increasing their lap. The problem is aggravated on ex-
posed sites and the use of a flatter bellcast at eaves to improve appearance creates
a vulnerable condition at the point of greatest rainwater runoff. Plain tiles for
instance should never be laid to a flatter pitch than 40°. In severe cases it is neces-
sary to strip the roof covering and to replace it with one suited to the particular
roof pitch, as for example to replace plain tiles with single lap interlocking tiles on
a 30° pitch roof.
The life of slates or tiles is dependent upon a number of factors including
physical properties of constituent materials and method of manufacture, climatic
conditions, degree of pollution and method of fixing. Poorer quality slates may
have a life of up to 70 years while some of the poorer machine made clay tiles may
be restricted to 40 years on account of their laminar structure which is suscep-
tible to freezing conditions. Concrete tiles may have a longer life but their colour
is often bleached over a comparatively short period. Galvanised nails are unlikely
to last the life of the slate or tile and are a poor investment.
When large numbers of slates or tiles are defective it is generally more satis-
factory to strip and renew rather than to carry out extensive patching. With older
buildings problems sometimes arise through the stoppage of manufacture of par-
ticular single lap tiles. One local authority faced with this problem stripped off
the clay pantiles from a pair of houses and recovered with concrete interlocking
tiles. All sound pantiles were taken into stock for repairing the remaining
houses. 22 In older houses sarking felt is rarely provided under the tiles or slates
and so rain or snow penetrating the roof covering has access direct into the roof
space with the most unfortunate results. In extreme cases it is necessary to strip
the tiles or slates and battens in order to nail a layer of felt to the upper side of the
rafters.

Flat Roof Construction

Whether flat roofs are constructed of concrete or timber, they need to be laid to
adequate falls and to incorporate a vapour barrier. The generally accepted mini-
mum fall is 1 in 80, but the latest recommendation is 1 in 40 to make allowance
for any inaccuracies on the site and possible deflection of the roof structure. 23 A
problem with concrete roofs stems from moisture trapped in lightweight concrete
screeds, which are incorporated to provide falls and insulation, as this may pen-
etrate ceilings particularly in winter. Although various techniques have been
suggested for drying or draining the screed, it seems that further development
work is needed. 24
Vapour barriers need to be provided in most roofs to protect insulation against
water vapour from inside the building. With timber flat roofs the best approach is
to introduce a vapour check at ceiling level, often in the form of aluminium foil
backing to the plasterboard supporting mineral wool or similar insulation. 47 The
roof space above the insulation should be ventilated, providing at least 300 mm2
free opening every 300 mm on two opposite walls. The amount of openings
should be doubled if the span exceeds 12 m. 2 '
82 Building Maintenance

Vapour barriers are not recommended under concrete screeds as the entrapped
moisture which takes some years to dry out, is likely to be more troublesome than
that from condensation. Dry-type lightweight aggregate screeds, such as perlite
in hot bitumen, are preferable to wet screeds. An alternative is to form the roof
slab itself to give the fall and to use dry insulation such as mineraVglass wool
slabs or expanded plastics. A vapour barrier, preferably of one layer of bitumen
felt laid in hot bitumen, should be provided between the structural slab and the
dry insulation. 25
A Building Research Establishment survey of asphalt and bitumen felt cover-
ings to flat roofs showed a significant proportion had leaked at some time and
this indicates the need for regular inspections. 44

Bitumen-felt Roof CofJering

The early felts were based wholly on organic fibres which were very strong when
new but dimensionally unstable, and could rot when moisture eventually pen-
etrated the bitumen coating. The introduction in the early 1950s of bitumen felt
based on asbestos fibre provided a more stable alternative, but not complete free-
dom from the risk of rotting. The development of bitumen felt based on glass
fibre virtually eliminated dimensional instability and the risk of rotting but does
not provide very high strength, so that the felt needs careful handling. 26
The bitumen outer coating of bitumen roofing felt, if exposed to the weather, is
gradually attacked by solar radiation. This deterioration can be postponed if the
uppermost layer of felt, which is normally laid in three layers, has a surfacing of
mineral aggregate, preferably white, partially embedded in a coat of bitumen
dressing compound. Unfortunately, the mineral aggregate or stone chippings
may in time puncture the felt and also obscure the source of leaks.
Splitting accounted for one-half of all the bitumen felt roof failures investi-
gated by the Building Research Establishment,27 and resulted from the inability
of bitumen roofing felt to withstand more than a slight amount of stretching
without splitting or tearing apart. This defect may be remedied by patching with
a strip offelt reinforced with hessian bedded in bitumen. The next most common
cause of failure results from differential movement at skirtings to parapets and at
other peripheral weatherings. Sometimes blisters develop between the layers of
felt as a result of insufficient pressure being applied when rolling a layer of felt
into hot bitumen bonding compound or the entrapping of moisture between two
layers of felt. They do not often lead to leakage and no remedial action is usually
necessary.
Upstands and skirtings should be integral with the surface felt and be formed
by turning up the second and top layers against abutments to a minimum height
of 150 mm. The felt should be turned up over an angle fillet at the base of the
upstand to prevent the felt cracking at the bend or becoming damaged due to lack
of support. The angle fillet should be securely fixed to the roof to prevent distor-
tion. Skirtings and upstands should ideally be masked by a metal or semi-rigid
asbestos/bitumen sheet (SRABS) ftashing. 23
Small holes in bitumen felt roofing can be sealed with a patch of felt bedded in
bitumen. More extensive repairs may make necessary the removal of an entire
sheet of felt by heating and softening a lapped joint and bedding a new layer of
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-III 83

felt. Where general deterioration of the felt has occurred without fracture, a top
dressing of hot bitumen and stone chippings may suffice. A survey of mainten-
ance work on hospital buildings 19 showed that felt roofs were replaced on average
at 16 year intervals, while asphalt lasted 28 years and tiled roofs 59 years. Main-
tenance costs of felt roofs were also high; they covered 45 per cent of the total
hospital roof area but accounted for 70 per cent of the total maintenance and re-
placement cost of all roofs. 19

Asphalt Roof Covering

Two layers of asphalt are always necessary on flat roofs, with a finished thickness
of 20 mm and joints staggered with a minimum lap of 150 mm between layers.
Weak spots may occur if asphalt is reduced in thickness to obtain an even finished
surface over raised parts, such as welted joints in flashings. Where a roof is likely
to take considerable traffic, the asphalt is best finished with asbestos cement or
concrete tiles, preferably with solar reflective properties. The asphalt should not
be heated above 215°C or it may become brittle on setting. An isolating mem-
brane should be provided immediately beneath the asphalt to create a slip-plane
to absorb differential movement; a suitable material being bitumen felt type
4A(i) to BS 747. Concrete upstands should be keyed and primed with a suitable
solution such as Bostik 1255 or Elastoprufto take asphalt skirtings in two coats,
13 mm thick and at least 150 mm high with the top edge tucked into a chase, 25 x
25 mm, pointed and masked with a flashing. 23
A survey of 130 mastic asphalt covered flat roofs to Crown buildings27 showed
a 28 per cent failure rate, resulting either from splitting and cracking of the
asphalt due to movement of the substrate and the absence of an isolating mem-
brane, or peripheral cracking due to differential movement between a roof deck
and a non-integral parapet wall to which an asphalt skirting was fixed without
any provision for movement. Slight hollows in a roof result in ponding and this
may cause crazing of the asphalt but is unlikely to lead to water penetration.
Cracked and blistered areas should be heated, cut out and made good with new
asphalt without delay. 26 The new asphalt should be carefully bonded to the old
by stepping the edges of the existing asphalt.
Oxidation occurs when asphalt is exposed to light and heat, water-soluble pro-
ducts are formed, slow hardening occurs and cracks may form following a rapid
decrease of temperature. 28 The Local Government Operational Research Unit
identified five 'states' through which an asphalt roof passes as it deteriorates,
namely
(1) no visible defects
(2) not leaking but slightly worn and wrinkled
(3) some leaks due to blistering and slight cracks and crazing
(4) broken blisters, extensive cracking and leaking
(5) asphalt broken up, perished and offkey. 29
In practice the deterioration processes are not uniform and at any point in time
different parts of an asphalt roof will be in different states. In order to specify the
condition of a roof it is generally necessary to measure or estimate the percentage
in each of these states.
84 Building Maintenance

Problems have arisen through the application of white paint to the asphalt to
reduce absorption of solar heat. The shrinkage of the relatively tough paint film
is sufficient to pull the asphalt with it and cause cracking of the asphalt with
consequent loss of watertightness. 30 Dampness in ceilings below asphalt roofs
may result from interstitial condensation rather than moisture penetration
through the asphalt.

Metal Flat Roof Coverings

Lead is susceptible to two forms of corrosion-in slightly acid conditions and
under alkaline conditions, as with lime or cement mortars. Acidic conditions may
occur through the discharge of rainwater on to the lead from pitched roofs con-
taining algae, moss or lichen, but the corrosion process is generally very slow. A
protective coat of bitumen made up of one coat of hot bitumen or two thick coats
of bituminous paint in vulnerable locations should provide adequate protection.
In general the resistance of lead to atmospheric corrosion is very high, following
the formation of a protective film of basic lead carbonate or sulphate and may
have a life in excess of 100 years. 31 Lead has low strength and is very heavy in
weight, but is ductile, flexible, and easily cut and shaped. Cracks in lead sheet
occurring through movement of boards beneath are usually rectified by solder-
ing. In course of time lead flashings tend to work loose and curl up from the
bottom edge, and they then require rewedging, repainting and redressing. Sag-
ging parapet gutters need stripping and replacement of bearers and boarding.

Copper, like lead, forms a very effective protective film. Furthermore it is tough
and durable, readily cut and bent, is oflight weight, does not creep and acquires a
pleasant protective green film patina. Copper is resistant to alkalis but rainwater
with an acid content dripping from algae covered roofs or cedarwood shingles has
been known to cause perforation of copper roofing within 40 years, and protec-
tion with bitumen is advisable. 31 The majority of repairs to copper roofs are con-
cerned with redressing rolls, seams and welts and repainting flashings.

Zinc has a much shorter life than lead or copper and on average is about 40 years.
Like lead, zinc is liable to corrode in both alkaline and acidic conditions. It is
advisable to give at least one coating of bitumen to zinc embedded in plasters and
mortars. 31 Cracks can be repaired with bitumen and a surface dressing will pro-
long the life of a zinc roof.

Sound Insulation
A full understanding of the science of sound transmission requires an extensive
and highly technical study. It is becoming increasingly important as people
become more noise conscious. Insulation is required against sound generated in
two different ways
(1) a source such as a radio may produce sound waves in air which in their
tum produce vibrations in a party wall or floor (airborne sound)
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-Ill 85

(2) a wall or floor separating two dwellings may be excited by the direct im-
pact of a solid object such as footsteps (structure borne sound).
A radio or television in a ground floor room of one house can frequently be
heard in the bedroom of a neighbouring house. Vibrations induced in the party
wall at ground floor level are transmitted up the party wall and then pass into the
upper floor rooms. This is known as flanking transmission. It can also occur
when the rooms adjoin, either horizontally or vertically, and often provides an
additional path to direct passage through the common wall or floor. 32
In standard tests (BS 2750) the insulation of airborne sound is measured in
each of sixteen one-third-octave bands, the centre frequencies of which range
from 100 to 3150Hz. In order to determine whether a satisfactory standard has
been achieved results are expressed in terms of normalised level difference; this is
the difference in decibels (dB) between the energy levels in the rooms corrected to
allow for a standard amount of absorption representative of normal furnished
conditions. The required values under Building Regulations of normalised level
difference range from 36 dB (for party floors) or 40 dB (for party walls) at 100
Hz to 56 dB at 1600 Hz and above. The object of sound insulation is almost en-
tirely one of reflecting energy back into the source room; the role of absorption is
limited to supplementing reflection at high frequencies in some types of wall or
floor, 32 and is of particular benefit to the occupants of the room in which they are
used.
The amplitude of wall vibrations is inversely proportional to the mass of the
wall, and so the amplitude of the sound waves radiated into the receiving room is
inversely proportional to the mass of the wall. By doubling the mass of the wall
transmission is reduced to a quarter. 32
Where a dividing element is made up of parts each of different sound resist-
ance, then however small the parts oflower resistance, they will reduce the over-
all insulation to a value lower than that of the most highly sound-resisting part.
This is particularly significant with voids, gaps and cracks. The subjective sound
insulation between two rooms is influenced considerably by the acoustics in the
rooms, which are largely dependent on the amount of the reverberation-how
long it takes a sound to die away after the source has stopped. This is very much
affected by the amount of sound absorbing material such as curtains and furni-
ture and the nature of wall, floor and ceiling finishings. 33 For instance, a sound
absorbent ceiling of materials like acoustic fibreboard and perforated facings of
metal, plaster, hardboard and asbestos board backed with mineral wool, in a
typing pool or workshop, will reduce the noise level in the room by preventing
sound reflection. 34 The relative cost and sound insulation performance of many
forms of wall and floor construction are detailed in Sound Insulation in Build-
ings.33
Good sound insulation stems from adequate weight, airtightness and uniform
resistance to sound. The following methods can be used to insulate existing build-
ings.
Windows provide the most common method for entry of outside noise into
buildings. The sound insulation of a single window can be improved by making it
airtight with phosphor-bronze draught-excluding strips or seals of plastics,
rubber or felt and by fitting heavy glass; but for good insulation double windows
86 Building Maintenance
with heavy glass are essential. The air space should be at least 1SO mm wide and
preferably 200 mm wide, with the head, reveals and sill lined with a sound absor-
bent material such as acoustic fibreboard. Double windows should be as airtight
as possible and it may be necessary to install mechanical ventilation. 34 The
Government grants scheme administered by the British Airports Authority for
noise protection of existing dwellings in the vicinity of London's Heathrow Air-
port provides for the payment of grant for rooms fitted with a double window
with a minimum width of air-space related to the glass thickness used, as follows:
3 mm glass-not less than 200 mm cavity
4 mm glass-not less than 1SO mm cavity
6 mm glass-not less than 100 mm cavity
In addition, an approved ventilator has to be installed with an air delivery ca-
pacity of not less than 1.84 m3/min and a sound reduction of at least 49 dB at SOO
Hz.3'
It is rarely economical or even practicable to improve the insulation of the
walls of an existing building. Reducing direct transmission by insulating a party
wall is generally rendered valueless as by-passing by flanking transmission leaves
the net insulation almost unchanged. 36 The blocking up of airbricks and chim-
neys to improve sound insulation can cause condensation. The sound insulation
ofbrick or block walls initially left fair faced, for reasons of design or cost, can be
improved by plastering. 34 If there is leakage through underftoor voids and gaps,
these should be sealed.
Partitions can be improved by adding a heavy lining, such as 20 mm plaster-
board on a framework, giving a wide air-space, over a sound absorbent material
such as mineral wool quilt, with all joints between boards and around edges effec-
tively sealed. Demountable partitions need to be well sealed around the edges. 34
To make an existing wood-joist floor more resistant to airborne noise it is
necessary to increase the weight of the floor. One method is to lay heavy pugging
such as SO mm dry sand weighing about 90 kg/m2 between the joists, provided
the ceiling and joists are strong enough to take the extra weight, otherwise the
pugging should be laid on pugging boards fixed between the joists. Impact noise
on a suspended floor can be reduced by covering the floor with rubber on a
sponge rubber underlay, felt backed PVC, cork tiles or carpet on a suitable un-
derlay. Another alternative is to provide a floating floor such as 20 mm tongued
and grooved boarding on SO mm square battens laid on 13 mm mineral wool re-
silient quilt. The resilient layer must be turned up at all edges which abut walls,
partitions and other parts of the structure. Partitions should be built off the
structural floor so that the floating raft is self-<:ontained within each room. Doors
will need altering and thresholds or ramps provided at door openings. Noisy
machines should be isolated from floors by resilient mountings. 34
Noise often emaJ;tates from plumbing systems. WCs are particularly noisy but
fittings with a double-syphonic trap and a close-<:oupled cistern are less noisy.
When a we is sited next to a main room or bedroom, the dividing partition
should have a sound reduction value equal to a 100 mm brick wall plastered both
sides. The WC door should be as heavy as possible, preferably a solid core flush
door, with draught-excluding strips. Ball valves to cisterns and water storage
tanks should ideally be of the 'Garston' pattern as developed by the Building Re-
search Establishment. Internal stack pipes should be enclosed in ducts made with
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-III 87

a material weighing at least 15 kg/m2, such as 25 mm chipboard. Heating and hot

water pipes should be fixed with pipe clips that give some clearance for expansion
or contraction, with sleeves or resilient packing where pipes pass through the
structure and clearance over pipes where they pass between floorboards and
joists. 34

Thermal Insulation
There is an increasing demand for improved comfort coupled with a reduction in
heat losses from buildings. This has been accentuated by the recent escalation in
heating fuel costs. The economic level of insulation depends upon the cost of pro-
viding the additional insulation as compared with the reductions in the cost of
heating plant and fuel over a period of time. 37 In 197 4, upwards of ten million
houses in the United Kingdom had no insulation at all, and approximately 75 per
cent of heat in them was wasted. 43 The rate at which heat is transferred through
an element of a building is termed the thermal transmittance or U-value. The
lower the U-value, the better the insulation and the lower the heat loss. The total
heat loss through the building fabric is found by multiplying the U-values and
areas of the externally exposed parts of the building, and multiplying the result
by the temperature difference between inside and outside. 38 U-values for new
dwellings in England and Wales are controlled by the Building Regulations and
prior to 31 January 1975 were 1.42 W/m2 °C for roofs, 1.70 W/m2 °C for exter-
nal walls and 1.42 W/m2 °C for floors. The provisions in the Building Regu-
lations were amended as from this date, thereby increasing insulation values in
new houses or alterations to existing houses with U-values of 1.0 W/m2 °C for
external walls and walls between a dwelling and a ventilated space or roof space,
0.6 W/m2 °C for roofs and 1. 7 W/m 2 °C for walls between dwellings and adjoin-
ing buildings and partially ventilated spaces. Windows will be taken into account
in the calculation for the perimeter walls, to give an overall performance of the
envelopeof1.8 W/m2 °C.46
When selecting materials to achieve the required U-values, the comparison
should include installation and maintenance costs. Where air spaces are incor-
porated they should not be less than 20 mm wide. Valuable data on thermal insu-
lating materials is provided in Thermallnsulation ofBuildings. 39
With ground floors, concrete slabs on hardcore generally give adequate ther-
mal insulation without additional treatment. When incorporating under-floor
heating systems it is advisable to include a rot-proof insulating layer of mineral
fibre or expanded plastics over the damp-proof membrane. Suspended wooden
ground floors should be provided with additional insulation, either in the form of
a continuous layer of semi-rigid or flexible material, such as paper-backed insula-
tion quilt (paper side downwards) over the joists, with butted longitudinal joints
to allow the floor to breathe, or alternatively a semi-rigid material, such as
expanded polystyrene boards fixed between the joists. 40
External cavity walls with a brick outer leaf and an inner leaf of aerated con-
crete insulating blocks can combine strength with good thermal insulation with-
out increasing costs significantly. The thermal insulation value of a cavity wall
can be further increased by filling the cavity with a plastic foam produced from
88 Building Maintenance

urea formaldehyde resin. The foam is injected into the cavities of existing build-
ings by drilling 19 mm diameter holes mainly through mortar joints in the outer
leaf at approximately 1 m staggered centres. The holes are subsequently made
good with mortar colour-matched to the existing. Building Research Estab-
lishment investigations have indicated some cases of damp penetration across the
filled cavity where the outer leaf had a high porosity and exposure to large
amounts of driving rain. Other insulants are mineral wool, polystyrene and
vermiculite.
Framed structures with sheeting rails may be lined internally with rigid insu-
lating boards or slabs fixed to the rails with aT-grid or clip system. Alternatively,
insulating quilts or boards can be hung behind a rigid sheet lining which may not
itselfhave high thermal insulatingproperties. 37
Double glazed windows can reduce the heat loss through windows by about 50
per cent and eliminate the 'cold zone' near windows. It also reduces the risk of
condensation on windows but the cost cannot always be justified in the British
Isles. In a typical semi-detached house, only about one-tenth of the heat loss from
the house will be saved by double glazing. It is usually more economical to
improve the U-values of the walls and roof, and to stop draughts. 37 With existing
single glazed windows there are two possible ways of improving thermal insula-
tion. The first method is to fix a second line of glazing with wood or plastic faced
beads, although they are unlikely to remain airtight indefinitely. The wood ex-
posed to the air-space should be painted or varnished to prevent evaporation of
moisture from the timber and breather holes to the outside should be provided on
the basis of one 6 mm diameter hole for 0.5 m2 of window, with the holes plugged
with glass fibre or nylon to exclude dust and insects. The second method is to fix
secondary windows to the existing frames or to ancillary frames. There are pro-
prietary secondary windows available in aluminium or PVC, which may be either
hinged or sliding to give access for cleaning. The casement types usually have a
compressible strip to provide a seal against the existing window or the ancillary
frame. 41 The glazing joints of double glazing units, glazing compound and beads
should be checked on repainting. With sealed in situ systems it may be necessary
to remove the glass on the room side, clean it and reseal it at intervals of two years
or more depending on the effectiveness of the seal. 41
Pitched roofs can have a rot-proof thermal insulating quilt fixed over the ceil-:-
ingjoists or, alternatively, a loose fill material or quilt may be spread between the
ceiling joists. The thickness of insulation is sometimes increased from 25 to 50 or
even 75 mm to increase the insulation value where heat losses are greatest. The
insulation is omitted under cisterns in the roof space but all pipes and the sides
and tops of cisterns need lagging. Top floor ceilings can be formed of aluminium
foil-backed plasterboard, rigid polyurethane, expanded polystyrene/
plasterboard laminate or other insulating board to reduce heat loss. 37
Concrete flat roofs can have the thermal insulation either over or under the
structural units. Timber flat roofs having thermal insulation at ceiling level re-
quire a vapour check below the insulation and ventilation of the roof space.
Where the insulation is placed over the roof deck immediately below the roof
covering, a vapour barrier is needed between the insulation and the deck to pre-
vent interstitial condensation in the insulation. 37
A high standard of thermal insulation can be obtained in a house by using an
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-III 89

external cavity wall of 102.5 mm brick and 100 mm aerated concrete blocks with
plasterboard dry lining and 50 mm foam fill in the cavity, double glazed windows
and a roof with a vapour barrier above the ceiling and 7 5 mm of glass fibre mat.
On an average house the extra cost involved would be approximately £250-£400
at 1975 prices made up of roof insulation-£15-25, cavity foam £80-130 and
double glazing £150-250, producing savings in energy costs of about 33 per cent.
Costs of energy are likely to continue to rise making lower U-values economical.
Double glazing of windows cannot usually be justified on economic grounds
unless a very high standard of heating is required, an expensive form of energy is
used, or a high percentage of the wall area is glazed. 43 A method of comparing the
cost of thermal insulation construction with the consequent reduction in heating
costs is detailed in DOE housing development notes IV, 2. 45

Vibration
Developments in machinery and transport are increasing vibration and noise to
an extent that they may become objectionable to people and interfere with labo-
ratory work and some trade processes. Fears are also expressed that buildings
may be damaged by vibration, but investigations by the Building Research Es-
tablishment show that the risk of damage to normal buildings is extremely small,
even when the level of vibration is considered objectionable or even intolerable by
the occupants of the building. In assessing the possibility of damage, many fac-
tors need to be taken into account, such as the additional stresses set up by the
vibration, the size and type of building, the fatigue properties of the materials,
and the possibility of resonance. Cracks in plaster, brickwork and glass should
not be attributed to the effects of vibration until other possible causes have been
eliminated. For instance, most cracks in plaster ceilings result from movement of
the plaster itself or of the timber supports due to changes in moisture content,
and this frequently occurs in areas known to be free from external sources of
vibration. 42
Vibration can often be reduced at the source by the maker of the machine by
dynamic balancing of the moving parts as far as practicable or altering the speed
of the machine. Vibration transmitted from machines can be reduced by mount-
ing the machine on a heavy base, placing an insulating mounting between the
machine and a slab of concrete resting on the ground, or combining a heavy base
and an insulating mounting. The insulating material may be of cork, felt, rubber
or composite materials; steel springs are sometimes used. 42
Trenches have been used as a means of preventing external vibrations affect-
ing a building, and are particularly effective with small buildings such as seismo-
logical observation posts. New buildings can be specially mounted, for example
by using sandwich pads of lead and asbestos, inserted under beams and columns.
In the Barbican development, an underground railway passes below the area and
the heavy deck of the track is supported on rubber units giving a natural fre-
quency of about 6 Hz. In the new Marble Arch Odeon the whole auditorium,
weighing about 4600 t, has been mounted on sandwich pads to protect it from
vibration and noise from nearby railway lines. 42
90 Building Maintenance

References
1 - Building Research Establishment Digest 72 (second series): Home
Grown Softwoods for Building (H.M.S.O., 1966).
2 C. H. Tack, Timberlab paper No. 17: The Economics of Timber Preserv-
ation in House-building (Forest Products Research Laboratory, Depart-
ment of the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1969).
3 J. M. Baker, 'When to Preserve Timber',Building Research Establishment
News (Summer 1974).
4 British Standards Institution, BS 565: 1972 Glossary of terms relating to
timber and woodwork.
5 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 29: Care in the Use of
Timber (H.M.S.O., 1973).
6 Building Research Establishment, Princes Risborough Laboratory, Techni-
cal Note 53: Timber Decay and its Control (H.M.S.O., 1971).
7 Building Research Establishment, Princes Risborough Laboratory, Techni-
cal Note 44: Decay in Buildings: Recognition, Prevention and Cure
(H.M.S.O., 1969).
8 -Building Research Establishment Digest 18 (second series): Design of
Timber Floors to Prevent Dry Rot (H.M.S.O., 1962).
9 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 10: Dry Rot and Wet Rot
(H.M.S.O., 1972).
10 Building Research Establishment, Princes Risborough Laboratory, Techni-
cal Note 47: The Common Furniture Beetle (H.M.S.O., 1970).
11 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 42: Woodworm
(H.M.S.O., 1972).
12 Building Research Establishment, Princes Risborough Laboratory, Techni-
cal Note 45: The Death-watch Beetle (H.M.S.O., 1970).
13 - Building Research Establishment Digest 54 (second series): Damp-
proofing Solid Floors (H.M.S.O., 1965).
14 -Building Research Establishment Digest 47 (second series): Granolithic
Concrete, Concrete Tiles and Terrazzo Flooring (H.M.S.O., 1964).
15 -Building Research Establishment Digest 79 (second series): Clay Tile
Flooring (H.M.S.O., 1967).
16 -Building Research Establishment Digest 33 (second series): Sheet and
Tile Flooring Made from Thermoplastic Binders (H.M.S.O., 1963).
17 - Building Research Establishment Digest 77: Linoleum (H.M.S.O.,
1955).
18 British Standards Institution, CP 209: Part 1: 1963 Care and maintenance
of floor finishes.
19 Local Government Operational Research Unit/Royal Institute of Public Ad-
ministration, Report C 146: Aids to Management in Hospital Building
Maintenance (H.M.S.O., 1972).
20 A. Wharton, 'Free Estimates Cost you Money', Building Maintenance
(July/August 1973).
21 J. K. P. Edwards, 'It's No Good Guessing with Floor Seals',Building Main-
tenance (July/August 1973).
22 C. Denton, 'Local Authority Housing Maintenance-Maintenance of
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-III 91
Roofs',Building Trades Journal (12 May 1967).
23 D. K. Johnson, 'Recommendations for Flat Roof Coverings', Building (27
October 1972).
24 Directorate of Research and Information, Maintenance by Design: Report
of a Seminar, London (Department of the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1969).
25 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 79: Vapour barriers
(H.M.S.O., 1969).
26 -Building Research Establishment Digest 144: Asphalt and Built-up Felt
Roofings: Durability (H.M.S.O., 1972).
27 J. P. Latham, 'Performance of Flat Roof Coverings', Building (28 Sep-
tember 1973).
28 V. R. Gray, 'The Weathering of Building Materials', Technology of Build-
ing Maintenance Conference, Bath University, 1968 (Department of the
Environment Directorate of Research and Information, H.M.S.O., 1969).
29 Local Government Operational Research Unit/Royal Institute of Public Ad-
ministration, Report C 144: Hospital Building Maintenance-Can
Decision Making be Improved? (H.M.S.O., 1972).
30 H. J. Eldridge, 'The Diagnosis of Building Faults', The Chartered Surveyor
(June 1957).
31 -Building Research Establishment Digest 110, 111: Corrosion of Non-
ferrous Metals (H.M.S.O., 1958).
32 -Building Research Establishment Digest 143: Sound Insulation: Basic
Principles (H.M.S.O., 1972).
33 Department of the Environment, Sound Insulation in Buildings
(H.M.S.O., 1971).
34 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 69: Reducing Noise in
Buildings (H.M.S.O., 1971).
35 -Building Research Establishment Digests 128, 129: Insulation Against
External Noise (H.M.S.O., 1971 ).
36 -Building Research Establishment Digests 102, 103: Sound Insulation of
Traditional Dwellings (H.M.S.O., 1969).
37 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 34: Thermal Insulation
(H.M.S.O., 1973).
38 -Building Research Establishment Digest 108: Standardised U-values
(H.M.S.O., 1969).
39 Department of the Environment, Thermal Insulation of Buildings
(H.M.S.O., 1971).
40 -Building Research Establishment Digest 145: Heat Losses Through
Ground Floors (H.M.S.O., 1972).
41 - Building Research Establishment Digest 140: Double Glazing and
Double Windows (H.M.S.O., 1972).
42 -Building Research Establishment Digests 117, 118: Vibrations in Build-
ings (H.M.S.O., 1970).
43 S. Ashley, 'Housing Insulation: The New Basis',Building (7 June 1974).
44 J. P. Latham, 'Flat Roof Code Anomalies', Building Maintenance
(February 1974).
45 Department of the Environment, Housing Development Notes IV, Thermal
Insulation in Housing. 2: Relationship between Construction and Heating
92 Building Maintenance
Costs (H.M.S.O., December 1973).
46 - The Building (Second Amendment) Regulations 1974 (H.M.S.O.,
1974).
47 -Building Research Establishment Digest 180: Condensation in Roofs
(H.M.S.O., 1975).
48 -Building Research Establishment Digest 181: Timber: Efficient and
Economic Use (H.M.S.O., 1975).
49 Building Research Establishment, Timber Drying Manual (H.M.S.O.,
1974).
50 J. R. Crowder, 'Paint will Extend Life of Plastic Rainwater Goods',
Bldg Maint. (January 1975).
5. BUILDING MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTION-IV
Joinery, Corrosion of Metals, Plasterwork, External Renderings, Plastic
Materials, Internal Finishings, Decorations and Glazing

Joinery
General Defects
Good quality joinery should be free from cracks, large or loose knots and rough
or raised grain. The softer, lighter spring grain has a tendency to greater shrink-
age with the possibility of the darker, harder autumn grain being raised on the
surface. Careful selection and proper conversion of the timber will assist in mini-
mising this defect and a good standard of rubbing down with glasspaper by the
painter will also help. External joinery which contains too much sapwood may
deteriorate and shrink and cause fracture of the paint film. In extreme cases, rot-
ting may occur beneath the paint film.
Water causes most of the trouble in wood-if timber with the correct moisture
content were installed in a building and if the moisture content were kept at the
right level, most of the problems of timber maintenance would be removed.
Timber should be seasoned to the correct moisture content, be protected from
wet on the site, with joints properly sealed; its exposed end grain-which absorbs
moisture hundreds of times faster than side grain-should be kept to an absolute
minimum, and exposed horizontal surfaces sloped to throw off rainwater. Con-
densation is another cause of moisture gaining access to timber.

Windows
In recent years there has been a substantial increase in the number of instances of
decay in wood windows in comparatively new houses. Decay occurs both in open-
ing lights and in the main frames permanently in contact with brickwork. It
occurs most frequently in ground floor windows and in the lowest part of the
members concerned, such as the lower rail of an opening light, the bottoms of
side-frame members and mullions, and the sill itself, often at or near a joint. 1

Types of decay In old buildings, decay in window joinery may be part of a wide-
spread attack of dry rot fungus-Merulius lacrymans. Most decay in window
woodwork exposed to the weather is of the wet rot type which will not spread to
other timber in the building. The rot is almost certain to be of this variety where
the decay is confined to relatively small localised pockets detectable only from
93
94 Building Maintenance

outside the building or if no actual fungus growth can be found. Wet rot is
usually accompanied by discoloration and softening of the wood in its early
stages and cross cracking later. Another type of wet rot is occasionally encoun-
tered in wood windows where instead of cross cracking the timber finishes up in a
soft, stringy condition. The decayed wood is usually bleached and white in
colour; hence it is generally called white rot. The basic causes of decay are the low
natural resistance of sapwood and the presence in the wood of sufficient moisture
to permit the growth of wood-destroying fungi. 1

Entry of moisture Decay of existing joinery involves in the main preventing

access of moisture to the wood and the following factors accentuate the problem
(1) flat surfaces on horizontal rails leading to 'puddle' formation;
(2) failure to seal joints resulting in capillary entry of water;
(3) use of animal and casein glues which fail under damp conditions;
(4) failure to cover joinery in transit and on site, placing too much reliance
on pink shop primers which are of variable quality, soon become weak or pow-
dery and often allow some moisture to penetrate;2
(5) failure to prime rebates or careless puttying leading to putty failure;
(6) failure to provide an effective seal under wood glazing beads;
(7) overstressing of joints in opening lights, causing joints to open and
putty to come away from glass;
(8) poor paintwork maintenance leading to excessive swelling and shrink-
age with consequent opening of joints and putty lines, which new paint fails to
seal;
(9) excessive condensation, particularly in bathrooms and kitchens, lead-
ing to failure of back putties. 1

Remedial measures A Princes Risborough Laboratory technical note 1 describes

the various remedial measures that should be taken in the event of signs of de-
terioration of joinery. Early indications of conditions conducive to decay are
given by putty failures, the waterlogged condition of wood beneath defective
paint or discoloration of paintwork near joints. Discoloration is caused by the
growth of sapstain fungi through the paintwork from underlying moist sapwood.
Open or strained joints and failure of paint over back putties may give rise to
moisture penetration. Extensive swelling and jamming of opening lights indicate
that moisture has gained access. Decay may first show as depressions in the sur-
face of the wood or there may be wrinkling, discoloration or loss of paint. In these
instances, the underlying wood should be probed with a bluntly pointed tool such
as a small screwdriver to assess the extent of the decay.
Where there are indications of water penetration but no decay is detected,
remedial measures should be undertaken during a dry period of the year. Paint-
work should be stripped in suspect areas and extending about 100 mm around
them, and loose or cracked putty removed. Horizontal wood surfaces should be
cut to form a slope for drainage. After an adequate drying out period, followed
with generous applications of wood preservative worked well into the joints of the
woodwork. Strained joints should be strengthened by metal brackets. Putty can
then be renewed and open joints carefully sealed.
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-IV 95

Regular maintenance inspections ensure that decay is diagnosed at an early

stage when minor repairs will suffice. Relatively inexpensive repairs will prolong
the life of a window by several years adopting the following procedure
( 1) strip paint and cut out decayed wood in late spring or early summer and
allow to dry;
(2) flood area with preservative and allow to dry;
(3) apply priming coat of paint;
(4) fill holes using putty, mastic or other proprietary filler. A large hole
may be filled with a piece of wood, preservative-treated and primed after shap-
ing, sealed with filler;
(5) seal whole of repair area with primer;
(6) apply undercoats and finishing coat of paint.
Where the woodwork is in an advanced stage of decay, the whole or part of an
affected window may have to be replaced. 1 The sectional sizes of timber scant-
lings for windows have become smaller in recent years. It is bad practice to use
flimsy sections particularly in areas subject to severe weather conditions. 2 Open-
ing lights should neither be very loose nor very tight, but should fit snugly and
fasten fairly tightly. Avoidance of excessive exposed end grain in wood windows
and frames is essential.
Wood sliding sashes are liable to decay at sills, bottoms of jambs and angle
joints of sashes which may need bracketing on fracture. Sash fasteners sometimes
break and need replacement, but the most common defect of all is broken sash
cords. Sash cords may be tested by pulling out the cord as far as it will extend and
then releasing it-a rotted cord will break under the strain. Where one defective
cord is found, it is advisable to renew both using best flax line or gunmetal chains
for heavy sashes. Dampness below windows may be due to one of several
causes-absence of water bar between wood and stone sills, defective joints be-
tween wood sills and tile or brick subsills, or insufficient weathering or check-
throating, or lack of throat on overhang of sill.
A decayed portion of a wood sill can normally be cut out and replaced. In cases
of limited decay or a missing water bar, a piece of sheet lead or other suitable
waterproof material can be dressed over the sill and subsill. A decayed stone sub-
sill can be cut back to a sound face, hacked to provide a key, and made good with
cement and fine stone aggregate. Throatings and grooves can be readily formed
where required and inadequate ones enlarged. Open joints between wood sills
and subsills in other materials should be raked out and filled with bituminous
compound. Where excessive condensation runs down the inside face of a window,
a small hollowed wood moulding may be fixed to the inside of the sill to form a
channel, in which condensed water may collect and evaporate or discharge
through small weep holes drilled through the bottom rail of the sash.

Doors
Doors are sometimes a high cost maintenance feature and could desirably receive
more attention from designers. External doors are more likely to be protected
from the weather than windows by porches or balconies, but if subject to rain-
splash may receive more wetting. Garage doors in particular are seldom protected
96 Building Maintenance

by overhangs, and their large size and outward opening makes them more liable
to mechanical damage which can strain joints and open breaks in paintwork.

Water penetration Rainwater does not usually penetrate into flush doors
unless openings are cut into them, as for glazed areas. It is essential that flush
doors used externally shall be of exterior quality and be fitted together with suit-
able glues. On the other hand, panelled doors resemble windows in that their
numerous joints provide many possible points of entry for moisture. A wide
bottom rail is normal practice, and an equally wide middle rail, usually 180 to
200 mm wide, is now required to accommodate a British Standard letter box.
The amount of dimensional change in such a wide rail resulting from seasonal
variations in atmospheric humidity is considerable. If the joints between horizon-
tal rails and vertical stiles are well glued there is a risk that the rails will split
when shrinkage occurs during a dry summer. In practice, only limited amounts
of glue are normally used so that swelling and shrinkage take place, and the pro-
tective paint film over the joint is broken, with the unsealed joint acting as a
moisture reservoir. Risk of water penetration into the lower rail is increased if the
interface between the weather moulding and the rail is not adequately sealed. In
like manner, external glazing bars should be undersealed with putty or mastic.
Use of unsuitable glues which are not resistant to moisture or an insufficient ap-
plication of glue can lead to early joint failure, accentuated by the increasing ten-
dency in small modem houses to fit doors to open outwards. The low natural
resistance to fungal attack of the softwoods commonly used in door manufacture
is a further factor contributing to deterioration following moisture penetration.

Framed doors Denton3 has described how the majority of doors used in local
authority or speculative houses are mass produced and some are poorly designed
and constructed. He instances some types of framed door with dowelled joints
which are liable to open up with shrinkage, permitting the entry of moisture and
possible decay. Panels of external doors should not be of plywood unless it is of
good quality and glued with water-insoluble adhesives; otherwise the panels may
be subject to blisters, cracking and peeling.
In older houses, framed doors usually contain 12 mm thick panels set into
grooves in stiles and rails with mouldings planted or worked solid around the
edges of the panels. Where panels crack, the split usually follows a glued joint and
this can be repaired by soaking off the old glue and rejointing. A panel mould
parallel with the split is removed and the joint closed by levering the panel with a
chisel. Where damage is more extensive the panel may have to be removed. A
panel should not be glued into the grooves and nails or pins fixing panel mould-
ings should not penetrate the panel, as they would prevent natural shrinkage
and could cause the panel to split.

Door frames and thresholds External doors need the bottom rail rebated over a
galvanised steel water bar and to have a throated weatherboard fixed to the
bottom rail, to prevent rainwater penetrating under the door, particularly when
it is in an exposed position. On occasions, weatherboards are too narrow to shed
the water satisfactorily over the timber threshold, and thresholds are sometimes
machined to weather to an excessively thin front face which may subsequently
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-IV 97

curl up and form a channel which collects water and may even discharge it over
the threshold into the building. It may be necessary to replace the threshold with
a wider one and possibly to replace the water bar. Door frames set within 75 mm
of the outer face of walls in exposed positions need protection by door heads. The
bottoms of external door frames may decay due to lack of painting. Defective
lengths can be cut out and new sections spliced on with the joints put together in
white lead or thick paint to make them watertight, replacing defective thresholds
at the same time. Flexible sealants need to be applied between frames and the
adjoining masonry to secure a watertight joint. The main types are well described
in DOE Advisory leaflet 70. 4

Joinery defects Doors which shrink unduly should be taken off their hinges and
a strip fixed to the hanging stile. Other defects include damaged arrises (external
angles) and indentations. Slightly damaged arrises may be rectified with a plane
and chisel. Where the damage is more extensive the arris could be rounded. Shal-
low indentations can be removed by hot water treatment and finished with a
smoothing plane. In more severe cases, the dent can be drilled out with a centre
bit and filled with a wood plug or piece of new wood, followed by redecoration.
On redecoration, defective panels can be hidden by covering the door faces with
plywood or hardboard. Warped doors can be adjusted by easing (planing the
shutting stile). A survey by Sinnott30 of 183 new dwellings erected by 92 builders
in the West Midlands revealed a generally low standard of joinery work, mainly
resulting from poor workmanship on site and careless handling and storage of
materials rather than the quality of materials used, although the finish of timber
and timber products supplied to the builder is often poor. The contrast between
manufactured fitments and work done on site was markedly to the disadvantage
of the site work.

Ironmongery
The provision of good quality ironmongery reduces failures and hence mainten-
ance costs. Bronze metal antique finish (BMA) is often polished which results in
exposure of the brass and subsequent damage to surrounding paintwork. Ano-
dised aluminium is generally preferable with stainless steel for high class work.
Aluminium ironmongery is best fixed with aluminium screws as steel screws are
apt to rust.

Corrosion of Metals
The corrosion of metals in buildings may result in one or more serious defects,
namely
( 1) the structural soundness of the metal may be reduced;
(2) it may cause distortion or cracking of some other building material in
which the metal is bedded;
(3) failure of the metal may result in water entering the building;
(4) unsightly surfaces may be produced.
98 Building Maintenance

Low-alloy steels or weathering steels have been used extensively in the United
States and are now being used increasingly in the United Kingdom. When per-
mitted to rust under suitable conditions, corrosion soon ceases.

Ordinary steels, including mild steel and sheet steel, require suitable protective
treatment, preferably with steel surfaces adequately prepared by pickling or blast
cleaning. Weathering, wire brushing and painting will give a much reduced life.
Heavy steel sections carry millscale, and if these are allowed to weather, rusting
is likely to occur under the scale. Paint adheres well to scale but the scale itself
may flake off taking the paint with it. Painting over rust, although not so serious
as painting over millscale, is undesirable as the paint is likely to deteriorate.

Iron is liable to severe corrosion under normal clitnatic conditions. The rusting of
iron requires the presence of water, oxygen and carbon dioxide (or other acid)
and is accelerated by increased acid concentration. Exposed ironwork requires
protective treatment often in the form of corrosion resistant paint.

Corrosion of non-ferrous metals-lead, copper, zinc and aluminium-was

considered in chapter 4 under flat roof coverings. Aluminium window frames are
now used increasingly and opinions vary as to the form that maintenance might
take. Some believe that no maintenance is required, particularly in only mildly
corrosive environments. In moderately corrosive situations provision should be
made for washing the window frames at fairly frequent intervals to prevent ac-
cumulation of dirt and subsequent corrosion beneath it. Where possible, arrange-
ments should be made for the frames to be washed over when the windows are
cleaned.'

Plasterwork
Some of the more common plastering defects with their main causes and
remedies are listed in table 5.1, extracted from various DOE advisory leaflets.6

Other Plastering Defects

On occasions problems of flaking and bulging of the final plaster coat have oc-
curred within six to nine months of plaster being applied to clinker or breeze
block walls and partitions. The usual cause is the greater drying shrinkage of the
blockwork and undercoat plaster relative to the finishing coat. Clinker or breeze
blockwork tends to shrink as it dries out, particularly if the blocks have not been
matured for a sufficiently long period, or if they are wet when laid. Plaster under-
coats, particularly of cement, lime and sand, tend to shrink with the blockwork.
Little drying shrinkage occurs in finishing coats of gypsum plaster and hence
these may break away from the undercoats and blockwork as the latter shrinks,
resulting in hollowness and flaking. If the finish is thoroughly keyed to the
undercoat, cracking only may occur. Defects of this kind normally arise within a
year of plastering.
Table 5.1 Some Plastering Defects and Their Causes and Remedies

Defect Cause Remedy

CRACKING
Fine hair cracks on the Use ofloamy sand (if work Filling of fine hair cracks is
finished plaster is in gypsum plaster extremely difficult; it is
throughout). Excess lime in often better to apply
final coat. wallpaper-or a lining
Applying final coat before paper if a painted finish is
initial shrinkage of under- required
coats is complete (if under-
coats are based on cement
or lime)

Clearly defined cracks Poor treatment of joints. Cut out and fill. In some
following a definite line, Shrinkage or warping of cases cracks are liable to
particularly with plaster on timber studding or joists. reappear and repairs
building boards Settlement or thermal should be postponed for as
movement long as possible

Loss OF ADHESION
Loss of adhesion of final On gypsum undercoats-a If the undercoat is too weak
coat in work of two or more strong final coat over a very the only cure is to strip and
coats or single coat work on weak undercoat replaster. If the undercoat
building board* On cement or cement:limB is sound strip the final coat,
based undercoats-apply- allow the undercoat to
ing final coat while under- thoroughly dry, roughen
coat still 'green' and/or in- surface, remove dust with
adequate mechanical key damp brush and replaster
Dirty surfaces * Strip and replaster. Check
*Wrong type of suitability of board for
board-such as plaster- plastering
board intended for direct Treat the surface with one
decoration or two coats of a suitable
*Use of lime in plaster PV A emulsion if there is
any doubt about its
providing a satisfactory
bond

QUICK SETTING PLASTER

Plaster sets too quickly Plaster very fresh from Open tops of bags and
works and still hot allow plaster to cool
Dirty mixing water or par- Use clean water and keep
tially set plaster from a mixing platform, buckets
previous gauging and tools clean
Unsuitable sand-normal- Test the sand for grading
ly the setting time of sand- and cleanliness. As a tem-
ed plaster decreases as the porary cure reduce the
volume of sand is increased proportion of sand
The set will speed up if the Store in dry conditions and
plaster has been kept too do not store for more than 2
long or if bags have become months--checked from the
damp date stamped on the bag
Defect Cause Remedy

SLOW SETIING PLASTER

Plaster sets too slowly An unsuitable sand can ex- Test the sand and change if
tend the setting time of a necessary. With sanded
sanded plaster to 12 hours, mixes the setting time will
whereas the setting time increase as the proportion
with a standard sand is of sand is decreased
about 3 hours
DRY OUT
Plaster surface soft and Plaster drying before set- Use the correct grade of
powdery with very fine ting. Gypsum plaster re- plaster applied to the cor-
cracks quires as much water in rect thickness. On work
setting as is driven off from already plastered the only
the gypsum in manufacture remedy is to strip and
replaster
EFFLORESCENCE
Soluble salts on plaster face Soluble salts brought Dry brush the surface
forward from the carefully and repeatedly as
background to which the the salts appear.
plaster has been applied, to The salts should be swept
the face of the plaster as the up and thrown away. Good
building dries out ventilation will hasten the
drying process.
Decoration is best delayed
until the structure is
thoroughly dry; if this is
not practicable use a
porous paint suitable for
early decoration
SEALED IN WATER
Moisture trapped in new Much of the water used in Use permeable paints to
plaster construction can be retain- allow the moisture to
ed in the structure for a evaporate and facilitate
considerable time. Wet proper drying out. If im-
plaster should not be sealed permeable paints are to be
with impermeable finishes used the walls must be
allowed to dry out
thoroughly
MOULD GROWTH The growth starts in Once the construction has
minute windborne spores dried out the growth will
which alight on and stop. Any existing mould
develop in the newly and decoration should be
applied coating. The spores scraped off the surface of
will only develop if the plasterwork. When dry
dampness is present the affected area should be
treated with an antiseptic
wash such as 'Santobrite'
or 'ICI Mould Inhibitor',
keeping the work dry and
ventilated
FLAKING AND PEELING OF Persistent moisture Strip defective plaster and
FINAL CoAT penetration through the provide positive barrier to
background dampness or substitute
cement-based mixes
Defect Cause Remedy

IRREGULARITY OF SURFACE Uneven trowelling or Lay or point in a mortar

TEXTURE marked differences in similar in character to the
suction of backgrounds bricks or blocks, or apply
often due to the mortar an additional coat of
having a very different plaster
suction from that of the
bricks or blocks
POPPING OR BLOWING Particles in the backwound Small holes may be filled by
or in the plaster, hme or brush treatment with thick
sand which expand after slurry of plastic paint or
the plaster coat has set quick setting hemihydrate
plaster. Larger holes filled
by normal patching tech-
niques, matching sur-
rounding material in
porosity and colour
RECURRENT SURFACE Deliquescent salts attract Strip the plaster and
DAMPNESS moisture from the air. provide an impervious
They can result from the barrier
use of unwashed sea sand,
and be carried from the
background into the
plaster by, say, conden-
sation in an unlined flue
RUST STAINING Application of unsuitable Strip the plaster and
plaster to metal lathing or replaster with metal
plaster in contact with cor- lathing plaster or mixes
rodible ferrous metal in containing Portland cement
persistently damp con- and/or lime. Paint ends of
ditions galvanised metal lathing or
metal scrim. Metallic con-
duit or channelling need
treating to prevent rust and
positioning sufficiently
deep below the surface to
prevent cracking of plaster
SoFTNESS OR CHALKINESS Excessive suction of the un- Adequate wetting, use of a
dercoat, undue thinness of bonding agent, proper
the final coat, working past application of a final coat of
the setting point, or ex- adequate thickness, or use
posure of final coat to ex- of a special type of plaster
cessive heat or draughts
during setting
Note: Plastering defects may be due to causes other than the use of faulty plastering materials or techniques.
For instance, moisture penetrating an external wall may cause blistering, efllorescence, flaking or complete dis-
ruption of the plaster--or a plastered ceiling may crack because the construction permits excessive deflection.
No plaster repair can be expected to remedy these problems, and it is essential to determine the real cause of the
problem before spending money on remedial work.
102 Building Maintenance

In repairing the plasterwork) the application of a new finishing coat to the

existing undercoat is usually satisfactory, provided it is left for a sufficient period
of time. The undercoat must be thoroughly cleaned down. If the suction of the
undercoat is very high, a finish of well soaked lime putty and sand with a light
gauging of gypsum plaster usually gives good results. Alternatively, an emulsion
bonding liquid can be applied to the undercoat prior to applying the finishing
coat.
Plaster joints between structural columns and internal walls may crack due to
differential movement between column and wall. This defect can be avoided by
forming a groove in the plaster at the juncture, or by making a cut in the plaster
and masking it with a cover strip fixed at one edge only. External angles of plas-
tered walls are liable to damage and the provision of a metal or plastic angle piece
will give protection. The insertion of galvanised metal scrim containing an angle
bead into the plaster at external angles is probably the ideal arrangement.
Where plaster extends across different backgrounds, the fixing of expanded
metal across the junctions will reduce the risk of cracking due to differential ther-
mal expansion and drying shrinkage. Thus in the case of the columns previously
described, the columns could be bridged by expanded metal over building paper
fixed to the wall on either side, to isolate the plaster from any movement of the
column. Where cracks can be anticipated, as at the junction of wall and ceiling, it
is advisable to make a straight cut through the entire thickness of the plaster
along the line of the junction. Plaster scrims can also be used to prevent unsightly
irregular cracking. Small movements between walls and ceilings can be covered
by plasterboard cove to pleasing effect.
Premixed lightweight plaster (bonding grade) or thin wall plasters are best
suited for plastering on dense concrete. Surfaces should not be plastered until the
concrete has dried out sufficiently. Bonding agents must be used in accordance
with the manufacturer's instructions. Where no bonding agent is used the sur-
face of the concrete should be pre-wetted immediately before plastering.
When it is necessary to plaster painted brickwork, good adhesion is required.
This may be obtained by hacking the surface over at least one half of the area and
raking out the joints or by fixing wire mesh or fabric about 6 mm from the sur-
face of the brickwork. The choice of plaster is important-suitable plasters being
retarded hemihydrate gypsum plasters or a proprietary concrete bonding plaster.
Where used in conjunction with metal mesh, the undercoat should contain a
small proportion oflime.

External Renderinp
External renderings can be used to prevent rain penetration through porous
brick walls, since the rendering not only fills the hair cracks in the mortar joints,
but a textured or dashed finish tends to throw off water from the face. Neverthe-
less, renderings even when incorporating waterproofers are not entirely water-
proof and good workmanship and suitable mixes are essential if cracking is to be
prevented. 7
Plain renderings should ideally be porous and weak, so that the contraction
occurring during setting and drying out will be widely distributed and not cause
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-IV 103

large cracks which are characteristic of strong mortars. A porous rendering will
absorb some rainwater but will not readily transmit it to the background and it
will dry out during the next fine spell. In conditions of severe exposure, the first
coat at least of the rendering should be fairly impervious. In exceptionally severe
conditions where the wall is likely to be subject to hard frost or continuous driv-
ing rain, pebble dash or roughcast are preferable to plain rendering as they shed
water well and do not crack excessively with a rich mix. Hence the selection of
mix is influenced by the type of background, degree of exposure and decorative
considerations. 8
The background must be thoroughly cleaned and any fungi algae destroyed
with a suitable fungicide and removed. Hollows should be dubbed out using a mix
that is stronger and coarser than the first undercoat but weaker than the back-
ground. Where the thickness exceeds 16 mm it should be applied in two or more
coats. Backgrounds should be dampened to reduce excessive suction.
Choice of undercoats is very much affected by the type of background as
shown in table 5.2. There are five generally recognised background types.
(A) High density-very dense bricks, blocks or concrete with low suction
and smooth surfaces, requiring a mechanical key such as bush-hammering for
concrete or a bonding coat of spatterdash.
(B) Moderately strong and porous materials-most bricks and blocks are
in this category and joints are raked out to provide a key.
(C) Moderately weak and porous materials such as lightweight concrete or
bricks of low strength. The rendering must be weaker than the background
otherwise shrinkage could result in failure of the background surface.
(D) No fines concrete with many large voids provides a good mechanical
key.
(E) Metal lathing is best plastered on both sides. Where fixed to battens,
self-firring nails or distance pieces should be used so that the first coat can be
forced through the lathing to encase it.
Some backgrounds contain appreciable amounts of salts, particularly sul-
phates, which can in the presence of moisture attack cement in mortars and ren-
derings. A good rendering will normally prevent damp penetration but in the case
of rising damp metal lathing should be fixed to impregnated timber battens, bitu-
men-impregnated fibre lathing used or, better still, a damp-proof course inserted.
Undercoats should not be less than 9 mm or more than 16 mm thick, with each
succeeding coat thinner than the preceding and combed to provide a key for the
next unless it is machine applied. Finishing coats vary between 6 and 10 mm in
thickness, although fine-textured machine finishes may be as thin as 3 mm. In
conditions of severe exposure three-coat work is recommended and two-coat
work for moderate conditions. The undercoat must be allowed to dry out thor-
oughly and for the worst shrinkage to take place before the next coat is applied.
Two days are usually adequate in summer increasing to a week or more in cold or
wet weather. 8
Finishing coats may take various forms
(1) Pebble dash or dry dash is a rough finish of small pebbles or crushed
stone, graded from about 6 to 13 mm, thrown on to and sometimes lightly pressed
Table 5.2 MiKes of Readerlap for Varloua Situatioaa
Background Type offinish First and :subsequent undercoats Finish coat
Exposure grading Exposure grading
Sewre Moderate Sheltered Sewre Moderate Sheltered

A Wood float 1,2or~ 1,3orf 1,3orf lorJ 1,3orf 1, 3 orf

High Scraped or
density Textured 3 3or4 3orf 3 3or4 3ori
Roughcast 1, 2 or 3 1,2or3 1,2or3 As Undercoats
Pebble dash lor2 lor2 lor2 2 2 2
B Wood float 2orJ 3 ori, 3or4, J 3orf 3orf
Moderately Scraped or
strong and Textured 3 3or4 3or4 3 3or4 3ori
porous Roughcast 2or3 2or3 2or3 As Undercoats
Pebble dash 2 2 2 2 2 2
c
--
Woodftoat}
Moderately Scraped or 3 3orf
weak and Textured :Mf) As Undercoats
porous Roughcast 3 3
Pebble dash ~or3 ~or3 ~or3

D Wood float l,~or3 1,2,~or4 1, 2,J or4 1, 2 or 1 l,J or4 1, 3 or.f

No fines Scraped or
concrete Textured l,~or3 2,jor4 2,Jor4 3 3or4 3or4
Roughcast l,~or3 1,1_ or 3 l,~or 3 1, 2 or J 1,2or1 1, 2 or 1
Pebble dash lor~ lor~ 1 or1. 2 2 2
E Wood float 1,2or 3 1,2or-3 1, 2 or 3 1or1 1 orl, 1 or 3
Metal Scraped or}
lathing Textured 1,2or3 1, 2or3 1,2or 3 3 3 3
Roughcast
Pebble dash lor2 lor2 1or2 2 2 2
Source: DOE Advisory leaflet 271
Notes:
1. Mix proportions by volume
Mix- Cement Lime Sand
1 1 Otot 3
2 1 4to4t
3 1 t2 5to6
4 1 8to9
2. Mixes underlined arc preferred mixes.
3. Exposure gradings:
Severe---exposure to the full force of wind and rain, as with buildings on hills or near the coast, and tall buildings in towns.
Moderate--walls protected by caves or other architectural features, and by neighbouring buildings such as buildings in towns and suburbs.
Sheltered-walls m districts of low rainfall, and those in close proximity to other buildings, such as ground and first floor walls in towns.
106 Building Maintenance

into a fresh coat of mortar and left exposed. A pebble dash finish on an undercoat
with a spatterdash coat beneath is particularly suitable for walls exposed for long
periods to driving rain and wind, being very durable and generally free from
defects. It must be applied to fairly strong backing.
(2) Roughcast is a finish thrown on as a wet mix and left rough. The aggre-
gate in the finishing coat consists of sand and crushed stone or gravel graded
from about 6 to 13 mm. A roughcast finish on an undercoat with a spatterdash
coat beneath is very suitable for severe conditions.
(3) Smooth floated finishes are subject to surface crazing and this is accen-
tuated with mixes that are rich in cement or which use fine sands. Best results are
obtained with wood- or felt-faced floats.
(4) Textured finishes are obtained by the use of tools on finishing coats.
Scraped finish is obtained by scraping a partially set final coat with a hack-saw
blade or other suitable implement to produce a rough surface. Textured and
scraped finishes are suitable for all conditions and are less susceptible to crazing
than smooth finishes.
(5) Machine applied finishing coats vary in roughness with the materials
used and the type of machine, and they are suitable for all conditions. Pro-
prietary materials are normally supplied ready for mixing but in the absence of a
special undercoat a 1:1:6 cement-1im~and would be suitable.•
A coloured final coat can be obtained by any of the following methods.
(1) Using a selected sand or other aggregate.
(2) Using white or coloured cement.
(3) Mixing in suitable pigments.
(4) Using proprietary finishing materials. 8
One of the worst problems with external renderings is shrinkage cracking.
This can be reduced by using weaker mixes containing coarse sand with a low
clay or loam content.9 Rainwater trapped behind a crazed rendering may pen-
etrate inwards when drying out.

External Wall Tiliq

Some extensive failures of external wall tiling have occurred in recent years and
defective tiling on tall buildings can cause serious problems. The wall tiles can be
fixed with a cement: sand bed or with adhesives and each are considered.
When using a cement :sand bed, the tiles should preferably have a good under-
cut key in their back surface. The background should also have an adequate key
by using keyed bricks, or deeply raked brick joints, or by grit blasting or bush
hammering concrete or by using some other suitable method. Bedding and
render coats should incorporate the coarser sands and thick coats should contain
galvanised reinforcement adequately tied back to the structure but spaced out
from the background to provide a key. Ample soft joints should be provided in
accordance with the manufacturer's instructions; passing through the thickness
of tile, bed and render, and coinciding where possible with any discontinuities in
the background. 10
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-/V 107

When fixing tiles with adhesives, all surfaces must be clean, dry and free of
loose material. At least 14 days should elapse before fixing tiles on to new render-
ing and protection from rain is necessary during fixing and from 7 to 14 days
afterwards. The adhesive must form a solid bed and with thin-bed adhesives this
effect is obtained by applying an even layer of adhesive to the wall and pressing
each tile into position with a twisting action and gentle beating immediately after
the application of adhesive. With thick-bed applications the normal method is to
'butter' adhesive on the back of each tile before placing and beating. Flexible
movement joints sealed with a flexible sealant must be provided both horizon-
tally and vertically at 3 to 4.5 m centres. Structural joints should extend through
to the surface of the tiling. After fixing, joints should be left open for a few days to
permit adequate drying out of the adhesive before grouting. 11

Internal Finisbings
With the wide variety of surfacing materials and decorative finishes now avail-
able, selection poses problems. Appearance, durability, acoustics, ease of clean-
ing and cost are all important. They are also subject to the changes of fashion and
widely differing forms of usage. A choice has often to be made between a long
life surface finish and shorter life coating or decoration with the consequent need
for more frequent maintenance. 12 The relative merits of plastered solid partitions
and 'dry' plasterboard require careful consideration, including regard to the in-
convenience and cost of replacing the more vulnerable material. 13
Ceramic wall tiles provide a very popular finish for bathrooms, toilets and kit-
chens. They should be of good quality and be laid with straight joints in both
directions. Most tiles are now fixed with adhesives, a method which permits them
to be applied to hardboard and plasterboard surfaces, and makes the replacement
of cracked or loose tiles easier. After each section of tiling is fixed it should be
washed down and the joints grouted up with gypsum plaster paste.
Attractive and durable finishes to walls and fitments can be obtained by using
a wood chipboard core with a decorative melamine plastic surface. Common
thicknesses are 12 and 18 mm and this finish is hardwearing and offers good re-
sistance to heat and liquids. Defective wall plaster can be replaced with new plas-
ter or with a dry lining of plasterboard fixed to timber or plasterboard battens. 14

Decorations
The importance of decorations is evident from the fact that the maintenance
costs of buildings are approximately equally divided between decoration, services
and structure. Decorations enhance the appearance of buildings and in many
cases also protect materials which would otherwise deteriorate. In general the
protective function lasts longer than the deterioration in appearance, although
there are design details which sometimes make it difficult to renew the paint coat-
ing adequately and hence fail to ensure continued protection. Typical examples
are the difficulty of painting behind downpipes fixed close to walls and securing
108 Building Maintenance

an adequate thickness of paint on angular or sharp edges of joinery.7

Paintwork Qualities
The quality of paintwork can be assessed in various ways and the following indi-
cate some of the more important desirable features of good paintwork
(1) attractive, bright, evenly coloured and smooth finish;
(2) absence of paint on glazing and other adjoining unpainted surfaces;
(3) satisfactory colour scheme;
(4) absence of rust marks;
(S) absence of resin exuding from knots;
(6) adequate body to paint coating, entirely obliterating any background
colours;
(7) freedom from cracks, blisters and other defects. u

Defects in Paintwork
Paintwork may become defective for many reasons and the more important ones
are described later in this chapter. Defects can occur through poor application of
the paint. The most common examples are ridges in the paint film caused by
brush marks, sagging due to downward movement of the paint film and wrink-
ling during drying resulting from the paint being applied too thickly.
The Local Government Operational Research Unit has defined 'states'
through which an element passes as it deteriorates from a new condition. With
emulsion paint the states were defined as
(1) no visible defects,
(2) soiled,
(3) badly soiled but paint film intact,
(4) slightly crazed and flaking,
(S) extensively crazed, flaking or peeling. 16
In practice deterioration processes are not uniform and at any point in time
different parts of the decoration are likely to be in different states, and is further
complicated by variations in assessment by different technical personnel.

Painting Cycles
Southwel1 17 has identified three reasons for redecoration
(1) part of a policy of preventive or planned maintenance;
(2) part of a policy of redecoration for reasons other than maintenance;
that is, for the benefit of users who may enjoy an occasional change of colour
scheme;
(3) redecorating carried out because the protective coat has deteriorated.
Apart from the frequency of painting it is important to use a suitable paint. It
has been estimated that damage to British industrial buildings through corrosion
and neglect costs nearly £2m a day and that improved surface protection can
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-IV 109

save at least half of this amount. 18 The difference in capital cost between an
appropriate surface protection and a cheap paint is insignificant against the
labour and disruption costs involved in having to say paint one year earlier. Fur-
thermore, the cheaper paint may not be giving adequate protection over the shor-
ter life span with the possibility of consequent damage to the element concerned.
Painting costs depend on a variety of factors including the amount of paint-
work, frequency of painting, painting specification, accessibility, availability of
labour and current costs oflabour, materials and overheads. The cheapest and
most effective painting policy aims at obtaining a balance between excessive
painting costs and insufficient painting leading to the eventual replacement of
expensive building elements. In general annual painting costs increase with more
frequent applications but annual replacement costs are reduced. 19 However, a
government costs in use study of twenty-four Crown office buildings10 found that
office painting cycles were not rigorously followed, owing to differences in clima-
tic conditions, degree of exposure, amount of public use, and opinion as to proper
standards. Buildings are also decorated piecemeal to avoid undue disturbance to
the occupants, and there is some deferment of redecorations if an alterations
scheme is proposed.
Investigations into factory painting highlight the problem of scheduling the
work to avoid interference with production. This usually entails a concentration
of work during the annual shut-down period, and this is assisted by the use of
modern painting systems and techniques, including one coat spray on paints.
These are often based on high build alkyd resin blended with special pigments to
provide adequate obliterating power and film build in one coat and can be ap-
plied by airless or conventional spray equipment. 18
The intervals between paint cycles vary enormously with different conditions
from possibly 5 years in relatively mild areas to 1 year in aggressive locations.
The cycles may not however be based on complete repainting. A sound initial
paint base may be followed by spot-priming as necessary and one finishing coat,
as preparation is more costly than paint application. One industrialist estimated
the cost of repainting a large factory chimney every 2 years at £1000, while full
paint treatment every 5 years combined with disruption of production could
amount to £11 000. Table 5.3 shows possible painting cycle costs on steelwork. 18

Painting Processes
There have been many developments in both paint production and application in
recent years. Although some of the new paints may be less tolerant of poorly pre-
pared surfaces or bad weather than older materials, nevertheless they possess im-
portant advantages and can be used beneficially under certain conditions.
Careful preparation of the surface and skilful application are major factors de-
termining the performance of any paint. 21

Repainting Woodwork
Paintwork which is chalked or dirty but otherwise sound needs thorough wash-
ing before repainting, preferably with liquids containing mild soaps or soap pow-
ders or a proprietary wash. Once the dirt is loosened it should be removed with
110 Building Maintenance

copious quantities of clean water, the surfaces rubbed down with wet or dry
abrasive paper and allowed to dry. All cracks should be carefully stopped by

Table S.3 Painting Cyde Costs on Steelwork

Exposure time 1 year 3 years 5 years 6 years
Condition excellent good patchy corroded
Treatment no cleaning local 25%chip, 100%chip,
required 1 coat gloss scraping scrape, scrape,
paint wire brush wire brush wire brush
spot prime prime prime overall
2coats overall 2coats
gloss 2coats gloss finish
finish gloss finish
Cost comparison/
treatment 1.00 2.80 5.11 5.91
Labour/materials
ratio 1.8 to 1 3.8 to 1 3.15 to 1 3.8 to 1

Source: Building Maintenance, July/August 1973 11

using hard stopping (white lead and gold size) or a mixture of hard stopping and
linseed oil putty for external work, priming any bare wood before filling. Any
knots or resinous wood should be sealed with knotting or a self-knotting primer
to prevent resin exuding through the paint. Any bare wood should be primed to
fill the pores, stop the suction of the wood and to form a base for the undercoat.
Primers may be lead based or aluminium and are best applied by brush, paying
particular attention to comers, nail holes, joints and end grain. Bring primed
areas of woodwork when dry forward with undercoating, applying filler if neces-
sary, within 48 hours of priming. A compatible finishing coat should be applied
after the undercoating is dry by lightly rubbing down and cleaning the surface of
any loose matter. 22
If the existing paint is soft, very chalky or eroded, cracked, blistered or peeling,
or shows any adhesion weakness, it should be completely removed. Complete
removal is also desirable if the paint has been affected by mould growth or by
bleeding through of stains or preservatives, or if there is already an excessive
number of coats. Decayed timber should be cut out and replaced; both old and
new timber should be treated with a brush application of preservative, all end
grain being liberally treated before the new timber is inserted. The blowlamp
provides the quickest and most effective way of removing paint from wood, but
where it cannot be used, as against glass, paint removers of the organic solvent
type (BS 3761) are suitable, if care is taken to remove all traces of paint
remover. The bare wood should be rubbed down with abrasive paper and the
painting process continued as for new work-knotting, priming, stopping,
undercoat( s) and finishing coat. 23
New or bare exterior woodwork should be primed as soon as possible to pro-
tect it from the weather, but damp surfaces are best left unpainted until dry.
Where timber has been left exposed to the weather, any loose grain must be re-
moved by rubbing down, scraping or planing. A Greater London Council
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-IV 111

reporfZ 4 indicated that the prolonged period during which primed timber
remained exposed to the weather (up to 12 months) was considered a
contributory factor in the early breakdown of external paintwork on new dwel-
lings. Paint must not be applied on top of creosote, bitumen or tarry materials as
they are likely to bleed through the new paint and discolour it. One approach is to
scrape the surface well and to seal it with two coats of aluminium wood primer or
with one or two coats of good quality shellac knotting before applying the new
undercoat. Another alternative is to apply one coat of thinned knotting followed
by one coat of aluminium primer. Proprietary stop-tar knottings and styptic var-
nishes are also available. 22
Table 5.4 details painting defects on woodwork and possible causes.
Clear varnish can give an attractive finish to exposed external woodwork
where a natural effect is required. At least four initial coats are essential. For
maintenance thoroughly clean all surfaces, strip any brittle or flaking areas with
a solvent remover and wash down with clean white spirit, stop cracks, holes and
open joints, and brush two coats of varnish on the dry surfaces. 2 '

Repainting Metalwork
Repainting metalwork should not be delayed beyond the appearance of the first
traces of rust. This avoids the more costly work later of removing all rust and
paint. The old paint surfaces can be rubbed down and finished with one or two
suitable coats. Any very small patches of rust can be removed and touched in with
an inhibitive primer. Complete removal of the paint followed by suitable surface
preparation is necessary if rust covers more than 0.5 per cent of the area. Old
paint is often difficult to remove. Solvent or alkaline paint strippers are reason-
ably effective provided their residues are removed with white spirit or large quan-
tities of water. Alternatively a blowlamp, scrapers and wire brushes may be used.
Angles, crevices, bolt heads and rivets must be cleaned with special care. 26

Table 5.4 Painting Defects on Woodwork

Possible causes
Painting
Defect Preparation of Application Exposure
wood

Blistering Damp or unseasoned Paint poorly applied Excessive heat

wood.
Knots not properly
treated
Peeling Damp or unseasoned Paint poorly applied,
Poor adhesion wood. particularly the
Flaking Surfaces not prop- priming coat.
erly cleaned Too long between
coats
Irregular Damp or unseasoned Paint applied over
cracks wood. soft new paint Excessive heat
Paste or size left on
wood
 Possible causes
Painting
Defect Preparation of Application Exposure
wood
Insufficiently Surface not cleaned Paint poorly applied.
opaque Undercoat too thin
('grinning') or uneven
Colour uneven
Resin coming Knots not properly Too much resin for Resin softened by
through treated. knotting to seal heat
Very resinous knots
not cut out
*Delayed drying Surface not properly Finish applied before Damp, cold or frost
Uneven drying cleaned. undercoat complete-
Residues of paint ly dry
removers.
Painting on creosote
without sealing
*Discoloration Painting on creosote Fog.
or bitumen without Yellowing of white
sealing. due to insufficient
Surface not properly light (ultra-violet
cleaned. starvation)
Knots not properly
treated.
Stains from various
species of timber,
either as solid, ply or
veneer.
Pigment dyestuffs,
generally reds or
maroons, melt when
burned off, are ab-
sorbed into the wood
and discolour the
paint system, unless
sealed
*Poor gloss Alkaline materials Paint poorly applied. Damp, fog or frost
left on wood Still, cold air in un-
heated rooms
*'Bloom'-hazy or Gas or paraffin Condensation
white appearance on heating dunng dry-
gloss ing
*'Sinkage'-patchy Unsuitable under-
low gloss coat.
Finish applied before
undercoat sufficient-
ly dry
*'Sheeriness'- Paint not properly
uneven gloss stirred. Failure to
maintain a wet edge.
Vigorous brushing of
matt paint in dark
colours
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-IV 113

Possible causes
Painting
Defect Preparation of Application Exposure
wood
*'Wrinkling'-loss *Can also be caused Paint dries too Excessive heat
of gloss by excessive quickly.
retention of preser- Skin-drying of paint
vatives or their film.
solvents, due to in- Mixing resin-based
sufficient drying out paints with oil and
other paints.
Adding unsuitable
solvents
Source: Depanment of the Environment Advisory leaflet 25 22

Severely rusted metal window frames must have all putty and glazing removed
to allow thorough cleaning by brushing and scraping. Two coats of red lead,
metallic lead or zinc rich primer should be applied before reglazing and puttying.
The putty should be bevelled t,o shed water from the joint and the exposed primer
given undercoats and exterior quality finishing paint, even inside buildings. 26

Repainting Plastered Walls and Ceilings

Emulsion paints have now largely superseded oil-bound distemper as a finish to

plastered walls and ceilings with their wider range of finishes and better resist-
ance to washing. They dry rapidly and two or more coats can be applied in one
day. Emulsion paints can be applied to most surfaces but the manufacturer's
advice should be sought for use externally, on wood or metal, or when conden-
sation is present. 27 Rollers, airless spraying and other modem techniques should
be used as far as practicable, to reduce the labour component of maintenance
work. 12
Smooth surfaces should be rubbed down to a matt surface prior to painting. If
the surface is soft or powdery or has been decorated previously, all loose material
must be removed by washing and brushing off, while soft size-bound distemper
or ceiling distemper must be washed off completely. Dirty surfaces must be thor-
oughly cleaned. Before applying emulsion paint over wallpaper it is advisable to
start with a small area, in case the paper contains colours which bleed into the
paint. Emulsion paint is normally applied in two coats with a wall brush, flat dis-
temper brush up to 150 mm wide, 100 mm varnish brush, roller or spraygun, and
should be thinned only with clean water. 27
Surfaces that have previously been painted with emulsion paint may be rede-
corated with other materials provided that the emulsion paint is sound and
adhering well. It should be rubbed down wet before redecorating and then al-
lowed to dry before applying oil paint. A coat of size may be needed after rubbing
down and before hanging wallpaper. Emulsion paint which is not adhering satis-
factorily may be removed by scraping or wire brushing. 27
114 Building Maintenance
Surface defects most likely to affect painting will be those caused by dampness
from direct rain penetration, rising damp or condensation, and the only really
satisfactory remedy is to stop the damp penetration. A compromise solution is to
use a permeable paint which will allow salts or moisture to escape. Slight efflores-
cence occurring after a first decoration can usually be cured by applying an
alkali-resistant primer. Where extensive making good of plaster is necessary, this
may result in areas which are alkaline or of different absorption from the remain-
der, and it is best to coat the whole wall with alkali-resistant primer, even when
using emulsion paint, for safety and uniformity of finish. Tarry or sooty stains on
chimney walls cannot be sealed by paints although lead foil is sometimes satis-
factory. If the staining is extensive the plaster may have to be removed and recur-
rence can be prevented by installing impervious flue linings. Persistently damp
conditions encourage mould growth and improved ventilation is often a better
remedy than fungicidal paints. A comprehensive list of defects on painted walls
with their causes and cures is given in BRE Digest 5 7. 29

Painting ofMasonry and Asbestos Cement

It is advisable to use alkali-resistant paints for painting masonry and asbestos
cement. A less satisfactory alternative is to apply one or two coats of alkali-
resistant primer followed by a normal paint system such as oil gloss paint. With
asbestos cement, porous paints are preferable as they allow the material to
breathe with less risk of damage; suitable paints being cement paint, bituminous
paints (emulsion type) and acrylic emulsion paints. Impermeable alkali-resistant
paints, such as those based on chlorinated rubber and bituminous paints
(solution type) are suitable for use on brick, stone and concrete walls in addition
to the porous paints previously listed. 28

Pattern Staining
Pattern staining consists of dark and light patterns which appear on plaster sur-
faces. The pattern on a lath and plaster ceiling forms virtually a complete replica
in light and shade of the lathing and joists. It may also occur on the soffits of
hollow tile floors, on ceilings of wallboard or plasterboard nailed to joists, on
hollow block partitions, on frame walls and on wall linings or coverings where
these are fixed to battens.
Some dirt or dust from the air is bound to accumulate on walls and ceilings,
and with pattern staining it stands out clearly and spoils the appearance of the
wall or ceiling long before the general darkening of the surface would make re-
decoration necessary. It is caused by the cooler surfaces receiving a greater amount
of dust. Wood laths are poor conductors of heat and the heat flows more slowly
through the lath and plaster than through plaster alone, and so the areas under
the laths collect more dust; similarly with upper floor and ceiling joists.
Various methods can be used to remedy this defect.
(1) To make the surface warmer than the air by choosing a form of heating
that will keep the wall or ceiling surface warm. Radiant heating systems are pref-
erable to convection systems.
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-IV 115

(2) To maintain a uniform temperature over the whole surface of the wall
or ceiling by (a) selecting a suitable type of plaster; (b) adding insulation locally
at points where heat flow is high, or (c) adding insulation over the whole struc-
ture to obtain a general reduction in heat flow.
Insulating materials which have been used with success include 20 mm of slag
wool, 25 mm glass silk and 15 mm insulating board, each on brown paper.

Glazing
Prior to glazing, rebates should be cleaned and primed. Glass should be cut to
allow a small clearance at all edges and then be back-puttied, by laying putty
along the entire rebates and bedding the glass solidly, sprigged for timber rebates
and pegged for metal rebates, and neatly front puttied, taking care to ensure that
putty does not appear above the sight lines. 14 The putty prevents the passage of
air, dust and moisture past the glass and consists oflinseed oil putty to BS 544 for
wooden frames and metal casement putty for metal and non-absorbent hardwood
frames. As linseed oil putty sets, some absorption takes place through the primer
into the wood frame.
The putty requires protection with a minimum of two coats of paint as soon as
it has set sufficiently to receive it. The undercoat can usually be applied within 7
to 14 days after glazing depending on atmospheric conditions and size of fillet,
and the final gloss coat of paint should be applied within 28 days of glazing and
extend about 2 mm beyond the inside edge of the face putty to prevent rain erod-
ing the putty edge. Aluminium frames should be treated with zinc chromate
primer to ensure effective adhesion ofthe putty. 31 When reglazing, all old glass
and putties must be hacked out and the rebates thoroughly cleaned prior to
inserting the new glass. The majority of glass used is of ordinary glazing quality
(OQ) to BS 952. For panes exceeding 1m2 clear sheet glass should be at least
4mmthick.
Considerable wilful damage to glass in large panes and vulnerable positions,
such as in doors to lock-up garages, has occurred on housing estates. In some
cases it would be better to use transparent plastics, preferably polycarbonate,
instead of glass to reduce the risk of breakage. 32

Double Glazing
With the rising cost of heating fuels there is an increasing demand for the double
glazing of existing windows. One common arrangement is to fix a second line of
glazing with wood or plastic face beads to existing frames. As described in chap-
ter 4, no matter how well the glazing seals are made, the cavities cannot be
expected to remain airtight indefinitely. Another approach is to fix separate
secondary windows. 33

References
1 Department of the Environment, Princes Risborough Laboratory, Main-
tenance and Repair of Window Joinery (H.M.S.O., 1972).
116 Building Maintenance
2 -Building Research Establishment Digest 73: Prevention of Decay in
Window Joinery (H.M.S.O., 1966).
3 C. Denton, 'Local Authority Housing Maintenance--Maintenance of
Doors and Windows,' Building Trades Journal (28 April1967).
4 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 70: Flexible Sealing Ma-
terials (H.M.S.O., 1968).
5 K. A. Chandler and H. S. Campbell, 'Protection and Maintenance of Metals
in Buildings,' Technology of Building Maintenance: Conference Report:
Bath University (H.M.S.O., 1968).
6 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 2: Gypsum Building Plas-
ters (H.M.S.O., 1972); Advisory leaflet 9: Internal Plastering (H.M.S.O.,
1972); Advisory leaflet 21: Plastering on Building Boards (H.M.S.O.,
1969).
7 T. W. Parker, 'The Maintenance of Buildings, part 4: the Technology of
Maintenance,' Building (9 September 1966).
8 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 27: Rendering Outside
Walls (H.M.S.O., 1971).
9 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 15: Sands for Plasters,
Mortars and Renderings (H.M.S.O., 1971).
10 Department of the Environment, DOE Construction, 4: 'External Wall
Tiling with Cement: Sand Bedding,' (December 1972).
11 Department of the Environment, DOE Construction, 5: 'External Wall
Tiling with Adhesives,' (March 1973).
12 Department of the Environment, Research and Development Paper: The
Relationship between Design and Maintenance (H.M.S.O., 1970).
13 B. A. Speight, 'Maintenance in Relation to Design,' The Chartered Sur-
veyor, (October 1968).
14 I. H. Seeley, Building Technology, (Macmillan, London and Basingstoke,
1974).
15 British Standards Institution, CP 231: 1966 Paintingofbuildings.
16 Local Government Operational Research Unit, Report C 144: Hospital
Building Maintenance--Can Decision Making be Improve(fl (H.M.S.O.,
October 1972).
17 J. Southwell, 'Methodology in the Use of Maintenance Costs for Systematic
Design,' RIGS Nottingham Regional Conference No. 3 (Trent Polytechnic,
1967).
18 - 'It Pays to Plan with Paints,' Building Maintenance (July/August
1973).
19 Local Government Operational Research Unit, Report D2: How Often
Should You Paint?, (H.M.S.O., November 1970).
20 Department of the Environment, Costs in Use: A Study of 24 Crown Office
Buildings (Directorate of Quantity Surveying Department, H.M.S.O.,
1971).
21 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 57: Newer Types of Paint
and their Uses (H.M.S.O., 1964).
22 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 25: Painting Woodwork
(H.M.S.O., 1971).
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-/V 117

23 - Building Research Establishment Digest 106: Painting Woodwork

(H.M.S.O., 1969).
24 Greater London Council, Scientific Branch, Annual Report of the Scientific
Adviser (1972).
25 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 62: Maintaining Ex-
posed Woodwork (H.M.S.O., 1967).
26 -Building Research Establishment. Digest 70 (second series): Painting
Metals in Buildings: 1-Iron and Steel (H.M.S.O., 1966).
27 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 37: Emulsion Paints
and How to Use Them (H.M.S.O., 1973).
28 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 28: Painting Asbestos
Cement (H.M.S.O., 1967).
29 -Building Research Establishment Digest 57 (second series): Painting
Walls-3. (H.M.S.O., 1965).
30 R. Sinnott, 'Quality of Surface Finish in New Homes,' DOE Con-
struction, 8 (H.M.S.O., December 1973).
31 - 'Glazing-the Uses and Misuses of Putties,' Building Trades Journal
(17 August 1973).
32 - Building Research Establishment Digest 132: Wilful Damage on
HousingEstates(H.M.S.O., 1971).
33 - Building Research Establishment Digest 140: Double Glazing and
Double Windows (H.M.S.O., 1972).
6. BUILDING MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTION-V
Plumbing, Heating and Hot Water Supply, Air Conditioning, Electrical
Installations, Gas Installations, Lifts, Refuse Collection from Flats,
Drainage, Safety, Security, Fire Precautions, Cleaning and Repair of
Flood Damage

Plumbing
Building services are costly maintenance items and their lives are usually much
less than those of the buildings which accommodate them. Hence particular care
should be taken in the selection, design and installation of these services, to
ensure that maintenance can be carried out easily, quickly and economically. All
services should be readily accessible with adequate access and working space pro-
vided. This becomes all the more important with tall buildings, as was evidenced
by the lack of initial consideration in the United Nations Building in New York,
with unfortunate consequences. 1

General Faults
The composition of water varies as between different areas of the country and
some waters tend to corrode certain metals when used alone or in combination
with other metals. It is preferable to keep to the same metal throughout a water
supply system wherever practicable.z There have been cases of premature failure
of galvanised steel pipes laid in clay soils caused by anaerobic bacteria. Suitable
protective measures include a reinforced bitumen coating or surrounding the
pipes with 225 mm of sand or gravel.
Pipes need to be securely fixed at intervals not exceeding 1.2 m on horizon-
tal runs and 1.8 m on vertical runs to give adequate support. All joints should
be made in accordance with best practice. Hudson 3 found that many failures
of capillary joints on copper pipes resulted from insufficient preparation,
grease preventing adherence of the solder. Plastics pipes of polythene or
unplasticised PVC (uPVC) are now being used for cold water supplies and
should comply with BS 3284 for high density polythene, BS 1972 for low den-
sity polythene and BS 3505 for uPVC. The various methods of jointing plas-
tics pipes are well described in DOE Advisory leaflet 76. 4
Concern has been expressed at the high incidence of trouble with ball valves
and leaking taps and it has been suggested that a study of the number and
cause of failures would assist in determining the design improvements that are
most urgently needed. Most overflow pipes discharge in conspicuous positions
so that the defect is soon noticed and remedial action taken. On occasions
however overflow pipes discharge internally into fittings or hose pipes are
118
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-V 119

taken from external overflows to take any overflow water into the nearest gully.
In high rise buildings, there is a possibility of winds carrying away the overflow-
ing water so that it goes undetected. Overflow pipes must always be of a larger
diameter than inlet pipes to avoid water overflowing into the building if the
valve becomes stuck in the fully open position.
A ball valve may fail to close for one of several reasons-perforated float,
eroded seating, defective washer or the presence of grit or lime deposit. Copper
floats, especially when soldered, may become corroded resulting in breaking
away or perforation of the float; this will not occur with plastics floats. High velo-
city discharge of water from a ball valve may erode the seating and cause leaks.
The remedy is to install a new seating, preferably of nylon, or to reseat the valve
with a special tool. Worn washers require replacement and the seating should be
inspected at the same time, as it may be the cause of the trouble. With hard water,
corrosion coupled with lime deposition may cause the valve piston to stick in the
open position; where this is repeated, the valve should be periodically dismantled
and cleaned, and the piston greased. Grit may be a similar source of trouble, par-
ticularly in newly built houses where the water system has not been thoroughly
flushed.z
Sticking of the valve in the closed position may occur with unoccupied houses
where dirt and lime have dried out on the working parts. This can be remedied by
moving the float up and down a few times or, better still, by dismantling the valve
and cleaning it thoroughly. The splashing of ball valves can often be reduced by
fitting a silencing tube or drown pipe to the valve. A number of these problems
can be avoided by using the 'Garston' ball valve developed by the Building Re-
search Establishment.z
Leaking taps waste water and are a nuisance, particularly in baths, where they
cause stains. Taps leak when the washer becomes worn or when metal seatings
are used and become eroded. Black synthetic rubber washers are suitable for
either cold or hot taps and have a long life.z
Pipes and fittings need to be accessible after installation for purposes of ex-
amination, repair, replacement and operation. James' has described how some
cold water tanks in flat-roofed buildings are placed so close to the ceiling, to gain
height, that it is impossible to adjust the ball valve let alone change it. Some ser-
vice cores become so congested that it is not always possible to reach important
stopcocks and valves.
Exposed pipework provides maximum accessibility but is often resisted on aes-
thetic grounds, although it may not be too objectionable if fixed to follow skir-
tings, architraves and similar features. Concealment in cupboards provides
accessibility and eliminates problems of appearance. Pipework installed in ducts
in solid floors which require breaking up to reach a leaking joint cannot be
regarded as reasonably accessible. Pipes below solid floors should preferably be
laid in sinkings in the floors covered with access panels or be encased behind skir-
tings set forward from the wall face. Vertical pipes may be fixed in recesses in
walls faced with removable panels. 6

Frost Precautions
Extensive damage to plumbing systems can occur in severe winters unless ad-
120 Building Maintenance
equate precautions against frost are taken. Surveys of frost damage have shown
that most frost damage is avoidable and that the greatest source of damage is out-
side waterclosets and washhouses, followed by internal plumbing and rising
mains. 7 Essential frost precautions are well described and illustrated in DOE Ad-
visory leaflet 41.8
(1) Run pipes in safe places wherever possible giving external pipes at least
750 mm cover and siting them in ducts where they approach the ground floor. In-
ternal pipes should preferably be located on inside walls with appliances grouped
to keep pipe runs as short as possible.
(2) Fix pipes to proper falls to permit emptying when the building is left un-
occupied and unheated, with emptying cocks at all low points.
(3) Protect all pipes in vulnerable places by lagging, using one of the
methods described in DOE Advisory leaflet 3.9
Unheated out-buildings such as WCs and garages are particularly vulnerable,
and any pipes and tanks installed in them should be well lagged and stopcocks
fitted to cut off the supply in the event of a burst, while outdoor standpipes re-
quire adequate lagging with a waterproof covering. Unheated bathrooms can
also be a source of trouble and wherever practicable some heating should be pro-
vided by means of an adjoining domestic boiler or hot water cylinder, radiator or
heated towel rail. As far as possible, pipes and tanks should not be located in the
roof space, but where this does occur, the storage cistern should be placed im-
mediately above the hot water cylinder and be suitably insulated on all sides
except the bottom, often with expanded polystyrene panels. All pipes in the roof
space, except warning or overflow pipes, should be lagged or fixed below the ceil-
ing installation. Pipes fixed tightly to external walls and under boarded ground
floors are liable to frost damage unless protected.
Occupants of buildings should be advised of any frost precautions that they
need to take and the following recommendations are applicable to occupiers of
dwellings.
(1) Know location of main stopcock and be sure that it operates easily
and closes tightly.
(2) Know location of all pipes and provide protection in draughty places.
(3) Pipes must be lagged where the temperature cannot be kept above
freezing point.
(4) Before leaving a house unoccupied in the winter months, turn off the
water supply preferably at the main and drain off the whole system. This may
not be necessary where a heating system continues to operate on time control
and the dwelling is unoccupied for a short period only.
(S) To reduce the likelihood of WC traps freezing when a dwelling is left
unoccupied, dissolve a handful of salt in half a litre of hot water and pour into
the pan.
(6) Attend to any dripping taps or leaking ball valves at once before they
cause trouble. The water authority may rewasher cold water taps free of
charge.
(7) Where no frost precautions have been taken and the dwelling has
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-V 121

been unoccupied during a spell of severe frost, refrain from switching on the
immersion heater or lighting the boiler until sure that the system is completely
free of ice.
(8) Where there is severe leakage from burst pipes, switch off the electricity
supply at the main. 8

Storage Tanks
Many failures of galvanised steel tanks have occurred where they have been used
in association with copper pipes. Certain types of water are capable of dissolving
minute particles of copper from the pipes of a hot water system. When the water
comes into contact with the galvanising of the tank, some of the copper is depo-
sited on the zinc and an equivalent amount of zinc is dissolved. Electrolytic
action between the copper and zinc causes rapid attack on the zinc coating and
ultimate perforation. Rusting of the unprotected steel then takes place and before
long the tank begins to leak.
In general a hot water system is best constructed throughout of copper, unless
previous experience in the district shows it to be safe to use these materials to-
gether. If there is any doubt about a galvanised steel cold water tank, it is best to
paint the internal surfaces with a non-tainting bituminous paint, which will form
a protective coating and so reduce the electrolytic action. Other alternatives are
to use tanks of plastics or asbestos cement.

Plumbing Noises
The avoidance of plumbing noises is often a matter of good planning and design
and the choice of quiet appliances. Sanitary accommodation should ideally be
separated from living accommodation but this may prove difficult in blocks of
flats and the conversion of existing properties to separate dwelling units. The
dividing wall between a bathroom or we and a bedroom should not be less than
75 mm concrete block, plastered both sides. The door to a bathroom or WC
should be as heavy as possible (solid core if flush doors) and wellfitting. 10
In existing dwellings where bathrooms or WCs are located over main rooms
with wood joist floors, it is advisable to introduce as much pugging as the ceiling
will take and possibly to reconstruct the floor as a floating floor to give maxi-
mum insulation. In the latter case a flexible rubber joint will be required be-
tween the WC and the soil stack. The flushing cistern should be isolated from
the wall by resilient pads of thick cork or rubber.
A WC flushing cistern generates noise in two ways-(1) from the flushing
mechanism, and (2) from the ball valve. The quietest form of flushing mechan-
ism is the siphonic type with a cistern of thick vitreous china or plastics, but this
will increase cost. A quieter ball valve-the Garston valve, developed by the
Building Research Establishment, and some other valves will benefit from the
addition of dip or drown pipes. The use oflow level flushing cisterns and insula-
tion of internal stack pipes assist in reducing plumbing noises.
When water flowing in a pipe is suddenly stopped by the rapid closure of a
valve or tap, the pressure causes a surge or wave which rebounds from the valve
and passes back down the pipe. The loose washer plate or jumper on the valve
122 Building Maintenance
oscillates giving a knocking sound known as water hammer. The resultant
pressure in small rigid pipes may damage them. In cisterns fed through 12 mm
pipes, the float actuating the ball valve should have a minimum diameter of
150 mm to avoid oscillating.

Sanitary Pipework
Most modern plumbing arrangements use the single stack system which is well
described and illustrated in DOE Advisory leaflet 73 11 and BRE Digest 80. 12 In
single stack plumbing all forms of appliance discharge into multi-use discharge
pipes or stack pipes, which also act as vent pipes. A bath waste must enter the
stack above or at least 200 mm below the entry of a We branch. Wash basins,
baths and sink wastes should have 75 mm traps to avoid the possibility of the
traps becoming unsealed, and Wes must have a 50 mm seal. The maximum slope
of a 32 mm wash basin waste depends on the length of waste pipe and where it
exceeds 1.68 m in length it should be vented or alternatively a waste pipe of a
larger diameter should be used or a resealing trap which is effective but noisy.
The length and slope of bath and sink wastes are not critical but long wastes may
become blocked by sediment settling out of the waste water and access for clean-
ing should be provided.
The bend at the foot of a stack should be of large radius, possibly using two
135° fittings. To avoid trouble from detergent foam, sanitary appliances on the
lowest floor should be separately connected to the drainage system. The mini-
mum vertical distance between the lowest branch connection and the drain invert
should be 450 mm for three-storey houses with a 90 or 100 mm stack and 7 50 mm
for taller dwellings. Ample provision should be made for access, particularly at or
near bends. With 90 or 100 mm stacks access should be provided at each floor,
but with 125 and 150 mm stacks access at every third or fourth floor will be suf-
ficient. 11 In multi-storey office buildings containing a number of Wes and wash
basins on each floor, the wash basin wastes may need venting if provided with
S-traps. 13
Where appliances are widely spaced, as in a hospital, it may be impracticable
or even impossible to use a single stack method. BRE Digest 81 14 describes how
pipe systems in older hospitals often take tortuous routes with only limited access
stemming from lack of co-ordinated planning of different services, both with
each other and with the main structure. Most stoppages occur where the pipe-
work is complicated by knuckle bends, sharp offsets and 92!0 junc-
tions--clearance is expensive, can cause disruption of the hospital and may be a
possible cause of cross infection. Pipework is sometimes blocked by disposable
items, including plastic syringes and spatulas, which should be disposed of in
ward incinerators. Access is often inadequate, badly sited and inconvenient in
use. Planned maintenance is recommended, including regular cleansing of grease
traps, and this requires adequate drawings showing the drainage layout and
access points.

Appliances
we flushing cisterns should fill within 2 minutes and, to secure this, the size of
 Building Maintenance Problems and theirSolution-V 123

the valve orifice must match the supply pressure. Hence with a very small head a
9 mm orifice may be necessary to give the required flow. Persistent slow filling
may also be due to partial blockage of the valve by foreign matter which requires
clearing. Inadequacy of flushing may result from the cistern not being filled to
the prescribed water line. A perforated float partially filled with water needs re-
placing, otherwise careful bending upwards of the ball valve arm will remedy the
defect. Corroded and ineffective cast iron cisterns containing a cast iron bell
lifted by a chain pull should be replaced with a cistern containing a piston
actuated siphon, for more efficient and quieter operation.
Inadequate flushing may also be caused by an obstruction in the flush pipe,
often of jointing material, or by the flush pipe entering the pan socket at an angle.
The trouble may arise in the pan itself where, for instance, the flush of water is
confined to one side of the pan. Pans with siphonic discharge are more positive in
their action as the contents are pulled out by the suction created behind the trap.
For maximum quietness and efficiency, a close-coupled double trap siphonic
suite fitted with a Garston ball valve is recommended. 2
Wash basins of vitreous china are preferable to those made from earthenware,
since they are stronger and less absorptive. Overflows are usually difficult to
clean and dirty water rising in the overflow passage, when the waste plug is lifted,
leaves behind an unpleasant scum which can produce unhealthy conditions. For
this reason some housing authorities are specifying basins, baths and sinks with-
out overflows.
Showers require a minimum head of 900 mm between the bottom of the cold
water cistern and the shower rose to function satisfactorily. Where this head is
not obtainable, the cold water cistern may be raised above the level of the roof or
a pump may be installed to boost the pressure.

Heating and Hot Water Supply

Hot Water Supply
Defects in hot water supply systems may stem from one or more of the following
factors:

(1) Air locks When there is air in the system and on heating the water the air is
released and rises to the highest point. Ideally the pipes should rise towards a vent
point at a slope of 1:120 and air then escapes through the vent. Where pipes con-
tain dips or fall in the reverse direction, air becomes trapped and impedes the
flow of water. Trapped air is released by draining and refilling or by blowing
through the pipework.

(2) Insufficient hot water This can be caused by the inadequate size of boiler
or hot water cylinder, excessive length of primary flow and return pipes, poor
quality fuel, air locks, insufficient lagging of pipes and tanks, or possibly a com-
bination of these defects.

(3) Noises A particularly troublesome noise is the knocking which may occur
in primary flow and return pipes or in the boiler, resulting from expansion of
124 Building Maintenance
water by freezing, furring or corrosion, and possibly involving descaling or re-
newal of pipes. Knocking in cold water systems is termed water hammer and
usually results from faulty valves as described earlier in this chapter.

(4) Poor flow This can stem from air locks, insufficient head of water or air
drawn into the system through a vent. The latter defect can be remedied by
inserting a larger cold feed pipe or raising the storage cistern.

Modernising Plumbing Systems

The modernising and conversion of old dwellings often includes the provision of
or improvement of hot water services which will qualify for a grant. It may at the
same time or at some future date be decided to extend the system to include space
heating, when it is advisable to install an indirect system to avoid radiators run-
ning cold when domestic water is drawn from the tank, a slower rate of circula-
tion of heated water, and furring of the hottest parts of the system. 15 In severe
cases lime deposits may cause disruption of cleaning plates and gaskets on boilers
and the blocking of pipes and bends near boilers.

Heating Systems
The principal task of the building services engineer is to create a comfortable and
stimulating indoor climate. 16 Building services have become a major item in the
cost of new buildings and are also costly to maintain and operate, probably total-
ling nationally over £1000m per annum, although there is a lack of systematic
data on maintenance and energy costs. Both maintenance and energy costs for
services are influenced by the capacity of the plant, the extent of use, and design
aspects such as floor area, amount of glazing and quality of internal environ-
ment.17 The extent to which regular cycle maintenance or even periodic replace-
ment of some components is justified by the avoidance of breakdowns, needs
careful evaluation. 18
A common problem with solid fuel independent domestic boilers has been
down draught resulting from chimneys terminating below the ridge line. Rigid
joints between appliance flue pipes and brick or block flues often fracture and
are best remade with a more resilient material such as asbestos rope or cord.
Ashes from solid fuel boilers are not always removed as frequently as they
should be with resulting deterioration of firebars. Continual changes in the
design of heating appliances and the multiplicity of small parts create problems
in replacement. A reduction in the number and types of appliances and stan-
dardisation of parts would reduce maintenance costs. 19
The principal defects in boilers are listed by Hayes20 as noises resulting from
inadequate water flow or ineffective design, air entrainment through leaks, and
scale formation by fresh water inflow to replace water lost by air displacement
or leakage. Hayes also complains that boiler manufacturers take insufficient
notice of users' complaints. The operating efficiency of boilers has increased at
the expense of the adequacy of the materials used to cope with more exacting
conditions, requiring more frequent replacement, possibly at about 15 year
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-V 125
intervals. 18

Air Condidoning
Air conditioning has been defined as 'heating, ventilation and cooling by
mechanical methods to provide comfort conditions for occupants' ,11 Air con-
ditioning is becoming more common as some of the accompanying advantages
are more generally recognised-healthier atmosphere, alen staff, reduced clean-
ing and redecoration costs, and less external noise. The design of air conditioning
equipment is also changing and the later forms of packaged equipment can be
located in corridors, above false ceilings, on the roof or even in the conditioned
space itself. Furthermore, the equipment is being designed to permit longer
periods between maintenance visits.
For instance, roller bearings have replaced sleeve bearings in most fan
drives-they are cheaper in first cost, reduce noise and do not require attention
more than once a year and with small plants may be sealed for life. Refrigeration
compressors are often in sealed hermetic units to be replaced in the event of plant
failure. A low cost sealed unit oflimited life is a better buy than a longer life slow
turning open drive machine which can be serviced.11
With filters the rate of media replacement depends on the extent of pollution in
the environment. There are two main types of filter-the throwaway and the
cleanable. As a rough guide filter cells are changed or cleaned once a month in
heavily polluted locations, once every two months in built-up areas and city
centres and once every three months in rural or suburban areas. The life of the
t
cleanable filter is about 1 to 2 years. Modem filter developments for the more
complex installations include roll type and electrostatic filters. In practice
throwaway filters are proving the most acceptable as they can be regularly main-
tained by relatively unskilled persons. Probably the most common cause of air
conditioning plant failure is blocked filters, resulting in reduced air flow which
can be followed by freezing of refrigeration plant and reheater batteries, and
breakdown of fan bearings causing downflow of cold air with consequent occu-
pancy discomfort. Condenser coils need cleaning each spring by spraying with
acid solution and make-up water often requires chemical treatment. 11
A check list should be prepared of the items to be covered on a maintenance
visit. Resident staff can deal with matters within their capacity and the remain-
der given to a reputable service company. Goslingl 1 has drawn attention to the
shonage of qualified service personnel.
Loudon and Petherbridge11 have shown that there is no need to hold the
temperature constant in an air conditioned building-it should be kept within
an acceptable range for comfon. Since heat inputs in summer are intermittent
in nature, energy can be saved by running plant continuously at a fairly low
rate, allowing heat to pass into storage at peak periods and to be emitted at
other times.
A DOE subcommitteel3 recommended that manufacturers of air con-
ditioning equipment could assist maintenance by improving designs and in
some cases by reducing the complexity of the control system. Building owners
126 Building Maintenance
need to understand the value of properly implemented preventive maintenance.

Electrical Installations

Modem electrical installations generally incorporate ring circuits; a recognised

provision being one circuit for each 100m2 of floor area. 24 Each ring can carry
an unlimited number of 13 amp socket outlets. The ring system is cheaper and
more convenient than the earlier arrangement in which each socket outlet
required an individual sub-circuit with its own cable run from a separate fuse-
way. In a ring circuit a number of outlets is served by a loop of cable-run which
forms one sub-circuit; each pair of conductors forming the loop starts from and
returns to a single terminal on the fuse distribution board, with each outlet
receiving current from two directions. Spur connections may be taken from a
ring circuit to serve outlying socket-outlets; only two socket-outlets or one
fixed appliance is fed from each spur, and not more than one-half of all points
are fed by spurs. Cookers, immersion heaters and central heating boiler controls
should be wired on separate circuits. Cartridge fuses for ring circuit plugs
are standardised at two ratings-3 amp (blue) when the appliance has a
rating of not more than 720 W and 13 amp (brown) with appliances of 720 W to
3 kW rating.
Socket-outlets should be provided on a generous scale to give ample facilities
for the use of electrical appliances without the need for trailing flexes and multi-
ple adaptors. The following represents a minimum desirable level of provision:
kitchen--4; living area-3; dining area-2; each bedroom-2; hall and land-
ing-1; garage if integral with house--1; store or workroom-1. Where two or
more outlets are provided in a room they should wherever practicable be pos-
itioned on different walls and preferably be switch controlled, so that each
appliance can be isolated from the supply before the plug is removed. Switch con-
trolled double socket-outlets are preferable in most cases to reduce or eliminate at
very little extra cost the use of adaptors and consequent possible overload. The
siting of outlets in the floor for aesthetic reasons is not very practicable as it can
result in their being covered by carpets or, worse still, water on the floor may seep
into the electrical system. 25
Cables or conduits should be located well below surface finishes to avoid sur-
face cracks. Metal conduits or channelling and fixing nails require galvanising or
other suitable treatment to prevent rust staining through wet finishes. Some
timber preservatives can attack plastics insulation and sheathing on electric
cables. High standards of workmanship are essential for both efficiency and
safety. Electrical installations deteriorate due to ageing of the insulation material
and cumulative mechanical damage, hence installations should be inspected and
tested in accordance with the lEE Wiring Regulations at least once every five
years. 24 If repairs or alterations are required to electrical wiring built in and con-
cealed within the carcass or structure of a building, especially in domestic proper-
ties, it becomes necessary to break open the wall or floor surface to gain access.
There is a need for detailed wiring and location diagrams to minimise the work of
disturbance. The design of components, such as hollow detachable skirtings, to
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-V 127

accommodate electric wiring would also be beneficial. 25

Lighting
More than half the electrical energy supplied to commercial buildings in England
and Wales is used for lighting. With the emphasis on energy conservation it is im-
portant to obtain the best results from the energy consumed. The main function
of a lighting installation is to convert electrical energy into useful light of suitable
colour, in the required places and transmitted from the best directions. Sodium
discharge, mercury fluorescent and white or natural fluorescent tubes may often
provide economical substitutes for ordinary tungsten (GLS) lamps. 26
The design ofluminaires (lighting fittings) is often a compromise between pro-
jecting the maximum light on to a working plane and achieving a balance of
brightness on other room surfaces to promote visual comfort. The decorations of
a room can have a significant effect on the illuminance-the ceiling ideally being
white in colour, whereas white walls can be trying on the eyes, particularly in
small rooms. Glazed areas must be cleaned regularly to secure a significant day-
light contribution and the relative economics merit evaluation. 27
The illuminance from a lighting installation decreases from the first day of
use. All relevant factors require analysis to produce the optimum maintenance
pattern as described in IES Technical Report No. 9. 28 The design and installa-
tion of luminaires should aim for easy maintenance. The cheapest equipment
may be false economy in the long term. 26 The blackening of ceilings above elec-
tric lamps can be reduced substantially by fitting light shades to diffuse the heat.
There is a fire risk from plastics light diffusers and it is advisable to use extended
aluminium or other non-combustible material. The continual redesigning of
luminaires by manufacturers causes maintenance problems in matching existing
installations. Finally, very small installations with no resident maintenance staff
are relatively more expensive to maintain than larger installations. 17
Planned lighting maintenance (PLM) involves regular cleaning and replace-
ment of all the lamps in an installation. The frequency will depend on the burn-
ing hours per year of the lighting. As a guide, tubes that are used 100 hours per
week will need changing every 12 months, while those burning 25 hours per week
will only need changing every 4 years. Many factories use weekends or factory
shut-downs for maintenance, so as to cause minimum interruption of work. 5 7

Gas Installations

Gas appliances need regular servicing and cleaning. Smells of leaking gas must
immediately be reported to the local Gas Board because of the possible dangers to
occupants. The products of combustion must be discharged through suitable flue
pipes or blocks into the open air. Dampness in the roof spaces of houses has for
instance resulted from flue pipes from gas fired water heaters terminating in
unventilated roof spaces, whereas they should have been carried up to the ridge
and fitted with a ridge terminal. Both flues and flue outlets must be of suitable
128 Building Maintenance
size for the appliances served and have sound joints.

Lifts
A limited number of firms produce lifts to similar criteria but their parts are not
interchangeable. The best policy is to invite tenders for the maintenance contract
at the same time as tendering for the new installation, so that a decision can be
taken on the two items jointly, as this work cannot readily be undertaken by
direct maintenance staff. 18 The best guide to lift maintenance costs from the
known costs of existing installations is on the basis of the number of passen-
ger-floors (the product of the passenger capacity and the number of floors served
by each lift). 17
Damage by vandals in lifts can be reduced by careful design. Fouling of lifts
can cause damage to floors unless covered with PVC or other suitable sheet floor-
ing, although PVC is subject to damage by hot tobacco ash. The provision of a
we off the lift hall will also help but the we may also be subject to vandalism.
Plastics control buttons may be burnt or prised out to dislocate the lift service and
are best replaced with metal buttons. Lift doors may be damaged by being
wedged open principally by tradesmen delivering goods to flats, and this is best
resolved by the provision of stop buttons. 29

Refuse Collection from Flats

Most blocks of flats incorporate refuse chutes which terminate in refuse storey
chambers with the refuse frequently falling into containers with a capacity of
around 1 m3, and a caretaker replaces the containers as they are filled. Larger
containers holding up to 9 m 3 are sometimes used in conjunction with a special
vehicle equipped to lift and carry them. Furthermore, machines for reducing the
volume of refuse have been developed in recent years to make better use of the
space available in storage chambers. These compress refuse into rigid containers
or disposable sacks, or burn it in incinerators designed to ensure that the flue
gases are free of dust and noxious gases. 30
Incinerators reduce refuse to about one-tenth of its original volume. On the
other hand they add to the general level of atmospheric pollution, and they need
skilled maintenance and an expensive chimney. Compactors do not reduce the
volume of refuse as much as incinerators; nor do they increase the rate of decom-
position significantly. Hence at least a weekly collection is necessary, but com-
pactors do not cause pollution, are cheaper than incinerators and can be readily
installed in the majority of existing buildings. 30

Drainage
Drains can cause trouble in a number of different ways. Loads from foundations
of buildings or vehicles, or ground movement below drains can cause fracture of
pipe joints or, in severe cases, fracture of the pipes themselves. Rigid cement
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-V 129

mortar joints used extensively in the past with clay pipes are particularly
vulnerable. Drains may also become choked through the deposition of silt or
objects such as brushes and rags, particularly where the pipes are laid to flat gra-
dients with restricted flows, and there may be no provision for access at changes
of direction or gradient. Intercepting traps, now rarely installed, are another
cause ofblockage.
Blocked drains are cleared by rodding from manholes, inspection chambers or
rodding eyes. Defective pipes require replacing and leaking joints need cutting
out and making good. Inspection chambers and manholes should be inspected
periodically to check that they are in sound condition, particularly the benching
and rendering, and that the drains are running freely. Gully traps require cleans-
ing; the frequency being determined by local conditions. Ifleaking drains are sus-
pected, they should be tested by water, air or smoke.
Cesspools frequently leak and permit foul discharges into the surrounding
ground and sometimes into nearby watercourses and even wells. The usual
remedy is to waterproof the interior surfaces of the cesspool with waterproofed
cement mortar or a bitumen based application such as synthaprufe. Septic tanks
may on occasions require similar remedial treatment. Metal covers to manholes
and other chambers may rust and require an application of bituminous paint and
bedding in grease to prevent the escape of gases. Cast iron covers cracked by
vehicles need replacing with heavier covers or possibly suitable steel covers.

Safety
Modem building regulations and techniques provide effective safeguards and
means of access during the construction process, but these are often removed on
completion rendering subsequent maintenance unnecessarily costly or danger-
ous. Permanent provision should be made for access for maintenance purposes,
particularly in multi-storey buildings, otherwise makeshift methods may be used
which could lead to accidents. 31
With older buildings, maintenance operatives must be clearly instructed how
to reach parts of the building which are difficult of access, and the instructions
must be backed up with adequate supervision to ensure that the men do not take
dangerous short cuts. They must also be made fully aware of the dangers and
limitations of the materials and components with which they may come into con-
tact. A large proportion of the accidents which occur result from falls, frequently
from ladders, and these mishaps are often fatal or very serious. Safer conditions
stem from the provision of permanent means of access, such as fixed ladders, roof
walkways and handrails at places of high risk, coupled with the use of safety nets
to provide protection against falls from high points during temporary work. 31
Accidents are seldom really accidental, but result from ignorance of, or failure
to carry out, safety procedures, and from failure to enforce safety rules or carry
out scheduled inspections; they are seldom due to sheer carelessness on the part of
the victim. In practice, maintenance and safety are closely interrelated as the
maintenance engineer is likely to be responsible for both ensuring safe working
conditions and dealing with accidents. The appointment of a fully trained safety
officer is desirable in factories to ensure the co-ordination of safety aspects by a
130 Building Maintenance
single person-he may also carry out other functions such as fire prevention and
security. 31

Security
The security of an external door depends primarily on the type and construction
of the door and the strength and reliability of the hardware. The strength and
fixing of the door frame and type and extent of glazing are also important. 33 The
ideal construction is of solid wood, but this ideal has to be balanced against cost
and appearance. If glass is fitted in a position where its breakage will give access
to the lock or latch, it should be reinforced. 32 Hinges should be of adequate
length and positioned so that the pin is inside and the screws are concealed when
the door is closed. Letter plates should conform to BS 2911 and be positioned at
least 400 mm from the door locking device, and an internal cover plate offers ad-
ditional security. All exterior doors should ideally be fitted with a mortice lock
conforming to BS 3621, but doors less than 45 mm thick are weakened by such
locks and should be fitted with an automatically deadlocking rim lock. BS 3621
requires locks complying with the standard to provide a minimum of 1000 effec-
tive differs. Other doors should be reinforced with securely fitted shoot bolts, top
and bottom. The final exit door, which has to be locked from the outside, is obvi-
ously more vulnerable than those secured from the inside, and should be nor-
mally the one most overlooked by neighbours and passersby. Safety chains
provide an additional and effective security device. 33
Metal windows appear to offer slightly better security than wood; some manu-
facturers are offering security locks. A high standard of security for windows is
only possible by the use of expensive glazing materials and techniques, and
special fittings. A thief will normally try other means of gaining entry if it entails
breaking glass. If panes of glass are to be small enough to prevent entry they must
be not more than 0.05 m2 , but if this minimum is to be exceeded, then the larger
the better. Some side-hung casements have external hinges from which the pin
can be removed and the casement lifted out, in which case the pin should be made
secure by welding or other means. Sliding sashes may need protecting with a
locking device and louvres in windows should be checked to ensure that it is not
possible to bend or remove the glass seating, clips or glazing beads and that the
locking mechanism is adequate. The placing of small ventilating lights should be
carefully considered to avoid external access to fasteners on larger opening lights.
Plastic domed roof lights are often easily removable. 33 See also Security
Manual. 5 8
Balconies are a security risk and should be restricted to individual dwellings.
Shelters and porches to doors should not obscure view or provide cover for a thief
to work on the door. Careful attention should be paid to the siting of external
pipework as it may provide convenient access to upper windows. Coin-operated
gas and electricity meters are a security risk and where installed should be acces-
sible only from inside the dwelling. Suitable fencing, such as chain link not less
than 1.2 m high, around and between gardens will retard a thief. 32 Lighting is a
crime deterrent and a useful back-up aid to other security measures. 22
The annual cost of vandalism to buildings in England and Wales has been esti-
mated at £10m. There are probably two principal ways of combating it: (1) to
 Building Maintenance Problems and theirS olution-V 131

discourage vandalism by avoiding features in the design which appear to attract

damage and by using materials which are not easily disfigured; (2) to persist in
the repair and replacement of damaged and defaced work. 34

Fire Precautions
Constructional Aspects of Escape Routes
Escape routes should be protected to a minimum standard of half-hour fire resist-
ance. Enclosing walls rarely create problems but ceilings deserve attention. One
suitable approach is to use non-combustible insulating board such as 'asbestolux'
to a minimum thickness of9.5 mm nailed directly to the underside of upper floor
joists, which in their turn support 19 mm tongued and grooved floorboards, as
this will give the required half-hour fire resistance. Staircase enclosures can be
similarly constructed of 9.5 mm insulating board fixed to both sides of 75 x
50 mm studding at 600 mm centres, incorporating 75 x 6.4 mm cover strips of
insulation board. Alternatively, 12.7 mm insulating board without cover strips
can be used provided the sheets butt closely together. 3 '

Fire Hazards
Only essentially inorganic materials are non-combustible, but a small quantity of
organic fibre or binder is sufficient to render a material or component combust-
ible. The extent and rate of flame spread is important once ignition occurs and
the material continues to burn. The hazard oflining materials and other interior
surfaces of buildings is assessed by the surface spread of flame test prescribed in
BS 476. This test measures the rate of spread of flame along a panel subjected to
radiant heat at one end. Fire or flame retardants may be applied to surfaces of
high flame spread to reduce the rate of spread. 36
Sound management, adequate fire protection equipment and effective fire pre-
vention systems will reduce the likelihood of a serious fire, but they cannot
eliminate it. Precautions to limit the spread of smoke normally include the pro-
vision of smoke-stop doors in corridors, at entrances to staircases and lobbies and
in other suitable locations. Staircases should be ventilated by opening windows
and/or skylights. Automatic dampers should be provided at strategic points on
conveyors and in air-conditioned ducts. In large single-storey premises roof venti-
lators assist smoke dispersal. Basements present a difficult ventilation problem
and smoke outlets should be provided with fitted covers that can be removed or
broken to permit the escape of smoke. 37 Lofts create a special hazard with their
traditional use as storage areas for paper, cardboard boxes, timber and other
combustible materials, and the surrounding structural timbers ensure a ready
supply of fuel once a fire is started. 38

Fires E manatingfrom Electrical Apparatus

Electrical appliances and installations accounted for nearly one-quarter of the
known causes of fires in 1970, and approximately two-thirds of these started on
the fixed part of the installation. The most likely initiating cause is a high tension
132 Building Maintenance
resistance joint or a partially severed cable producing a local hot spot for which
there is seldom complete electrical protection. Other contributory factors include
leakage and short circuits due to old or damaged insulation, especially if coupled
with overfusing and overloading. Extensive temporary wiring of sub-standard
quality and inadequate maintenance provide further causes of fires. 39
Faults on flexible leads are responsible for about one-third of the fires in the
wire and cable category, and there is no doubt that flexes generally are a serious
hazard. Hot spots can develop so easily if there is a taped joint, loose terminal
connection or damaged insulation on a lead to a heating appliance. In industrial
buildings, apparatus running unattended for long periods can introduce a serious
fire risk. Much benefit would accrue were occupiers of buildings, and particu-
larly maintenance personnel, to carry out simple megger tests and visual inspec-
tions of installations, especially of flexible loads, at least at the frequencies
prescribed by the Institution of Electrical Engineers Regulations. This would re-
sult in many faults being rectified before they developed into breakdowns and
fires. 39

Fire Fighting Equipment

The provision of adequate escape routes and fire alarms in the majority of build-
ings frequented by the public is required under various Acts of Parliament, but
there is no statutory requirement for the installation of automatic fire detection
or automatic extinguishing equipment whose main function is to restrict the
damage to the building and its contents. Legislation in general provides for: (1)
provision and, where necessary, the enclosure of escape routes in suitable materi-
als; (2) aids to escape comprising fire alarms, hand extinguishers and emergency
lighting; (3) display of escape instructions and training of staff. The legislation is
framed to give local fire authorities a measure of flexibility in securing adequate
escape arrangements and equipment at minimum cost and disturbance and to the
mutual satisfaction of the persons responsible for the building and the fire auth-
ority.
Apart from the provision of adequate escape routes, legislation requires warn-
ing systems for buildings frequented by the public and adequate lighting of
escape routes even in the event of failure of the public electricity supply. There
are three recognised alarm systems-multi-zone, single zone and single point. 40
The multi-zone installation is suitable for complex industrial and commercial
premises, including the larger hotels. It generally consists of a series of sounders
(bells, klaxons and warblers) coupled with manual call points (break glass units)
all powered from a central battery unit continuously charged from the a.c.
mains. The more expensive systems incorporate detectors and automatic fire
brigade call-out facilities. The single-zone is particularly suitable for smaller
premises such as small hotels and guest houses. It consists of sounders and
manual call points, and may be powered from mains or standby batteries. Single
point units or self-contained alarms form the most economical way of protecting
a small property. 40
Smoke detectors are available in several forms but for general fire protection
in buildings one of two types are usually selected-(1) optical smoke detectors
which are activated by the absorption or scattering of visible or near visible light
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-V 133
by products of combustion, (2) ionisation chamber detectors in which com-
bustion products entering the ionised chamber alter the conductivity to initiate

Table 6.1 Weaknesses of Various Types of Fire Alarm Systems

Types ofalarm Weaknesses
1. Manually operated triangle and Someone must sound alarm until they are
hammer, manual bell, gas cylinder or sure everyone has heard.
air klaxon. Acceptable only in buildings with only one
or two ftoors and one sounder must be
audible throughout the building.
2. Dry battery operated bells, sirens, Dry batteries have a limited life and
klaxons or warblers. therefore need a regular programme of
replacement. They have a limited capacity
to operate sounders if battery volume is to
be kept small.
3. Lead acid (car) battery operated Lead acid automotive batteries are not
sounders (bells, sirens, klaxons or designed for this type of duty and are not
warblers). reliable over long periods.
4. Special purpose lead acid battery Special purpose lead acid batteries such as
operated sounders. the Plante type are relatively expensive,
very good, but must be maintained oc-
casionally if the unit is to be reliable.
5. Special purpose vented nickel cad- Vented Ni-Cd cells are more expensive
mium battery operated sounders. than the same capacity lead acid, but need
minimal maintenance and are not easily
damaged if abused.
6. Special purpose sealed nickel- Sealed Ni-Cd cells are expensive but need
cadmium battery operated sounders. no maintenance.
Source: Minter, 'Alarms and Aids for Personnel Escapcs40

the alarm circuit. The first category respond well to smoke particles and visible
combustion products, while the second type are better suited to detect invisible
gases from clear burning fires. 41
Portable fire extinguishers can be carried and operated by hand. A weight
limit of 18 kg has been suggested, although this may be too heavy for a woman to
handle. Where all or most of the occupants of a room are women, the ex-
tinguishing equipment should desirably be made up of 4.5litre water buckets and
3 kg dry powder or 9.8 kg carbon dioxide extinguishers. Extinguishers need
regular maintenance and there should be adequate personnel with knowledge of
and confidence in their use. Ideally extinguishers should be safe for the user, ef-
ficient and durable; they should discharge and reload rapidly, and be easy to
maintain and of reasonable appearance. The extinguisher selected should be on
the list of approved portable fire extinguishing appliances issued by the fire
office's committee.42
134 BuildingMaintenance
Four classes of fire are recognised by BS 4547: Class A fires involving solid
materials, usually of an organic nature in which combustion normally takes
place with the formation of glowing embers. These are best extinguished by
water type extinguishers. Class B fires involve liquids or liquefiable solids and are
best extinguished by smothering to prevent oxygen from combining with the
flammable liquid vapours or gas and this may be done by using a dry powder,
carbon dioxide or a vaporising liquid extinguisher. Class Cfires involve gases and
are extinguished in the same way as Class B. Class D fires involve metals, and
special powders have been developed for the extinguishing of various metal
fires. 42
The simplest form of fire fighting equipment is the water bucket, usually of
metal or plastics and of9 or 14litres capacity. They should be hung or stood on a
shelf not more than 1 m above floor level and be covered to reduce evaporation. A
typical provision is three buckets per 210 m2 of floor area with not less than six
buckets per floor. Hand pumps (stirrup pumps) for use with buckets of water are
extremely useful. 42
Building controls normally rely on passive fire protection, and make little or
no allowance for the beneficial action of sprinklers and other active measures.
However, sprinklers reduce fire severity and hence the risk of large fire losses,
and it is possible to make a case for relaxation of passive protection in favour of
active protection. Baldwin and Thomas56 have formulated a method for trading
off one against the other on a rational basis.

Fire Fighting Arrangements

Clear and unambiguous fire instructions, clearly audible alarms and regular fire
drills, give the occupants of a building a feeling of security and a sense of involve-
ment. They ensure that emergency equipment is tested at regular intervals and
that fire exits are kept clear and in usable condition. Where there is insufficient
staff available to regularly check and service fire equipment, a maintenance con-
tract should be negotiated. In the majority of industrial premises fire fighting
consists of nothing more than first aid fire fighting to hold the outbreak in check
until the fire brigade arrives, and it is therefore advisable to have a number of
staff trained to use the equipment and to be thoroughly familiar with all the
buildings. 31
Whether or not a company wishes to set up a works fire brigade depends on the
nature of the risk and the money available. In all cases there must be a foolproof
method of ensuring that the alarm is given to the fire brigade as soon as the fire is
discovered. Close liaison should be developed with the local fire service and op-
portunities provided for local firemen to visit the premises-this may one day
prevent the loss of the buildings by fire and possibly loss of life or injuries to fire-
men through unknown hazards. 31

Cleaning
General Background
The cleaning industry in the United Kingdom spends over £1000m per annum
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-V 135

and yet its performance does not compare favourably with the United States or
Scandinavia.43 Within 30 years after erection, or even less, cleaning costs may
exceed the original cost of the building. Lack of co-operation between architects
and maintenance and cleaning organisations all too often results in inadequate
consideration of cleaning aspects at the design stage, and designers generally
need to acquire greater knowledge of cleaning facilities, methods and equipment
and to receive improved feedback of information on the performance of build-
ings.44
The planning of even a single window in an inaccessible position can, over the
years, generate cleaning costs many times in excess of the value of the window.
Large areas of terrazzo and other flooring can be badly damaged by using the
wrong cleaning materials. The effectiveness of maintenance and cleaning work
can be increased by the architect supplying a maintenance manual which in-
cludes a full description of finishings, furnishings and fittings in the building.
The manual should also contain the various manufacturers' recommendations
for cleaning and maintenance. All cleaning and maintenance procedures should
desirably be logged in the manual so that if the building changes hands the new
occupier will see what has been done and what he should do to maintain the
building to a reasonable standard. 4'

Method ofExecution
The owner of a building often has the choice between carrying out cleaning work
by direct labour or letting it out to a contractor. Cleaning contractors concen-
trate their energies on this class of work and inevitably develop efficient tech-
niques and considerable know-how. They relieve the client of the problems
involved in recruiting a work force, and organising and equipping it. Taking
flooring as an example-each type needs its own cleaning technique. Some of
these needs for caution are fairly obvious but if overlooked can ruin a floor, such
as using spirit based cleaning materials on rubber or benzine based materials on
pitchmastic. Labour accounts for the greater part of the cost of cleaning and
must be effectively used and supervised. 46 With offices, specialist contractors are
usually better suited to deal with cleaning of carpets, rugs, curtains and venetian
blinds as well as telephone cleaning and disinfecting and cleaning of windows and
rooflights. 31 A costs in use study of offices by DOE 47 showed that direct labour
cleaning costs considerably more than contract cleaning in the cases investigated.
When engaging a cleaning contractor, it is important to employ a reputable
contractor, preferably on a three-year contract to provide incentive and continu-
ity. There should be a penalty clause to deal with non-performance in addition to
provision for cancellation. The method of payment and notice for termination
must be clearly prescribed, together with details of frequency, methods, equip-
ment and materials, supervision and work force. 48
The DOE survey47 distinguishes between daily cleaning of offices-floors, ash
trays and waste baskets, and periodic cleaning involving a more thorough clean
every 3, 6 or 12 months, when files are taken out and dusted or vacuum cleaned,
and it also includes the regular polishing of floors. CP 153: Part 1, specifies fre-
quencies for the internal and external cleaning of windows (seep. 136).
In industrial buildings, cleaning of overhead pipework and steelwork should
136 Building Maintenance
be carried out at regular intervals, otherwise dust will build up until draught and
vibration cause it to fall and become both a nuisance and a danger. 31

Type of building Frequency

shops weekly
banks and business premises twice monthly
offices and hotels monthly
hospitals monthly
factories (light industry) monthly
(heavy industry) every two months
schools every two months
domestic buildings monthly

Preventive Devices and Storage Space

Adequate preventive devices should be provided to eliminate difficult cleaning
tasks. These include waste receptacles and cigarette urns, preferably wall
mounted to avoid creating an impediment to floor cleaning. Plastics liners for
waste receptacles and garbage cans prevent rusting and need for cleansing, and
also provide vermin and odour control. 49
Probably the most sadly neglected area is the adequate provision of storage
facilities for cleaning materials and equipment. One example is the multi-storey
teaching hospital in Nottingham where the cleaning closets are too small and are
only provided on every other floor. Hence cleaning trolleys have to be left in corri-
dors and cleaners have to transport equipment from one floor to another. Ideally
storage closets should be at least 2.4 x 1.8 m to accommodate the equipment and
materials for two cleaners. They should have good lighting, easily cleaned sur-
faces, a sink and hose point, ample shelving and fixings for hanging tools. 50

Windows
Windows need cleaning periodically to secure clarity of vision and maximum
daylight penetration, maintain good appearance of building, prevent accumu-
lation of dirt which when washed off by rain may harm wall cladding, and reduce
deterioration of glass through attack by pollutants.
Windows may be cleaned in a number of different ways. Ladders may be used
for heights up to 9 m and for reasons of safety the feet should be placed at one-
quarter the vertical height from the building. Rubber inserts or cups are some-
times provided on the feet as a further safety precaution. Travelling ladders and
suspended systems may be used from permanent rails or tracks fixed in front of
the parapet or under the eaves, using suspended cradles on wire ropes where the
height exceeds 30 m. Other alternatives are demountable rails and walkways.
Some windows can be cleaned from the inside by using projecting hinges or
pivoted windows. The maximum safe reach to clean adjoining fixed glazing is
560 mm sideways, 510 mm upwards and 610 mm downwards.

Flooring
Floors suffer from the effects of traffic and soil, and the most damaging soil is
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-V 137

usually that carried in by foot traffic. Soil trapping devices should be installed to
combat floor damage and reduce cleaning costs, and these include gratings,
mechanical matting and walk-off matting. Other floor protection measures in-
clude the selection of good furniture glides and the use of plastics strips or corners
under filing and stationery cabinets. Protection of floors against chemical
damage is important-har sh alkaline cleaners should never be used on resilient
floors. 51
Student surveys collated by the York Institute of Advanced Architectural Stu-
dies52 found lino sheet to be the cheapest floor covering investigated followed
fairly closely by carpet. Other floor coverings which proved reasonably economic
in cleaning costs were wood strip, rubber tile and sheet, and wood block. The
most costly were clay, composition and terrazzo tiles, with thermoplastic tiles
and PVC sheet lying between the two extremes. The colour of floor tiles and
sheets is also important since a dark colour shows dusty footprints while a light
colour shows black burn marks. A speckled or marble pattern looks well and is
easier to clean. H

Sanitary Appliances and Kitchens

Health hazards can arise if staff restaurants, kitchens and toilets are not properly
cleaned and maintained. The vermin, likely to thrive in dirty conditions, may
also endanger building services by gnawing through electric wiring and plugs
and plastics pipes. There needs to be a close working relationship between clean-
ing and maintenance staffs to secure a satisfactory standard of cleanliness. Fre-
quent cleaning will do little to improve the appearance of badly stained, chipped
or cracked appliances which have served their useful life and require replace-
ment. Similarly, continuously dripping hot taps should be rewashered. 54
Kitchens need hard, smooth and non-absorbent wall, floor and ceiling sur-
faces, with coved angles and rounded corners to facilitate cleaning. From time to
time it will be necessary to restore food preparation rooms and appliances to a
thoroughly clean and serviceable state compatible with age and general con-
dition. Deep cleaning is specialised work and experienced specialist contractors
should be employed. S4

Repair of Flood Damage

Before starting work on a building that has been flooded, electricity, gas and
water services should be tested and isolated if necessary. All water trapped in or
around the building should be drained or pumped out as soon as possible.
Checks should be made for water trapped in underfloor air ducts, service access
pits, cavities in cavity walls, and areas under the building. Mud, silt and debris
that have accumulated against external walls, under boarded floors or in hollow
wall cavities should be removed, and underfloor spaces sprayed with disinfec-
tant.
After cleaning, the building should be heated and ventilated as much as pos-
sible, taking the following precautions-ke ep windows and doors open as much
138 Building Maintenance
as possible, lift floorboards near walls to increase draught under floors, keep fur-
niture and pictures away from affected walls and open cupboard doors. Porous
building materials such as brickwork may take months to dry out. Where both
sides of a wall have an impervious coating, it may be necessary to remove the
covering from one side. All timber must be dried out as soon as possible to mini-
mise the risk of fungal attack. Timbers attached to or embedded in damp walls
are very vulnerable and require careful examination.
Structural damage can occur if there has been severe buffeting by flood
waters; simple immersion is unlikely to cause such damage. Damage to foun-
dations may occur during drying out if the subsoil is shrinkable clay.
Water trapped in electrical ducts or conduits must be removed by opening in-
spection elbows and conduit boxes. The electrical installation should be inspected
and tested at monthly intervals for the first six months and at least twice in the
next six months.
Sea water flooding creates additional problems, as walls contaminated by deli-
quescent salts in sea water may remain permanently damp. These salts may also
cause severe corrosion of metal fastenings and electrical installations."

References
1 - '£1,000,000,000 Cinderella', Maintenance Engineering (April1965).
2 -Building Research Establishment Digest 15 (second series) Pipes and
Fittings for Domestic Water Supply (H.M.S.O., 1961).
3 S. Hudson, 'Problems of Building Materials', The Chartered Suroeyor
(December 1959).
4 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 76: Plastics Pipes for
Cold Water Supply (H.M.SO., 1969).
5 D. B. James, 'The Maintenance Manager-and Design', Building Main-
tenance (January 1972).
6 J. Knight, 'The Accessibility of Water Fittings', Building Trades Journal
(27 July 1973).
7 B. Hawkley, 'Avoiding Frost Damage', Building Trades Journal (21
February 1969).
8 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 41: Frost Precautions
(H.M.S.O., 1970).
9 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 3: Lagging Hot and Cold
Water Systems (H.M.S.O., 1971).
10 -Building Research Establishment Digest 7 (second series): Noise in the
Home (H.M.S.O., 1961).
11 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 73: Single Stack Plumb-
ing (H.M.S.O., 1969).
12 -Building Research Establishment Digest 80 (second series): Soil and
Waste Pipe Systems for Housing (H.M.S.O., 1967).
13 - Building Research Establishment Digest 115: Soil and Waste Pipe
Systems for Office Buildings (H.M.S.O., 1970).
14 -Building Research Establishment Digest 81 (second series): Hospital
Sanitary Services-Some Design and Maintenance Problems (H.M.S.O.,
1967).
 Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-V 139

15 -Building Research Establishment Digest 146: Modernising Plumbing

Systems (H.M.S.O., 1972).
16 P. 0. Fanger, 'Practical Application of the Comfort Equation', Building
Seroices Engineer (September 1973).
17 N. 0. Millbank, J.P. Dowall and A. Slater, 'Investigation of Maintenance
and Energy Costs for Services in Office Buildings', Journal of the Insti-
tution ofHeating and Ventilating Engineers, vol. 39 (October 1971 ).
18 P. H. P. Bennett, 'Building Maintenance from Concept to Demolition',
Building (9 May 1969).
19 C. Denton, 'Local Authority Housing Maintenance-Heating', Building
Trades Journal (5 May 1967).
20 D. H. Hayes, 'Critical Thoughts on Domestic Boilers', Building Services
Engineer (September 1973).
21 C. T. Gosling, 'Design Considerations for Easier Maintenance of Air Con-
ditioning Equipment', Building Maintenance (October 1970).
22 A. G. Loudon and P. Petherbridge, 'Possible Economies in Air-
conditioning',BRE current paper CP48/68 (1968).
23 Department of the Environment, Research and Development Paper: The
Relationship between Design and Maintenance (H.M.S.O., 1970).
24 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 81: Electric Ring and
Radial Circuits, (H.M.S.O., 1971).
25 -'Design for Cleaning', Cleaning and Maintenance (November 1973).
26 M. Wood-Robinson, 'Saving Energy in Lighting', Building (15 March
1974).
27 Illuminating Engineering Society, The IES Code (1973).
28 Illuminating Engineering Society Technical Report No. 9: Depreciation
and Maintenance ofInterior Lighting (1967).
29 -Building Research Establishment Digest 132: Wilful Damage on Hous-
ing Estates (H.M.S.O., 1971).
30 D. E. Sexton, BRE Current Paper 12/73: Studies of Refuse Compaction
andincinerationinMulti-storeyFlats(H.M.S.O., 1973).
31 R. Anderson, 'Good Maintenance Pays Off-The Benefits of Efficiency,
Productivity and Morale', Profitable Building Maintenance Conference
London (Department of the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1967).
32 - Building Research Establishment Digest 122: Security (H.M.S.O.,
1970).
33 Thames Valley Police Force, 'Designing for Security', Building Technology
andManagement(May 1974).
34 R. F. Stevens, 'Maintenance of High Rise Development', Munidpal Build-
ing Management, vol. 4 (1972).
35 E. L. Woolley, 'Construction Techniques to Protect Escape Routes', Build-
ing Trades Journal (29 March 1974).
36 Department of the Environment, DOE Construction, 4: Fire Terms
(December 1972).
37 British Insurance Association, 'The Scale of the Fire Problem', The Archi-
tect (October 1973).
38 H. D. Taylor, 'The Changing Pattern', The Architect (October 1973).
39 C. E. Mills, 'Investigation of Causes of Ignition', Electrical Review (16
140 BuildingMaintenance

February 1973).
40 R. H. Minter, 'Alarms and Aids for Personnel Escape', Electrical RefJiew
(16 February 1973).
41 R. B. Whitehouse, 'Automatic Detection Equipment', Electrical Review (16
February 1973).
42 E. L. Woolley, 'Portable and First Aid Fire Fighting Equipment', Building
Trades Journal (30 August 1974).
43 E. W. F. Hill, 'Premises Management-European Attitudes', Fourth
National Building Maintenance Conference (Department of the Environ-
ment/Building Maintenance, H.M.S.O., 1973).
44 0. Luder, 'A Load of Rubbish', Building (8 May 1970).
45 Department of the Environment, DOE Construction, 9: Cleaning and
Design (H.M.S.O., March 1974).
46 R. D. Stephens, 'Expertise in Cleaning', Financial Times (12 January
1973).
47 Department of the Environment, Costs in Use: a Study of 24 Crown Office
Buildings (H.M.S.O., 1971).
48 E. B. Feldman, 'Watch Specifications for Contract Cleaning', Cleaning and
Maintenance (October 1973).
49 -'Twelve Ways to Save Maintenance Costs', Cleaning and Maintenance
(November 1973).
50 -'Design for Cleaning', Cleaning and Maintenance (November 1973).
51 - 'Maintaining Composition Floors', Cleaning and Maintenance
(November 1973).
52 Institute of Advanced Architectural Studies, University of York, A Study of
Costs in Use and Performance ofFloor Finishes: Analysis ofStudent Survey
Results (1973).
53 D. G. B. Fisher, 'Considering Cleaning', Fourth National Building Main-
tenance Conference (Department of the Environment/Building Mainten-
ance, 1973).
54 Department of the Environment, DOE Construction, 7: Maintenance of
Hygiene (H.M.S.O., 1973).
55 -Building Research Establishment Digest 152: Repair and Renovation of
Flood-damaged Buildings (H.M.S.O., 1973).
56 R. Baldwin and P. H. Thomas, Fire Research note No. 963: PassifJe andAc-
tifJe Fire Protection-The Optimum Combination, Fire Research Station
(H.M.S.O., 1973).
57 R. Almond, 'Cut Servicing Costs with Systemised Light Replacement',
Building Maintenance (November/December 1974).
58 E. Oliver and J. Wilson, Security Manual (Gower Press, 1974).
7. AtTERATIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS

Many older buildings require alterations and improvements to meet the changing
needs of occupants. Alterations and extensions often involve temporary support-
ing works of the forms described in chapter 1. Improvements to dwellings nor-
mally attract improvement grants, whilst districts of older dwellings pose the
problem of rehabilitation or demolition and redevelopment, with a third possible
alternative involving a mixture of both. This chapter concludes with a study of
dilapidations and the preparation of structural and similar reports and proofs of
evidence.

Scope of Alterations and Improvements

Dwellings need careful consideration and skilful planning to make the fullest use
of their potential for improvement and conversion without at the same time
adversely affecting their character. Sound doors and windows should not be
replaced by inappropriate modem fittings, nor should pleasant large rooms be
divided unnecessarily nor small sunny gardens be drastically reduced by kitchen
and bathroom extensions. 1
Wider frontage dwellings provide scope for inserting a bathroom without
losing bedspace, incorporating an entrance hall, or providing an extension with-
out overshadowing rear rooms or garden. Deeper dwellings often permit the
economical provision of internal bathrooms. A second entrance to a dwelling may
be closed to provide more usable floor space on the ground floor. Stairs may be
reconstructed to provide increased safety or a more effective first floor layout. 1
After improvement, dwellings should normally possess a minimum life of 30
years and careful thought and attention should be given to the following basic
criteria.
(1) A main entrance door opening into an entrance porch or hall.
(2) Conveniently arranged bathroom, internal WC and spacious kitchen.
(3) All rooms provided with independent access from circulation areas,
except possibly a kitchen from a dining or living room.
(4) Ideally two living spaces should be provided in family dwellings,
although in small houses one could be a reasonably spacious dining kitchen.
141
142 BuildingMaintenance
(5) Use of appropriate materials and components externally to ensure har-
mony with existing elevations. 1
A survey of modernisation schemes for pre-194 5 houses in 17 former county
boroughs in England and Wales showed the following operations to be the most
common
(1) plasteringoffair-faced brickwork;
(2) renewal of floors and laying of thermoplastic tiles;
(3) removal of old fireplaces from living room and bedrooms;
(4) installation of central heating systems;
(5) renewal of electric wiring;
(6) installation of 13 amp power points and 30 amp cooker control unit;
(7) provision of new sink unit;
(8) removal of larder and provision of kitchen floor units and ventilated
wall cupboards;
(9) provision of new bath, wash basin and WC suite;
(10) removal of small paned steel windows. 2
Work completed in 1974 by Faversham Council on the renovation of236 pre-
war houses is typical of the scope of improvement work which is frequently being
undertaken. These houses were gutted downstairs and the interiors rebuilt to
provide a bathroom, separate WC, kitchen/dining area and living room, the
latter being separated by a half glazed partition and connecting door. The im-
provements to each house cost between £2000 and £3000 in 1974 and included
newly installed central heating.

Basic Improvements
There are a number of essential basic improvements that are needed in several
million dwellings in this country to bring them up to an acceptable minimum
standard of provision. These basic improvements include the provision of an in-
ternal water closet, bath, wash basin, replanning of kitchens, roof insulation,
improvement of services and provision offittings. 3

Internal Water Closet In 1970 the number of dwellings without internal

water closets still approached 3 million, and this was particularly serious as
many of them were occupied by elderly people. Where there is an existing
external we it should if practicable be retained to provide an additional fit-
ting. If the improvement results in a single internal WC, this should wherever
possible be located independently of the bathroom. 3

Bath In 1970 in excess of 2 million dwellings in this country had no bath.

There are various ways of making space for a bath, including conversion of a
bedroom, extension of the dwelling or conversion of adjoining outbuildings. In
a few cases space is so restricted that a bath cannot be provided and a shower
may be installed as an alternative.

Wash Basin In the absence of a wash basin, occupants of over 3 million

 Alterations and Improvements 143

dwellings are obliged to wash at the kitchen sink, with consequent incon-
venience and lack of privacy. A wash basin should wherever practicable be pro-
vided close to the We. If the bathroom is not large enough to accommodate a
bath, wash basin and we, it may be possible to provide a wash basin and we to-
gether in another part of the dwelling, although this is almost certain to prove
more expensive. The substitution of a sliding door or an outward opening door
for an inward opening door may sometimes provide the extra space needed for an
additional fitting. 3

Kitchen Improvements Kitchens to many houses built prior to 1919 and some
later dwellings have unplastered brick walls. Any improvements should include
plastering or tiling the walls to give improved hygiene and aesthetics. The floors
may be of dusty, cold concrete which badly needs covering with a more attractive
and functional material. Kitchens are usually replanned to make better use of
available space and this may incorporate a former fuel storage area which is no
longer needed due to the installation of new means of space heating. The ad-
ditional space may permit the inclusion of a dining area within the kitchen which
will relieve pressure on use of space in other parts of the dwelling. Larders may be
replaced by refrigerators and food-storage cupboards. 3

Roof Insulation Roofs should be insulated to a reasonable standard to reduce

heat loss and provide greater comfort, accompanied by lagging of storage tanks
and service pipes.

Improvement of Services Gas and water services may require partial or com-
plete replacement to serve the new fittings. Most electrical installations to older
dwellings are quite inadequate and need replacement preferably with 13 amp
ring mains with ample provision of three-core socket-outlets, carefully sited to
avoid breaking up valuable wall space needed by occupants for placing furniture.
The installation of a 30 amp cable with consumer unit and cooker control unit
are normally considered essential. With gas supplies, the normal minimum pro-
vision is a cooker supply and one additional point. 3
Hot water supply constitutes a vital part of any modernisation scheme with
full consideration given to the relative merits and costs of the different systems.
An immersion heater ought desirably to be installed in the hot water cylinder
rather than to leave it to the occupant. Some modernisation schemes incorporate
full central heating or some form of background heating, often accompanied by
the replacement of the living room open fireplace with a gas or electric space
heater and renewal of the old fireplace surround.

Fittings Many pre-war houses contained shallow earthenware sinks and wood
draining boards which have sometimes been replaced with deep white sinks.
Modern practice is to replace these fittings with sink units supported by pur-
pose-made cupboards which are more durable, hygienic and attractive. There is a
tendency to provide more built-in cupboard space than hitherto and this often
makes a significant improvement to living conditions. 3
144 Building Maintenance

Space Heating
There is a wide range of heating systems available for use in improvement
schemes and they are generally classified according to the type of fuel used.

Solid fuel systems can be either back boiler and radiators or central boiler and
radiators. These systems are particularly popular in coal producing areas. Their
principal problems are provision of adequate fuel storage and conflict with
smokeless zone requirements where coal is used.

Gas fired systems comprise five separate arrangements: boiler and radiators;
back boiler and radiators, sometimes combined with a radiant fire; fan assisted
warm air; balanced flue warm air convectors; and flued gas fires. The fan
assisted warm air systems may cause condensation problems and balanced flue
warm air convectors may prove difficult to install because of insufficient external
wall. Individual radiant gas fires are particularly suitable for connection to exist-
ing flues where the building is being extended.

Electric systems are of three main types: off peak radiators (sometimes including
warm air distribution mechanism); off peak warm air systems (central heat stor-
age with warm air distribution); and on peak warm air systems which require a
high standard ofinsulation to secure acceptable running costs. Warm air systems
can cause condensation problems. Off peak radiators and on peak warm air
systems are relatively easy to install.

Oil fired systems are becoming much less popular because of escalating oil costs.
Furthermore, the tank can be unsightly in small gardens and requires stringent
fire precautions. 1

Modernisation ofDwellinp
Modernisation of older dwellings can take many forms and is obviously influ-
enced by the form, layout, construction, condition and anticipated life of the
dwellings themselves. Older dwellings frequently need altering to provide a
separate bathroom and a we entered from inside the dwelling. A skilfully
arranged house improvement is detailed in figure 7.1.1. showing alterations to
houses some seventy years old in New Earswick village, Yorkshire and contained
within a General Improvement Area. The houses were reduced to their basic
brick shell before renovation. Ground floors were screeded and all timberwork,
including roofs, entirely replaced.
Fireplaces and fuel store were removed and central heating installed. A more
convenient living room and separate dining room were provided; also a kitchen
replacing the scullery and a food cupboard substituted for the rather space con-
suming larder. Rearrangement of the second bedroom has permitted the pro-
vision of a bathroom and separate we on the first floor.
Vehicular access has been re-routed to the backs of houses, thus restoring the
pedestrian character devised by Raymond Unwin in the original scheme. The
 1:
BEDROOM

C "'S BED
BEDROOM BEDROOM

~
FIRST FLOOR FIRST FLOOR
FIRST FLOOR FIRST FLOOR

LIVING
KITCHEN

I' IJ.W_!.!_
STORE

iJ PARLOUR

GROUND FLOOR GROUND FLOOR

BEFORE CONVERS ION AFTER CONVERSION

FIGURE 7 1 1 MODERNISATION OF DWELLINGS- GROUND FLOOR GROUND FLOOR

NEW EARSWICK BEFORE CONVERSION AFTER CONVERSION
10. 11. 12. 13. 1 4~ 15"-J6m FIGURE 7 1.2 MODERNISATION OF TERRACE HOUSE
146 Building Maintenance

average cost of improvements per dwelling amounted to £4400 compared with a

likely replacement cost of £8000 (1973 prices), 4 although the replacement
houses would have a much longer life.
Another example of a house improvement is illustrated in figure 7.1.2, show-
ing the conversion of a typical two-up and two-down terrace house built before
1914. These by-law houses are often soundly constructed and with appropriate
repairs and improvements can be transformed into convenient and useful dwel-
lings.
Before improvement the accommodation consisted of a front parlour, opening
directly off the street, a living-kitchen behind, with access to a back yard; and on
the first floor, two bedrooms of approximately equal size. Sanitary facilities were
limited to an external we at the far end of the yard, which had been a pail closet
prior to 1938. Before conversion the house had no hot water supply and the cold
water supply was restricted to the stone sink in the kitchen.
The improvements resulted in the provision of a bath, wash basin and new kit-
chen sink all supplied with hot and cold water, an inside we and a ventilated
food cupboard in the kitchen (the standard five point improvement). In this way
it is possible to modernise small four-room houses without extending the existing
structure. It does, however, reduce the size of the rear bedroom to provide space
for the bathroom. 5
Figure 7.2.2 shows a conversion of a small bedroom into a bathroom. The
amount of new plumbing and drainage work is restricted to a minimum by pos-
itioning the new bathroom over the kitchen. In the example illustrated the land-
ing has been extended to give access to the bathroom and bedroom 1, following
the division of the original larger bedroom 1 into two bedrooms. Alternatively,
the dwelling could be converted into a 2-bedroom house. An additional we is
required as the existing one is external.6
Many of the larger houses erected 50 to 70 years ago are now too large for the
needs of present-day families. On the other hand they are often well built and
lend themselves to conversion into flats. A number of different layouts are often
possible; each of these needs considering and the advantages and disadvantages
of each weighed one against the other. Each flat should ideally be as self-
contained as possible, both visually and audibly. The former requires good layout
and the latter adequate sound proofing. Adequate sound insulation is often diffi-
cult and sometimes virtually impossible. A reasonably efficient method of sound
insulating upper wood joist floors is to 'pug' the space between the joists with
sand or other heavy filling material, which absorbs and deadens sound but will
not stop the noise from stereophonic hi-fi or even the average television set. In ad-
dition to providing each flat with its own private approach and entrance, the aim
should be to plan the accommodation so that the noisier rooms of the various flats
are adequately separated. Thus the living room of a first floor flat is better
located over a bedroom of a ground floor flat rather than the living room.
In the conversion illustrated in figure 7.2.1 it was unnecessary to interfere
with the main internal walls. Furthermore, bathrooms (one to each flat) were
placed centrally one above the other on each floor with consequent economy of
drainage and plumbing services. 7
GROUND BEFORE CONVER~ON GROUND AFTER CONVERSION

FIGURE 7 2 1 CONVERSION OF HOUSE INTO FLATS lo. 11, 12, 13, 1' . Is. 16m

PA~Tn'1NS rl tJ BH~ FRAMED w,TH

PLASTERBOARD FINISH

~A CI A Nl
D INING HEA TER
KI TCHEN BEDROOM 2 I BEDROOM
ROOM 3 CYU NOER

LANDING
C U P B O A ~O
BUILT IN'
UNDER
CUPBOARD

LOUNGE

GROUND FLOOR BEFORE CONVERS ION FIRST FLOOR BEFORE CONVERS ION N£ W WINIJO W JO
fro(A '!"CH ['XIS TI N C.

FIGURE 7 2 2 CONVERSION 0 F BEDROOM I NT 0 BAT HROOM F I RST FLOOR AF TER CONVERSION

148 Building Maintenance

Loft Conversions
Garages, sunrooms, utility rooms, and extensions to living rooms and kitchens
can often be added to a dwelling on the ground floor, but the need for an ad-
ditional bedroom may cause the family to contemplate a move to a larger dwel-
ling. A loft conversion can often yield the extra bedroom and avoid the need for
an expensive move.
Most loft conversions occupy little additional external space and normally
come within the permitted extra space provisions of planning legislation,
although any dormer at the front of a dwelling will need to blend in with the re-
mainder of the elevation and neighbouring dwellings. Most dwellings with a
pitched roof and a ridge height above ceiling joists in excess of 2.40 m can provide
additional habitable accommodation through the construction of dormers. 8
The crucial factors are headroom and access. Wherever possible the staircase
should continue over the existing stairwell, thus utilising the dead space over the
existing stairs and avoiding taking space from a bedroom below. Once the stair-
case and dormer are plotted on the drawing, the remainder of the conversion
work falls into place. In very old houses the existing roof structure will need to be
examined very carefully, and if used it may be necessary to form the walls, ceiling
and floor as a box supported on the outer walls and largely independent of the
roof. The existing ceiling joists are unlikely to be adequate as floor joists for the
new room. A suspended floor constructed over the existing ceiling joists and bear-
ing on either external walls, steel joists or trussed purlins is usually necessary.
Any internal loadbearing walls will assist in reducing spans and permitting
smaller section joists to be used. Rearrangement of purlins, struts, hangers and
props will often be required to give unencumbered space. 9
The new room can be illuminated by a dormer window or a light in the slope of
the roof, sometimes supplemented by a window in a gable wall. Dormers are
often formed by bolting collars to the existing rafters and extending them out-
wards, and the dormer is often supported by a trussed purlin or steel joist. With
the collars in position the dormer can be decked out and covered, often with built-
up felt. The dormer roof can either slope to the front with a new gutter and down-
pipe or fall back to the main roof and drain into a box gutter. Once the dormer is
secured the intermediate rafters can be cut away and the windows fitted. 8
Internal work consists mainly of erecting studding, inserting insulation and
fixing plasterboard. The plasterboard is usually skim coated with any brick or
block walls being rendered and set. Joinery work should ideally match the rest of
the dwelling. Flooring and doors should both provide half hour fire resistance. 8
Electric wiring will require repositioning or replacing and the cold water tank
may need relocating.

Conversion of Other Buildings into Dwellings

Old oasthouses, windmills and watermills can provide most attractive and com-
fortable dwellings, while many barns, cowsheds, stables, blacksmiths' forges, and
disused railway stations and schools have conversion potential. In all cases the
structure must be thoroughly examined to determine its stability and suitability
 Alterations and Improvements 149
for conversion, although the majority of buildings with a good foundation and a
sound roof are suitable. 10
Figure 7.3.1 shows a small village school converted into a two-bedroom bunga-
low. This conversion required no extensions; indeed a number of dilapidated out-
buildings were demolished to provide adequate light and air. The school
consisted of two classrooms which conveniently provided a bedroom wing and a
living room wing. 11 Figure 7.3.2 illustrates a stable conversion which was carried
out without major structural alterations. The architect was able to plan a good
cottage within the main external walls of the old building. Drains and roof cover-
ings often need replacement. 26

Prefabricated Additions
The use of factory produced bathrooms and other units can result in considerable
time savings and suffer less problems when carried out in inclement weather.
They are often constructed with treated timber stud panel walls, insulated with
glass fibre quilt or expanded polystyrene, and with foil backed plasterboard in-
ternal lining. A number of external finishes are available in a wide range of
colours. Floors are often formed of 18 mm plywood with underfl.oor glass fibre
quilt insulation framed up on SO x 100 mm joists and covered with vinyl asbestos
tiles. Flat roofs are most common using 12 mm plywood decking possibly covered
with three-layer felt, with suitable under-roof insulation and a foil backed plas-
terboard ceiling. These units can incorporate double glazing units and central
heating radiators. 12
The Greater London Council designed a prefabricated bathroom unit for use
with older dwellings with all works required after delivery of the bathroom unit
scheduled to be carried out in seven working days. Preparatory work included
removal of party fences and, in some cases, removal of air-raid shelters and/or
timber structures situated within 6 m of a rear wall; boring for and forming pre-
cast concrete pile foundations; drainage work including building a new manhole
and laying branch drains ready to connect up to the bathroom unit; cutting an
opening in the rear wall of the existing WC for access to the bathroom unit and
other ancillary work. 3
The work schedule following delivery and positioning of the bathroom unit on
prepared foundations follows.
Day 1: Clearing out all redundant fittings in kitchen, preparing for gas and
heating engineers and commencing modernisation of kitchen by replacing exist-
ing rear access door and wing light with prefabricated window board and splash
back. Repositioning rising main in concealed position behind new kitchen units
and providing temporary supply to we.
Day 2: Gas fitters at work.
Day 3: Heating engineers installing gas-fired boiler in kitchen and heating
units in passage and living room.
Day 4: Heating engineers complete work and wall linings and plumbing of
kitchen commenced. Plumbing between kitchen and bathroom unit connected to
bring new we into use.
 STORE

" - -
I

STORE
CLOAK
YARD
ROOM
STORE "" DINING KITCHEN

CLASSROOM
BEDROOM BEDROOM
CLASSROOM I
HALL ROOM
L
CONVERSION AFTER CONVERSION
FIGURE 7 3 1 CONVERSION OF VILLAGE SCHOOL INTO BUNGALOW
- 1o, 11, 12, 13, 1t., 1s, 1sm

V.c LAND ING

~ "-"!
I I I BEDROOM BEDROOM I
I "" I I ""
FIRST FLOOR BEFORE CONVERSION
I F IRST FLOOR AFTER CONVERSION
I I -.

STABLE
HARNESS

.. I

FIGURE 7 3 2 CONVERSION OF STABLE INTO COTTAGE -GROUNO

.LL_ CONVERSION -
 Alterations and Improvements 151
Day 5: Kitchen wall lining completed and fitting of kitchen units com-
menced and taps and water supply connected. A temporary sink is provided to
cause tenants as little interference as possible. The new we is in use and the
existing we suite is removed, branch drain sealed and a new airing cupboard
formed, walls to new passage lined and painting commenced.
Day 6: Joinery works in kitchen completed and painting commenced.
Decorations completed to new passage.
Day 7: Painting of kitchen completed; floor tiles laid and works cleaned up.
During the 7 days, work will also proceed with connecting drains to waste
pipes from bathroom unit, completing rear paving and erecting new screen
fences. Many parts required for the internal works will be pre-assembled in the
contractor's yard to save time on the site. 3

Sequence of Alteration Work

The dwelling must first be surveyed and floor plans of the existing accommo-
dation drawn to an appropriate scale, usually 1:100 or 1:50. Alternative alter-
ation schemes can then be planned and costed prior to selection of the approved
scheme (chapter 9). Full particulars can then be prepared in the form of working
drawings and specification (chapter 8), the necessary statutory approvals
obtained (chapter 11) and tenders invited from a number of contractors (chapter
10). An improvement grant application will be submitted to the local authority
and this is usually accompanied by two copies of the drawings and a priced copy
of the specification. The local authority before making the grant may request the
carrying out of additional work, such as damp-proofing and the making good of
defects to the roof and/or external walls. After receipt of all approvals, a tender
will be accepted and the successful contractor will be requested to commence
work on the site. 13
The order of work on the site will be determined to some extent by the nature
and scope of the work. In the case of an extension the first operation will be to
clear the site and remove the topsoil, after which foundation trenches will be
excavated and filled with concrete, which is allowed at least 48 hours to set and
harden. External brickwork, usually of cavity construction, follows adequately
bonded into the existing brickwork, and with window and door frames built in as
and where required. Internal walls are usually built of concrete blocks and from
the walls will be built upper floor and ceiling joists. The roof is then constructed
followed by rainwater goods, hanging of external doors and glazing of windows.
The building is now watertight and electrical and plumbing services and drain-
age work can proceed, followed by plasterwork, other wall and ceiling finishings
and floor screeds. 13
Internal doors and their linings can now be fixed, followed by architraves and
skirtings. The electrician can complete the fixing of switches, pendants and
socket-outlets, while the plumber can install the sanitary fittings, connect to the
hot and cold water services from the existing building and install waste pipes.
Decorations should be carried out as soon-as the walls are dry enough, normally
comprising one coat of primer and two coats of emulsion paint. Woodwork gener-
ally receives a priming coat, two undercoats and a gloss finishing coat. All glazing
1S2 Building Maintenance

is cleaned inside and out and floor tiles laid with suitable adhesive. All services
are duly tested.

Grants for Improvements and Conversions

The number of house improvement grants approved in the United Kingdom fell
from 26S 400 in the third quarter of 1973 to 179 OS9 in 1974. The rising cost of
building, a general shortage of funds and delays in dealing with improvement
grant applications consequent upon local government reorganisation on 1 April
1974 were undoubtedly all contributing factors.
A new approach to improvement grants was urgently needed as the number of
new private housing starts declined drastically. The Housing Act 1974 was based
on a new concept-that finance should be directed towards remedying housing
defects according to their severity, irrespective of their geographical situation or
the local level of unemployment. It provided for housing problems to be resolved
at different levels according to local circumstances. Where conditions are very
serious a housing action area can be established wherein higher rates of grant are
payable. In other locations where the problem is less pressing or severe, a general
improvement area can be defined, wherein grants will be lower than for housing
action areas but higher than for the rest of the country.

Types of Grant
Grants are payable by local authorities towards the cost of work required for (a)
the provision of dwellings by conversion of houses or other buildings, (b) the im-
provement of dwellings, (c) the repair of dwellings, and (d) the improvement of
houses in multiple occupation by the provision of standard amenities, where the
provision, improvement or repair is by a person other than a housing authority.
An improvement grant can be given in respect of works required for the pro-
vision of a dwelling, or for improvement of a dwelling or, in the case of a regis-
tered disabled person, works required for his welfare, accommodation or
employment where the existing dwelling is inadequate or unsuitable.
An intermediate grant relates to works required for the improvement of a
dwelling by the provision of standard amenities which it lacks or which in the
case of a registered disabled person are inaccessible to him. The standard ameni-
ties include a fixed bath or shower, hot and cold water supply at a fixed bath or
shower, a wash basin, hot and cold water supply at a wash basin, a sink, hot and
cold water supply at a sink, and a water closet. A special grant is allowable for
works required to improve a house in multiple occupation by the provision of
standard amenities.
A repair.s grant can be given for works of repair or replacement relating to a
dwelling in a housing action area or a general improvement area, subject to cer-
tain provisos. Except in special cases the local authority will not consider an ap-
plication for improvement grant for works required for the provision of a
dwelling by the conversion of a house or other building erected after 2 October
1961, or for the improvement or repair of a dwelling which was provided after
that date.
 Alterations and Improvements 15 3
The appropriate percentage to determine the maximum amount of any grant
is 75 per cent in a housing action area; 60 per cent in a general improvement
area; and 50 per cent in any other case. Where the premises are in a housing
action area and the local authority approving the grant feel that the applicant
will not, without undue hardship, be able to finance the cost of works not covered
by the grant, they may increase the percentage up to 90 per cent.

Improvement Grants
To qualify for an improvement grant the local authority must be satisfied that on
completion of the works the dwelling will be provided with all the standard amen-
ities for the exclusive use of its occupants; that it will be in good repair having
regard to its age and character and the locality; that it conforms to certain gen-
eral standards laid down by the Secretary of State; and that it is likely to provide
satisfactory housing accommodation for 30 years. In certain circumstances it
may be necessary to improve houses which cannot meet these requirements and
the local authority is empowered to vary the general conditions relating to
grants, and can reduce the 30 years life expectancy to not less than 10 years.
Furthermore the applicant must be a freeholder of the property for which
grant aid is required, or hold a lease with not less than five years unexpired at the
time of the application. All applicants must provide a certificate relating to the
future use of the dwelling. An improvement grant will not normally be given for a
dwelling less than 13 years old; a second or holiday home; an owner-
occupied house which has a rateable value in excess of the permissible limit
(£175 in 1974); or where work has already begun (except where the local
authority accept that there was good reason to start). Where the local auth-
ority approve an application for an improvement grant they will notify the
applicant of the amount which, in their opinion, the work should cost and
the amount of the grant they have approved.
The amount of improvement grant paid is based on a percentage of eli-
gible expenses, varying with the location of the dwelling, and the 1974 cost
limit of £3200 for single dwellings and £3700 for conversion of buildings of
three or more storeys. The 1974limits on grants are:
3ormore
Area Normal storeys
Housing action areas (75%) £2400 £2775
Hardshipcases (90%) £2880 £3330
General improvement areas (60%) £1920 £2220
Elsewhere (50%) £1600 £1850

There is a strong case for periodic reviews of grants so that housing cost
yardstick limits can keep pace with inflation.

Conversions
Although there is no grant specifically allocated for conversions, work of
this kind is included in the provisions for improvement grants. Grant aid for
154 Building Maintenance
conversion is linked to improvement work carried out to provide additional
units of accommodation, in addition to bringing each unit up to standard. This
is normally more extensive than improvement to a single dwelling and a higher
cost may be allowed. For a normal dwelling unit obtained through the conversion
of a house or other building of three or more storeys, up to £3700 per unit may be
allowed for purposes of grant assessment. The grant for this type of project is nor-
mally 75 per cent of the costs up to the allowable maximum (£2775).

Intermediate Grants
The intermediate grant is designed to provide standard amenities, and these are
contained in schedule 6 of the 1974 Act, namely
Description of amenity Maximum eligible amount
£
Fixed bath or shower 100
Hot and cold water supply at fixed bath or shower 140
Wash basin 50
Hot and cold water supply at wash basin 70
Sink 100
Hot and cold water supply at sink 90
Water closet 150

The grant towards the cost of these standard amenities will vary according to
the area, namely 75 per cent in a housing action area; 60 per cent in a general im-
provement area; and 50 per cent elsewhere. In many cases before it is practicable
to install an amenity, it may be necessary to carry out other relevant works of
repair or replacement. In such cases grant aid may also be approved for works
other than the installation of amenities, at rates graded according to the type of
area. Claimants of intermediate grants must satisfy the status requirements but
the rateable value restrictions do not apply.
Applicants must specify the standard amenity or amenities which it is intended
to provide; and where some only are listed must state whether the dwelling is
already provided with the remainder. In addition they must state whether the
dwelling has been without that amenity for a period of not less than 12 months.
Before approving an intermediate grant the local authority must be satisfied
that the dwelling
(a) is provided with all the standard amenities for the exclusive use of its
occupants;
(b) is in good repair having regard to its age and character;
(c) conforms with the current requirements as to thermal insulation;
(d) is in all other respects fit for human habitation in accordance with
Part II of the Housing Act 1957; and
(e) is likely to be available for use as a dwelling for a period of 15 years or
such other period as may be specified.
Where an application for improvement grant is approved the local authority
will separately determine the amount of expenses to be incurred in repair and
replacement, and for the installation of standard amenities. Except where the
 Alterations and Improvements 15 5

Secretary of State approves higher expenses, the grant for repair and replace-
ment will be limited to the appropriate proportion of a sum not exceeding £800
in addition to that for the installation of standard amenities.

Special Grants
Special grants are designed to enable a house in multiple occupation to be
improved by the provision of standard amenities. Both standard amenities and
repairs expenses are as detailed for intermediate grants. Where a house is in sev-
eral different tenancies, the various units of accommodation may have varying
provision of amenities. The special grant may be used to make good the de-
ficiencies in amenities.

Repairs Grants
Under earlier legislation no assistance was provided for the replacement of defec-
tive items or to keep a dwelling in good repair. It is now official policy that all
dwellings in housing action areas or general improvement areas should be main-
tained to a reasonably high standard. Where a local authority considers that an
applicant cannot 'without undue hardship' finance the cost of repair work, it
may approve a repairs grant of an appropriate proportion of the cost of the works
of repair up to a maximum of £800. Unfortunately, the Housing Act 197 4 failed
to define 'undue hardship' and local authorities were given discretion to decide
their own criteria.

Environmental Works
Owners in housing action areas only may apply for grant aid to bring the external
appearance of their houses up to a suitable standard. The grant may be paid after
completion of the work, or part of it may be paid in instalments as the work is exe-
cuted and the balance after completion, except that the aggregate of instalments
paid shall not at any time before completion exceed one-half of the aggregate cost
of the works executed up to that time. A local authority is empowered to provide
materials, such as paint, for carrying out environmental works.

Payment of Grants
A local authority may prescribe a time (not less than 12 months) within which
the relevant works must be completed. The payment of an instalment auto-
matically sets a time for the completion of the works-12 months from the date
of payment of the instalment--even where no time limit was originally pre-
scribed. Such time limits can be varied by the local authority but failure to com-
plete within the prescribed time can result in the clients being required to refund
the instalment plus accrued interest.
A source of irritation to builders has been the fact that local authorities pay the
grant to the applicant and not to the builder. On occasions the client not only
fails to pay the builder on receipt of the grant when the works are complete, but
then proceeds to spend the grant money. It is in the builder's interest to obtain
156 BuildingMaintenance

agreement from the client before work commences that the local authority will
pay the grant directly to the builder. The most he would then have to recover
would be 25 per cent in housing action areas and SO per cent for the average in-
termediate grant. Where the 90 per cent grant is operative in cases of 'undue
hardship', a prior agreement with the client is vital as his restricted personal fin-
ances hold out little hope of recovery by recourse to law.

Distinguishing between Improvements and Repairs

It may not always be practicable to separate improvement work from repairs as-
sociated with the improvements and in these circumstances the repairs would
rank for grant aid. Nevertheless many other works of repair are usually eligible
for grant such as restating or retiling roofs and renewing roof timbers and rain-
water goods; replacing defective plaster; repointing brickwork and renewal of
cracked or perished bricks; replacing defective floors and infected timbers; re-
moval of disused chimney stacks and making good roof; renewal or repair of
defective joinery; replacement of obsolete sanitary fittings and plumbing systems;
renewal of perished or obsolete electric wiring and essential repairs to drainage
systems.

RehabWtation or Redevelopment
Advantages ofRehabilitation
A government white paper14 asserted that in the majority of cases, compre-
hensive development is no longer the answer to problems associated with bad
housing. Some of the social costs of redevelopment can be quantified-for
example, the extra houses needed to rehouse people elsewhere. Others are less
tangible but no less real-the personal misery and distress suffered by people
who have to abandon surroundings with which they are familiar and friends for
whom no substitute can be found. Many of the residents are elderly with low
incomes and their lack of skills makes them least able to cope with the upheavals
which follow major redevelopment. Research has shown that people in this situ-
ation can be very satisfied with their houses even though they may have WCs in
the back-yard or be sub-standard in other ways. In this situation, well planned
programmes of rehabilitation would be a better solution than redevelopment. 15 It
takes many years for an area of comprehensive redevelopment to mature into a
community.
The majority of older houses which are in sound basic condition are a valuable
asset to the community and can be made into good homes with many years of
useful life ahead of them at a smaller cost in money and other resources than
equivalent new houses. Where rehabilitation can be carried out over large areas
of housing, linked with environmental improvements, considerable social ad-
vantages can be gained through the preservation of local communities, and by
preventing the distressing process of decay and neglect by which older houses
become slums. Existing houses can make a valuable contribution to the character
and variety of our cities, towns and villages. 15
Rehabilitation has been aptly defined as 'a carrying out of building work to
 Alterations and ImprofJements 157

any property, or series of properties beyond normal routine maintenance, thus

extending its life to provide a building or buildings which are socially desirable
and economically viable' . 16 It has, in many cases supplanted the terms 'conver-
sion' and 'modernisation' and implies a broader approach to embrace the en-
vironment as well as interiors of dwellings. Hence proposals may include car
parking, open spaces, children's play spaces and better facilities for storage and
collection of refuse.

Financing ofHousing Rehabilitation

People will invest in an enterprise if they can see a reasonable return. Rent re-
strictions and controls have for many years prevented the operation of normal
market forces with the consequent neglect of many private rented dwellings as
landlords were unable effectively to maintain their properties, because of the
high level of cost involved and the low return. This constitutes the source of most
of our present rehabilitation problems.
There are three principal methods of financing rehabilitation schemes in the
private sector.
(1) Schemes of a non-profit producing character normally carried out by
housing associations funded by public money through provisions in the Housing
Acts. The financial viability of a scheme is controlled by an arbitrary upper limit
to the total cost per unit of accommodation produced.
(2) Profit producing schemes executed by housing trusts, public and pri-
vate companies and some individuals. Generally the rehabilitation of outdated
houses for rack renting on completion is unattractive to the private sector due to
the low return, sometimes as low as 5 per cent.
(3) Schemes of conversion by owner-occupiers taking advantage of the pro-
visions of the Housing Acts and the declaration by local authorities of general im-
provement areas is likely to give a considerable boost to this activity. 16
The financial viability of rehabilitation is influenced by a range of factors.
( 1) Structural condition of property and level of accrued dilapidations.
(2) Anticipated residual life.
(3) Adaptability of existing layout.
(4) Acquisition costs--affected by pressures exerted by various agencies
attracted by inherent rehabilitation potential.
(5) Cost of building work, particularly as ratio of labour to material
cost is higher than in new work.
(6) Planning requirements--density limitations can result in a loss of 30
to 50 per cent on redevelopment of three- and four-storey Victorian and
Edwardian houses.
(7) Effect oflegislation and subsidies.
(8) Rentallevels.
(9) Interest rates and funding periods--high interest rates and relatively
short funding periods have had an inhibiting effect on the rehabilitation plans
of some local authorities.
(10) Annual maintenance costs--with simple brick buildings where
158 Building Maintenance
rehabilitation work has been well done, annual maintenance should not be
significantly higher than for new buildings, whereas stucco-faced properties with
moulded cornices and similar features are likely to be considerably more
expensive to maintain. 16
In a cost appraisal it will be necessary to assess the value of rehabilitation com-
pared with other potential uses of the site. The economics of the decision whether
or not to proceed is usually determined in the private sector on the basis of per-
centage return on capital invested, but with local authorities and some larger
property companies, a further calculation based on the resultant capital value is
often considered. With capital value, rehabilitation would appear to be prefer-
able if the cost of rehabilitation for a life of x years plus the cost of redevelopment
deferred x years is less than the cost of present redevelopment. This approach
however takes no account of quality and in many cases the modernised dwelling
is worth only a percentage of the new equivalent due to poor layout, lack of
modem amenities and open space, and similar inadequacies. The assessment of
quality can often be resolved by open market prices and rents. Having deter-
mined the viability of the scheme in capital terms, the next step is to make a
comparison of the annual income and expenditure of rehabilitation and
redevelopment. 16
Redevelopment permits amortisation over a longer period and probably lower
maintenance costs with less constraints on design. On the other hand financial
restrictions tend to produce minimum standards of accommodation and appear-
ance resulting in loss of character and construction generally takes longer. 16
On rehabilitation it is often necessary to improve the environment by a certain
amount of selective demolition to create open space and provide garages, redirect
roads to give improved traffic circulation and to eliminate the worst property.
Improvement works may include the removal of rear additions, the conversion of
three houses into two in some cases to provide three- or four-bedroom houses and
the removal of chimney stacks. 17

Cost Benefit Studies

There is increasing support for the application of cost benefit analysis to compre-
hensive redevelopment proposals with, in particular, consideration of social
costs. Cost benefit analysis has been defined as 'a technique of use in either
investment appraisal or the review of the operation of a service for analysing and
measuring costs and benefits to the community of adopting specific courses of
action and for examining the incidence of those costs and benefits between differ-
ent sections of the community' . 18 The technique involves attributing monetary
values to present and future costs and benefits, including social costs and benefits
which are not normally expressed in monetary terms. Future costs and benefits
are discounted to present day figures by using a test rate of discount. The result is
either to compare the present day values of costs and benefits or to express the net
benefit as a rate of return on the capital investment involved.
This technique has not been used very extensively in comparing the economics
of redevelopment and rehabilitation. The primary reason has been that when an
area is considered for clearance, legal and technical considerations (notably
 Alterationsandlmprovements 159

public health aspects) are uppermost and it is frequently stated by public health
or environmental control officers that no reasonable alternative to clearance
exists. A government white paper0 supported the use of cost benefit analysis in
these situations.
An interesting study was undertaken at Leeds to find the most economical way
of providing acceptable living standards (both housing and environmental) in
existing areas of sub-standard housing. The study concluded that assuming that
the improved property had a life of 20 years and considering the cost to public
funds as a whole, improvement was more favourable at all discount rates over 4
per cent. This highlights one of the main criticisms of cost benefit analysis, that
the results can be varied as desired by using different discount rates, and that the
values attached to social factors are often quite arbitrary. In cost benefit studies
in the public sector, a discount rate of 10 per cent is usual. 19
Needleman21 has suggested that the test of replacement or repair is whether
the cost of replacement exceeds the cost of modernisation plus the present worth
of rebuilding at the end of the renewed life of the old asset plus the present worth
of the difference in annual maintenance expenditure. Thus in terms of an equa-
tion, it is worth modernising where
b > m + b(l + i)-n + J
~ [1 - (I + i)-n]
where b =cost of demolition and rebuilding
m =cost of adequate modernisation
i = rate of interest
n =useful life of modernised property in years
r =difference in annual repair costs
Kilroy22 refined this approach to incorporate
( 1) quality of rehabilitated dwelling expressed as a percentage of one rede-
veloped;
(2) respective lives of development;
(3) discount rate ofinterest;
(4) difference in maintenance costs;
(5) effect of changes in price levels;
(6) for publicly subsidised housing; the subsidies receivable.
The main considerations are
(1) how much is it worth spending on improvement compared with redeve-
lopment?
(2) how can areas for improvement be selected to secure best value for the
resources used?
Improvement normally costs considerably less than redevelopment but, after
improvement, the standard of the accommodation is likely to be lower than that
provided by a newly-built flat or house and its useful life will be shorter. The
maximum amount worth spending on improvement, given the cost of redevelop-
ment, will depend inter alia on the standard of accommodation after improve-
ment, the useful life and the rate of interest. Present high rates of interest may
well sway the balance in favour of improvement which will lead to smaller calls
on capital.
160 Building Maintenance

MHLG (DOE) Circular 65/69 contains the following table

Useful life Quality of improved dwellings as a percentage of that of a new

(years) dwelling at 8 per cent

100 90 80 70 60 50
40 0.96 0.87 0.77 0.68 0.58 0.48
30 0.91 0.82 0.73 0.64 0.55 0.45
20 0.79 0.71 0.63 0.56 0.48 0.40
15 0.69 0.62 0.55 0.48 0.42 0.35

These calculations are based on an interest rate of 8 per cent which is low by
current levels. The Needleman formula provides a rough and ready method of
comparison but contains several fundamental weaknesses. It ignores the effects
of changes in price levels and excludes social costs, such as the social effects of dis-
placements, although these are admittedly extremely difficult to evaluate. 19 Two
other important social factors are the degree of satisfaction which residents
express with their existing conditions and the extent of housing choice available
to them. In practice a combination of approaches will probably be desirable and
Bames23 has described how in Camden, by the gradual process of redevelopment
and rehabilitation by the local authority, linked with a certain amount of con-
trolled improvement by private owners in general improvement areas, the stan-
dard of housing in an area of 3 km2 has been steadily raised and the traditional
population has been largely kept together at rents it can afford.

Dllapidations
Liability for Repairs
The term 'dilapidations' denotes a condition of disrepair which has been caused
or allowed to develop in the property, and which will involve the person respon-
sible in legal liabilities. The person whose acts of omission or commission have
caused the dilapidations, is usually one with a limited interest in the property,
such as a tenant for life or under a lease, so that his neglect to keep the property in
repair will have detrimental consequences for those who are to take it over when
his interest ceases.
A lease usually contains a number of terms and conditions agreed upon be-
tween the parties. Certain covenants may be implied and these are referred to as
'the usual covenants'. Among the usual covenants are those by the tenant that he
will keep and deliver up the premises in repair, and allow the landlord to enter
and view the state of repair. The tenant may however expressly covenant 'to
repair the premises and to yield them up in good and substantial repair and con-
dition'. To repair means that the structure, fixture or installation is rendered fit
to perform its proper function.
'Good tenantable repair' has been defined as 'such repair as, having regard to
the age, character and locality of the dwelling, would make it fit for the occupa-
tion of a reasonable tenant of the class who would be likely to occupy it'. This de-
finition must however be qualified. It has been contended that because a
neighbourhood has seriously declined during the period of the lease, the tenant
 Alterations and Improvements 161

need only repair to an extent necessary to bring the dwelling up to the appro-
priate lower standard.
Often the tenant is made liable for repairs 'fair wear and tear excepted'. Then
the tenant will not be liable for disrepair due to the normal actions of the ele-
ments (wind and rain), or to normal use by him. He would not therefore have to
repair worn stair treads, replace broken sash cords or renew slates which have
slipped from the roof. He will however be liable for exceptional damage caused by
the elements such as hurricanes or floods and for damage arising from improper
use of the building.
Under the lease the responsibility for repairs may be shared between landlord
and tenant; for example, the landlord may be made expressly liable for external
repairs and the tenant for internal repairs. Whether the tenant will be required to
repair buildings erected subsequent to the grant of the lease will depend largely
upon the wording of the covenant. Responsibility for repair of fire damage will
normally be covered by insurance provisions in the lease. These will prescribe
who is to insure and for what amount, production of receipts for premiums, and
an undertaking to expend any sum received from the insurance in rebuilding.
Painting presents a problem in interpretation as it serves two purposes. It may
be necessary to preserve woodwork and ironwork from decay and thus be classed
as repair, or it may serve solely for purposes of decoration. Some painting will
serve both purposes and is termed 'decorative repair'. Leases commonly contain a
covenant requiring the tenant 'in every third year to paint all outside woodwork
and ironwork with two coats of suitable oil colours in a workmanlike manner ...
and in every sixth year paint other outside works, now or usually painted ... and
also paint with two coats of emulsion paint, such parts of the said premises as are
now plastered'. Where the covenant is not specific and the tenant is liable for
repairs, he must paint as necessary to preserve woodwork and metalwork from
decay.

Preparing Schedules ofDilapidations

A surveyor who is instructed to prepare a schedule of dilapidations will first
examine the repairing covenants in the lease to establish the extent of the lessee's
obligations. He will then inspect the premises and compile a list of defects and
also take measurements to build up an estimate of the probable cost of repairs
where the lease is about to expire. The schedule of dilapidations is then prepared
and served on the lessee by a solicitor. The schedule must contain the location of
the property, the date of inspection and the name and address of the person pre-
paring it.
Schedules ofdilapidations are of two kinds.
(1) Interim schedules served during the currency of a lease with a notice to
repair, the object being to enforce a right of entry or forfeiture if the tenant fails
to carry out repairs.
(2) Schedules at the end of a lease which form the basis for a monetary
claim against the tenant for his breach of covenant to keep and leave in repair.
In the first case the surveyor prepares a list of defects for which the tenant is
liable under the repairing covenant and which he is required to repair and make
162 Building Maintenance

good. In the second case the surveyor prepares a schedule of claim, containing the
quantities and cost of each item, in addition to a list of defects. The schedule of
claim is not produced unless required by an order of court or for some special
reason. A schedule of dilapidations and a schedule of claim are included later in
the chapter under Proofs ofEvidence.
The inspection of the premises should be carried out in a methodical manner to
avoid the omission of items and to make it easier for other persons to work
through and check the schedule. Most surveyors start with the interior of the
building on the uppermost floor, commencing with the rooms at the front of the
building. One means of identification of the rooms is to describe them as front
room right, front room middle and front room left, the handing taken from a pos-
ition looking out of the windows. The same procedure is adopted for the rear;
thus the front room right is on the same side of the house as the back room left. 24
In each room a logical sequence of items should be followed such as ceiling,
cornice, frieze, walls, wood trim, doors, windows, fireplace, fittings, floor and
electrical installation, with all defects carefully noted even down to the extent of
cracks. When examining doors and windows, the ironmongery should receive
special attention, doors checked to see whether they close properly and whether
windows can be opened and closed. The investigation of the interior is completed
with the inspection of the staircase, corridors, lobbies, porches and cupboards.
The exterior then follows, taking each elevation in tum and bearing in mind that
some roof areas may be out of sight. Finally outbuildings, fences, paved areas and
drainage work are inspected. 24

TedudcalReports
Nature ofReports
Surveyors are often instructed by property owners or prospective purchasers to
inspect and report on the condition of property. The report should contain all the
relevant technical information set out in an orderly manner in terms that can be
understood by a layman.
The basic requirements of a good report are as follows.
(1) Accuracy-a report must be accurate in all respects as errors or vague
statements will detract from its value.
(2) Simplicity-freedom from technical terms as far as practicable.
(3) Clarity-presentation and arrangement of information should be in a
logical order with sufficient sub-headings to act as signposts. Each paragraph
should be complete in itself and yet so related as to lead to an ultimate conclusion
through a series of steps.
(4) Systematic approach-reports normally comprise three component
parts: (a) introduction often containing client's brief or object of report; (b)
main body of report or recital of facts, including a full description of conditions
as they exist; (c) conclusions and recommendations, often including an estimate
of cost of remedial works.
(S) Conciseness and completeness-the report should cover all matters
coming within its scope, yet should be kept as concise as possible.
 Alterations and Improvements 163

(6) Good grammar and correct spelling.

(7) Neatness-reports should be clear and legible, particularly in examina-
tions, and be free from abbreviations and contradictions.
(8) Certainty-advice and opinions should be definite or the reasons for
any uncertainty stated (a saving clause is advisable to cover hidden parts 25 ).
(9) Recommendations-advice as to action to be taken.

Reports on the Structural and Sanitary Condition ofProperty

This type of report may be required by a prospective purchaser of a property or
by an owner to determine the extent of maintenance and repair work. Such a
report might include the following matters.
(1) Situation-situation and general details of property.
(2) Accommodation-particulars and sizes of rooms.
(3) Construction--details of construction and materials used.
(4) Repairs--defects and repairs needed.
(5) Services-particulars of gas, electricity and water services.
(6) Heating and hot water-form and adequacy of heating and hot water
supply.
(7) Drainage-adequacy and condition of drainage system.
(8) Estimate-probable cost of essential repairs and redecorations.

Report on a Building Defect

Background information A substantially brick-built house has a parapet sup-
porting a lead parapet gutter to a tiled roof. The owner, who is responsible for
repairs, has requested a report on the tenant's complaint that rain is causing a
damp ceiling in the front bedroom.
Report
1. P. Isaacs, Esq.
Dampness at 28 Willow Way, Marchby
Cause of complaint
Following the complaint of dampness in the front bedroom of this house, I ex-
amined the parapet wall, gutter and adjoining roof and found them to be
soundly constructed. Several defects have however developed which have re-
sulted in rainwater penetrating the front bedroom ceiling. These defects are as
follows.
(1) A length of lead flashing forming the junction between the parapet
wall and the lead gutter has come away from the wall, thus allowing rainwater
to pass down the inner face of the wall at this point.
(2) A )ength of lead gutter covering has been damaged by some sharp
object being forced through the lead, possibly the foot of a ladder.
(3) The gutter has become badly choked with decaying leaves and other
debris, causing water to build up in the gutter and eventually flow over the top
of the lead covering to the gutter, where it passes up the tiled roof slope. The
position has been aggravated because the lead gutter covering does not extend as
164 Building Maintenance
far up the roof slope as is really desirable, nor is it dressed over a tilting fillet
(triangular piece of timber) below the bottom course of tiling, which would have
produced a much sounder job.
Remedial works
I recommend that the following remedial works be carried out by a selected
builder
(1) hack out the brick joints and rewedge and repoint the loose length of
lead flashing.
(2) replace the defective length oflead gutter covering.
(3) clear all debris from the gutter.
It is not considered necessary to replace the lead gutter covering with wider
sheets or to fit tilting fillets, provided the gutter is cleaned out periodically.
The estimated cost of carrying out this repair work is£45.
C. T. Arrowsmith
Chartered Surveyor

Proofs of Evidence
Expert Witnesses
When a building dispute arises it may be settled by an action in the courts or by
arbitration. The parties in dispute may employ legal advisers (counsel) who will
prepare evidence and argue their case before the tribunal. On matters of a techni-
cal nature, the assistance of an expert witness may be required, and with building
disputes this could be a surveyor. An expert witness is not restricted to giving
statements of fact and can explain technical matters and also express an opinion,
if requested, based upon his special knowledge and experience.
Counsel will need to know the technical arguments and how they are to be
presented and developed. Hence the expert witness prepares a document
termed a proof of evidence for the benefit and use of counsel when arguing
the case. The contents of the proof of evidence are copied into the counsel's
brief and the expert witness will subsequently be questioned and cross ex-
amined upon it.

Preparation ofProofs ofEvidence

A proof of evidence must contain a concise statement of facts and a logical
statement of the line of argument. It is usually typed in double spacing on
A3 size paper, folded down the centre, with a margin on the left to take
notes, additions and corrections by counsel. Paragraphs are usually refer-
enced by numbering and valuations, schedules and similar documents are
generally inserted at the end of the proof. Words with special significance
may be underlined to catch the eye of counsel.
A proof of evidence contains a suitable title, name and qualifications of
the expert witness, subject of dispute, particulars of survey or inspection,
evidence--giving findings of expert witness and presenting and developing
 Alterations and Improvements 165
arguments, and finally conclusions.

Specimen Proof ofEvidence

Background information Mr P. J. Beddington was a tenant occupying prem-
ises at 12 Norfolk Street, Haverton, Hampshire for 21 years under a lease dated
21 March 1955. The tenancy agreement included a covenant to keep and leave
the house and grounds in good and tenantable repair and condition, fair wear
and tear excepted. The landlord, Homeville Enterprises Ltd, submitted to Mr
Beddington a schedule of dilapidations 6 weeks before the lease expired. The
tenant disputed the schedule, refused to comply with it and instructed a solicitor
to contest it. The landlord has commenced legal proceedings and a surveyor, Mr
Ronald Sharpe, has been instructed to prepare a proof of evidence incorporating
the schedule of dilapidations and a schedule of claim for damages for breach of
the repairing covenant.

Proof ofEvidence
Homeville Enterprises v. Peter John Beddington
Claim for damages for breach of repairing covenant in respect of lease
of 12 Norfolk Street, Haverton, Hampshire.
RONALD SHARPE
will say
Qualifications
(1) I am a Fellow of the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors
in practice on my own account at 53 High Street, Haverton. I have had
thirty-two years' experience in the profession of a surveyor and have
undertaken a large amount of work in connection with dilapidations.
Subject ofappeal
EXH 1 (2) I produce the lease of 12 Norfolk Street, Haverton granted by
the plaintiff to the defendant for a term of twenty-one years from 21
March 195 5. (Note: EXH refers to exhibit)
(3) EXH 1 repairing covenant
The lessee agrees at all times during the said term to keep the premises,
including all fixtures and additions, in good and tenantable repair and
condition and to deliver up the same in such good and tenantable repair
and condition to the lessor at the expiration or sooner determination of
the said term.
EXH 2 (4) I produce a schedule of dilapidations EXH 2 and a schedule of
EXH 3 claim EXH 3 signed by the plaintiff's agent, showing the sum of £1080
as the cost of the items of repair therein set out and constituting the
plaintiff's claim for damages.
(5) The defendant was presented with the schedule of dilapi-
dations EXH 2 six weeks before the expiry of the lease. None of the
166 Building Maintenance

repairs listed in the schedule has been executed.

(6) The plaintiff claims damages for breach of covenant to keep
the premises in repair in accordance with the terms of the lease EXH 1.
The basis of the claim is exhibit EXH 3 (schedule of claim).
Inspections
(7) I inspected the premises on 27 January 1976, 15 March 1976
and 22 April1976.
(8) I have examined the lease of the property directing special at-
tention to the repairing covenant and I consider that the schedule of dil-
apidations EXH 2 submitted has been prepared in strict accordance
with the terms of the lease.
Evidence of dilapidations
(9) The repair of the property has been neglected for a con-
siderable time and I could find no evidence of any recent repairs to the
premises. I submit that the want of repairs listed in the schedule of dil-
apidations EXH 2 is evidence that the defendant has not carried out his
obligations under the repairing covenant EXH 1.
EXH 2 (10) Schedule of dilapidations
A. No decorations have been carried out for a number of years and
certainly not within the last year of the lease as required by the repairing
covenant. The wallpaper in the hall and lounge is badly discoloured and
disfigured. The paintwork to plastered walls and ceilings elsewhere is
also badly discoloured. Paintwork to wood both inside and out has de-
teriorated badly, with bare wood showing in a number of places.
B. Rainwater gutters and downpipes are rusting badly with some
cracked sections and leaking joints.
C. Putties to windows on the south and west sides of the house
have perished and there are several cracked panes of glass.
D. Twenty roofing tiles are missing from the south and west roof
slopes.
E. Pointing to the brickwork on the south wall of the house has
perished.
F. The WC pan in the bathroom is cracked and the flushing mech-
anism is defective.
G. Two inspection chamber covers are badly cracked and corrod-
ed.
H. The close-boarded fence on the southern boundary is badly
decayed and in a state of collapse.
EXH 3 (11) EXH Schedule of claim [,

A. Clean down walls and ceilings and apply

two coats of emulsion ~aint
walls 550 m • 60p 330.00
ceilings 160m2 • 65p 104.00
Strip off existing wallpaper and replace with
new
 Alterations and Improvements 167
80ml@£1.10 88.00
Rub down woodwork, touch up with primer
and apply three coats of gloss paint
90ml@£1.20 108.00
B. Take down defective rainwater gutters
and pipes and replace with new
gutters 30m@ £2.00 60.00
downpipes 15m@ £2.60 39.00
C. Rake out defective putties to windows and
replace with new 16.00
Hack out cracked glass and reglaze
8ml@£4.50 36.00
D. Replace twenty roofins tiles 18.00
E. Rake out joints and pomt brickwork
70ml@£1.30 91.00
F. Replace WC suite 40.00
G. Replace two inspection chamber covers 18.00
H. Replace dose-boarded fence
22m@£6.00 132.00
£1080.00

(12) The estimate of £1080 is based on current prices.

21 April1976 .
Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S1gned .................................. .

References
1 Department of the Environment, House Improvement and Conversion
(H.M.S.O. 1972).
2 D. A. Kirby, 'The Maintenance of Pre-war Council Dwellings,' Housing
and Planning Review (January/February, 1972).
3 Institute of Housing Managers, Improving and Modernising Houses and
Flats (1969).
4 -'New Earswick General Improvement Area No. 1,' The Architects' Jour-
nal, (30 january 1974).
5 J. H. Cheetham, 'New Homes from Old-Some Typical Schemes,' Building
Trades Journal (9 September 1966).
6 J. A. Foreman, 'Conversions-Bedroom into a Bathroom,' Building Trades
Journal (3 May 1968).
7 J. H. Cheetham, 'New Homes from Old-Houses into Flats,' Building
Trades Journal (23 September 1966).
8 W. Eykyn, 'Loft Conversions-A New Market,' Building Trades Journal (6
December 1974).
9 J. Stephenson, 'A Grant for a Room in the Roof,' Building Trades Journal
(4 December 1970).
10 J. Stephenson, 'Converting Oast-houses into Dwellings,' Building Trades
Journal (6 November 1970).
11 J. H. Cheetham, 'New Homes from Old-Specialised Schemes,' Building
Trades Journal (30 September 1966).
12 H. Naden, 'Home Improvements-Modernisation by Means of Unit Ad-
ditions,' Building Trades Journal (29 November 1974).
168 Building Maintenance
13 R. Smythe, 'House Improvements-Add itions by Traditional Methods,'
Building Trades Journal (29 November 1974).
14 Department of the Environment, Cmnd. 5280: Widening the Choice: The
Next Steps in Housing, (H.M.S.O., 1973).
15 P. Channon, 'Housing-the Balance between Conservation and Redeve-
lopment,' Housing Review (September/October 1973).
16 Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, Rehabilitation of Houses and
Other Buildings, (1973).
17 I. H. Seeley, Building Economics (Macmillan, London and Basingstoke,
1974).
18 Institute of Municipal Treasurers and Accountants, Cost Benefit Analysis
(1968).
19 H. Mansfield, 'Financial Implications,' Royal Society of Health Conference
on House Improvements 1973.
20 Department of the Environment, Cmnd. 5339: Better Homes: The Next
Priorities (H.M.S.O., 1973).
21 L. Needleman, 'Rebuilding or Renovation? A Reply,' Urban Studies, 5.1
(1968).
22 B. Kilroy, 'Housing-the Rehabilitation v. Redevelopment Cost Seesaw-
The Effect of High Land Prices,' Local Government Finance (Apri11973).
23 W. Barnes, 'The Financial and Social Costs of Urban Renewal,' Housing
Review (March/Apri11974).
24 N. C. V. jones, 'Preparing Schedules of Dilapidations,' Building Trades
Journal (22 December 1972).
25 W. R. G. Watkin, 'Ware that Saving Clause', Chartered Surveyor: Building
and Quantity Surveying Quarterly 3.2 (1975/6).
26 A. Edgar, 'Rehabilitation Standards', Hous. Rev. (July/August 1975).
8. SPECIFICATION OF MAINTENANCE WORK

The specification forms an extremely important document on building mainten-

ance, conversion and improvement contracts, as it constitutes a schedule of in-
structions to the contractor and prescribes the materials and workmanship
requirements. When read in conjunction with the contract drawings, and bill of
quantities where one is prepared, it provides all the information that a contractor
will need to price the work and carry it out.
In addition, it often contains general clauses which set out the more important
rights and obligations of the parties to the contract. For larger contracts, con-
ditions of contract are normally used which prescribe in considerable detail the
general rights, duties and liabilities of parties to building contracts, and these are
described in more detail in chapter 10.

Sourcesoflaformmadon
Information for use in building specifications can be obtained from a variety of
sources, and the principal sources are now described.

(1) Previous Specifications

In the majority of cases specifications for past contracts are used as a basis in the
preparation of a new specification for a contract of similar type. This procedure
speeds up the task of specification writing considerably, but care must be taken to
bring the specification clauses up to date by the incorporation of latest develop-
ments, techniques and materials. It is also necessary to be constantly on the alert
for any changes of specification needed to cope with differences of design, con-
struction or site conditions, as few contracts are really identical. Care must be
taken to omit details which are not applicable and to insert information on ad-
ditional features.

(2) Drawings
The contract drawings must form the basis of any specification as they show the
nature and scope of the work and frequently contain a great deal of descriptive
169
170 Building Maintenance

information. A close examination of the drawings will indicate the matters that
are to be covered in the specification. The drawings will also distinguish between
new and existing work.

(3) Employer's Requirements

The employer may prescribe certain requirements in connection with the work
and these will probably need to be included in the specification. Typical require-
ments of this kind are programming of the works to provide for completion of cer-
tain sections at specified dates and the taking of various precautions to minimise
interference with productive processes in the employer's existing premises. It is
essential that requirements of this kind are brought to the notice of the contrac-
tor, as they may quite easily result in increased costs.

(4) Site Conditions

With extensions to existing buildings, it is necessary to obtain information on soil
conditions, groundwater level and the extent of site clearance work. With alter-
ation work, full details of the existing construction are needed to specify the full
nature and extent of the new work. The contractor should be supplied with the
fullest information available, to reduce to a minimum the risks that he must take
and the number of uncertain factors for which he must make allowance in his
tender.

(5) British Standards

British Standards are issued by the British Standards Institution, an organisa-
tion recognised by the government and industry as the sole body responsible for
the preparation of national standards. The institution has a general council
which controls a number of divisional councils, one of which is concerned with
building, and in addition there are many industry standards committees. These
committees are largely responsible for developing industrial standardisation as
they decide the subjects of new standards and their scope, and approve the draft
standards which are prepared by the various technical committees. The technical
committees are made up of experts on the subject of the particular standard and
consist of representatives of the user, producer, research and other interests.
Thousands of British Standards have now been prepared covering a wide
range of subjects. Furthermore, they are kept constantly under review in order
that they shall be kept up to date and abreast of progress. They have proved to be
an efficient means whereby the results of research can be made available to in-
dustry in practical form.
These standards lay down the recognised minimum standards of quality for
materials and components and also define the dimensions and tests to which they
must conform. British Standards are of great value in the drafting of speci-
fications as they reduce considerably the amount of descriptive work that is
required. At the same time they ensure the use of a good quality product and gen-
erally meet the 'deemed to satisfy' requirements of the Building Regulations. The
standards incorporate the most searching requirements that the latest stage df
 Specification ofMaintenance Work 171
technical development and knowledge can produce.
Manufacturers and contractors are intimately involved with British Stan-
dards and thus can reasonably be expected to have a fair knowledge of the con-
tents of appropriate standards. They will be generally freed from the necessity to
examine carefully lengthy specification clauses relating to materials and com-
ponents. It is however often necessary to specify the class or grade required where
a British Standard incorporates classes or grades. For instance BS 3921 recog-
nises two classes of engineering bricks (classes A and B).
A selection of some of the most common British Standards covering building
materials and components used in maintenance work follows.

BS 12 Portland cement
BS 65 Clay drain pipes
BS 402 Clay plain roofing tiles
BS 416 Cast iron spigot and socket soil, waste and ventilating pipes
BS 417 Galvanised mild steel cisterns and covers, tanks and cylinders
BS 459 Doors
BS 460 Cast iron rainwater goods
BS 473 Concrete roofing tiles
BS 497 Cast manhole covers, road gully gratings and frames for drainage
purposes
BS 544 Linseed oil putty for use in wooden frames
BS 584 Wood trim (softwood)
BS 585 Wood stairs
BS 644 Wood windows
BS 659 Light gauge copper tubes
BS 680 Roofing slates
BS 699 Copper cylinders
BS 743 Materials for damp-proof courses
BS 74 7 Roofing felts
BS 882, 1201 Aggregates for concrete
BS 890 Building limes
BS 899 Rolled copper sheet, strip and foil
BS 913 Pressure creosoting of timber
BS 9 52 Classification of glass for glazing
BS 988 Mastic asphalt for building (limestone aggregate)
BS 990 Steel windows
BS 1178 Milled lead sheet and strip
BS 1181 Clay flue linings and flue terminals
BS 1188 Ceramic wash basins and pedestals
BS 1191 Gypsum building plasters
BS 1196 Clayware field drain pipes
BS 1198-1200 Buildingsands
BS 1213 CeramicwashdownWCpans
BS 1230 Gypsum plasterboard
BS 1248 Wallpapers
BS 1281 Glazed ceramic tiles and tile fittings for internal walls
BS 1289 Precast concrete flue blocks for gas fires
172 Building Maintenance
BS 1567 Wood door frames and linings
BS 1722 Fences
BS 1860 Structural timber
BS 2028/1364 Precast concrete blocks
BS 2760 Pitch-impregnated fibre pipes and fittings
BS 3260 PVC (vinyl) asbestos floor tiles
BS 3505 Unplasticised PVC pipe for cold water services
BS 3794 Decorative laminated plastics sheet
BS 3921 Clay bricks and blocks
BS 3958 Thermal insulating materials
BS 4449 Hot rolled steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete
BS 4576 Unplasticised PVC rainwater goods
There are over six hundred British Standards covering building materials and
components and a number of these are constantly being revised and amended,
whilst at the same time new standards are being formulated. The British Stan-
dards Handbook 3, published annually, contains useful summaries of British
Standards for building.

(6) Codes ofPractice

Codes of Practice are also issued by the British Standards Institution and these
cover workmanship requirements and methods of carrying out various classes of
work. The following Codes of Practice may be of particular value when drafting
specifications for building maintenance and alteration work.
CP 99 Frost precautions for water services
CP 101 Foundations and substructures
CP 111 Structural recommendations for loadbearing walls
CP 112 The structural use of timber
CP 114 Structural use of reinforced concrete in buildings
CP 121, 101 Walling: Part 1: Brick and block masonry
CP 142 Slating and tiling
CP 143 Sheet roof and wall coverings
CP 144 Roof coverings
CP 1S1 Doors and windows
CP 152 Glazing and fixing of glass for buildings
CP 153 Windows and rooflights
CP 201 Timberflooring
CP 202 Tile flooring and slab flooring
CP 203 Sheet and tile flooring
CP 204 In-situ floor finishes
CP 209 Care and maintenance of floor surfaces
CP 211 Internal plastering
CP 212 Wall tiling
CP 221 External rendered finishes
CP 231 Paintingofbuildings
CP 301 Buildingdrainage
CP 304 Sanitary pipework above ground
 Specification ofMaintenance Work 173

CP 305 Sanitary appliances

CP 306 The storage and collection of refuse from residential buildings
CP 310 Watersupply

(7) Agrement Certificates

In recent years the building industry has become increasingly involved in the use
and development of a perplexing array of new materials, products and associated
techniques. The proliferation of unfamiliar and novel products makes evaluation
and selection an increasingly difficult process. The situation is further aggra-
vated by the establishment of firms with little or no experience of building, pro-
ducing materials or products that have been developed without a detailed
knowledge of required performance standards or guidance on actual conditions
in use. Nevertheless, the pace of development dictates that some products and
processes will need to be used before they have been proved over long periods.
To overcome this problem, the Agrement Board was established by the govern-
ment in 1966 to investigate new materials, products, components and processes
and new uses of established products, and to issue certificates of worthiness
where appropriate. The Board has established a close working relationship with
the European Union and is contributing to the development of common methods
of assessment and standards of performance and testing. At the same time, mem-
bership of the European Union offers the valuable facility of speedy acceptance
amongst other member countries of products granted certificates in the United
Kingdom.
During the S year period 1967-71, the Board issued over one hundred certifi-
cates. Each of these involved an assessment of the product, its performance re-
lated to suitable usage, and devising and carrying out appropriate tests. The
samples tested are deliberately chosen as representing the lowest level. Strict
quality control has to be maintained to ensure that overall production is at least
as good as the tested samples. The certificate contains details about the pro-
prietary product, the design data appropriate to its use, handling on site and sub-
sequent maintenance. The certificates issued cover a wide range of products from
Marleydek sheet PVC roof covering, Thermalite autoclaved aerated concrete
blocks, and Ufoam ureaformaldehyde foam cavity wall insulation to the Osma-
drain UPVC underground drainage system, Polycell cement paint and Opella
plastic taps.
The Department of the Environment notifies local authorities whenever a cer-
tificate is issued and is available for consultation on the standard of the product
under the Building Regulations. Associateships are available on a subscription
basis whereby subscribers receive free copies of certificates, a regular newsletter,
information sheets and discounts on other documents. 1
The independent safety check in the Agrement system, based on satisfactory
performance in use requirements, minimises the risk of damage in use and subse-
quent repair, and it ensures compliance with the currently accepted comfort
standards where appropriate. The assessment of durability introduces one of the
more difficult problems with new materials, especially those for external use. It is
now generally accepted that attempts to accelerate the breakdown of products
can be very misleading unless there is an adequate background of research; the
174 Building Maintenance

alternative of trying to improve the accuracy of observation on short term natu-

ral exposures is generally more satisfying. It seems likely that the realistic predic-
tion limit is in the range of 10 to 20 years without maintenance other than
perhaps periodic washing. The maintenance aspects of the design data on an
Agrement Certificate provide a sound guide to the kind of maintenance which
may be needed and the procedures to be adopted for this work. 2

(8) Trade Catalogues

Where proprietary articles are specified, reference should be made to the manu-
facturers' catalogues for the extraction of the necessary particulars for inclusion
in the specification. It is often advisable to quote the catalogue reference when an
article is produced to a number of different patterns.
This procedure will reduce the length of specification clauses and will ensure
the use of a specific article with which the specification writer is familiar and in
which he has confidence. Some public bodies object to this practice on the
grounds that it restricts the contractor's freedom of choice and in some cases pre-
vents the use oflocal products. Furthermore, it may prevent the contractor from
using his regular source of supply and may thus result in higher prices. 3

(9) Publications
Other publications can be used for reference purposes when compiling a speci-
fication such as booklets issued by trade associations, as for example the very
useful publications of the Cement and Concrete Association. The annual publi-
cation Specijication4 contains a wealth of useful information.

Form of the Specification

When the specification is accompanied by drawings it should amplify, not repeat
and certainly never contradict the information given on the drawings. The speci-
fication should explain the purpose and intent of the drawings more fully and
clearly, so that the two documents when taken together leave no doubt as to the
work to be executed. Most building operations require both drawings and speci-
fication but the specification alone will be adequate for some works, such as re-
decorations and repairs.
The specification is a highly technical document and should be written in tech-
nical language using appropriate building terms. In this respect it differs greatly
from a structural or sanitary report prepared for a client, which is kept as free
from technical terms as possible. The architect or surveyor preparing a speci-
fication must have a thorough knowledge of the materials and forms of con-
struction that he is specifying and must know exactly how they will be used, in
order to draft an entirely satisfactory specification.
A specification should be concise and comprehensive, and avoid duplication of
particulars and the inclusion of vague or ambiguous details. Excessively long and
involved specifications are apt to produce highly priced tenders. In these circum-
stances the contractor experiences difficulty in assimilating the document and
 Specification ofMaintenance Work 11S
gains the impression that the requirements of the contract may be more far-
reaching than is customary, and so tends to increase his price accordingly. Simi-
larly where the specification places unreasonable risks upon the contractor, he is
almost certain to increase the price to safeguard his position.
Building specifications normally start with general clauses or preliminaries
which relate to the contract as a whole and define the contractor's general liab-
ilities. Typical general clauses are given later in the chapter. The remainder of a
building specification is normally subdivided into trades or works sections, as
detailed in the Standard Method of Measurement of Building Works, and each
subsection is frequently split into materials and workmanship. The customary
trades and works sections are listed in the following schedule and are not en-
tirely coincident.
Traditional trades Work sections

Demolitions and Alterations

Excavator Excavation and Earthwork
Piling
Concreter Concrete work
Bricklayer Brickwork and Blockwork
Underpinning
Rubble Walling
Mason Masonry
Asphalter Asphalt work
Roofer Roofing
Carpenter Carpentry
Joiner and Ironmonger Joinery
Steel and Iron Worker Structural Steelwork
Metalwork
Plumber Plumbing and Engineering Installations
Heating and Ventilating Engineer
Electrician Electric installations
Plasterer Plasterwork and other Floor, Wall and
Ceiling Finishings
Pavior
Glazier Glazing
Painter Painting and Decorating
Drainlayer Drainage
Fencing

When preparing specifications for works of alteration, conversion and

repair, it is often advantageous to depart from the accepted format previously
described. Each contract needs to be considered separately and the most logi-
cal format adopted. In some cases the natural sequence of work as executed on
the site offers the best approach, in others a room by room approach or subdi-
vision of the building(s) into specific parts on a locational basis, or the work
may be partly or entirely grouped into trades or work sections as for new
work. Some flexibility in approach is desirable to accommodate wide vari-
ations in the character, scope and extent of the works.

National Building Specification

The basic concept of the National Building Specification (NBS) 1973 is to
176 Building Maintenance
provide a master list of short specification clauses from which a specification
writer can make his own choice. It was initiated by the Economic Development
Committee for Building and the RIBA in 1968 and produced by National Build-
ing Specification Limited over a three year period using a team of six architects,
two quantity surveyors, a builder and a structural engineer. It is to be updated
periodically by revised editions.5
In essence, NBS, made up of four volumes, is a collection of standard speci-
fication clauses that describe building materials and building operations. A typi-
cal NBS work section is subdivided into two subsections--<:ommodities and
workmanship. There are 80 work sections, including preliminaries, and within
each section there are a number of clauses which describe the alternative materi-
als used and others that describe the related alternative operations. Together
they cover a remarkably large number of materials and operations. A column on
the left-hand side of all clauses contains guidance notes of all kinds, including
technical explanations, cross references to other documents and commentary on
the content of the clauses.
In the introduction it is suggested that NBS should be used to produce project
specifications and also a standard specification for each office. It is also suggested
that most specifiers will begin by checking their existing specifications against
NBS with a view to adopting a NBS standard clause whenever possible, although
there does not seem much evidence of this procedure being followed in practice
and NBS has certainly not been universally adopted. Doubtless, architects and
surveyors would benefit by comparing their current specification clauses with the
corresponding ones in NBS to identify any deficiencies in the office documents.
As with most new ventures, NBS is not without its teething problems. Inter-
vening advertisements serve to interrupt and irritate the reader. Each volume
has been page numbered separately so that it is not possible to refer to any page
without in addition giving a volume number. The general index contains exces-
sively long code numbers for each item, which are difficult to use, and only pro-
vides references to the commodity clauses. The elaborate system of coding is far
too complicated and has no links with the Standard Method of Measurement, for
instance, 'bath' has the reference '(7) 21:xa0.70,' and some ofthe key headings
in the workmanship subsections are inconsistent.6 No reference is made to BS
Codes of Practice which can prove valuable and there is no general section. The
work sections are referenced in accordance with CI/StB7 and this gives rise to
anomalies, for instance brick walling is separated from making mortar and plas-
tering from making the plaster. The joinery sections are particularly complex,
being grouped into making joinery, fixing joinery, boarding for sheathing, board-
ing for flooring, boarding for cladding, battens, cover trims, windows, door
frames and various other categories in separate sections, resulting in nails, screws
and glue for fixing being specified on many occasions.8
The Technical Director of NBS claims that its use provides improved building
documentation, a constructive approach, good technical content, clarity and bre-
vity oflanguage, flexibility and choice for the specifier, benefits to the contractor
and better co-ordination with other documents. Nevertheless by 1975 the num-
ber of organisations using NBS was disappointingly small.
 Specification ofMaintenance Work 177

Performance Specifications
A performance specification is a method of defining a component, product or
system not by composition or form, but by the needs of the user which it must sat-
isfy. Expressed in another way, it states what is needed rather than how the need
shall be met. This concept has been used on a limited scale for many years; for
example, it is customary to specify ventilation plant to be operated by a fan with a
capacity of x m3/min, and steel may be specified as having a prescribed yield
point. Yet no performance specification has been written for a complete building,
except of the simplest requirements, largely because of the complexity of the pro-
cess. The difficulties can be illustrated by reference to the performance require-
ments of a window, which would include methods and extent of opening, type of
glazing, cleaning, compatibility of materials and jointing with adjoining materi-
als, strength related to size and use, long term maintenance and appearance.
These would need backing up with suitable means of testing, quality control and
subsequent certification.
A BRE paper9 describes how a performance specification makes purchasers'
needs explicit by listing essential properties required in a systematic form-with
their values or limit values-and methods of testing or evaluation. It leaves the
supplier and his designer maximum freedom to innovate in terms of materials,
form, method of manufacture and assembly. In fact, many British Standards for
building materials and components contain a range of specified values coupled
with prescribed tests designed to measure them. Also as described earlier, in order
to assess the probable behaviour of new products in use, the Agrement Board pre-
pares check lists of performance requirements and methods of assessment and
test (MOATS).
In its simplest form, a performance specification constitutes a shopping list for
choosing already designed products; it is used to establish an equitable and sys-
tematic basis for the choice between available products. Alternatively, the more
common current approach, is as a tool for commissioning the design of products
for a specific market. 9
Not all properties of a component, element or building are physically quanti-
fiable. Furthermore, a product meeting the basic performance requirements may
still be unacceptable for other reasons, and these further design constraints must
be listed.
The Building Research Establishment9 has shown just how complicated the
preparation of a performance specification for a building can be by reference to a
suggested procedural approach.
( 1) Decide on the overall strategy for design of the building and its parts.
(2) Decide the scope of the performance statement-the range of contexts
in which components will be used and the basic geometry of the spaces that will
be occupied. Any resulting design constraints will then be identified.
(3) At the appropriate levels, decisions must be made on functional require-
ments of the building, its spaces or the packages.
(4) A list of relevant properties should be determined, for instance with
cladding panels it will be necessary to decide whether thermal insulation is an
appropriate property to consider.
(S) The relative importance of desired properties must be assessed and,
178 Building Maintenance

where appropriate, weighted.

(6) A decision must be taken as to how the requisite properties are to be
measured-by inspection, calculation or test, and the units of measurement.
Possibly a BS test or Agrement MOAT may be appropriate.
(7) The limiting values for each quantifiable property must be considered.
For example, in the case of a window, is the upper limit of air infiltration to be nil
or is some air flow needed for health reasons? At the other extreme, what should
be the greatest permissible leakage under extreme conditions, representing the
lowest quality of performance to be endured in practice?
(8) Within a single performance specification it may be beneficial to list dif-
ferent limits (step levels) in a range of values for different use situations.
(9) A statement must be made about other criteria governing the accept-
ance of a design, such as labour content for site erection, contractual obligations,
supply, delivery, storage and other administrative aspects. Cost is a consideration
running through all stages, particularly the later ones.

Drafting of Specifications
Material Descriptions
Considerable care must be exercised in drafting a specification to prepare clauses
which are concise, complete and free from ambiguity. For instance, when draft-
ing materials clauses it is desirable to adopt some prearranged order of grouping
the particulars, to avoid missing some important detail. The following build-up
of a specification description for engineering bricks will serve to illustrate the ap-
proach.

Criteria Requirements
Material Bricks
Type Southwater red No. 2 engineering bricks
Name of manufacturer or source of supply MessrsXofY
Prime cost £4 5 per thousand
Desirable characteristics Well burnt, of uniform shape, size and
colour, and sound and hard
Undesirable characteristics Freedom from cracks, stones, lime and
other deleterious substances
Tests Average compressive strength of not less
than 48.5 MN/ml
Average water absorption by weight not
greater than 7 per cent

In practice it would be much more convenient to make reference to BS 3921

for class B engineering bricks. The following alternative methods of describing
materials, or possibly a combination of them, can be used in a specification.
(1) A full description ofthe material or component is given with details of
desirable and undesirable properties and appropriate test requirements.
(2) The relevant British Standard reference, together with details of class
or type where appropriate, is given. The contractor can then refer to the British
Standard for fuller information.
 Specification ofMaintenance Work 179

(3) The name of the manufacturer, proprietary brand or source of supply is

stated and the contractor can obtain further particulars from the manufacturer
or supplier.
(4) A brief description of the material is given together with the prime cost
for supply and delivery of a certain quantity of the material to the site.
Typical quantities are a thousand bricks, a cubic metre of sand, a tonne of
cement and Slitres of paint, and these normally represent the units in which the
materials are sold. This latter method ensures that all contractors are tendering
on the same basis, without the need to obtain quotations from manufacturers or
suppliers. It also permits the client to defer the choice of the material if he so
wishes.

Avoidance of Unsatisfactory Descriptions

In practice, use is often made of a number of wide and embracing terms which are
not sufficiently precise in their meaning and can be interpreted in different ways.
This leads to inconsistencies in pricing with consequent undesirable effects.
Some examples of undesirable terms follow.
(1) The word 'best' is widely used in specifications, where best quality ma-
terials or workmanship are obviously not required. If this term is frequently and
loosely inserted throughout the specification, without any real regard to its true
intent and meaning, then the contractor will be tempted to disregard it. It is im-
portant to prevent this happening by using the term only when materials and
workmanship of the highest quality are required. Materials are frequently pro-
duced in a number of grades and it is essential that a clear indication should be
given of the particular grade required. For instance, it would be extravagant to
specify British Standard vitrified clay pipes for surface water drains when there
is a British Standard Surface Water classification.
(2) The word 'proper' is also frequently misapplied, particularly in descrip-
tions of constructional methods. As a general rule it is far more satisfactory to in-
clude full instructions in the specification, and so leave the contractor in no doubt
as to the actual requirements of the job. With minor items of work a compre-
hensive description of the method of construction may not be essential and in
these circumstances the use of the word 'proper' may be acceptable.
(3) The term 'or other approved' usually represents an undesirable feature
in any specification, as it introduces an element of uncertainty. The contractor
cannot be sure whether the materials or components which he has in mind will
subsequently prove acceptable to the architect or surveyor. All specification re-
quirements should be clear and certain in their meaning and be entirely free from
doubt or ambiguity.
(4) The term 'as specified' is often used without specifying anything.

Workmanship Clauses
Specification clauses covering constructional work and workmanship require-
ments are generally drafted in the imperative, for instance 'lay manhole bases in
concrete, class B, 225 mm thick', or alternatively 'The contractor shall lay ... '.
180 Building Maintenance

All workmanship clauses should give a clear and concise description of the char-
acter and extent of the work involved.
The sequence of clauses within a section will normally follow the order of con-
structional operations on the site. This procedure reduces the possibility of omis-
sion of items from the specification and assists the contractor in working to its
requirements on the site. The specification writer must avoid specifying stan-
dards of workmanship which are completely out of keeping with the class of work
involved. He may need to chose between repair, replacement and cleaning. 11

Typical Spedflcadon Clauses (Alteradons and Repairs)

Title
The title could be produced in the following format.
SPECIFICATION
of
works to be executed and materials to be used in alterations and repairs to No. 24
Baxter's Close, Pendlebury for Mr P. T. johnson under the direction and to the
reasonable satisfaction of:
J. T. Hanbury, FRICS
52, High Street
Pendlebury
Date ....................... .

Preliminaries
The materials and workmanship requirements of the specification will be pre-
ceded by preliminaries or general clauses and some typical clauses follow. In
specifications for alteration and repair work, the materials and workmanship re-
quirements are often scheduled on a locational basis, for instance room by room,
and provision may be made for pricing the preliminaries items and the works
items that follow on the right-hand side of the specification.
Tenders 1 Tenders should be submitted not later than .... on
the form of tender.
Drawing 2 The works consists of alterations and repairs to the
detached house, 24 Baxter's Close, Pendlebury and
the alterations are shown on Drawing R1 62.
Visit Site 3 The contractor is advised to visit the site and fam-
iliarise himself with working conditions, access to and
general extent of the works.
Conditions of 4 The articles of agreement and conditions of contract
Contract will be the JCT 1973 private edition without quanti-
ties. The contractor shall make allowance in his
tender for complying with these conditions.
The defects liability period shall be six months from
the date of certified practical completion. Insurance
against injury to persons and property shall provide
 Specification ofMaintenance Work 181
cover for up to £10 000 for any one incident, the
number of incidents for which cover is provided being
unlimited.
Interim certificates will be issued monthly with a
retention of 5 per cent.
The period of final measurement and valuation
shall be three months from the date of practical com-
pletion.
The tender is to be firm price and no fluctuations
will be permitted for increased costs of labour, mater-
ials, plant, and other components and services.
Materials and 5 Materials, components and workmanship shall be of
Workmanship good quality and in accordance with the British Stan-
dards and Codes of Practice prescribed.
Extent of Works 6 The contractor shall do everything necessary for the
proper execution of the works, whether or not shown
on the drawing or described in the specification, pro-
vided it may be reasonably inferred.
Figured Dimensions 7 Fi~red dimensions shall be followed in preference to
scaled dimensions and particulars shall be taken from
the actual work where possible.
Setting Out, Notices, 8 The contractor shall be responsible for the correct set-
Fees and Compliance ting out of the works. He shall give all necessary
with Regulations notices to local and service authorities, pay all appro-
priate fees and charges, and carry out all work in
compliance with the Building Regulations.
Nominated Suppliers 9 The contractor shall allow for all expenses in connec-
tion with the unloading, storing and return of pack-
ings of materials and components, including those
listed under prime cost items.
Careofthe Works 10 The contractor shall take reasonable care of the exist-
ing premises and of all new work and shall take steps
to reduce interference with the occupants of the
building to a minimum. The contractor shall be re-
sponsible for any damage arising from the weather,
carelessness of workmen, loss, theft or other cause,
and shall make good such damage or loss at his own
expense.
Attendance 11 The contractor shall allow for the general attendance
of one trade upon another.
Screens and 12 The contractor shall provide all necessary screens,
Hoardings hoardings and similar protective devices for the bene-
fit of the occupants and adjoining properties.
Clearing Away 13 The contractor shall remove all temporary works,
rubbish, debris and surplus materials from the site as
they accumulate and at completion; and shall clean
all surfaces internally and externally, remove stains
and touch up paintwork, dry out the new works as
182 Building Maintenance
necessary, and leave the works clean and to the
reasonable satisfaction of the surveyor.
Contingency Sum 14 Allow the provisional sum of £100 to cover any un-
foreseen contingencies. This sum is to be expended in
part or in whole at the discretion of the surveyor.
Acceptance of 15 The employer does not bind himself to accept the
Tenders lowest or any other tender.

Materials
Cement 16 The cement shall comply with BS 12, be delivered in
the original sealed bags of the manufacturer and be
stored in a proper manner to avoid deterioration.
Aggregate 17 The fine aggregate shall comply with BS 882 and
shall consist of well graded coarse sand mainly pass-
ing a 5 mm test sieve. The coarse aggregate shall also
comply with BS 882 and shall consist of natural
gravel, crushed gravel or crushed stone, well graded
with a maximum size of20 mm.
Concrete 18 Concrete for foundations shall consist of 1 part Port-
land cement, 3 parts sand and 6 parts coarse aggre-
gate, all measured by volume.
Concrete for new floors, paved areas and lintels
shall be 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts sand and 4
parts coarse aggregate, all measured by volume.
Mixing shall be carried out in an approved batch
type mixer and shall continue until there is a uniform
distribution of materials and the mix is uniform in
colour and consistency.
BricksandBlocks 19 Facing bricks shall be 65mm Himley mixed russet
wirecut facing bricks, extending to at least 75 mm
below ground level. Other brickwork below ground
and inner leaves of cavity walls below damp-proof
course shall be common bricks to BS 3921. Precast
concrete blocks for the inner leaf of cavity walls and
internal partitions shall be Thermalite, Celcon or
other approved complying with BS 2028, type B.
Wall Ties 20 Metal wall ties for use in cavity walls shall be of mild
steel coated with zinc of the butterfly type complying
with BS 1243.
Lime 21 Lime shall be non-hydraulic or semi-hydraulic lime
complying with BS 890.
Mortar 22 Mortar used below damp-proof course shall consist of
one part of Portland cement, one half part of lime and
four and a half parts of sand (1:t:4t) by volume. In
all brickwork and blockwork above damp course the
mortar shall be 1: 1:6.
Damp-proof Course 23 The damp-proof course shall be of bitumen sheet with
hessian base and lead complying with BS 743, typeD,
 Specification ofMaintenance Work 183
lapped at least 75 mm at angles and joints and laid on
a level bed of cement-lime mortar (1 :t:4t) and neatly
pointed where exposed.
Timber 24 All hardwood and softwood shall comply with BS
1186 and plywood for exterior use shall comply with
BS 1455. Where timber is to be primed it shall be
coated with a thick mixture of red or white lead and
linseed oil. The moisture content of the timber used
for internal joinery is to be 10 per cent and that used
for external doors and frames is to be 16 per cent
when the joinery is delivered to the site, and these
moisture contents are to be maintained until the work
is complete. Carpentry timber shall be supplied and
fixed to the lengths and sizes shown on the drawing,
be clean, straight and reasonably free from knots and
shakes.
Plasterboard for 25 Ceilings shall be formed with 12.7 mm gypsum lath
Ceilings plasterboard, of gyproc lath or other approved type,
faced with aluminium foil on its upper face in accor-
dance with BS 1230, and fixed with 38 mm galvan-
ised 12 SWG clout headed nails to underside of
softwood joists, to give a true plane surface. Nail each
lath to every support using not less than 4 nails
equally spaced across the width and driven no closer
than 12 mm from its edges. The laths shall be finished
with one coat of neat thistle board finish plaster to a
thickness of 5 mm.
Plaster for Walls 26 Plastered walls and reveals to openings shall be fin-
ished with two coats of plaster. The floating coat shall
consist of Carlite high suction browning plaster,
complying with BS 1191, Part 2, 10 mm thick, ruled
to an even surface and lightly scratched to form a key
for the finishing coat. The finishing coat shall be
Carlite finish plaster, 2 mm thick, and trowelled
to a smooth surface. All plaster shall be supplied
by British Gypsum Limited, and used in accor-
dance with the manufacturer's printed instruc-
tions.
Glazed Wall Tiling 27 The wall tiles shall be 150 x 150 x 6 mm glazed
ceramic tiles to BS 1281 with cushion edges and
spacer lugs of low porosity and thick glaze of
selected colours and from an approved manufac-
turer. The tiles shall be close jointed with an ap-
proved resilient jointing material with 6 mm
expansion joints at the corners. Provide attached
angle tiles at top edges, external angles, sills and
reveals.
Paints 28 All paints shall be supplied by Messrs Hadfield,
184 Building Maintenance

I.C.I. or other approved manufacturer. The ma-

terials shall be used strictly in accordance with
the manufacturer's instructions. Paint shall be ap-
plied to woodwork and metalwork in three coats;
two undercoats and a gloss finishing coat of approved
colours. Wall and ceiling surfaces shall be painted
with two coats of emulsion paint.
Glass and Putty 29 All glass is to be to BS 952 of British manufacture and
be free from defects. The putty for glazing to timber
frames to be to BS 544 and to metal frames to be of
approved manufacture.

Paintwork
Painting 30 Knot, prime, stop and rub down all new woodwork
before painting. Bum off and rub down existing
painted wood surfaces preparatory to repainting as
for new work. Wash down existing walls, clean off old
paint and distemper finishes, cut out and fill cracks
and rub down existing plastered surfaces before re-
decorating.
No painting or other decorations shall be com-
menced before all other work has been inspected and
approved by the surveyor. Pull out all old nails,
screws, hooks and other obstructions from walls,
ceilings and woodwork, and make good to surfaces.

Living Room
Floor 31 Lift existing tile floor and hack up brick sub-floor and
lime concrete bose. Take out soil to average depth of
75 mm and lay and consolidate 150 mm bed of hard-
core consisting of stone rejects blinded with gravel.
Lay on hardcore, 100 mm bed of concrete, as speci-
fied, with a trowel finish. Remove existing tiled skirt-
ing, hack away existing wall plaster to a height of
300 mm above floor level, and make good with a
cement and sand (1:3) render coat finished flush with
the plaster. Lay plastic waterproof membrane and
38 mm cement and sand (1:3) screed on the concrete
bed, and on the screed lay PVC tiles of approved
make, colour and pattern (p.c. £3.00/m2 laid).
Supply and fix matching PVC skirting trim, 7 5 mm
high all round room. The PVC tiles and skirting shall
be laid by an approved specialist flooring subcon-
tractor.
Cast Iron Range/ 32 Take out existing cast iron range and remove. Supply
Fireplace and install in opening all-night burning grate and
welded steel back-boiler of approved design (p.c. £70
complete), build in and form new connections to
 Specification ofMaintenance Work 185

existing flue and copper tubing. Build up front of

range opening in 102.5 mm brickwork. Supply and
fix new tiled surround (p.c. £40). Render and set as
necessary to chimney breast and returns, and make
good to old plaster.
Decorations 33 Prepare plastered walls and ceiling as previously de-
scribed and decorate with two coats of emulsion
paint. Prepare existing woodwork as previously de-
scribed and apply two undercoats and one finishing
coat of hard gloss paint to both existing and new
woodwork. 10

Kitchen
Alterations 34 Take out existing sink, copper and shelving. Cut out
flue stack from copper and seal off with triangular
concrete pad as shown on drawing, and make good
brickwork where disturbed.
Take out existing sash window and stone sill. Hack
off all loose and cracked plaster and rake out joints of
brickwork for replastering.
Take down existing half-brick wall between fuel
store and external WC. Brick-up opening to fuel
store. Take out existing WC pan and flushing cistern
and seal off existing drain.
New Doors and 35 Form new door openings in rear wall of existing scul-
Windows lery and in side wall of existing WC to give access to
bathroom extension, and build in 150 x 215 mm pre-
cast reinforced concrete lintels and 100 x 75 mm soft-
wood rebated frames to receive 726 x 2040 x 40 mm
thick semi-solid flush doors to BS 4 787.
Fit 14 x 45 mm chamfered architraves in the pos-
itions shown on the drawing. Hang doors from a pair
of 100 mm pressed steel butts and fit mortice locks
and door furniture (p.c. £4 per door). Make good to
skirtings.
Enlarge side window opening, build in precast rein-
forced concrete boot lintel and new steel casement
windows to the dimensions and type shown on the
drawing. Form two course tile sill externally. Glaze
windows with 4 mm clear sheet glass.
Render and set to window and door opening reveals
and make good to old plaster.
New Cupboards 36 Build and bond into existing walls 75 mm concrete
block partitions to form new cupboards. Build in cup-
board fronts in accordance with the details shown on
the drawing, and fix timber shelving as shown. Build
in 2 no. 215 x 215 mm terra cotta airbricks to food
cupboard in positions shown and finish internally
186 Building Maintenance
with 21 S x 21 Smm fibrous plaster vents. Render and
set block partitions and make good ceilings. Fit skir-
tings to new partitions to match existing.
Gas Water Heater 37 Fit and connect Ascot multi-point water heater (p.c.
£85) and build in asbestos flue outlet.
Sink Unit 38 Install and connect up 1050 x 525 mm stainless steel
combined sink and drainer with cupboard unit below
(p.c.£60).
Decorations 39 Decorate plastered walls and ceilings and paint wood-
work as for living room.

Bathroom
Extension 40 Build new bathroom extension to the dimensions
shown on the drawing. Excavate over site and spread
soil in back garden. Excavate for and lay concrete
foundations, SSO x 150 mm in section. Build 2SS mm
cavity walls of 100 mm concrete blocks internally and
half brick faced skin externally tied together with 4
wall ties/m3 • The face of brickwork, with flush joints,
shall be kept clean and the ties clear of mortar drop-
pings. Seal the cavity with brickwork and vertical felt
d.p.c. at window opening, and build the walls solid at
eaves.
Lay 100 mm bed of concrete on hardcore, plastic
waterproof membrane and 38 mm cement and sand
( 1: 3) screed on the concrete bed, and on the screed lay
PVC tiles as for the living room. Lay a boarded and
joisted roof as shown on the drawing to falls, and
finish with three layers of built-up felt covered with
white spar chippings. The roof shall be insulated with
SO mm fibre glass insulation on the plasterboard ceil-
ing. Fit fascia board and soffit boarding to eaves as
shown.
Fix cast iron rainwater goods as shown. Build in
metal casement of the dimensions and type shown,
together with boot lintel, tile sill and window board,
and one air brick as for kitchen. Fit 14 x 70 mm
chamfered softwood skirting.
Render and set walls and fit plasterboard ceiling
with skim coat as previously specified. Lay two
courses of 150 x 150 mm wall tiles over bath and
washbasin.
Decorate walls and ceilings and paint woodwork as
for living room. Paint external woodwork and metal-
work to match existing. Glaze window with Styppo-
lite.
Sanitary Fittings 41 Install and connect up bath, wash basin and WC
(p.c. £130) in the positions shown on the drawing,
 Specification ofMaintenance Work 187
including provision of hot and cold services and
waste pipes.

Electrical Work
Electrical Supply and 42 Allow the sum of £120 to cover the provision of three
Fittings additional socket-outlets in kitchen, two additional
socket-outlets in living room and lighting and power
circuits and fittings in bathroom, as shown on draw-
ing. Allow for attendance on electrician and necessary
builder's work.

Drainage
Drains 43 Excavate for, backfill as necessary and lay 100 mm
flexible jointed vitrified clayware pipe drains and fit-
tings to BS 65 and 540 Part 1, to the lines and gra-
dients shown on the drawing. Foul drains shall be of
British Standard quality and surface water of British
Standard Surface Water quality. Provide vitrified
clayware back inlet trapped gullies with 150 x
150 mm galvanised wrought-iron hinged flat grating
and frame, set on and surrounded with 150 mm con-
crete. All drains shall be tested with water to the satis-
faction of the local authority.
Inspection Chamber 44 Excavate for, backfill as necessary and construct in-
spection chamber in one brick walls in class B engin-
eering bricks in cement mortar (1:3), 900 x 675 mm
internally on a 150 mm concrete base. Corbel the
sides of the chamber to take a coated cast iron cover
and frame, size 600 x 450 mm complying with BS
497 (grade C-light duty-reference C6-24/18).

Spedficadons for New Work

When specifying new building work, including that contained in extensions to
existing buildings like the bathroom extension described earlier, it may be
deemed necessary to prepare much fuller workmanship clauses to ensure a good
standard of work, even although the quantity of work may be quite small. The
following specification clauses for the trade of bricklayer relating to the work in
the bathroom extension are given to show a possible approach.

Bricklayer
Brickwork and Build the whole of the brickwork and blockwork to the
Blockwork Generally dimensions and heights shown upon the drawings.
Cavity walls are to have a SO mm cavity and wall ties
are to be provided spaced 900 mm horizontally and
188 Building Maintenance

Brickwork and 450 mm vertically and staggered and with extra ties
Blockwork Generally at reveals and openings; the ties to be carefully laid so
Contd. that they do not fall towards the inner leaf. Keep the
cavity clear by lifting screeds or other means, leave
openings at the base, clean out cavity at completion
and subsequently brick up the openings uniformly
with the surrounding brickwork.
In dry weather the suction rate of the bricks shall
be adjusted by wetting before use and the tops of walls
left off shall be wetted before work is recommenced.
All bricks shall be well-buttered with mortar before
being laid and all joints shall be thoroughly flushed
up as the work proceeds.
Brickwork shall be carried up in a uniform
manner, no one portion being raised more than
900 mm above another at one time. All perpends and
quoins shall be kept strictly true and square and the
whole properly bonded together and kept level.
No brickwork shall be carried out during frosty
weather without the consent of the surveyor and sub-
ject to his requirements. All brickwork laid during the
day shall, in seasons liable to frost, be adequately
covered up at night with suitable protective material.
Should any brickwork be damaged by frost the brick-
work shall, at the discretion of the surveyor, be pulled
down and made good.
Half-brick walls shall be in stretcher bond. Bats
shall not be used except where required for bond. No
four courses shall rise more than 300 mm. Build
cavity walls solid at head of wall as shown on draw-
ings. Rake out joints of all brickwork which is to re-
ceive plaster.
Concrete blocks shall be jointed in cement-lime
mortar (1:1:6). Construction joints must be formed
at intervals not exceeding 6 m with a 38 mm x 16G x
200 mm long galvanised hoop iron strip across joints
in alternate courses and with the render and plaster
coat severed.
External Facework Face the brickwork externally with facing bricks as de-
scribed, taking care to obtain an even mixed dis-
tribution of bricks of the various colours (red, brown
and purple) and to avoid patches of bricks pre-
dominantly of one colour. Joint the bricks with
cement-lime mortar, as described, and point with a
curved recessed joint (bucket handle) as the work
proceeds. Bricks are to be carefully handled to pre-
vent damage.
All faced work shall be kept perfectly clean and no
 Specification ofMaintenance Work 189

rubbing down of brickwork will be allowed.

Scaffold boards shall be turned back during heavy
rain and at night to avoid splashing.
Damp-proofing Lay over the whole of the walls, for the full thickness
at a minimum height of 150 mm above finished ground
level and under copings, a bitumen hessian base and
lead damp-proof course as previously described.
Cover the cavities of hollow walls under wood sills
with bitumen damp-proof course, as described,
200mmwide.
Build solid the reveals of hollow walls at window
and door openings with brickwork, 100 mm thick and
insert bitumen hessian base and lead vertical damp-
course.
Sundries Cut and fit brickwork and blockwork around waste
pipes; provide all necessary chases for pipes and conduits;
build any oversailing courses that are required; build
in or cut and pin ends of sills and thresholds; bed
plates; bed door and window frames in lime and hair
mortar and point in cement-lime mortar; secure door
and window frames in brickwork with stout galvan-
ised iron ties (six to each opening) and build in fixing
bricks, wherever else required, for fixing joinery. Cut
away as required, and make good after all trades.

References
1 A. E. Crocker, 'Agrement Certificates', Specification, vol. 1 (Architectural
Press, London 1975).
2 T. W. Parker, 'Agrement and Maintenance', Building Maintenance
(October 1967).
3 I. H. Seeley, Civil Engineering Specification (Macmillan, London and
Basingstoke, 1968).
4 -Specification, two volumes published annually (The Architectural Press,
London).
5 National Building Specification, National Building Specification 1973
(R.I.B.A., 1973).
6 B. Martin, 'National Building Specification 1973' Building (6 April1973).
7 - CI/SfB Project Manual (The Architectural Press, London, 1971).
8 R. Stevens, 'The NBS and Other Specifications', Building (12 April197 4 ).
9 Department ofthe Environment, BRE Current Paper 37/69: Performance
Specifications for Building Components (H.M.S.O., 1969).
10 1. H. Cheetham, 'New Homes from Old-Applying for the Grant', Building
Trades Journal (2 September 1966).
11 K. 1. Gould, 'Accuracy in Specifying brings Efficiency, Time and Goodwill',
Bldg Maint. (March 1975).
9. MEASUREMENT AND PRICING OF MAINTENANCE WORK

Measurement of Building Work

Historical Background toM easurement
Up to the middle of the nineteenth century it was normal practice to measure and
value the work after completion. This practice gave rise to various problems as
for instance when some of the craftsmen's surveyors made extravagant claims for
waste of material on being worked on the site, and the architects felt obliged to
engage surveyors to contest these claims.
During the period of the Industrial Revolution there was a large increase in the
volume of building work and general contractors became established who sub-
mitted inclusive estimates covering the work of all trades. They also engaged sur-
veyors to prepare bills of quantities on which their estimates were based. As
competitive tendering became more common the general contractors began to
combine to appoint a single surveyor to prepare a bill of quantities, which all the
contractors priced. In addition, the architect on behalf of the building owner
usually appointed a second surveyor, who collaborated with the surveyor for the
contractors in preparing the bill of quantities, which was used for tendering pur-
poses.
In later years it became the practice to employ one surveyor only who prepared
an accurate bill of quantities, based on the architect's drawings, which was used
for tendering. This surveyor also measured any variations that arose during the
execution of the work. This was the origin of the present day independent pro-
fessional quantity surveyor, who is an expert on all matters relating to building
costs. 1

Purpose ofa Bill of Quantities

The bill of quantities is a schedule of all the items of labour and materials needed
to carry out a building contract. Each item is suitably referenced with a full de-
scription of the work and the quantity involved. Rate and pricing columns are
also contained in the bill so that each contractor tendering can insert prices
against each billed item, and the total of all these prices provides the tender sum.
If any variations arise in the work, due for instance to changes of design or sub-
stitution of alternative materials, the rates in the bill will normally form the basis
190
 Measurement and Pricing ofMaintenance Work 191

for valuing the varied items of work. One of the primary functions of the bill of
quantities is to enable all tenders to be computed on an identical basis and it in-
variably forms a contract document.
The main object of preparing a bill of quantities is to determine the cost of the
particular contract, and so everything that is likely to affect cost must be in-
cluded. The principles on which such a bill of quantities is to be prepared are de-
tailed in the Standard Method of Measurement of Building Works. 2 For domestic
alterations and small extensions, the Code for the Measurement of Building
Works in Small Dwellings3 is more appropriate.
In the absence of a bill of quantities, each contractor has to prepare his own
bill of quantities, or possibly an abridged version, in the limited amount of time
allowed for tendering. With larger contracts this places a heavy burden on each
contractor and also involves him in additional cost which must be spread over the
contracts in which he is successful.

Bill Preparation
The orthodox process of bill preparation can conveniently be broken down into
two main processes-taking off and working up.
In taking-off dimensions are scaled or read from drawings and entered in a rec-
ognised form on specially ruled paper, called 'dimension paper', as illustrated
below.

4 4

Each page of dimension paper is split vertically into two identically ruled
parts, each consisting of four columns, which are used for the following purposes.
Column 1-timesing column, in which multiplying figures are entered
where there is more than one of the item.
Column 2----dimension column, where the actual dimensions are entered.
There may be one, two or three lines of dimensions, depending on whether it is a
length, area or volume.
Column 3-squaring column, where the length, area or volume, obtained
by multiplying together the figures in columns 1 and 2, is recorded, ready for
transfer to the abstract or bill.
Column 4----description column, in which the written description of each
item is entered. The right-hand side of this column is known as waste, in which
preliminary calculations, build-up oflengths, locational references and like mat-
ters can be entered. Abbreviations are used extensively in writing descriptions at
the taking-off stage; a comprehensive list is given in Building Quantities Ex-
plained.1
The dimensions must always be recorded in the order of length, breadth and
192 Building Maintenance

height; all taken to two places of decimals (to nearest 10 mm), although dimen-
sions in waste are taken to three places of decimals.
Typical entries on dimension paper follow.

Explanatory notes
5.78 Exc. veg. soil av. 150 mm Superficial item for strip-
5.48 dp. & dep. in spoil heaps ping vegetable soil from site
av. dist. of30mfrom of small building
excavn. (5.78m x 5.48m)
19.50 Exc. fdn. tr. n.e. 1.50 m Cubic item of foundation
0.75 dp. startg. at stripd.lev. trench excavation, taken in
0.75 1.50 m stages of depth,
19.50 m long x 750 mm
& wide X 750mmdeep.
Backfill exc. mat. ard. All taken as backfill in the
fdns. first instance and subse-
quently adjusted when
concrete and brickwork
below ground are
measured.

The order of taking-off must be logical and normally follows fairly closely the
sequence of work on site as follows.
Carcass-foundations, brickwork and facework; blockwork; fireplaces, chim-
ney breasts and stacks; floors; and roofs.
Finishings-wall, ceiling and floor finishings; windows, including adjustment
of openings; doors, including adjustment of openings; fittings; stairs; plumbing
installation; drainage work; other services; and other external works, such as
roads, paths, fences and landscaping.
One of the first principles of measurement to be mastered is the girthing of
buildings, measured on the centre lines of the main enclosing walls. Taking for
instance a rectangular building of 2SS mm cavity walls, measuring 15m x 7 m
externally, the girth of the perimeter wall can be built up in the following
manner.

15.000
..LQ.OQ
2/22.000
44.0l)O
less corners 4/25 5 ...l.&1Q (4 times thickness of wall)
girth of building 42.980 (measured on centre line of enclosing walls)

Working up generally consists of squaring the dimensions, transferring the

resultant lengths, areas and volumes to the abstract, where they are arranged in a
convenient order for billing anJ reduced to the recognised units of measurement;
and finally the billing process, where the various items of work making up the
complete job are listed in full with their quantities in a suitable order under trade
or sectional headings. The orthodox working up process is both lengthy and tedi-
ous and various alternative approaches have been introduced with a view to ac-
 Measurement and Pricing ofMaintenance Work 193

celerating this stage of the work. One of the older methods was 'billing direct',
involving the transfer of items direct from the dimension sheet to the bill. This
system operates quite well where the number of similar items is limited and the
work is not too complicated, as with drainage. Other developments include 'cut
and shuffle' and computerised systems, both of which are particularly well suited
for larger jobs.
In abstracting the dimensions are transferred from the dimension sheets on to
abstract sheets which are double width sheets ruled vertically into columns about
25 mm wide. Each sheet is headed with the contract reference or title and the par-
ticular trade or works section. The order in each section of the abstract is cubes,
supers, lineal items (runs) and lastly enumerated items, so that they are in the
correct sequence for billing.
The description of each item is normally spread over two columns as shown in
the following example.

BRICKWORK JOB REFERENCE

Suers Li eal
H. b. skin of boll. wall in Hor. d.p.c. 102.5 mm
65 mm wide of sin le layer of
stretcher hessian bas bit. to BS
(1:1:6) 743, lapd. 1 0 mm at jts.
(mesd. net) bedded in
c.m. (1:4)

These items will be crossed through on the dimension paper as they are trans-
ferred to the abstract. Any deductions, such as window and door openings from
brickwork, which are measured overall in the first instance, are entered in the
second column, and the numbers appearing in brackets after the dimensions are
the page or column numbers of the dimension sheets. Each total in the abstract
will be reduced to the recognised unit of measurement. Finally each item will be
crossed through on its transfer to the bill.
The final stage of billing takes place on bill paper usually in the form of single
right-hand billing, in accordance with BS 3327 (Stationery for Quantity Survey-
ing). This form of billing is shown in the example on p. 194.
The most common referencing arrangement is alphabetical commencing on
each page, thus an item reference could be 240 (page 24, item D). All descrip-
tions are entered in full with no abbreviations permitted. The monetary totals at
194 Building Maintenance
the bottoms of pages are normally transferred to a collection at the end of the sec-
tion, and the total for each section is transferred to a summary at the end of the

Item
No. Description Qty Unit Rate £

J
Excavation
A Ex<'""'" vogetahl< ooil
average 150 mm deep

l
and deposit in spoil heaps,
average distance of 30 m
from excavation. 50 ml

B Ex<avat< foundation
trench not exceeding
1.50 m deep, starting at
stripped level. 30 m3

bill. The total of the summary will represent the tender sum. The units are some-
times expressed as lin. m, sq. m and cu. m, whereas m, m2 and m3 are now used
extensively in the construction industry and have the merit of brevity.
Preambles are introductory clauses entered at the head of each section or trade
in a bill of quantities, relating to matters which affect the contractor in pricing
the bill and which ought to be drawn to his notice. Their main purpose is to help
contractors when tendering for jobs by making the task of pricing as
straightforward as possible. They often assist in reducing the length of billed de-
scriptions by avoiding repetitive entries. 1
The Preliminaries Bill is the first sectional bill in a bill of quantities and covers
many important financial matters which relate to the contract as a whole and are
not confined to any particular section, and the contractor is thus given the oppor-
tunity to price them. Section B of the Standard Method of Measurement of
Building Works 2 describes most of the items which would appear in such a bill.
Matters to be inserted in a Preliminaries Bill include the names of the parties to
the contract; description of the site; description of the works; contract conditions
clause headings; water for the works; lighting and power for the works; contrac-
tor's and employer's liabilities; temporary works such as temporary buildings,
roads, screens, hoardings, scaffolding and telephones; nominated subcontrac-
tors' work; goods from nominated suppliers; protection and drying out of works;
clearing the site on completion and contingencies.

Principles and Units of Measurement

The general principles of measurement are expounded in the Standard Method
of Measurement of Building Works, 2 as modified by the Code for the Measure-
ment of Building Works in Small Dwellings3 which covers small dwellings and
alteration and repair work. An outline of the abridged approach and of the units
 Measurement and Pricing ofMaintenance Work 195

of measurement applicable to this latter class of work follow.

ExcafJation and Earthwork

Excavating fJegetable soil which is to be preserved shall be given in square metres
stating the average depth, including deposition on site.
Reduced lefJel excavation shall be given in cubic metres where exceeding
300 mm deep, and in square metres stating the average depth for shallower exca-
vation.
Hardcore shall be measured similarly.
Excavation of foundation trenches shall be given in cubic metres, stating the
starting depth, such as stripped or reduced level, and the depth of excavation in
successive stages of 1.50 m, for instance not exceeding 1.50 m; over 1.50 m but
not exceeding 3 m deep. The description shall include all necessary planking and
strutting.
LefJelling or grading the bottom of excavation shall be given in square metres.
Backfill and disposal of surplus soil shall be given in cubic metres.

Concrete Work
Plain and reinforced in situ concrete shall each be kept separate.
Formwork shall be included in the concrete descriptions and is not the subject
of separate measurement as with larger works.
Concrete in foundation trenches shall be given in cubic metres, stating the
thickness in stages of not exceeding 150 mm, over 150 but not exceeding 300 mm,
and over 300 mm thick.
Concrete in beds, roads, pavings and walls over 300 mm thick shall be given in
cubic metres, and those not exceeding 300 mm thick in square metres stating the
thickness.
Concrete in suspended floors and roofs shall be given in square metres stating
the thickness.
Concrete in beams, lintels and columns shall each be given separately in linear
metres stating the size.
Bar reinforcement shall be given in kilogrammes stating the size, with each
size given separately, and classified according to location.
Fabric reinforcement shall be measured the net area covered in square metres,
stating the mesh, the weight per square metre and the minimum extent of side
and end laps.
Precast concrete steps, sills and lintels shall be enumerated stating the size.

Brickwork andBlockwork
Descriptions of brickwork shall include kind, type and size of bricks, type of
bond, and composition and mix of mortar. Brickwork of two-brick thickness and
ofJer shall be reduced to one-brick thick and given in square metres under various
classifications, such as walls, filling old openings, and piers and chimney stacks,
whereas that under two-brick thickness shall be given in square metres stating
the thickness. Skins of hollow walls are measured separately in square metres as
196 Building Maintenance

is also forming of the cavity, giving the width of cavity and type and spacing of
wall ties.
The various labours such as eaves filling, chases, fair cutting and bedding
plates, are included in the brickwork description or in an item at the beginning of
the section.
Facework shall be measured as extra over brickwork in square metres (no de-
duction is made from common brickwork measurements), stating kind and qual-
ity of bricks, type of bond, composition and mix of mortar for pointing and
method of pointing. Half-brick walls and one-brick walls built entirely of facings
shall each be given separately in square metres, as for example the outer skin of a
hollow wall.
Blockwork shall be given in square metres stating the thickness under various
classifications, as for brickwork.
Damp-proof courses generally over 225 mm or one-brick wide shall be given in
square metres, while those of narrower width shall be given in linear metres stat-
ing the width.

Underpinning
This forms a separate section in the Standard Method of Measurement of Build-
ing Works.

Rubble Walling
Rubble walling shall be measured separately in several categories in square
metres stating the thickness, including faced work.
Various labours are included in the walling description or in an item at the be-
ginning of the section.

Masonry
Stonework shall be measured separately in several categories in square metres
stating the thickness.
Various labours, such as ends, reveals, external angles, battered internal
angles, fair cutting, grooves, rebates and sinkings, shall each be given separately
in linear metres.
Columns, lintels, sills, mullions, transoms, copings and cornices shall each be
given separately in linear metres stating the size.

Asphalt Work
Asphalt cofJerings over 300 mm wide shall be given in square metres while those
not exceeding 300 mm wide shall be given in linear metres stating the width in
stages of 100 mm, to various classifications.
Various labours such as fair edges, rounded edges, drips, arrises, and turning
asphalt nibs into grooves shall each be given separately in linear metres, while
skirtings, aprons, fascias and gutter linings shall each be given separately in
 MeasurementandPricingofMaintenance Work 197
linear metres stating the width or girth on face.

Roofing
Coverings shall each be given separately with a full description in square metres.
Work to edges of roofs, such as eaves, verges, valleys and hips shall each be
given separately in linear metres.
Underfelting shall be given in square metres stating the extent of laps and
method of fixing.
The sheet metal roofing section lists allowances to be made for drips, rolls,
welts and upstands.
Sheet metal flashings, aprons and cappings shall each be given separately in
linear metres stating the girth of the metal. The supply of soakers is enumerated
stating the size.

Carpentry
Structural timbers shall be given in linear metres stating the nominal size under
various classifications, such as plates, bearers, floor and roof joists, partitions,
rafters, ceiling joists and collars, purlins, and members of roof trusses.
Ridges, hips and valleys shall each be given separately in linear metres stating
the nominal size and including cutting and fitting ends of rafters against them.
Roof boarding shall be given in square metres, including any shallow firrings
(not exceeding 50 mm average depth).
Bolts and straps shall be enumerated stating the size, including any necessary
holes in the description.

Joinery
Flooring shall be given in square metres, with raking and curved cutting each
given separately in linear metres.
Boarding to eaves, verges and the like shall be given in linear metres stating
the width.
Doors shall be enumerated stating the size.
Casements and double hung sashes, including their frames, shall be enumer-
ated stating the overall size and sizes of the various parts.
Door frames shall be enumerated stating the overall size and sizes of the
various parts.
Skirtings, architraves, picture rails, cornices, cappings and the like shall each
be given separately in linear metres stating the size.
Shelves shall be given in linear metres stating the width and thickness.
Fittings,fixtures and staircases shall be enumerated and described in detail.

Structural Steelwork
Structural steelwork shall be given in kilogrammes in various classifications and
198 BuildingMaintenance

weight groups where appropriate.

Metalwork
Handrails shall be given in linear metres stating the size and shape, with balus-
ters and newels enumerated giving size and shape.
Matframes shall be enumerated.
Standard metal windows and doors shall each be enumerated separately stat-
ing the type.

Plumbing Installations
Gutters and pipes shall be given in linear metres stating the type and size.
All joints, bends and fittings to pipes not exceeding SS mm bore shall be given
in the descriptions of the relevant pipes. Those to larger pipes shall be enumer-
ated as extra over the pipes in which they occur.
Sanitary appliances shall be enumerated stating the type and size, and includ-
ing short connections thereto in the descriptions.
Water storage tanks and the like shall be enumerated stating the type and ca-
pacity, and the description shall include overflows, ball valves and pipe connec-
tions.
Valoes and cocks generally shall be enumerated separately stating the type and
size.

Electrical Installations
Cables for lighting, heating, earthing conductors and the like shall each be enu-
merated separately on the basis of the number of points. Conduits, where
required, shall be given in the descriptions of the cables.
Lighting fittings, switches, socket-outlets, etc. shall be enumerated and de-
scribed.

Plasterwork and Other Finishings

Wall, floor and ceiling finishings over 300 mm wide shall be given in square
metres and narrower widths in linear metres in stages of 100 mm, except where
caused by voids, when they shall be included with the work given in square
metres.

Glazing
Sheet, rolled and cast glass shall each be given separately in square metres, classi-
fied as to sizes of panes (not exceeding 0.10 m2 , 0.10-0.50 m2 , O.S0-1.00 m2 ,
over 1.00 m2 ), giving a full description of the glass and method of fixing. Plate
and toughened glass shall be classified in accordance with the manufacturer's
tariff.
 MeasurementandPricingofMaintenance Work 199

CurtJed cutting shall be given in linear metres.

Painting and Decorating

Painting work on general surfaces over 300 mm girth shall be given in square
metres, with isolated surfaces not exceeding 300 mm girth given in linear metres.
The girth shall be stated in stages of 100 mm, giving a full description of the work
and keeping internal and external work separate.
Similar rules apply to work on wood frames, wood and metal windows and
glazed wood and metal doors, with work on edges of opening casements in linear
metres. Descriptions of windows and glazed doors shall include the sizes of panes,
classified as small (not exceeding 0.10 m2 ), medium (0.10-0.50 m2 ), large
(0.50--1.00 m 2) and extra large (over 1.00 m2 ).
Work on gutters, railings, fences, gates and gutters shall be measured as for
general surfaces. Work on small pipes (not exceeding 55 mm internal diameter)
shall be given in linear metres, on large pipes (55-llOmm diameter) in linear
metres, and on extra large pipes (over 110 mm diameter) in square metres (meas-
ured externally).
Polishing shall be measured as for painting and paperhanging in square metres
with a full description, classified as on walls, dadoes, isolated panels and ceilings
and beams (grouped together). Raking cutting, curved cutting, border strips and
stiling strips to paper shall each be given separately in linear metres.

Drainage
ExcaNting pipe trenches shall be given in linear metres, stating the depth range
in stages of 1.50 metres and the average depth to the nearest 250 mm.
Concrete beds, benchings and cofJerings shall each be given separately in
linear metres, stating the necessary dimensions.
Pipes shall be given in linear metres stating the type, quality, internal diameter
and method of jointing. Pipe fittings, such as bends and junctions, shall be enu-
merated. Pipes in branches not exceeding 3 m long shall be described giving the
number.
Gullies shall be enumerated and fully described.
Manholes and soakaways shall be given in detail under an appropriate head-
ing.

Fencing
Each type offencing shall be given separately in linear metres with a full descrip-
tion of the materials and method offixing and the height.
Gates shall be enumerated stating the size and method of construction, and
gateposts shall also be enumerated stating the size.
Special fencing posts shall be enumerated as extra over the fencing and exca-
vation for post holes enumerated and suitably described.
200 Building Maintenance

Building Estimates
Building estimates are prepared by different categories of people for various pur-
poses and using a variety of approaches. Surveyors frequently prepare approxi-
mate estimates of building work at the design stage, to indicate to the client his
probable financial commitments. Builders preparing estimates will be influenced
in their approach by the nature and extent of the information supplied by the
designer. It may consist of a bill of quantities accompanied by working drawings,
reasonably comprehensive drawings and specification, or possibly just annotated
drawings for a small alteration job or a schedule of repairs for repair work.

Approlldmate Estimates
Surveyors are frequently required to prepare approximate estimates of the cost of
building projects before the detailed schemes have been prepared. A variety of ap-
proaches are available each with their own particular advantages and disad-
vantages. The most commonly used is the floor area method, but other methods
occasionally employed are the unit, cube, storey-enclosure and approximate
quantities.

Floor area method The total floor area of the building is measured within the
external walls, including all internal walls, stairs, landings and passages. A unit
rate is then calculated per square metre of floor area and the probable total cost
of the building is obtained by multiplying the total floor area by the calculated
unit rate.
This is a fairly popular method of approximate estimating as it is relatively
easy to compute, and most published cost data is expressed in this way in terms
which can be understood by a client. It has a number of inherent weaknesses and,
in particular, it cannot directly take account of changes in plan shape or total
height of the building, or of variations in finishings, number and quality of fit-
tings and related factors. A few typical rates follow to show ranges but it must be
emphasised that wide variations occur in the unit rates for any given class of
building and in the course of time.

Type of building Typical costs/m 2 (1975)

factory workshop £60to75
shop with flat over (excluding shop front) £65to90
semi-detached house (built singly and including central
heating, garage and external works) £80to 120

Cube method The cubic content of the building is obtained by multiplying the
length, width and height (external dimensions) of each part of the building.
Heights are taken from the top of foundations to a point half-way up the roof
slope in the case of a pitched roof and 600 mm above a flat roof. If the roof space
of a pitched roof is to be occupied then the height measurement is taken three-
quarters of the way up the roof slope, and with mansard roofs it is customary to
take the whole of the cubic contents. If a flat roof is surrounded by a parapet wall,
 MeasurementandPricingofMaintenance Work 201

then the height measurement is taken to the top of the parapet wall, but where
the wall height is less than 600 mm, the minimum height of 600 mm applies. All
projections such as porches, steps, bays, dormers, projecting rooflights, chimney
stacks and tank compartments on fiat roofs, are measured and added to the cubic
content of the main building. A small part of the foundations may be deeper than
the remainder, and the unit rate is best adjusted to account for this variation,
rather than attempting to alter the cubic content of the building.
The assessment of the price per cubic metre of a building calls for the exercise
of careful judgement coupled with extensive knowledge of current prices and
trends. Unit prices show large variations between different classes of building
and will even vary considerably between buildings of the same type, where the
proportion of walling to floor area, quality offinishings and fittings and amount
of partitioning and other components vary. The greater the proportion of wall in
relation to the cubic contents of the building, the greater will be its cost per cubic
metre. With single storey industrial buildings, wide variations in storey height
can occur and costs will not vary directly in proportion to height. Features such
as piling, lifts, external pavings, approach roads, external services and similar
works, which bear no relation to the cubic unit of measurement, should be
covered separately by lump sum figures or approximate quantities. Some typical
cubic metre rates for various types ofbuildings follow to give a rough guide.

Type of building Typical costs/m 3 (1975)

church halls £20to26

hotels £40to50
offices £32to45
shops with flats over (excluding shop fronts) £24to30
houses (of various types) £22to40

Unit method This allocates a cost to each accommodation unit of a building, be

it persons, seats, beds, car spaces or whatever. The total estimated cost is then
found by multiplying the total number of units accommodated in the building by
the unit rate. The process of calculation is very simple but the computation of the
unit is exceedingly difficult, and is based on the analysis of the unit costs of a
number of fairly recently completed buildings of similar type, adjusted as neces-
sary. Hence at best it can only be a rather blunt tool for establishing general
guidelines, as required for budget estimating on a rolling programme and has
little relevance to maintenance and improvement work.

Storey-enclosure method Takes the area of the external walls, floor and ceiling
enclosing each storey of the building, and then proceeds to weight some of them
to allow for foundations, upper floors and the extra cost of work below ground
level. The method represented a great advance on previous single rate estimating
methods but as it has been little used since it was introduced in 1954 there is not
much data for comparison purposes, and the method has little relevance to main-
tenance and improvement work. It is well described in Building Economics.•

Approximate quantities method Abridged quantities of the work are measured

202 Building Maintenance
and priced to give an estimate for the work. It involves more work and is superior
to any of the other methods previously described, but there are occasions when
lack of information precludes its use. Composite"Price rate items are obtained by
combining or grouping bill items; for example, a brickwork item measured in
square metres will normally include all incidental labours and finishings to both
wall faces. Doors and windows are usually enumerated as extra over the walling
and associated finishings, thus avoiding the need to make adjustments to the wal-
ling. Furthermore, a door item will be a comprehensive one, including the frame
or lining, architraves, glazing, ironmongery and decoration. Details of a wide
range of composite items with current costs are given in Spon's Architects' and
Builders' Price Book. 5 Some composite items and (1976) costs are included on
pp. 204-5 to amplify the approximate quantities approach.

Preparation of Estimates by Contractors

Matters Affecting Building Prices
It is customary to approach several contractors for a price when a client wishes to
undertake some building work. The actual number of firms approached will
depend largely on the size of the contract and for maintenance and conversion
work under normal conditions could vary between three and six. The prices sub-
mitted may vary considerably and some of the more important reasons for these
price variations follow.
(1) Some contractors may be already heavily committed with work and
may submit 'cover prices'.
(2) Extent of availability oflabour, plant and materials in the locality.
(3) Time of the year when the work is to be undertaken.
(4) Amount and quality of information supplied to contractors.
(5) Quality of work likely to be expected.
(6) Time allowed for execution of work.
(7) Time allowed for tendering.

Action by Contractors on Receipt of Tender Documents

With larger contracts, the contractor is advised to follow the procedure outlined
in the lOB Code of Estimating Practice. 6 On receipt of a bill of quantities, it is
advisable to list all PC items, work to be sublet and major materials and compon-
ents, and to send out enquiries to suppliers and subcontractors. The site must be
visited to see whether there are any unusual or special features or obstacles which
could affect the price; examples being work to be carried out in extremely con-
fined space; site close to a hospital or other establishment where restrictions on
noise emission may be imposed during certain hours; site within a river flood
plain which might cause problems with excavation and drainage work. 7
When pricing a bill of quantities, usually on a short time scale, it is best to start
with the largest quantity items by detailed cost analysis. These items are prob-
ably only about 25 per cent in number of all items in the bill but may well account
for about 80 per cent of total cost. 7
Most contractors approach the pricing of preliminaries in different ways.
 MeasurementandPricingofMaintenance Work 203
Some use a percentage of the total sum for measured work, others price almost
every item in considerable detail, while some include the cost of preliminaries in
the measured rates and insert a lump sum in the summary of preliminaries for the
sake of appearances. There are, however, four major items that must be con-
sidered as they are not necessarily in direct cost ratio to the measured items-
wages of site staff; mechanical plant and scaffolding; travelling time, fares and
expenses paid to operatives; and site hutting. 7
Site staff consist of agents, foremen, site clerks and similar personnel. Their
cost will depend on the length of the contract and can be assessed on a monthly
basis.
The contractor's plant will be costed over its effective life (often three or four
years). The costs are made up of the purchase price, interest on capital over the
life of the plant, repairs and servicing costs, and insurance and road fund licence
where appropriate. This total cost can be divided by the estimated number of
working hours to give an hourly rate, to which must be added haulage costs to
and from sites and fuel costs to give a comprehensive rate. Similarly hire costs of
plant need increasing to include haulage and fuel. The costs of the plant oper-
ators must not be overlooked.
The contractor is required to pay his own employees' travel time and expenses
in travelling to building sites and these will be dependent on the distance
involved.
Site hutting can be a fairly expensive item. Even where the contractor bas the
huts in his possession, he is faced with the cost of depreciation, transport, erec-
tion, some repair work to keep them watertight and resistant to pilfering, and dis-
mantling. These costs can amount to as much as £100 to £150 per hut. In
addition there is probably the cost of telephone, temporary lighting, heating and
labourer attendance to huts used as offices.7
Many repair and conversion contracts are too small to warrant a bill of quanti-
ties, and they are usually based on drawings and specification. The cost of pre-
liminaries on this type of contract is disproportionately high compared with large
contracts or new work. Every contract should be considered on its merits and the
kinds of factor needing investigation are excessive amounts of scaffolding, ad-
ditional site hutting, unavoidable unproductive time of operatives to meet occu-
piers' needs, protective screens, and lack of storage facilities. 1
When estimating for new work, contractors normally take off and price their
own abridged form of quantities. Alteration work in a cramped existing building
can present many additional problems, particularly when the premises will be oc-
cupied throughout the contract period. One approach is to take a notebook ruled
in question and answer form to the site, when typical questions might be as fol-
lows.
(1) Name and address of job.
(2) Nature of access and any traffic restrictions.
(3) Whether hoist required.
(4) Amount of scaffolding required.
(S) Availability of storage space both inside and outside the premises.
(6) Number of rooms available at any one time.
Ifthe building is empty and likely to remain so until final completion, the fore-
204 Building Maintenance

Composite items Unit £

Strip foundations. Excavating trench 1.00 m deep in

heavy soil; levelling; compacting; planking and strutting;
backfilling; disposal of surplus material from site; con-
crete foundations 300 mm thick; hollow brickwork in
cement mortar to 150 mm above ground level; bitumen
hessian-based horizontal d.p.c.; and facing bricks
externally. m 23.00
(£6.40 for each additional 300 mm in depth).
H ollo'ID ground floor construction. Excavation; disposal of
surplus; hardcore 100 mm thick; concrete bed 150 mm
thick; half-brick sleeper walls, honeycombed, at 2.00 m
centres; horizontal dpc; 100 x 50 mm plates; 100 x 50
mm joists at 400 mm centres; and 25 mm tongued and
grooved softwood boarded flooring. ml 13.50
Upper floor. 175 x 50 mm joists at 400 mm centres with
ends creosoted and built into brickwork; 50 x 25 mm
herringbone strutting; trimming to openings; 25 mm
tongued and grooved softwood boarded flooring; plaster-
board; one coat of 5 mm gypsum plaster; and two coats
of emulsion paint. m2 11.00
Pitched roof (measured on flat plan area). 75 x 40 mm
plates; TRADA trussed rafters at 2.00 m centres; 100 x
32 mm rafters and ceiling joists at 500 mm centres; 150 x
40 mm purlins; 125 x 50 mm binders; 150 x 25 mm
ridge; 40 x 19 mm battens; felt; and concrete interlocking
tiles nailed every second course. m2 12.60
Stairs. 900 mm wide to BS 585; treads and risers, winden,
balustrade one side; plasterboard and one coat of gypsum
plaster to soffit and paintinJ; rising 2600 mm. No. 130.00
(£15.00 for each addition 300 mm in height).
Wash basin. White g. v.c., waste fitting, cantilever brackets
and pair of taps (p.c. £16 complete); trap; and copper
waste pipe. No. 48.00
(Comfoarable costs of other sanit~ apfoliances would be
£52 or a sink;fo,108 for a bath; 42 or a ground floor
we and £115 or a we on an upper floor, including a
cast iron soil pipe.)
Electrical installations. These are most conveniently
priced on a cost per point basis, for example lighting
points at £11.20 each and double 13 amp switched socket
outlets wired in a ringmain circuit at £13.70 each.
Drainage. 100 mm g.v.c. pipes and fittings to BS 65;
excavating trenches average 1.00 m deep in heavy soil;
grading bottoms; trench timbering; backfilling; removal
of surplus spoil; and 150 mm concrete beds and
benchin~. m 5.50
(£0. 70 or each additional 300 mm depth of trench not
exceeding 1.50 m deep and £1.70 for each 300 mm
between 1.50 m and 3.00 m deep).
Manhole 665 x 450 x 900 mm deep internally in one-
 Measurement and Pricing ofMaintenance Work 205

Composite items Unit £

brick walls in engineering bricks on 150 mm thick con-
crete base; with 100 mm half-section channel and
branches; concrete benchings; 600 x 450 mm cover and
frame; and all necessary excavation, backfill, disposal of
surplus and planking and strutting. No. 78.00
(£20.00 for each additional300 mm of depth up to 1.50 m
deep internally.)

man will be able to distribute different trades in various rooms, there will be
ample storage and office space and no interference by occupants. Occupied build-
ings can on the other hand create various difficulties as the whole of the work
may have to be completed during a holiday closing period or outside normal
working hours, or maybe only one or two rooms will be available at a time. Where
the specification is not clear on these aspects, the estimator must make allowance
for any matters which will hinder the progress of the work. Narrow fronted shop
premises in particular frequently create difficult working and access conditions,
which are best assessed as lump sums based wherever possible on the estimated
number of man-hours needed. 8
The contractor or his estimator should take sufficient dimensions on the site to
permit the pricing of every item of work involved. An additional check is to assess
the number of man-hours required for each operation on the site. For example in
forming a new window opening a number of trades are involved-bricklayer and
labourer forming the opening and building in the window, joiner, glazier and
painter on the window itself and plasterer making good-in all a total time com-
mitment approaching 40 hours. The removal of an old sink and its replacement
with a new sink unit may involve a plumber, bricklayer, plasterer and painter for
a total time of around 16 hours. Furthermore, allowance must be made for la-
bourers' time unloading materials and components on the site and clearing away
on completion. 8
Many contractors, particularly the smaller ones, use estimating and price
books' as a basis for their estimates. It is important to check the materials' prices,
which are changing quite frequently, 9 and the operative labour rates, which are
generally London based and make no allowance for payments over the recog-
nised wage rates. Labour constants (time taken to execute a specific task) in price
books generally relate to average conditions, whereas few jobs are ever average.
Work may be in confined spaces or at excessive heights involving higher labour
costs due to lower productivity. For example ceilings with a total area of 200m2
are to be painted with two coats of emulsion paint. The ceilings may be 2.50 m or
5 m above floor and although the materials requirements remain constant, the
labour involvement will vary appreciably.
Chrystal-Smith8 has approached this problem by assessing the additional time
allowances to be included for difficult working conditions. They occur mainly
with painter's work but could also be applied to other trades.
(1) Room by room in a private house. This involves moving furniture to the
centre of rooms and covering and protecting it-15 per cent addition.
(2) Single room ftatlets or bedsitters. This form of accommodation is often
206 Building Maintenance
in large properties of three or more storeys divided into units of one or two
roomed furnished apartments. These are very congested-30 per cent addition.
(3) External work to buildings more than two storeys high, involving more
time negotiating ladders and hoisting materials. Additional time might be
roughly assessed as follows.
full scaffold-2 to 4 storeys S per cent
full scaffold-over 4 storeys 10 per cent
ladder work-2 to 4 storeys 20 per cent
ladder work-over 4 storeys SO per cent
(4) Shop or factory premises outside normal working hours. If this involves
work in the evenings or at weekends, the labour costs could be doubled.
(S) School work during holidays. The premises are unoccupied and the
work is quite straightforward but there is invariably a target date for completion.
Labour shortage during the crucial period at the end of the school summer hol-
iday may involve additional labour costs of the order of 10 per cent.
Conditions ofEstimate
In the absence of a formal contract, a contractor may submit his estimate to the
employer on a standard form of estimate. 12 In this form of estimate the contrac-
tor undertakes to provide all requisite labour, sound materials and equipment. It
provides for the receipt by the contractor of a cash discount not exceeding S per
cent on prime cost items for materials and a supervisory charge not exceeding S
per cent on work undertaken by subcontractors under provisional sums. The
value of any variations should wherever practicable be agreed before the vari-
ation is carried out-a wise precaution which is often ignored. Defects arising
within 3 months of the completion of the works, if resulting from faulty work-
manship or materials, will be made good by the contractor at his own cost if noti-
fied in writing before the expiry of the 3 months.
Insurance is generally the responsibility of the employer. There is provision for
extension of the completion date for various stated reasons and for settlement of
disputes by arbitration. Payment is due upon submission of the contractor's final
account following completion, but there is also provision for interim payments
where the period for completion exceeds one month. The estimate is only effec-
tive if acceptance and possession of site is given within 2 months. In general
credit is allowed for any materials necessarily removed to permit execution of the
work.

Price Build-up
A contractor often builds up the price for each item of work in detail, working
from first principles, in order to compute a realistic price for the complete con-
tract. The price of any item of work is made up of certain components from
amongst the following.
(1) Labour--a-aft operatives' and labourers' time at recognised rates or at
actual rates where these are higher. It is customary to use all-in hourly rates
when associated labour costs are added to the basic rate to include such items as
public holidays, holiday credit stamps, tool money, incentive and bonus pay-
ments, guaranteed wages, national insurance, graduated pension, sick pay pre-
 Measurement and Pricing ofMaintenance Work 207

miums, CITB levy and training, and redundancy payments. These labour
oncosts can amount to as much as 60 per cent of the basic rates.
(2) Materials-including waste, transportation, unloading and handling
at site, and value added tax (VAT) on materials and components used in main-
tenance and repair work,, as this will not be recoverable from Customs and
Excise.
(3) Plant-either owned or hired calculated on an hourly rate in either
case, and including fuel and operator.
(4) General oYJerheads and profit--often expressed as a percentage of the
sum of the appropriate previous items; it could be in the range of lS to 30 per cent
according to the organisation of the building firm and the method of pricing. As
an alternative a higher general overheads and profit percentage may be added
only to the all-in labour rates, which is rather more realistic and makes analysis
and recovery by the contractor much simpler. General overheads include such
items as office salaries, supervision by office staff, rent and rates, insurances,
running and maintenance expenses of premises and plant, printing and station-
ery, postages and telephone charges, legal and accountancy charges, bad debts,
depreciation of office equipment and car expenses.
Site or project overheads such as site supervisory staff, clearing site, site trans-
port services, scaffolding and gantries, site accommodation, small plant and
hand tools, temporary services, welfare, first aid and safety provision, defects
liability costs, transport of men to site and abnormal overtime are likely to be
priced separately in preliminaries items as they will vary considerably from one
contract to another.
Some typical examples of the build-up of prices for some of the more common
items ofbuilding work are given in this chapter. For more information on this ex-
tremely complex subject, readers are referred to Enterkin and Reynolds. 10
The amount oflabour required to perform a given unit of work is termed a labour
constant and most estimating and pricing books contain many hundreds of such
constants. In practice the labour constants or outputs should be computed from
analyses of actual performance on past jobs, varied as appropriate for differences
in quantity, working conditions and other matters.

ExcaYJation
In building up prices for excavated soil disposal allowance must be made
for increases in bulk on excavation. This varies with different types of soil
but an average figure is 2S per cent. Typical labour constants applicable to
normal ground conditions follow on p. 208.
With planking and strutting to sides of excavation it is necessary to de-
termine just how much timbering is required having regard to the depth of
excavation and type of soil. It is customary to allow seven uses of the
timber, so that one-seventh of the cost of timber appears in the calcu-
lations.
When pricing hardcore, allowance must be made for loss of material on
consolidation, as shown in the example on p. 208.
208 Building Maintenance

Excawtion work Unit Labourer/hours

Excavate oversite, average 150 mm deep

Excavate foundation trench, not exceeding 1.50 m deep
Backfill excavated material
!1
Level and compact bottom of excavation t

The following examples show the price build-up of typical excavation items incorporating
1975 ail-in hourly rates.
Excawte foundation trench not exceeding 1.50 m deep/m 3
£
Labourer-2 hours o £1.30 2.60
Add General overheads and profit (20%) 0.52
Cost/m3 £3.12
Backfill excawted soil around foundations/m 3 £
Labourer-1 hour o £1.30 1.30
Add General overheads and profit (20%) 0.26
Cost/m 3 £1.56

Bed of hardcore, 150 mm thick/m2

£
1/6 m2 ofhardcore o £3.60/m3 0.60
Allow for 20% consolidation 0.12
Labourer-t hour o £1.30 0.33
1.05
Add General overheads and profit (20%) 0.21
Cost/m 2 £1.26

Concrete Work
Concrete work can be hand or machine mixed. With hand mixing it takes
about S man-hours to produce a cubic metre of concrete, and a further 1t
hours to wheel, deposit and tamp the concrete in foundations.
With machine mixing-a 10/7 mixer operated by 4 men can produce ap-
proximately 2! m3/hour. The following example shows the price build-up
for mass hand mixed concrete in foundations, and this is followed by the calcu-
lation of the price for the same material machine mixed.

Hand mixed concrete (1:3:6) in foundations/m 3

£
1m3 of Portland cement= 1t tonnes o £19.00/tonne 28.50
3m3 of sand o £7.50 22.50
6m3 of 19 mm coarse aggregate o £7.60 45.60
10pans 10) 96.60
9.66
 Measurement and Pricing of Maintenance Work 209
b/f 9.66
Add shrinkage, waste and consolidation (50%) 4.83
Labourer-mixing, wheeling, depositing and tamping-
6! hours • £1.30 8.45

22.94
Add General overheads and profit (20%) 4.59

Cost/m 3 £27.53

Machine mixed concrete (1:3:6) in foundations/m 3

£
Material costs (including shrinkage) 14.49
Machine costs, including fuel (based on 5 year life, 10%
interest on capital an_d 150 working days p.a.) 0.35
Labour costs on mixer/hour £
Operator-! houu £1.50 1.50
3 Labourers-! hour•£1.30 3.90
Allow 2t m 3/hour 2t)5.40 2.16

Wheeling, depositing and tamping

Labourer-It hours • £1.30 1.95
18.95
Add General overheads and profit (20%) 3.79
Cost/m 3 £22.74

Brickwork
With brickwork it is necessary to be able to calculate the number of bricks per
square metre in different bonds and wall thicknesses. For instance
a one-brick wall contains 114 + 6 (waste)= 120 bricks/m2
a half-brick wall contains 57 + 3 (waste)= 60 bricks/m2
(using 65 mm thick bricks with 10 mm joints).
In calculating the number of facing bricks
Flemish bond= 76 + 4 (waste)= 80 bricks/m2
English bond= 86 + 4 (waste)= 90 bricks/m2

Labour constants Bricklayer Labourer

hours/m2

one-brick walls
half-brick walls
fair face to brickwork
extra for facework and pointing as work proceeds
ditto and pointing afterwards
(based on ratio of one bricklayer to two labourers)
210 Building Maintenance

Reduced brickwork in commons in cement mortar (1:3)/m 2

[,
120 bricks (including waste) • [,18 per 1000 2.16
Unloading-Labourer 1/8 hour• [,1.30 0.16
1/12 m3 of cement mortar • £14 1.17
Bricldayer-2t hours • [,1.50 3.75
Labourer-1 t hours • [,1.30 ___1..61
8.87
Add General overheads and profit (20%) 1.78
Cost/m 2 [,10.65

An alternative approach to the pricing of the last item follows.

Per m2
Qty Rate Labour Materials
[, [, [,

Bricks (including waste) 120 18.00/ 2.16

thsd.
Unloading-Labourer 1/8 hr 1.30 0.16
Mortar (including waste) 1/12m3 14.00 1.17
Labour Bricklayer 2fhrs 1.50 3.75
Labourer 14 hrs 1.30 1.63
[,5.54 [, 3.33
General overheads on labour 20% 1.11 6.65
[, 9.98
Profit 10% [, 1.00
Cost/m 2 [,10.98

The variation in price between the two approaches for specific items of work
will depend upon the respective labour contents. Both methods are used exten-
sively in practice, and the percentages will vary according to the circumstances
and policy of the firm.

Extra otJer common brickwork ([,18 per 1000) for facework ([,40 per 1000) in English
bond and pointing with a neat struck joint as the work proceedslm 2

Cost of facing bricks

Cost of common bricks
Extra cost/1000
 MeasurementandPricingofMaintenance Work 211

£
90 bricks (including waste) • £2.20 per 100 1.98
Bricklayer-1 hourtt£1.50 1.50
Labourer-t hour • £1.30 0.65
4.13
Add General overheads and profit (20%) 0.83
Cost/m 2
~

Carpentry

Labour constants Carpenter Labourer

hours/m
Plates, sleepers, etc. (100 x 75 nun) 1/20 1/40
Floor joists (50 x 100 nun) 1/10 1/20
Rafters, ceiling joists, etc. (50 x 100 nun) 1/5 1/10
Ridges, hips, etc. (38 x 175 mm) .1
2
.1
4

Softwoodinplates(lOO X 75 mm)/m £

1 m of softwood plate • £0.50 0.50

Allow 5% waste 0.02
Carpenter-1/20 hour • £1.50 0.08
Labourer-1/40 hour • £1.30 0.03
0.63
Add General overheads and profit (20%) 0.13

Cost/m £0.76

Joinery
With floorboarding, allowance has to be made for waste in tongued edges and
this can vary from 1S to 2S per cent according to the width of the boards. Joiner's
t t
time varies from to hour per square metre depending on the form of jointing
and the width of boards. With doors and windows it is necessary to calculate the
t
quantity of timber required and joiner's time works out at about hour per
square metre. Labourer's time is calculated at half the craft operative's time in
each case.
Plastering
t
Plasterer's time varies from to 1 hour per square metre depending on the type
and thickness of plaster, with labourer's time calculated at one half the craft op-
erative's time. Typical prices (1975) are £1.SS/m2 for 9mm baseboard ceilings,
fixed, scrimmed and skimmed with gypsum plaster, and £1. 70/m2 for two coat
gypsum plaster to walls.
Glazing
A typical example of pricing glazing work follows (p. 212).
212 Building Maintenance

4 mm clear sheet glass and glazing in wood casements, exceeding 0.10 and not
exceeding 0.50 m 2/m 2

£
1 m2 of 4 mm clear sheet glass 1.90
Allow 5% waste 0.10
tkgofputtyttlOp 0.08
Glazier-2 hours • £1.50 3.00
5.08
Add General overheads and profit (20%) -1..0.2._
Cost/m 2 £6.10

Painting
Examples of price build-up for painting follow.

Twice emulsion paint plastered walls/m2

Cost/100m2 £
first coat 6t litres
second coat 6 litres
12t litres of emulsion paint • £3.50/5litres 8.93
Painter-15 hrs for first coat
10 hrs for second coat
Painter-25 hrs@ £1.50 37.50
46.43
Add General overheads and profit (20%) ---.2.2.2.
Cost/100m2 100)55.72
Cost/m 2 £0.56

Knot, prime, stop and paint two undercoats and one finishing coat of oil paint on
general surfaces/m2
Cost/100m 2 £
Preparation
t litre of knotting • £1.80/2! litres 0.36
2 kg of putty• lOp 0.20
10 litres of wood primer • £6/5litres 12.00
Painter-20 hrs • £1.50 30.00
Two undercoats
9 x 2 = 18 litres undercoat • £7/5 litres 25.20
Painter-12 x 2 = 24 hrs • £1.50 36.00
Finishing Coat
9 litres of gloss paint @£7/5 litres 12.60
Painter-13 hrs@ £1.50 19.50
Wear ofbrushes, ladders, etc. c/f £135.86
 Measurement and Pricing of Maintenance Work 213
b/f £1-35.86
(5% oflabourcosts) £
30.00
36.00
19.50
20)85.50 4.28
140.14
Add General overheads and profit (20%) 28.03
100)168.17
Cost/m 2 £1.68

It must be stressed that the labour constants used must appertain to the par-
ticular job and those applied by an inexperienced person merely consulting a
price book are unlikely to produce realistic prices. For example, repetitive work
takes less time to perform-to lay floor boarding in a small room will cost more
proportionately than in a large room, and more still if the small room is of irregu-
lar shape.
Prieiq Alteradon Works
The following example shows one approach to the build-up of an estimate for a
rear extension to a house with an extended floor area of 10m2 and accommo-
dating a bathroom and ventilated lobby. The bathroom contains a white bath,
wash basin and WC. 11 The prices given are typicall97 Sprovincial rates.

Item Description Quantity Rate Cost

£ £
1 Excavate over site 0.50 5.50
2 Excavate foundation trenches and
dispose of surplus soil 4m3 4.20 16.80
3 Concrete foundations 2m3 18.00 36.00
4 100 mm hardcore, 150 mm
concrete floor and damp-proof
membrane 3.85 38.50
5 255 m cavity wall including outer
skin of facings and bonding new
work to old 10.30 288.40
6 100 mm concrete block partition 2.20 15.40
7 Damp-proof course (felt-102 mm
wide) 30m 0.60 18.00
8 Steellintels 4No. 6.00 24.00
9 Softwoodwallplate(100 x 75) 6m 0.80 4.80
10 Softwoodroofjoists(50 x 100) 20m 0.60 12.00
11 19mmroofboarding 12m2 2.40 28.80
12 Fascia and soffit to eaves 3m 2.00 6.00
13 Roofing felt in 3layers 12m2 2.00 24.00
14 Upstands to roof 10m 1.20 12.00
15 Casement windows 2No. 7.00 14.00
16 Window frame 10m 1.40 14.00
17 Flush doors 2No. 9.50 19.00
18 Door frame and architraves 10m 1.80 18.00
19 Ironmongery Item 6.00 6.00
elf 601.20
214 Building Maintenance

Item Description Quantity Rate Cost

b/f 601.20
20 Cutting opening through existing
wall for new door Item 7.00 7.00
21 Plasterboard ceiling and plaster
skim coat 10m2 1.60 16.00
22 Plaster walls (including reveals) 47m2 1.20 56.40
23 Thermoplastic floor tiles 10m2 2.30 23.00
24 Softwood skirting 18m2 0.50 9.00
25 Bath complete 1No. 50.00 50.00
26 Wash basin complete 1No. 25.00 25.00
27 we suite complete 1No. 28.00 28.00
28 Copper water services 10m 1.20 12.00
29 PVC gutter 3m 1.10 3.30
30 PVC downpipe 3m 1.20 3.60
31 Obscure glass and glazing 2m2 5.00 10.00
32 Twice emulsion paint walls and
ceiling 60m2 0.55 33.00
33 Painting doors, frames, etc. 10m2 1.20 12.00
34 Painting windows 4m2 1.40 5.60
35 Manhole complete 1No. 45.00 45.00
36 Excavate drain trench 4m 3.00 12.00
37 Drain pipe on concrete bed 4m 2.10 8.40
38 Connection to existing manhole 1No. 4.00 4.00
39 Connection to WC 1No. 2.50 2.50
40 Gully trap and surround 1No. 5.00 5.00
41 Electrical work Item 60.00 60.00
42 Preliminaries Item 100.00 100.00
43 Contingencies Item 60.00 60.00

Total estimated cost -£1192.00

sai£1200
The next example shows a detailed price build-up for forming a new doorway
opening in a half-brick partition, plastered both sides, to show the large number
ofoperations involved.

Item Description Quantity Rate Cost

£ £
1 Remove and set aside skirting 4m 0.20 0.80
2 Ditto ~icture rail 4m 0.20 0.80
3 Demo ·sh brickwork and plaster
and remove 3m2 2.00 6.00
4 Cut, tooth and quoin u& reveal 4m 2.00 8.00
5 102 x 150precastRC ntel Hm 3.00 4.00
6 Cut and pin ends of lintel 2No. 0.30 0.60
7 Wedr and pin up over lintel 1/5m 2.50 0.50
8 Leve bricltworlt across threshold
and lay screed 1m2 2.00 2.00
9 Hack brickwork and render and
set 150 mm wide, including
making good new to old at one
edge 8m 1.00 8.00
elf 30.70
 Measurement and Pricing ofMaintenance Work 215

Item Description Quantity Rate Cost

b/f 30.70
10 Ditto 225 mm wide 2m 1.30 2.60
11 Refix existing skirting to wall 2m 0.40 0.80
12 Ditto picture rail 4m 0.30 1.20
13 Wash off, stop and twice ernul-
sion paint frieze 2m2 0.60 1.20
14 Ditto wall filling 4m2 0.80 3.20
15 Wash off, stoe, touch up and apply
two coats of 01l paint to skirting 4m 0.25 1.00
16 Ditto picture ratl 4m 0.20 0.80
17 Contingencies and preliminaries 3.50
Total estimated cost £45.00

Small items of repair and alteration work are often disproportionately

expensive as they are very labour intensive, require small quantities of a variety
of materials involving considerable waste, and the general overheads are also
high. Normal price book unit rates have little relevance to this class of work.

Checking Builders' Accounts

Surveyors are often called upon to check builders' accounts for works of repair
and alteration. These accounts normally list the materials used and amount of
labour employed with the costs involved plus allowances for overheads and
profit. This type of work is often carried out on a daywork basis under some form
of cost reimbursement contract. The reader is referred to chapter 10 for more de-
tailed information on contractual arrangements.
On receipt of an account, the surveyor should examine it against the back-
ground of his own notes of site inspections made while supervising the work,
where these are available. A further site visit to clarify any doubtful points prior
to arranging a meeting at the builder's office is often helpful. It may be that alter-
native materials were substituted for those previously specified resulting in
changes in price.
The quantities of materials listed in the account can be checked by measuring
the work done and calculating the materials required, incorporating suitable
waste allowances. The labour component is more difficult to assess, although the
constants listed in price books and included earlier in this chapter form a useful
guide. The surveyor must be prepared to adjust the constants to suit the particu-
lar site conditions. Materials prices can be checked against manufacturers' price
lists with due allowance made for extra costs attributable to small quantities.
At the meeting at the builder's office, queries will be discussed and the builder
will produce invoices and time sheets to substantiate details in the account. It is
possible that materials have been incorrectly charged to the contract, that some
are overpriced or that labour from another site has been inadvertently allocated
to the contract. On occasions labour may be rendered unproductive while one
trade waits for another, and some adjustment to cost may be necessary if this
delay is considered excessive. Frequent transfer oflabour from one job to another
216 Building Maintenance

can result in heavy travelling costs and further unproductive time. Labour costs
usually include a variety of labour related overheads as described earlier in the
chapter. Finally, the percentage addition for general overheads and profit re-
quires scrutiny to ensure that no ancillary costs are charged twice and that the al-
lowance is not excessive. For instance foreman's time in supervision may be
included both as a labour related charge and as a general overhead. Some buil-
ders apply a single percentage to both labour and materials while others use
separate figures for each. The surveyor's task is not to reduce the account to an
irreducible minimum but to ensure that the sum paid by the client is fair and
reasonable.

References
1 I. H. Seeley, Building Quantities Explained (Macmillan, London and
Basingstoke, S.I. edition 1969).
2 Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors/National Federation of Building
Trades Employers, Standard Method of Measurement of Building Works
(fifth edition, metric) (1968).
3 Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors/National Federation of Building
Trades Employers, Code for the Measurement of Building Works in Small
Dwellings (second edition, metric) (1968).
4 I. H. Seeley, Building Economics (Macmillan, London and Basingstoke
1974).
5 Davis, Belfield and Everest (ed.) Spon,s Architects, and Builders, Price
Book (Spon, London, 1975).
6 Institute of Building, Code ofEstimating Practice (1973).
7 G. Chrystal-Smith, 'Estimating on a Bill of Quantities,' Building Trades
Journal (13 December 1974).
8 G. Chrystal-Smith, 'Estimating without Bills of Quantities,' Building
Trades Journal (13 December 1974).
9 D. R. Mudd, 'Present Day Problems of Estimating,' Building Technology
and Management (July 1974).
10 H. Enterkin and G. Reynolds, Estimating for Builders and Surveyors
(Heinemann, 1972).
11 G. Chrystal-Smith, Estimating for Repairs and Small New Works (Building
Trades journal 1974).
12 National Federation of Building Trades Employers, Conditions of Estimate
(1970).
10. TENDERING PROCEDURES AND CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION

This chapter is concerned with the contractual arrangements for the execution of
building work, with particular reference to works of alteration and repair.

Nature and Form of Contracts

The law relating to building contracts is one aspect of the law of contract and tort
(civil wrongs). It is accordingly desirable to have an appreciation of the law relat-
ing to contracts generally before considering the main characteristics and re-
quirements of building contracts.
A simple contract consists of an agreement entered into by two or more parties,
whereby one of the parties undertakes to do something in return for something to
be undertaken by the other. A contract has been defined as an agreement which
directly creates and contemplates an obligation. The word is derived from the
Latin contractum, meaning drawn together. 1
We all enter into contracts almost every day for the supply of goods, trans-
portation and similar services, and in all these instances we are quite willing to
pay for the services we receive. As our needs in these cases are comparatively
simple and we do not need to enter into lengthy or complicated negotiations, no
written contract is normally executed. Nevertheless, each party to the contract
has agreed to do something and is liable for breach of contract if he fails to per-
form his part of the agreement. In general, English law requires no special for-
malities in making contracts but, for various reasons, some contracts must be in a
particular form to be enforceable and, if they are not made in that special way,
then they will be ineffective. Notable among these contracts are contracts for the
sale and disposal of land, and 'land' for this purpose, includes anything built on
the land such as houses.
It is sufficient to create a legally binding contract, if the parties express their
agreement and intention to enter into such a contract. If, however, there is no
written agreement and a dispute arises in respect of the contract, then the Court
which decides the dispute will need to ascertain the terms of the contract from the
evidence given by the parties, before it can make a decision on the matters in dis-
pute.
On the other hand if the contract terms are set out in writing in a document
217
218 Building Maintenance

which the parties subsequently sign, then both parties are bound by these terms
even if they do not read them. Once a person has signed a contract he is assumed
to have read and approved its contents, and will not be able to argue that the
document fails to set out correctly the obligations which he actually agreed to
perform. Thus by setting down the terms of a contract in writing one secures the
double advantage of affording evidence and avoiding disputes.
The law relating to contracts imposes upon each party to a contract a legal ob-
ligation to perform or observe the terms of the contract, and gives to the other
party the right to enforce the fulfilment of these terms or to claim 'damages' in
respect of the loss sustained in consequence of the breach of contract. 1

Enforcement of Contracts
An agreement can only be enforced as a contract if
(1) The agreement relates to the future conduct of one or more of the par-
ties to the agreement.
(2) The parties to the agreement intend that their agreement shall be en-
forceable at law as a contract.
(3) It is possible to perform the contract without transgressing the law.

Validity of Contract
The legal obligation to perform a contractual obligation only exists where the
contract is valid. In order that the contract shall be valid the following conditions
must operate.
(1) There must be an offer made by one person (the offeror) and the ac-
ceptance of that offer by another person (the offeree), to whom the offer was
made. Furthermore, the offer must be definite, and made with the intention of
entering into a binding contract. The acceptance of the offer must be absolute, be
expressed by words or conduct, and be accepted in the manner prescribed or indi-
cated by the person making the offer.
An offer is not binding until it is accepted and, prior to acceptance, the offer
may come to an end by lapse of time, by revocation by the offeror or by rejection
by the offeree, and in these cases there can be no acceptance unless the offer is
first renewed.
(2) The contract must have 'form' or be supported by 'consideration'. The
'form' consists of a 'deed' which is a written document, which is signed, sealed
and delivered, and this type of contract is known as a formal contract or contract
made by deed.
If a contract is not made by deed, then it needs to be supported by 'con-
sideration', in order to be valid, and this type of contract is known as a simple
contract. Consideration bas been defined as some return, pecuniary or otherwise,
made by the promisee in respect of the promise made to him.
(3) Every party to a contract must be legally capable of undertaking the ob-
ligations imposed by the contract. For instance, persons under 18 years of age
 Tendering Procedures and Contract Administration 219

may, in certain cases, avoid liability under contracts into which they have
entered. Similarly a corporation can only be a party to a contract if it is em-
powered by a statute or charter to enter into it.
(4) The consent of a party to a contract must be genuine. It must not be
obtained by fraud, misrepresentation, duress, undue influence or mistake.
(5) The subject matter of the contract must be legal.

Remedies for Breach of Contract

Whenever a breach of contract occurs a right of action exists in the Courts to
remedy the matter. The remedies generally available are as follows.
(1) Damages
(2) Order for payment of a debt
(3) Specific performance
(4) Injunction
(5) Rescission
Each of these remedies will now be considered further.

(1) Damages In most cases a breach of contract gives rise to a right of action
for damages. The damages consist of a sum of money which will, as far as it is
practicable, place the aggrieved party in the same position as if the contract had
been performed.
The parties to a contract, when entering into the agreement, may agree that a
certain sum shall be payable if a breach occurs. This sum is usually known as
liquidated damages where it represents a genuine estimate of the loss which is
likely to result from the breach of contract. Where, however, the agreed sum is in
the nature of a punishment for the breach of contract, then the term penalty is
applied to it, and penalties are not normally recoverable in full.
For instance, in building contracts it is often stipulated that a fixed sum shall
be paid per day or per week, if the contract extends beyond the agreed contract
period. If this sum is reasonable it constitutes liquidated damages and, unlike a
penalty, is recoverable in full.

(2) Order for payment of a debt A debt is a liquidated or ascertained sum of

money due from the debtor to the creditor and is recovered by an 'action of debt'.

(3) Specific performance The term 'specific performance' refers to an order of

the Court directing a party to a contract to perform his part of the agreement. It
is now only applied by the Courts on rare occasions when damages would be an
inadequate remedy but specific performance constitutes a fair and reasonable
remedy and is capable of effective supervision by the Court. This remedy will not
be given if it requires the constant supervision of the Court.

(4) Injunction An injunction is an order of Court directing a person not to per-

form a specified act. For instance, if A had agreed not to carry out any further
building operations on his land, for the benefit of B, who owns the adjoining
220 Building Maintenance
land, and B subsequently observes A commencing building operations, then B
can apply to the Court for an injunction restraining A from building. Damages,
in these circumstances, would not be an adequate remedy.

(S) Rescission Rescission consists of an order of Court cancelling or setting

aside a contract and results in setting the parties back in the position that they
were before the contract was made.

Bulldlng Contracts
Most contracts entered into between builders or contractors and their employers
are of the type known as 'entire contracts'. These are contracts in which the
agreement is for a definite job of work to be undertaken by the contractor and no
payment is due until the work is complete.
In an entire contract, where the employer agrees to pay a certain sum in return
for building work which is to be executed by the contractor, the contractor is not
entitled to any payment if he abandons the work prior to completion, and will be
liable in damages for breach of contract.
Where the work is abandoned at the request of the employer, or results from
circumstances which were clearly foreseen when the contract was entered into
and provided for in its terms, then the contractor will be entitled to payment on a
quantum meruit basis--he will be paid as much as he has earned.
It is, accordingly, in the employer's interest that all contracts for building
work should be entire contracts, to avoid the possibility of work being abandoned
prior to completion. Contractors are usually unwilling to enter into any con-
tracts, other than the very smallest, unless provision is made for interim payments
to them as the work proceeds. For this reason the standard form of building con-
tract2 provides for the issue of interim certificates at various stages of the works,
with the proviso that payment, or the issue of a certificate as a preliminary to
payment, shall not be taken as approval of the work performed up to the time of
payment.
It is usual for the contract to further provide that only a proportion of the sum
due on the issue of a certificate shall be paid to the contractor. In this way the
employer retains a sum, known as retention money, which will operate as an in-
surance against any defects that may arise in the work. The contract does, how-
ever, remain an entire contract, and the contractor is not entitled to demand
payment in full until the work is satisfactorily completed, the defects liability
period expired and the final certificate of completion issued.
That works must be completed to the satisfaction of the employer, or his repre-
sentative, does not give to the employer the right to demand an unusually high
standard of quality throughout the works, in the absence of a prior express agree-
ment. Otherwise the employer might be able to postpone indefinitely his liability
to pay for the works. The employer is normally only entitled to expect a standard
of work that would be regarded as reasonable by competent men with con-
siderable experience in the class of work covered by the particular contract. The
detailed requirements of the specification will of course have a considerable bear-
ing on these matters.
 Tendering Procedures and Contract Administration 221

The employer normally decides the conditions of contract, which define the
obligations and performances to which the contractor will be subject. He often
selects the contractor for the job by some form of competitive tendering and any
contractor who submits a successful tender and subsequently enters into a con-
tract, is deemed in law to have voluntarily accepted the conditions of contract
adopted by the promoter.
The obligations which a contractor accepts when he submits a tender are de-
termined by the form of the invitation to tender. In most cases the tender may be
withdrawn at any time until it has been accepted and may, even then, be with-
drawn if the acceptance is stated by the promoter to be 'subject to formal con-
tract', as is often the case.
The employer will not be bound to accept the lowest or any tender and this is
often stated in the advertisement. A tender is, however, normally required to be a
definite offer and acceptance of it gives rise legally to a binding contract.t

Types of Building Contract

There are a variety of employer/contractor relationships and the choice will be
influenced considerably by the particular circumstances. They range from 'cost
reimbursement' or 'cost plus' contracts at one end of the scale to truly lump sum,
such as non-variable package deals, at the other.
The essential difference between the two extremes devolves upon which party
is to carry the risk of making a loss (or profit) and the incentives which are built
into the contract to encourage the contractor to provide an efficient and econ-
omic service to the employer or client. An examination and comparison of the
most commonly used contractual arrangements follows.

(1) Cost Plus Contracts

These contracts are sometimes described as 'cost reimbursement' or 'prime cost'
contracts. In practice they can take any one of three quite different forms.
(a) Cost plus percentage contracts are those in which the contractor is paid
the actual cost of the work plus an agreed percentage of the actual or allowable
cost to cover overheads and profit. They are useful in an emergency, when there
is insufficient time available to prepare detailed schemes prior to commencement
of the work, but it will be apparent that an unscrupulous contractor could in-
crease his profit by delaying the completion of the works. No incentive exists for
the contractor to complete the works as quickly as possible or to endeavour to
reduce costs. They are quite commonly used in maintenance work.
(b) Cost plus fixed fee contracts are those in which the sum paid to the con-
tractor will be the actual cost incurred in carrying out the work plus a fixed
lump sum, which has been previously agreed upon and does not fluctuate with
the final cost of the work. No real incentive exists for the contractor to secure ef-
ficient working, although it is to his advantage to earn the fixed fee as quickly as
possible and so release his resources for other work. This type of contract is
superior to the cost plus percentage type of contract.
222 Building Maintenance
(c) Cost plus fluctuating fee contracts are those in which the contractor is
paid the actual cost of the work plus a fee, the amount of the fee being determined
by reference to the allowable cost by some form of sliding scale. Thus the lower
the actual cost of the works, the greater will be the value of the fee that the con-
tractor receives. All incentive then exists for the contractor to carry out the work
as quickly and as cheaply as possible, and it does constitute the best form of cost
plus contract from the employer's viewpoint.

(2) Target Cost Contracts

Target cost contracts have been introduced in recent years to encourage contrac-
tors to execute the work as cheaply and efficiently as possible. A basic fee is gener-
ally quoted as a percentage of an agreed target estimate often obtained from a
priced bill of quantities. The target estimate may be adjusted for variations in
quantity and design and fluctuations in the cost of labour and materials. The
actual fee paid to the contractor is obtained by increasing or reducing the basic
fee by an agreed percentage of the saving or excess between the actual cost and
the adjusted target estimate. In some cases a bonus or penalty based on the time
of completion may also be applied. Target cost contracts can be useful when deal-
ing with unusual or particularly difficult situations, but the real difficulty lies in
the agreement of a realistic target.

(3) Measure and Value Contracts

These contracts include those based on schedules of rates, approximate quanti-
ties and bills of quantities. Their great merit lies in the predetermined nature of
the mechanism for financial control provided by the pre-contract agreed rates.
The risk of making a profit or loss rests with the contractor. Another adaptation
of the orthodox bill of quantities contract is serial tendering whereby a series of
contracts are let to a single contractor.

Serial contracting is based on a standing offer, made by a contractor in com-

petition, to enter into a number of lump sum contracts in accordance with the
terms and conditions set out in a master or notional bill of quantities. This
procedure is particularly well suited for a known programme of building work
over a period of time in a specific locality, and where there is a high degree of
standardisation of construction. Nottinghamshire County Council is one auth-
ority which has operated this arrangement. The advantages claimed for the
system include improved relationships with the contractor, more effective cost
control and faster and more economical planning and execution of jobs.

Schedule Contracts may take one of two forms. The employer may supply a
schedule of unit rates covering each item of work and ask the contractors,
when tendering, to state a percentage above or below the given rates for which
they would be prepared to execute the work. Alternatively, and as is more
usual, the contractors may be requested to insert prices against each item of
work, and a comparison of the rates so entered will enable the most favourable
offer to be ascertained. Approximate quantities are sometimes included to
 Tendering Procedures and Contract Administration 223
assist the contractors in pricing the schedules and the subsequent comparison
of the tendered figures.
This type of contract is very suitable for maintenance and repair contracts,
where it is impossible to give realistic and accurate quantities of work to be
undertaken. In this form of contract it is extremely difficult to make a fair com-
parison between the figures submitted by the various contractors, particularly
where approximate quantities are not inserted in the schedules, as there is no
total figure available for comparison purposes and the unit rates may fluctuate
extensively between the various tenderers. Occasionally schedules of rates are
used as a basis for negotiated contracts.

Bills of Quantities Contracts are still a very commonly used contractual arrange-
ment for building projects of all but the smallest in extent, where the quantities of
the bulk of the work can be ascertained with reasonable accuracy before the work
is commenced. A bill of quantities gives as accurately as possible the quantities of
work to be executed and the contractor enters a unit rate against each item of
work. The extended totals are added together to give the total cost of the job as
described in chapter 9.
In the absence of a bill of quantities each contractor tendering will have to
assess the amount of work involved and this will normally have to be undertaken
in a very short period of time, in amongst other jobs. Under these circumstances a
contractor, unless he is extremely short of work, is almost bound to price high in
order to allow himself a sufficient margin of cover for any items which he may
have missed. Furthermore, there is no really satisfactory method of assessing the
cost of variations and the contractor may feel obliged to make allowance for this
factor also, when building up his contract price. Bills of quantities thus assist in
keeping tender figures to a minimum.

(4) Contracts based on Drawings and Specification

These are often described as 'lump sum' contracts although they may be subject
to adjustment in certain instances. They form a useful type of contract where the
work is limited in extent and reasonably certain in its scope and are frequently
used for works of alteration and conversion. They have on occasions been used
where the works are uncertain in character and extent, and by entering into a
lump sum contract the employer hoped to place the onus on the contractor for
deciding the full extent of the works and the responsibility for covering any ad-
ditional costs which could not be foreseen before the works were commenced.
The employer would then pay a fixed sum for the works, regardless of their
actual cost, and this constitutes an undesirable practice from the contractor's
point of view.

(S) Package Deal Contracts

These constitute a specialised form of contractual relationship in which respon-
sibility for design as well as construction is entrusted to the contractor. The less
developed the design, the less detailed the specification and hence the less precise
must be the calculation of the price. Contingencies must be included to provide
224 Building Maintenance
for the unknown. Package deal contracts have been used for local authority hous-
ing, often incorporating heavy industrialised systems; hospitals; defence installa-
tions and factories.
With housing schemes about six contractors may be invited by a local auth-
ority to submit a complete development scheme for a large site. The contractors
may use their own design teams or private architects to prepare schemes within
the specified requirements of densities and costs, and the successful contractor
will subsequently be required to collaborate with the authority's architect. This
form of approach is particularly favoured where special factors exist such as the
use ofbuilding systems.
Contractor-sponsored systems make it essential for the contractor to be
brought into the design team. It has also become necessary to formulate pro-
cedures which will allow competition between contractors offering different
systems. This has involved two separate stages
(i) a competition to select the contractor who can best satisfy the function-
al, aesthetic and economic needs; and
(ii) a period of negotiation with the selected contractor using data, especi-
ally prices, derived from the first stage.

Government Maintenance Contrac:ts

Where there is a concentration of maintenance work in a comparatively restric-
ted geographical area, the Property Services Agency frequently makes use of
term contracts. These are contracts under which the builder undertakes to carry
out a specific type of work within a range of job values for a specified period in a
particular area at agreed rates of charge. By this means, jobs which are appro-
priate to the contract can be ordered without the extensive preliminary work
which would be necessary, both by PSA and the contractors, if each were the sub-
ject oflump sum tendering; at the same time the method preserves the principle
of competitive tendering necessary to ensure that all approved firms have an
equal chance of obtaining work, and that the agency pays the lowest reasonable
price. These contracts can take the form of measured, daywork or specialist term
contracts. 10
Measured term contracts are used particularly for maintenance and minor
new works in the middle band of job sizes, although the upper and lower limits of
cost vary with the type of work. Each is based on a priced schedule of rates 11
which includes a specification, and tenders are submitted in the form of a per-
centage addition or deduction from the rates as a whole. To assist contractors in
computing the appropriate percentage, they are supplied with extensive infor-
mation by PSA, including details of buildings and the estimated annual value of
work. Tenderers are expected to visit the sites. This type of contract is used for
building and civil engineering work, painting and decorating, roadworks, lands
maintenance, electrical work and heating and hot water installations. Their
prime disadvantage is the time taken in measuring each job in accordance with
the priced schedule of works. 10
Daywork term contracts are used in areas where the volume of work is too
 Tendering Procedures and Contract Administration 225

small and too spasmodic to justify the use of measured term contracts. Tenders
are sought for daywork term contracts on the basis of a percentage addition but
in this case two figures are required, one for labour and the other for materials,
with quotations for transport costs. These percentages are the additions required
by the tenderer to cover profit, expenses and overheads in addition to the refund
of his actual labour and material costs. PSA normally restricts this type of con-
tract to small jobs and smaller catchment areas, where smaller firms can provide
personal supervision and a good and economical service. 10
Specialist term contracts are used where services are required regularly over a
period of time. The type of work appropriate to this contract includes gully and
window cleaning, boiler descaling, lift inspection and maintenance, cleaning
bulk fuel tanks, inspection of pressure vessels, masts and towers, and the main-
tenance of small isolated gardens and grounds. A pre-priced schedule of rates
with percentage additions is not usually appropriate, but a schedule may be pre-
pared for pricing by tenderers or a quotation obtained in the form of a price per
visit or operation. 10
Term contracts have the advantage of enabling the contractors to become fam-
iliar with the buildings to be maintained and they assist in the planning of an
annual maintenance programme. This is reflected in lower prices and a better
service than could be obtained from separate orders for each job on an ad hoc
basis. PSA gains from a saving in staff time and the contractor benefits from his
ability to forecast his resource requirements and to programme them efficiently,
although it is not easy to plan a programme of maintenance work well in advance
and foresee all contingencies. 10 Appropriate tender documents are detailed in
Contractual Policies and Techniques for Maintenance Work. 12
Another alternative is to use fixed price maintenance contracts, whereby a
lump sum is agreed with an existing contractor for a wide range of recurring jobs
of a similar kind in a specified group of buildings over a specified period. Minor
items of maintenance not covered by term contracts may be the subject of lump
sum contracts against a specification and drawings.

Tendering Arrangements
Conventional tendering procedures have been criticised on the grounds that they
fail to take full advantage of modern techniques and may inhibit the wider indus-
trialisation of building processes. All tendering procedures aim at selecting a suit-
able contractor and obtaining from him at an appropriate time an acceptable
offer, or tender, upon which a contract can be let.
The Simon Committee in 19443 drew attention to the fact that low prices re-
sulting from indiscriminate tendering result in bad building and that resources
are wasted when many firms tender for the same job. In 1964 the Banwell
Report4 suggested that invitations to tender should be limited to a realistic num-
ber of firms, all of whom were capable of executing the work to a recognised stan-
dard of competence. The Banwell Committee appeared to favour the general use
of standing approved lists of contractors and that ad hoc lists should be used
mainly when the work was of a specialist or one-off nature. The Committee
further recommended that the period allowed for tendering should be adequate
226 Building Maintenance
for the type of project and welcomed 'firm price' contracts (contracts without a
price fluctuations clause). The former Ministry of Housing and Local Govern-
ment issued revised model standing orders to local authorities in 1964 to facili-
tate the wider use of selective tendering procedures, and in 1965 the Ministry
gave guidance to local authorities on the operation of selective tendering.
In 1965 a working party was established by the Economic Development Com-
mittee for Building to examine the Banwell Report and its implementation and it
submitted its report in 1967.5 The working party considered that insufficient at-
tention was paid to the importance of time and its proper use and that clients
seldom define their requirements in sufficient detail at the start of negotiations.
It favoured the main contractor joining the design team at an early stage.
The working party urged the wider adoption of the practices detailed in Code
of Procedure for Selective Tendering, 6 Selective Tendering for Local Auth-
orities' andEar{y Selection of Contractors and Serial Tendering,• although they
recognised that in the public sector this would require a more flexible approach to
satisfy standards of accountability. Although the working party saw merit in
'firm price' contracts, they stressed the difficulties involved in producing firm
tenders in a market where materials prices tend to fluctuate and contractors are
often invited to tender on incomplete documentation. This problem has now been
largely solved by the introduction of formula price adjustments described later in
this chapter.
Summing up, tendering arrangements can be broadly classified into three
main groups
( 1) advertising for competitive tenders;
(2) inviting tenders from selected contractors; and
(3) negotiating a contract with a selected contractor.

Method 1 ensures maximum competition but there is the disadvantage that

tenders may be received from firms who have neither the necessary financial re-
sources nor adequate technical knowledge and experience of the class of work
involved Hillebrandt22 lists three principal objections to open tendering
(a) lack of control by the client over the competence of the builder he is
employing
(b) waste of resources when many firms tender for the same job
(c) incompatibility with need for continuity of employment within the in-
dustry.

Method 2 is especially desirable when the works are of great magnitude or

complexity, while method 3 is often restricted to special circumstances, as for
instance when the contractor is already engaged on the same site and space is
very restricted. Negotiation might also offer advantages where it is required to
make an early start with the work or where the contractor in question has excep-
tional experience of the class of work covered by the particular contract.
The number of firms invited to tender will depend on the size and type of con-
tract, ranging from three or four for the smallest contracts up to twelve for the
largest. A minimum period of 21 days should be allowed between the receipt of
 Tendering Procedures and Contract Administration 227

tender documents by contractors and delivery of the actual tenders.

Contract Documents
There are five or six contract documents which are often used in connection with
building contracts. With small contracts it is likely that a bill of quantities will be
omitted. In cases where a bill of quantities is issued the specification is not a con-
tract document unless the contract expressly provides for it. The following can
constitute contract documents.
(1) Articles of Agreement
(2) Conditions of Contract
(3) Specification
(4) BillofQuantities
(S) ContractDrawings
The nature and uses of each of these documents are as follows.

(a) Articles ofAgreement These constitute the formal agreement between the
employer and the contractor for the execution of the work in accordance with the
other contract documents for the contract sum. The contractor covenants to con-
struct, complete and maintain the works in accordance with the contract, and the
employer covenants to pay the contractor at the times and in the manner pre-
scribed by the contract. The appendix to the JCT Articles of Agreement incor-
porates such matters as dayworks, percentages, defects liability period, damages,
interim certificates, retention percentage, and period of final measurement and
valuation.

(b) Conditions of Contract These define the terms under which the work is to
be undertaken; the relationship between the employer, architect, quantity sur-
veyor and contractor; the powers of the architect and the terms of payment. The
normal standard set of conditions used is that issued by the Joint Contracts Tri-
bunal and is generally known as the JCT Conditions. There are four separate sets
for use on public or private contracts and with or without quantities in each
case. 2 Practice notes are issued from time to time to clarify doubtful points.
Where a contract is of very limited extent and the use of the standard compre-
hensive set of conditions is not really justified, an abbreviated set of conditions as
described later in the chapter may be used. On government contracts the general
conditions (GC Wks 1) frequently issued by the Department of the Environment
are used. There is also a JCT form for use with bills of approximate quantities.

(c) Specification The specification performs a vital role in any building con-
tract but in recent years there has been a tendency to include it in the bill of quan-
tities in the form of preamble clauses. Where a bill of quantities has been
prepared, the specification will not constitute a contract document unless it is a
requirement of the particular contract, and contract documents have precedence
over documents of lesser standing. As described in chapter 8 the specification
amplifies the information given in the contract drawings and bill of quantities. It
228 Building Maintenance
describes in detail the work to be executed under the contract and the nature and
quality of the materials and workmanship.
Details of any special responsibilities to be borne by the contractor, apart from
those listed in the conditions of contract, are often incorporated in this docu-
ment. It may also contain clauses specifying the order in which various sections
of the work are to be performed, the methods to be adopted in the execution of the
work, and details of any special facilities that are to be afforded to other contrac-
tors or subcontractors.
An excellent arrangement for a building specification is to commence with any
special conditions relating to the contract and the extent of the work, then to
follow with a list of contract drawings, details of the programme, description of
access to site, supply of electricity and water, offices and mess facilities, and state-
ments regarding suspension of work during frost and bad weather, damage to
existing services, details ofborings if any, groundwater levels and similar general
matters.
This section could conveniently be followed by detailed clauses covering the
various sections of the work, commencing with materials in each case and then
proceeding with workmanship and other clauses. The specification constitutes a
schedule of instructions to the contractor with particular reference to the way in
which the work is to be undertaken.

(d) Bill of Quantities This consists of a schedule of the items of work to be car-
ried out under the contract with quantities entered against each item, the quanti-
ties normally being prepared in accordance with the Standard Method of
Measurement or the Code for the Measurement of Building Works in Small
Dwellings. The bill of quantities provides a uniform basis on which tenders can
be obtained and, when these are priced, they provide a means of comparing the
tenders received and of pricing the work on site as executed. The unit rates
entered by the contractor against each measured item in the bill of quantities nor-
mally include an allowance for general overheads and profit, as described in
chapter9.

(e) Contract Drawings These depict the nature and scope of the work to be
carried out under the contract. They must be prepared to a suitable scale and be
in sufficient detail to permit a contractor to price the bill of quantities and to
carry out the work satisfactorily. For instance site plans will normally be drawn
to a scale of 1:200 or 1:500, working drawings of buildings probably 1:100, as-
sembly drawings 1:20 or 1:10 and details to 1:10 or 1:5.
All available information on the topography of the site, the nature of the
ground and the groundwater level, should be made available to contractors ten-
dering for a job. Existing and proposed work must be clearly distinguished on the
drawings. For instance, old and new drains and other services are often depicted
in different colours or by different types of line. With alterations to buildings it is
often preferable to prepare separate plans of old and new work.
All drawings should contain an abundance of descriptive and explanatory
notes which should be clearly legible and free from abbreviations. Ample figured
dimensions should be inserted on the drawings to ensure maximum accuracy in
taking off quantities and in setting-out the constructional work on site. Drawings
 Tendering Procedures and Contract Administration 229
should be prepared in accordance with the recommendations contained in BS
1192 (Building Drawing Practice).

Pardeslnvolved in Contracts
A number of persons are involved in the execution of a building contract operat-
ing under a quite complicated set of interrelationships.

Employer The employer, building owner or client is the person, firm or body on
whose behalf building work is undertaken and who is responsible for paying for
the work as executed and certified in architects' or surveyors' certificates. There
is little contact between the employer and most of the parties to the contract as he
deals mainly through his agent-the architect or surveyor for the contract. It
assists in the smooth running of a contract if the employer is reasonably clear
about his requirements, refrains from changing his mind or interfering with the
work on site, and honours the certificates within the prescribed period. There is
no contractual relationship between the employer and any nominated subcon-
tractor.

Architect The architect acts as agent and technical adviser to the employer and
prepares all the contract particulars. He ascertains the employer's requirements,
selects any necessary consultants and a quantity surveyor if required, prepares
preliminary drawings and obtains approximate estimates, selects subcontractors,
prepares detailed drawings and specification, obtains a bill of quantities and in-
vites and advises on tenders. He subsequently selects a tender for the employer's
approval, supervises the work, certifies payments to the contractor, issues vari-
ation orders as necessary, decides how provisional sums are to be spent, secures
the remedying of defects at the end of the defects liability period and certifies the
final account. On smaller maintenance, alteration and conversion contracts a
surveyor may act as agent and plan and supervise the work on behalf of the
employer.

Engineer Engineers may be employed on large contracts to advise on

specialist work such as structural steelwork and heating and ventilating
installations. The engineers will prepare designs and specifications for the
specialist work, obtain quotations and submit reports to the architect. Sub-
sequently they will supervise the specialist work on the site.

Quantity Suroeyor The quantity surveyor is concerned with the cost and
measurement aspects of building contracts. He advises the architect on the
cost implications of design decisions, prepares approximate estimates and
often cost plans, and later tender particulars. He values the work on site,
assesses the effect of variations and finally prepares the final account on
the basis of which the architect certifies final payment.

Contractor The contractor undertakes to construct and complete the

building work in accordance with the contract documents. He must have
230 Building Maintenance

sole responsibility for all executive work on the site. He is generally

required to proceed regularly and diligently with the work and to complete it
by a specified date, otherwise he may be liable for the payment of liquidated
damages. The contractor is required to comply with all statutory regulations
affecting the works, to give all necessary notices and to insure the works. He re-
ceives his instructions from the architect or surveyor for the contract.

Subcontractors There are a variety of subcontractors engaged on most large

building contracts. They specialise in a wide range of crafts, structural work,
mechanical and other equipment, and decorative and other finishes. They are
frequently able to produce cheaper and yet higher quality work than the main
contractor. Subcontractors have to look to the main contractor for instructions
and payment; there is usually a subcontract regulating the relationships between
the two parties.

Agent and Foreman The contractor is required under the Standard Form of
Contractl to keep upon the works a competent foreman-in-charge to whom the
architect may issue instructions; all verbal instructions being subsequently con-
firmed in writing. The foreman is generally responsible for organising the labour
employed on the site, securing efficient use of plant and materials, setting out the
works, liaising with the clerk of works, programming and progressing the work
and recording daywork and other data. In the case of very large contracts an
agent may be employed to take over some of these responsibilities.

Clerk of Works The clerk of works is appointed by and acts as an inspector on

behalf of the employer, but he carries out his inspection duties and issues instruc-
tions only under the directions of the archit~ct, who must confirm them in writ-
ing within two working days. He is usually a tradesman with a wide experience of
building work and his main function is to ensure that all the work on the site is in
accordance with good construction practice and that it complies with the con-
tract documents. He often records details of drainage and other work which will
be hidden by subsequent building operations and agrees details with the contrac-
tor's foreman. Although the architect may delegate supervision of the work to the
clerk of works, he remains nevertheless responsible. In the case of Leicester
Board of Guardians v. Trollope (1911), the architect was held negligent for a
structural defect (absence of damp-proof membrane), despite collusion between
the contractor and the clerk of works. 9

Building Control Officer or District Surveyor District surveyors operate on

behalf of the Greater London Council while building control officers are
employed by district councils in the provinces. These officials examine submitted
plans under the London Building Acts (Constructional By-laws) and the Build-
ing Regulations and inspect the work under construction to ensure compliance
with the current regulations and the submitted and approved plans. A more de-
tailed consideration of the building control process is given in chapter 11.
 Tendering Procedures and Contract Administration 231
CODCUdons of Contract
The Standard Form of Building Contract2 is prepared by the Joint Contracts
Tribunal comprising representatives of the RIBA, RICS, NFBTE and various
associations. The first edition was published in 1909 and periodic revisions have
been necessary to bring the contract into line with developments in the industry
and to take account of legal decisions not contemplated when the terms of the
contract were prepared. Unless otherwise stated, references in this chapter will be
to the local authorities edition with quantities, since this is the most compre-
hensive of the four editions and covers all the requirements of the private edition.
In the Standard Forms the parties and other particulars are quoted in capitals,
for example Architect and Contractor, but to avoid a variety of treatments in dif-
ferent parts of the book capitals have been omitted throughout.

Articles ofAgreement
The bills of quantities define the nature and extent of the works which the con-
tractor undertakes to carry out in return for the contract sum. If, in order to com-
plete the works, he is required to do more than is defined in the bills, then the
extra work must be treated as a variation.
The architect or supervising officer and the quantity surveyor are to be named
at the outset. The employer may appoint another architect/supervising officer
but, unless the person appointed is an official of the local authority (local auth-
ority edition) the contractor may object to his appointment provided he can sus-
tain his objections before an arbitrator.
This clause contains no reference to a specification, as the specification in this
form of contract is not a contract document. A request from the contractor for in-
structions must be in writing. Under clause 23 the contractor is entitled to an ex-
tension of time if the work is delayed because he has not received the architect's
instructions in due time.

Architect's Instructions (clause 2)

Throughout the contract it will be found that the architect is empowered to give
instructions on a number of matters, and these must be given in writing. The con-
tractor, however, may challenge an instruction and may request the architect, in
writing, to specify the provision which authorises him to give the instruction.
The architect must comply with this request.
In the event of a difference between architect and contractor, either party may
resort to arbitration under clause 35 in order to settle the dispute. If, however,
the contractor complies with the instruction, it will be deemed that the architect
was authorised to give the instruction under the provision in the contract which
he has specified.
Throughout the contract great stress is laid on the necessity for writing in such
matters as giving instructions granting permission to sublet the contract works,
granting an extension of time, terminating the employment of the contractor,
and claims for loss through delay in the progress of the works and similar mat-
ters. Clause 2.3 gives the procedure which must be followed where instructions
232 Building Maintenance

are given orally. Within 7 days of the instructions, the contractor must confirm
the instructions in writing to the architect. If the architect does not dissent in
writing within 7 days of the receipt of the contractor's confirmation, the contrac-
tor is entitled to regard the instructions as effective. The architect is authorised to
confirm an oral instruction retrospectively at any time prior to the issue of a final
certificate.

Contract Documents (clause 3)

Clause 3.3 makes reference to a specification, descriptive schedules and other
documents to assist in carrying out the works, although these are merely expla-
natory and not contract documents. The contractor is not obliged to carry out
work which is described solely in the specification and like documents.
The documents (3.7) can only be used for the purposes of the contract and
neither the employer, architect nor surveyor may divulge or use the prices in the
bills except for the contract purposes. As the architect and quantity surveyor are
not parties to the contract it is difficult to see how this obligation can be enforced
against them personally.
If the architect is a full time official of the local authority both the property
and copyright in the contract drawings, specifications, bills and other documents
are vested in the authority. If, however, the architect is independent, then the
property in the documents vests in the person who commissioned them. The
copyright, however, unless there is an agreement to the contrary, remains with
the architect.

Statutory Obligations (clause 4)

The burden of complying with Acts, regulations, by-laws and the like, and the
giving of notices, is placed upon the contractor. If the architect has infringed a
regulation or by-law in his design, the contractor must not proceed to execute the
faulty work. He must notify, in writing to the architect, the variation necessary
in order to conform with the statutory requirements and await the architect's in-
structions. If within 7 days, he has not received them, he may proceed with the
work and any variation caused thereby will be treated as one authorised by the
architect.

Setting Out (clause 5)

To enable the contractor to set out the work, accurately dimensioned drawings
must be supplied by the architect, who must determine the levels required. In-
accurate setting out is the responsibility of the contractor (including liability for
trespass) unless the architect otherwise instructs.

Materials and Workmanship (clause 6)

This clause embodies three of the matters upon which the architect can issue in-
structions which, in accordance with clause 2, must be in writing. Apparently the
request of the architect for vouchers to prove that materials and goods comply
 Tendering Procedures and Contract Administration 233

with the standards described in the bills need not be in writing. The cost of open-
ing up covered work for inspection or tests of materials or goods is to be added to
the contract sum unless provided for in the bills or if the work, materials or goods
are not in accordance with the contract (6.3).

Foreman in Charge (clause 8)

This clause indicates that the architect may give instructions to the foreman in
charge of the building operation. As these instructions are to be deemed to have
been given by the contractor they should be in writing or, if given orally, be sub-
sequently confirmed (2.2).

Access for Architect (clause 9)

This clause aims at securing access for the architect to the works and workshops
where work is being prepared for the contract. If the work is being done by a sub-
contractor then the contractor must see that there is a term in the subcontract
which ensures that the subcontractor will allow access to the architect. The con-
tractor may refuse to enter into a subcontract with a nominated subcontractor
who will not enter into a subcontract which will provide for the right of access
(27 a(ix)).

Clerk of Works (clause 10)

The clerk of works acts solely as inspector under the directions of the architect.
The clerk of works may give instructions to the contractor or his foreman, but an
instruction will be of no effect unless
(1) it concerns a matter upon which the architect can issue instructions
(2) the instruction is confirmed in writing by the architect within two
working days of its being given.

Variations (clause 11)

A variation is an alteration or modification of the design, quality or quantity of
the works as shown on the contract drawings and described in the bills (11.2).
Variations can arise in a number of different ways
( 1) changes arising from statutory requirements (4.1)
(2) Any error or omission in the bills (12.2)
(3) Alteration or modification of design, quality or quantity (11.2)
(4) Addition, omission or substitution of any work ( 11.2)
(S) Alteration or removal of materials or goods (11.2)
(6) Execution of work by the contractor under a provisional sum in the
bills (11.4)
(7) Making good fire damage (20B and C)
(8) Work partially completed when the contractor determines the contract
(26.2)
234 Building Maintenance

(9) Wardamagework(33).
The functions of measurement and valuation of variations are ascribed to the
quantity surveyor (11.4 ).
The rules for the valuation of variations (11.4) are as follows
(1) where the extra work is similar to that already priced in the bills and is
carried out under similar conditions, then the prices in the bills are to apply.
(2) Where the extra work is not of similar character or executed under simi-
lar conditions, then a price analogous to prices in the bills or based on those prices
will apply so far as is reasonable. If this is not possible then the quantity surveyor
must make a fair valuation.
(3) Where the work cannot properly be measured and valued the contrac-
tor is to be allowed daywork rates. These rates will be those inserted by the con-
tractor in the bills or form of tender, or where no rates have been inserted, the
appropriate prime cost with percentage addition.
The terms provisional sum and prime cost (PC) arise in connection with vari-
ations. A provisional sum may cover the cost of work which at tender stage has
not been finally decided upon. There may be some doubt concerning its nature
and extent or perhaps whether it will be required at all. The employer, however,
requires a forecast of the probable cost of the completed works and the architect
therefore inserts in the bills a sum which he hopes will prove reasonably correct.
Subsequently the actual cost of the work will be substituted for the provisional
sum.
The architect obtains estimates from subcontractors and suppliers for carry-
ing out specified work or supplying specified goods. From among these he selects
one to do the work or supply the goods, and he directs the main contractor to
enter into a subcontract with his nominee (27a). The price which the subcon-
tractor or supplier quotes will be inserted in the bills and constitutes a PC item.

Contract Bills (clause 12)

Contract bills (referred to subsequently as bills) set out the quality and quantity
of the work and unless otherwise stated are to be prepared in accordance with the
Standard Method of Measurement of Building Work (12.1). No provision in the
bills can override or alter the contract conditions (12.1). If a contractor finds a
conflict between the bills and the contract conditions, he should in his own inter-
ests refer the matter to the architect.

Contract Sum (clause 13)

Various judicial decisions emphasise the fact that in a lump sum contract it is
only the total sum which concerns the employer and he has no interest in the
manner in which that sum was arrived at. The individual rates in the bills are
only used in valuing variations. The contractor cannot require the adjustment of
rates on grounds of mistake.
 Tendering Procedures and Contract Administration 235

Value Added Tax (clause 13A)

The gross amount of tax chargeable shall be added to the contract sum.

Materials Unfixed(clause 14)

Materials not yet fixed cannot be removed without the consent of the architect.
When paid for, they become the property of the employer, the contractor remain-
ing responsible for loss or damage (14 ).

Practical Completion (clause 15)

The date of practical completion is the date from which the defects liability
period is to run. It is also the date upon which the contractor becomes entitled to
payment of one half of the retention fund (30.4b ). The contractor is only liable
for defects due to materials and workmanship not in accordance with the con-
tract or frost occurring before practical completion of the works, which appear
within the defects period, although the architect can deliver a schedule of defects
14 days after the period has expired. The architect is also empowered to issue in-
structions requiring defects to be remedied during the defects liability period.

Sectional Completion (clause 16)

This clause provides for the handing over of parts of the works as they are com-
pleted. When this occurs, the date of practical completion for the part handed
over will be the date of handing over and the defects liability period for that part
will begin to run from that date. The contractor will be entitled to one half of the
retention money in respect of that part within 14 days of handing over, and the
other half upon the expiration of the defects liability period or the issue of a certi-
ficate of completion of making good defects in respect of the part handed over,
whichever is the later.

Assignment (clause 17)

The contractor cannot assign the contract without the written consent of the
employer and a private employer cannot assign except with the contractor's con-
sent.

Fair Wages(clause 17A)

The contractor is also responsible for the observance of the fair wages conditions
by the subcontractors. This is a duty which he will owe to the employer, but he
cannot insist that a subcontractor complies with the conditions of the fair wages
clause unless there is a clause to that effect in the subcontract.

Injury to Persons and Property (clause 18)

The contractor assumes sole responsibility for any claim in respect of death or
236 Building Maintenance
personal injury to any person whatsoever arising out of the execution of the
works, unless the cause was some act of negligence on the part of the employer or
someone for whom he is responsible. The words 'any person whatsoever' cover
the contractor's own workmen, the subcontractors and their workmen, any
person who visits the site in the course of his business, and passers-by who may be
injured through causes originating out of the works.

Insurance against Injury (clause 19)

The contractor is required to effect certain insurances relating to the works as
follows
(1) To cover his own liability in respect of personal injuries. He is required
to see that subcontractors do likewise.
(2) To maintain such insurances as are specifically required by the bills re-
lating to damage to property caused by his own negligence or that of his workmen
or subcontractors.
If so required, the contractor must produce the policies and premium receipts.
The contractor is also required to maintain in his own and the employer's
names such insurances as are stated in the bills by way of provisional sums. These
insurances are designed to cover any liability in respect of damage to property
arising out of the works which is not due to the negligence of the contractor, his
servants or subcontractors. These insurances are to be placed with insurers ap-
proved by the employer and the contractor is obliged to deposit the policies and
premium receipts with him.

Insurance against Fire (clause 20)

This clause provides for three situations. (A) applies to the erection of a new
building, where the contractor is required to insure against loss by fire and other
causes. (B) applies to a new building where the employer is to bear the risk ofloss
by fire, etc. and (C) applies to alterations and extensions to an existing building.
All but one of these must be struck out.
Temporary buildings, plant, tools and equipment are excluded from the insur-
ance under (A); these would normally be insured in the ordinary course of the
contractor's business. Under (A) and (B) the contractor is bound to restore the
work with due diligence, but under (C) his employment under the contract may
be terminated by either party if it is just and equitable.
What is just and equitable may be referred to arbitration. If the contractor's
employment is not terminated then he must reinstate the works and complete
them. The architect may issue instructions requiring the removal of the debris
and these together with the reinstatement are to be treated as variations.

Possession and Completion (clause 21)

The contractor shall regularly and diligently proceed with the works and com-
plete by the date for compl-.tion subject to the provisions for extension of time (23
and 33.1c). The architect is empowered to issue instructions postponing any
 Tendering Procedures and Contract Administration 237

work to be done under the contract. Should the contractor suffer any loss
through such postponement, he is entitled to be reimbursed for that loss (24.1e).

Damages for Non-completion (clause 22)

The employer may claim from the contractor liquidated damages at the rate
stated in the appendix. The architect must certify in writing that the works
should have been completed.
The rate of damages inserted in the appendix must be reasonable, and must be
a genuine pre-estimate of the damage likely to be caused by the delay. If the sum
is excessive and bears no relation to the possible loss, then the Courts will treat it
as a penalty. The sum then mentioned in the contract will be ignored and the
damages will be assessed as unliquidated damages. Should the sum be held to
represent liquidated damages, then the employer is entitled to recover that sum.

Extension of Time (clause 23)

This is a very important clause and lists the circumstances under which a con-
tractor may claim an extension of the contract time. The initiative must come
from the contractor who must give written notice of any of the occurrences which
entitle him to an extension of time.
The architect must be convinced that the completion of the work will be
delayed beyond the date fixed for completion before he grants an extension of
time. The mere fact that the occurrence occasions delay is not sufficient. It must
be such that the contractor will not be likely to complete on the stipulated date.
The circumstances include force majeure, exceptionally inclement weather and
late supply of instructions amongst many others. 13

Loss and Expense (clause 24)

The contractor may claim for certain losses or expenses for which no provision
has been made in any other clause of the contract.
They must arise out of the delay in completion due to any of the five causes
listed in the clause, and all of which entitle the contractor to an extension of time
(23). Hence not all the items in clause 23 entitle the contractor to additional pay-
ment.

Determination by Employer (clause 25)

This clause gives the circumstances in which the employer may determine (ter-
minate) the employment of the contractor under the contract. The circumstances
include failure to perform the contract satisfactorily, insolvency and corrupt and
irregular practices. It must be noted that it is not the contract which is termin-
ated, but only the employment of the contractor. The contract itself will still
operate to show the rights and obligations of the parties when the employment of
the contractor ends.
Where the employer terminates the employment of the contractor, the con-
tractor may be required to assign the benefit of any contract for the supply of
238 Building Maintenance
goods or any subcontract for work to the employer (25 .4). The employer, in tum,
will assign the subcontract to the new contractor and it is this second assignment
to which the subcontractor or supplier may object. The employer also has the
right to pay any supplier or subcontractor (whether nominated or not) any sum
due to him by the contractor out of monies which the employer owes to the con-
tractor.
This clause also contains provisions for the settlement of accounts between the
employer and the contractor whose employment has been determined. The
employer is not bound to make any payment until the works are completed, and
can then make allowance for the following.
(1) Expenses properly incurred by the employer in completing the works.
(2) Loss sustained by the employer through the termination of the contrac-
tor's employment.
(3) Sums already paid to the contractor.
If the total of the above exceeds the contract price, then the excess represents a
debt due to the employer. If the total is less than the contract price, then the dif-
ference represents a debt due to the contractor.

Determination by Contractor (clause 26)

The contractor may determine his employment under the contract if the
employer fails to honour a certificate within the prescribed period, or if the
employer interferes or obstructs the issue of a certificate when due. The contrac-
tor may also determine his employment if the whole, or substantially the whole,
of the works is suspended for a time specified in the appendix for one of the listed
causes (26.1c). These causes are also those which would normally entitle the con-
tractor to an extension of time (23).
When the contractor determines his employment he must as soon as practic-
able remove from the site his temporary buildings, plant, and materials and give
his subcontractors the opportunity of doing the same. He is entitled to be paid for
work completed and also for work begun, on a variation basis. He may claim for
any direct loss or expense, the cost of materials ordered for the works, the cost of
removal and any direct loss resulting from the determination.
The contractor is entitled to a lien upon all unfixed goods and materials which
have become the property of the employer because they have been included in
certified payments. This lien continues until the contractor is paid all monies due
from the employer.

Nominated Subcontractors (clause 27)

When the architect exercises his power of nomination he places restrictions on
the main contractor's freedom of action, since he directs him to enter into a sub-
contract with a specified subcontractor. It is therefore reasonable that some safe-
guards should be provided for a main contractor who is placed in this position.
Hence no subcontractor can be imposed on a main contractor unless he is willing
to enter into a subcontract containing the specific provisions contained in clause
27. Moreover the main contractor cannot be required to employ a nominated
 Tendering Procedures and Contract Administration 239

subcontractor to whom he makes reasonable objection.

The ten provisions (27a) provide the basis for the subcontract into which the
nominated subcontractor must enter. The standard form of subcontract embo-
dies most of these provisions. Furthermore, the architect must inform the nomin-
ated subcontractor of any amount due to him in any certificate which he has
issued (27b ), although there is no privity of contract between the employer and a
subcontractor, be he nominated or otherwise. Nevertheless, the employer may
pay direct a nominated subcontractor to whom money is still owed by the con-
tractor under previous certificates.

Nominated Suppliers (clause 28)

A nominated supplier is a person who supplies goods or materials which are to be
fixed by the contractor. The architect cannot nominate a supplier unless the sup-
plier undertakes to enter into a contract of sale containing the prescribed terms
(28b). The most important of these is that the supplier must not only make good
by replacement or otherwise goods which prove defective within a specified time,
but must also compensate the contractor for any consequential loss or damage he
has sustained through the defects. This may involve the cost of refixing as well as
the cost of replacing. The supplier, however, is only liable for defects in the goods
or materials themselves. He will not be liable for defects due to faulty storage or
treatment by the contractor, architect or employer.

Artists and Tradesmen (clause 29)

Artists engaged by the employer can work on the site but are not deemed to be
subcontractors.

Certificates and Payments (clause 30)

This clause prescribes the manner in which the contractor is to receive payment.
The architect is to issue interim certificates at intervals specified in the appendix
(monthly if no period is specified). He has discretion whether to require a valua-
tion or not.
The contractor is entitled to be paid the total value of the work executed plus
the value of materials or goods properly and not prematurely delivered to the
works or adjacent thereto, less sums already paid under previous certificates and
less retention money.
The architect may include in an interim certificate the value of materials or
goods which have not yet been delivered to the works or an adjacent location.
There are however some stringent conditions to be observed before he can do
this. These conditions are designed to ensure that in the event of the contractor's
bankruptcy, materials or goods on his premises paid for by the employer will not
pass to the contractor's liquidator or trustee in bankruptcy as assets available for
distribution to creditors generally.
The employer's ownership of the goods must be made clear. The goods must be
set apart at the premises where they have been manufactured, assembled or
stored and be clearly marked so as to identify the employer and the site for which
240 Building Maintenance

they are intended. If the goods are bought from a supplier, the contract for their
supply must be in writing and must expressly provide that the property in the
goods will pass to the contractor when the goods have been set aside and suitably
marked.

Retention (clause 30.3 and 30.4)

The percentage of the total value which can be retained is stated in the appendix
and is normally Sper cent. There may also be a limit entered in the appendix and
when this limit has been reached the contractor is entitled to be paid further sums
in full. The employer's interest in the retention fund is fiduciary (30.4a), that is,
he is to be deemed a trustee of the fund for the contractor. This provision may
have considerable effect should the employer become insolvent, for trust money
cannot be claimed as among his assets and so be distributed among his creditors.
Then, provided the trustee in bankruptcy or liquidator agrees that the contract
be completed so that retention money becomes payable (30.4b and c), the con-
tractor will be entitled to receive the retention money in full.
Payment of retention money is to be made in two instalments. Half is paid
when the certificate of practical completion is issued and the remainder is due
upon the expiration of the defects liability period or, if defects have to be made
good, then when this has been done and a certificate to this effect has been issued
(30.4 band c).

Settlement ofAccounts (clause 30.5-8)

This clause outlines the procedure for the final settlement. The steps are as fol-
lows.
(1) The measurement and valuation of variations is to be completed within
the period of final measurement which, unless the appendix provides to the con-
trary, is to be within 6 months of the date of practical completion.
(2) Before or within a reasonable time of practical completion, the contrac-
tor is to send to the architect all the documents necessary to enable the amount
due to be computed. Delay in doing this may result in delay in issuing the final
certificate.
(3) The amounts paid or payable to the contractor under the following
heads are then computed:
(a) Sums paid or payable to nominated subcontractors and suppliers;
(b) Fees and charges for which a provisional sum has been included in the
bills;
(c) The cost of insurances as required under clause 19.2;
(d) The tender sum in respect of any work which the contractor carried out
under clause 27g;
(e) The value of any work done by the contractor for which a provisional
sum was included in the bills.
Against the total of these items will be set the relevant prime cost or provisional
sums (30.Sc). The balance, after allowing for the contractor's profit at the rates
 Tendering Procedures and Contract Administration 241

shown in the bills, will be added to or deducted from the contract sum.
(4) The final certificate is to be issued within the period stated in the
appendix before (i) the end of the defects liability period or (ii) the making good
of defects or (iii) the receipt by the architect of the documents for computing
(30.Sb ), whichever is the latest (30.6a).
The final certificate will state the amounts already paid to the contractor.
Against these will be set the contract sum, adjusted as necessary in accordance
with the terms of the contract. The difference will represent a sum due by the
employer to the contractor or by the contractor to the employer (30.6b).
(S) The contractor may within 14 days dispute the certificate but if he does
not, then the final certificate will be conclusive evidence that the works have been
properly carried out and completed in accordance with the terms of the contract
and that all the adjustments to the contract sum required by the contract have
been made. These provisions do not however apply where there is an error in the
sum due to fraud, dishonesty or fraudulent concealment; or any defect which
reasonable examination before the issue of the certificate would not have dis-
closed; or any accidental inclusion or exclusion of any work, materials or goods;
or an arithmetical error in any computation (30. 7).

Fluctuations (clause 31)

This clause is divided into four parts. Parts A and B are alternatives and C and D
will apply whichever alternative is adopted. A contract must therefore embody
either parts A, C and D or parts B, C and D. A, C and D are used where full fluc-
tuations are allowed on the cost of employing workpeople due to increases in
wages, contributions, levies and taxes, and in the market prices of materials
specified in the basic price list attached to the bills.
Part B is a limited fluctuations clause. It permits increases in the cost of
employing labour due to contributions, levies and taxes, but excludes wages. New
contributions may also be taken into account. Part B also allows for rises and
falls in the amount of duty or tax imposed on materials by statute specified in the
list attached to the contract bills.
The contractor must now include in his tender only those taxes or duties actu-
ally payable at the date of tender. This applies to both clauses 31A and 31B. For-
merly contractors included duties, taxes and contributions, not payable at the
date of tender but at some future date. They must now include only the actual
sum now payable and then when the increase actually takes place it will be re-
coverable under the appropriate fluctuation provision.
Clause 31E was introduced in July 1973 to allow some additional recovery on
increases. The Joint Contracts Tribunal was unable to agree a fixed percentage
and it was decided to leave the amount to be inserted by the employer in the
tender documents. In practice approaches vary widely. 13 This arrangement is
likely to be superseded by the price adjustment formula method of recovery based
on price indices, for which provision was made in the standard form in 197 S.

Outbreak ofHostilities (clause 32)

The effect of this clause is to give either party the right to determine the contract
242 Building Maintenance

upon general mobilisation. The architect however, may require the contractor to
carry out protective work or to continue the works up to a specified stage.

War Damage (clause 33)

This clause defines the rights and liabilities of the parties in respect of war
damage. The contractor is to be paid for what he has done regardless of the
damage, but he is to reinstate or make good the damage and complete the works.
Reinstatement and making good war damage is deemed to be a variation.

Antiquities (clause 34)

Even apart from this provision, property found on the site will not become the
property of the finder. A person who finds an object has a right to possess it which
is available against all the world except the rightful owner or the possessor of the
land upon which the object was found, if he is a different person. The contractor
may claim for any loss or expense incurred in the excavation and preservation of
antiquities.

Arbitration (clause 35)

Every dispute or difference between the parties can be referred to arbitration. In
general, the reference shall not be opened until after practical completion or ter-
mination of the contractor's employment under the contract, or abandonment of
the works. The exceptions to this rule are
(1) Objections by the contractor to the appointment of a new architect or
new quantity surveyor
(2) Whether or not the architect is empowered to issue a particular in-
struction
(3) Whether or not a certificate has been improperly withheld or is not
in accordance with the terms of the contract
(4) Disputes or differences relating to rights and liabilities on the out-
break of hostilities or appertaining to war damage.
The arbitrator has far reaching powers and may open up, review and revise
any certificate, opinion, decision, requirement or notice . . . as if no such
opinion, etc. had been given. These powers are however subject to the pro-
visions of clause 30.7 whereby the final certificate will be conclusive evidence
in any proceedings that the works have been properly completed in accor-
dance with the contract and therefore cannot be challenged or set aside unless
any of the contingencies mentioned in the clause have occurred.

Condidons of Contract for Minor Works

The full JCT Conditions are sometimes considered unduly complicated and
extensive for works of building maintenance, alteration and conversion, often
 Tendering Procedures and Contract Administration 243

referred to as 'minor works'. Abridged or condensed formats have been pre-

pared by the joint Contracts Tribunal, 111 the Faculty of Architects and Sur-
veyors20 and the Department of the Environment. 21 A description of the
principal provisions of the former two documents follows.

JCT Form of Contract for Minor Building Works 19

The contractor is required to carry out the works with due diligence and in a good
and workmanlike manner and to complete them to the satisfaction of the super-
vising officer, who may order additions or omissions without invalidating the
contract. The contractor shall give all notices and pay all fees legally required
and shall keep a competent person in charge of the works at all times. The con-
tractor shall not subcontract the whole or part of the works without the written
consent of the supervising officer.
There is provision for liquidat~ damages, extensive insurance requirements
and a 3 months' defects liability period. Where the period for completion of the
works exceeds 2 months, there is provision for interim payments at intervals of 4
weeks. The supervising officer shall, 10 days after the date of certified practical
completion, certify payment to the contractor of9S per cent of the total amount
due. The procedure for determination of the contract by employer or contractor,
safeguards against corruption, arbitration arrangements and procedure for deal-
ing with Value Added Tax are all well detailed.

Faculty ofArchitects and Surveyors--Short Form ofContractl0

These conditions require the works to be carried out in accordance with the direc-
tions and to the satisfaction of the adviser and in accordance with the speci-
fication, drawings and other particulars. No variations shall vitiate the contract
and no extra work shall be carried out unless ordered in writing by the adviser.
The contractor shall not assign the agreement without the written consent of the
adviser, and shall proceed diligently and expeditiously with the work. There is a
wide ranging and probably unenforceable clause requiring the quality of materi-
als and workmanship to be the best obtainable unless otherwise specified.
There is provision for fire and other insurances, interim and final payments,
retention, payment of fees and giving of notices, the conditions under which the
contract may be determined by the employer and contractor, and procedure for
the settlement of disputes.

Contract Procedures
Placing the Contract
Where no serious errors have been found in the priced bills of the lowest tenderer,
the architect's report to the employer will normally recommend acceptance of
that tender, particularly where selective tendering operates. As soon as the
employer has made his decision, all contractors who tendered should be notified.
If priced bills have been submitted with tenders, these should be returned to
unsuccessful contractors unopened.
244 Building Maintenance
If the quantity surveyor finds serious errors in pricing, the contractor should
be advised and given the opportunity of withdrawing or standing by his tender.
Where the errors are significant, an adjusting lump sum will be added to or
deducted from the corrected total of the summary. This adjustment can be ap-
plied as a percentage to any billed rates subsequently used for valuing variations.
All contract documents must be signed by both parties and deletions or alter-
ations initialled by them. The contractor is then supplied with the appropriate
number of copies of documents and insurance cover obtained and agreed.

Variations
As the contract proceeds, the architect will almost invariably issue further draw-
ings, details and instructions. All architect's instructions must be in writing and
it is advisable to use standard forms covering both instructions and variations.
Provisional quantities may be inserted for work which is uncertain in extent such
as foundations; the provisional quantities are omitted in the variation account,
and the actual work done is measured and included as an addition. Alterations in
design and finishings are frequent subjects for variation orders.
Variation orders are generally issued in triplicate; one copy each for the con-
tractor, architect and quantity surveyor. If the contractor considers that any
work constitutes a variation, he should at once draw the architect's attention to
it. Subsequently, the quantity surveyor and the contractor's representative meet
to agree the amount of work omitted from the contract and to measure the ad-
ditional work. Items measured in the office are usually entered on dimension
paper and those on the site recorded in dimension books. After the measurements
have been agreed the quantity surveyor will work them up into a variation
account, containing a bill of omissions and a bill of additions, when suitable rates
for the various items will be agreed.

Certificates
As the contractor is continually financing the works in progress, it is imperative
that he should receive interim certificates at the appropriate time and for the full
amount due on all but the smallest contracts. It is equally important that he
should be paid promptly on the certificates, especially since he is expected to pay
sums due to subcontractors whether he receives payment or not. It will also be ap-
preciated that no interest is paid on sums outstanding due to incorrect certifica-
tion.14
Certificates are normally issued monthly by the architect; these are based on
the quantity surveyor's valuation of the work done and of unfixed materials
properly and not prematurely brought upon the site and also of materials in
workshops subject to suitable safeguards. The valuations will include a pro-
portion of preliminaries and the cost of any recoverables and daywork which
have been certified. The amount of detail in a valuation varies according to cir-
cumstances and a percentage of the total of each trade or sectional bill is often
considered adequate. In some cases the contractor's surveyor prepares a state-
ment containing his estimate of the sum due for checking by the quantity sur-
veyor. Previous payments and the retention percentage will be deducted from the
 Tendering Procedures and Contract Administration 245

total valuation to give the sum due to the contractor.

Payments to Subcontractors
Some confusion exists as to whether a main contractor can set-off claims against
payments made to subcontractors. The right of set-off was denied in Dawnays
Ltd v. F. G. Minter Ltd 1971 in the Court of Appeal, but upheld in Gilbert Ash
(Northern) Ltd v. Modern Engineering (Bristol) Ltd in the House of Lords in
1973. A more recent case in the House of Lords (Mottram Consultants Ltd v.
Bernard Sunley & Sons Ltd 1974) decided that an employer was not entitled to
deduct from an interim certificate sums claimed to be due as the result of pre-
vious over-certification, and this must inevitably put the whole question into
issue once again.

Daywork
Until1966 the National Schedule ofDaywork Charges with its fixed percentage
additions, provided the basis for the payment of daywork. Since that date fixed
percentages cannot be directed or authorised by any professional body or trade
federation. Every contractor must be free to decide what percentage addition he
deems necessary to cover overheads and profit and to vary such additions from
contract to contract if he deems fit. 13
Some contractors welcome daywork as with an adequate percentage there is
no risk of loss. Employers and their professional advisers tend to view daywork
with suspicion, believing that there is no incentive to reduce costs or increase ef-
ficiency, and that the contractor may be tempted to use his slowest men on this
work and to regard it as a standby or 'hospital' job. On occasions daywork can be
disruptive of the smooth operation of a contract.
Daywork should be restricted to work which cannot satisfactorily be measured
and valued at billed rates. Suitable examples are the repair and reinstatement of
work stemming from a bad outbreak of dry rot, exploratory work and underpin-
ning of a settled building, and opening up and reinstatement of defective drains.
The surveyor must carefully exainine the daywork sheets and rigorously check
the quantities oflabour and materials listed.

Claims
Variations which cause loss or expense, not being due to underpricing in the
tender or the contractor's inefficiency, may be the subject of a loss and/or
expense claim under clause 11.6 of the standard form of contract, and these must
be submitted in writing within a reasonable time of the event. Where a claim is
appropriate the amount ofloss or expense is to be ascertained by the architect, or
quantity surveyor if so instructed, but the contractor will need to submit the
necessary information to support his claim. If a variation has caused delay an ex-
tension of time may be granted under clause 23e. 16
The contractor's site management needs to keep adequate records and take
other appropriate action as follows to support any claims for disruption and
246 Building Maintenance
delay
(1) ensure that appropriate written notice, application or confirmation of
instruction is made;
(2) use best endeavours to prevent delay;
(3) keep a programme showing the dates on which it is planned to carry out
the various operations making up the works;
(4) record the effect on the programme of any events which disrupt or
delay the regular progress of the works;
(S) record any loss of productivity resulting from these events or any wait-
ingtime;
(6) if the character or conditions under which work is to be carried out
have changed as a result of the architect's instructions, record the item as day-
work.17

Formula Price Adjustment

In 1973 recommendations for the use of formula price adjustments on building
contracts, to cover price fluctuations were issued. 18 Where this formula is used
building works are allocated between the indices for each of 34 work categories,
such as in situ concrete, brickwork, blockwork, asphalt work and carpentry. The
formula permits a regular assessment of price fluctuations as valuations are
made of work executed for each work category during the period covered by the
interim valuation.
Work category index numbers are calculated monthly by the Department of
the Environment and published in Monthly Bulletin Construction Indices. Each
work category index measures the price level changes which occur in respect of
certain items of work chosen as being representative of that work category. This
is done monthly by revaluing the resources required (labour, plant and materials)
at current prices.
When the formula method of price adjustment is to be used, the base month
must be stated in the tender documents and an appropriate clause inserted in the
contract conditions. The bills of quantities will contain a schedule indicating the
work category into which each item in the bills of quantities falls. The value of
preliminaries will be totalled and spread proportionately over the value of the
main contractor's work which is subject to price adjustment. Where no bill of
quantities is provided and the work tendered for is on a lump sum basis, the full
amount of the tender subject to price adjustment will be allocated to work cat-
egories.
The value of each item of work executed and included in an interim valuation
will be allocated to the appropriate work category. The formula will then be ap-
plied to the value of work performed and included in the interim certificate for
each separate work category. The indices from which all fluctuations are calcu-
lated are the final index numbers for the base month and the month of valuation.
The formula is as follows
C= v[lv Io Io]
where C = the amount of the price fluctuation for the work category or group
 Tendering Procedures and Contract Administration 247

V = the value of the work executed in the work category during the
valuation period, multiplied by the adjustment factor (0.85 for
government contracts)
Iv = the work category index number current during the month of
valuation
I0 = the work category index number current at the base month

The principal advantages of the formula price adjustment method are

( 1) the contractor secures the benefit of good buying;
(2) fluctuations are dealt with monthly, thus improving cash flow;
(3) there can be no arguments about how labour is employed as the labour
element is recoverable no matter how the work is done;
(4) time sheets and invoices need no longer be produced with all the conse-
quent work in checking and cross-checking.

Final Account
In order that the architect may issue the final certificate, he requires from the
quantity surveyor the final account for the contract. The adjustment of the con-
tract sum in the final account falls under the following headings
(1) variations
(2) remeasurement of provisional quantities
(3) nominated subcontractors' accounts
(4) nominated suppliers' accounts
(5) loss and expense caused by disturbance of regular progress of the works
(6) fluctuations (where applicable).
Delays in the settlement of the final account are a cost to the contractor and
the employer is usually anxious to know his ultimate financial commitment. The
architect and quantity surveyor both have a contractual responsibility to adhere
to the date stipulated in the contract, and the contractor should provide every as-
sistance in the prompt provision of subcontractors' and suppliers' accounts,
agreement of measurements and prices and similar matters.

References
1 I. H. Seeley, Civil Engineering Quantities (Macmillan, London and Basing-
stoke, S.I. edition 1971).
2 Joint Contracts Tribunal, Standard Form of Building Contract, 1963
edition (July 1973 revision): (i) Local Authority Edition with Quantities,
(ii) Local Authority Edition without Quantities, (iii) Private Edition with
Quantities, (iv) Private Edition without Quantities.
3 Simon Committee, The Placing and Management of Building Contracts
(H.M.S.O., 1944).
4 Ministry of Public Buildings and Works (Banwell Report), The Placing and
Management of Contracts for Building and Civil Engineering Work
(H.M.S.O., 1964).
5 Economic Development Committee for Building, Action on the Banwell
248 Building Maintenance
Report (H.M.S.O., 1967).
6 National Joint Consultative Committee of Architects, Quantity Surveyors
and Builders, Code of Procedure for Selective Tendering (1973).
7 Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Selective Tendering for Local
Authorities (H.M.S.O., 1965).
8 Ministry of Public Building and Works, Early Selection of Contractors and
Serial Tendering (H.M.S.O., 1966).
9 J. Sims, 'Contract Practic~The Role of the Clerk of Works', Building (17
January 1975).
10 D. B. James, 'Maintenance by Contract in the Public Sector', Building
Trades Journal (16 February 1973).
11 Department of the Environment, Schedule of Rates for Building Works
(H.M.S.O., 1969); Schedule of Rates for Decoration Work (H.M.S.O.,
1969); Schedule of Rates for Minor Works and Maintenance of Roads and
Pavings (H.M.S.O., 1969); Specification and Schedule of Rates for the Pre-
paration and Maintenance of Land (H.M.S.O., 1969); Schedule of Rates
for Electrical Installations (H.M.S.O., 1970); Schedule of Rates for Heat-
ing and Hot Water Supply Installations (H.M.S.O., 1969). Schedule of
Rates for Electrical Distribution Systems External to Buildings (H.M.S.O.,
1970).
12 Department of the Environment, Contractual Policies and Techniques for
Maintenance Work (H.M.S.O., 1969).
13 D. R. Mudd andY. J. Lovell, 'Present Day Problems of Estimating', Build-
ing Technology and Management (July 1974).
14 P. J. Lord-Smith, 'The RIBA Contract-The Builder's Bane', Building
TradesJournal(18 January 1974).
15 G. Chrystal-Smith, 'Cases where Daywork Rates Apply', Building Trades
Journal (30 March 1973).
16 D. E. Burford, 'Variations and the Running of Contracts', Building (31
August 1973).
17 J. Franks, 'Contractor's Claims-Some Questions and Answers for Site
Management', Site Management Information Service No. 54 (Institute of
Building, 1974).
18 Building Economic Development Committee, Recommendations for For-
mula Price Adjustment on Building Contracts (1973).
19 Joint Contracts Tribunal, Standard Form of Building Contract for Minor
Building Works or Maintenance Work (1973).
20 Faculty of Architects and Surveyors, Short Form of Contract (1973).
21 Department of the Environment, GC Works 2 (General Conditions for
Minor Works) (H.M.S.O., 1974).
22 P. M. Hillebrandt, Economics of the Construction Industry (Macmillan,
1974).
11. BUILDING CONTROL

It is doubtful whether any other industry is subject to so much legislative control

as the construction industry. A government department or local authority cannot
exercise any control over building work unless it can show that an Act of Parlia-
ment confers this power upon it. Acts of Parliament also confer powers to make
regulations, orders and by-laws which have the force of law. This type of legis-
lation is often called delegated or subordinate legislation; it has the same validity
and effect as if it formed part of the law which authorised it. For example, much
of the control of building work is exercised through Statutory Instruments, par-
ticularly in the field of town and country planning. Up to 1966, local authorities
were authorised to make building by-laws under the Public Health Act 1936, but
the 1961 Act deprived them of this power and conferred upon the Minister the
power to make regulations covering the same field as the former by-laws. The
Greater London Council administer Constructional By-laws1 under powers con-
ferred by the London Building Acts.

Builcl.iq Replations
Building Regulations2 may apply to alteration and improvement works and to
buildings which are to undergo a material change of use, such as the conversion
of a house designed for occupation by a single family to multiple occupation. The
Building Regulations2 cover the construction of and materials used in building
work; space about buildings and their lighting and ventilation; heating pro-
vision; sanitary arrangements; and water supply. Approval of alteration and im-
provement work under Building Regulations will be required in the following
circumstances in particular.
(1) Addition to a building.
(2) Any work involving structural alterations, which includes breaking out
an opening in a loadbearing wall and inserting a lintel.
(3) Any alteration to an existing drainage system.
(4) Installation of new sanitary conveniences and certain heating
appliances.
Even when maintenance work is exempt from the provision of the Building
249
250 Building Maintenance
Regulations, it is advisable to adhere to them particularly in relation to struc-
tural fire precautions. There is a danger that constructional methods and com-
ponents, such as fire check doors, which originally satisfied the Building
Regulations could as part of maintenance work be replaced with new components
which fail to comply.

Exempted Buildings
Certain buildings are exempt by the Public Health Act 1936 from the operation
of the Building Regulations; these are as follows.
(1) Buildings owned or occupied by the Crown or a government depart-
ment.
(2) Schools to be erected in accordance with plans approved by the Sec-
retary of State for Education and Science.
(3) Buildings on allotments and small holdings erected by a local authority
in accordance with plans approved by the Minister of Agriculture.
(4) Buildings of statutory undertakers to be used for the purpose of the
undertaking, but excluding houses or buildings used as offices or showrooms.
(5) Where housing operations are carried out under the Housing Acts by a
county council, local housing authority or a housing association, in accordance
with plans and specifications approved by the Secretary of State for the Environ-
ment, the regulations are not to apply in so far as they are inconsistent with the
approved plans and other documents. It will be appreciated that where deviations
of this kind from the regulations occur, then a similar deviation may be permitted
by the local authority for any other new houses in its area which do not form part
of 'housing operations'. Hence a local authority which departs from the regu-
lations is likely to establish a precedent for building work in its locality.
A number of exemptions are contained in the Regulations themselves and com-
prise the following.
(1) Mine buildings, excluding houses, offices or showrooms.
(2) Movable dwellings such as caravans and tents.
(3) Buildings used to accommodate hop-pickers or other persons engaged
in a seasonal occupation of harvesting crops.
(4) Buildings under the Explosives Acts.
Buildings having partial exemption are listed in Schedule 1 of the Building
Regulations. 2 They are divided into 8 classes as follows.
Class 1 A single storey building used by day only for private occupation (but
not for trade or business), or for recreation or storage purposes. This
includes poultry-houses, greenhouses, conservatories, coal-sheds,
garden tool sheds and cycle sheds. Buildings must not exceed 30m3 in
capacity and not be less than 2m from a prescribed building within the
same boundaries.
Class 2 Buildings used in connection with building operations.
Class 3 Buildings classified as ancient monuments.
Class 4 Buildings used for a limited period in connection with the sale or
letting of buildings or building plots (temporary estate offices).
 Building Control 251

Class 5 Garages if wholly detached and not more than 30m2 in floor area.
Class 6 Single storey detached buildings used exclusively for the storage or
housing of materials, plant, machinery or livestock, wherein the only
persons employed are engaged solely in the care, supervision, mainten-
ance or removal of the contents of the buildings.
Class 7 Single storey detached glasshouse used solely for agriculture and with
not less than three-quarters of its external area glazed.
Class 8 Certain detached buildings used exclusively for accommodating plant
or machinery and within the curtilage of works.

Relaxation ofRegulations
The Public Health Act 1961 empowered the Minister (Secretary of State for the
Environment) to issue a directive dispensing with or relaxing a requirement of
the Regulations where, in any particular case, he considers its operation would be
unreasonable, but he must consult the local authority before so doing. The
Minister may delegate to local authorities the power to dispense with or relax a
requirement where its enforcement would be unreasonable. This power of dele-
gation cannot be exercised in respect of work to be carried out by the local auth-
orities themselves, when relaxation can only be granted by the Minister.
Relaxation or dispensation can only be granted for a specific project, as there is
no power to grant general relaxations or dispensations.
Applications for relaxation must be made on the prescribed forms which re-
quire the applicant to state the nature and location of the work, the requirement
for which relaxation is sought, the reasons for the application and why the appli-
cant considers the requirement unreasonable in his particular circumstances.
Prior to authorising relaxation, the Minister or local authority must give notice
of the application in a local newspaper, and state that representations on grounds
of public health or safety may be made by a specified date, not less than 21 days
from the date of the notice. The applicant may be required to pay the cost of pub-
lication of the notice. If it appears that the relaxation will only affect adjoining
premises, it is necessary to notify only the owner and occupier of the adjoining
premises. No publicity is needed for relaxations confined to internal work. If,
after representation, the local authority refuses an application, the applicant
may appeal to the Minister, stating the grounds of the appeal, when a copy oft he
notice must be sent to the local authority.

Building Regulation Applications

Where it is intended to carry out building work which is not exempt from the
Building Regulations, the interested person must submit an application (notice
and plans) to the local authority (usually a district council) for the area in which
the building site is situated. The application usually consists of a plan or plans
and a completed application form, although the details required will vary with
the type of proposal. A typical application form will require the following par-
ticulars.
(1) Name and address of applicant.
252 Building Maintenance

(2) Name and address of architect or surveyor.

(3) Name and address of builder (ifknown).
(4) Address or location of site.
( 5) Description of proposals, including present use ofland and buildings.
(6) Description of materials used in concrete oversite, damp-proof course,
external walls, other walls and roof covering, together with nature of foun-
dations.
(7) Level of ground floor in relation to adjoining street.
(8) Mode of drainage for foul and surface water, including falls of drains.
(9) Means of water supply.

Drawings shall be clear and intelligible and submitted in duplicate on suitable

and durable material. Plans and sections shall be to a scale of not less than 1:100,
although 1:200 may be permissible for very large buildings. Block plans shall be
drawn to a scale of not less than 1:1250 and key plans to not less than 1:2500. All
notices and drawings shall be signed by the applicant or his agent. Plans of new
buildings consist of the following.
The block plan shall show

(1) the size and position of the building and its relationship to adjoining
buildings;
(2) the width and position of every street adjoining the premises;
(3) the boundaries of the premises and the size and position of all other
buildings within the boundaries.

The key plan shows the position of the site when it is not sufficiently ident-
ifiable from the block plan.
A plan of every floor and roof and a section of every storey of the building shall
be given to enable the local authority to determine whether the building complies
with the Regulations, and showing, where necessary, the following

( 1) the levels of the site of the building, of the lowest floor and of any street
adjoining the premises, in relation to one another and above some known datum;
(2) the position of the damp-proof courses and any other barriers to mois-
ture;
(3) the position, form and dimensions of the foundations, walls, windows,
floors, roofs, chimneys and other parts of the building
(4) the intended use of every room in the building
( 5) the provision made in the structure for protection against fire
(6) the provision made in the building or any part for means of escape in
case of fire and for securing that such means can be safely and effectively used at
all material times
(7) the provision made in the structure for insulation against the transmis-
sion of heat and sound.

In the case of alterations and extensions the applicant shall submit a notice of
intention to alter or extend a building. Where the alterations involve no extension
of the building, the applicant shall submit such plans and sections of the alter-
 Building Control 253

ations and of the building so far as affected by the alterations, as necessary to es-
tablish whether the proposals comply with the Regulations, together with a key
plan, showing the position of the site where this is necessary. For extensions, the
applicant shall submit the particulars, block plan, key plan (where necessary)
and plans and sections of the extension as for new buildings, together with plans
and sections of the existing building so far as affected by the extension.
Drainage work shall be shown on a block plan indicating
(1) the position of the works or fittings;
(2) the line of drainage; the size, depth and inclination of every drain and
the means of access for inspection and cleansing;
(3) the position and level of the outfall of the drains;
(4) the position of the sewer (where appropriate).

Building Regulations Registers

Upon receipt of a building application (notice and plans) at the office of a local
authority, it is normally stamped with a receipt stamp, dated, numbered and
recorded in a register. The form of register varies considerably between different
authorities but the extracts on p. 254 illustrate a typical Building Regulations
Register. It is often considered inadvisable to use a combined building and
planning application register because of the different referencing systems used
and the fact that many small alteration and drainage jobs require approval under
Building Regulations but not planning permission.
The Building Regulations Register may contain entries of applications on one
page with the adjoining page suitably ruled to take details and dates of inspec-
tions by the building control officer at each site. Mter entry in the register, the
application together with any structural calculations or supporting information
will be examined by a building control officer to determine whether or not the
proposals comply with the Building Regulations. Many local authorities use
standard forms for this purpose, listing the main heads for consideration under
the Regulations, such as foundations, concrete oversite, open space, damp-proof
courses, walls (loadbearing), walls (damp resistance), stairways, fire resistance,
roofs, floors, chimneys, heating appliances, height of rooms, thermal insulation,
sound insulation, drainage work, sanitary conveniences, water supply and short
lived materials. The use of a schedule of this kind assists the officer in his ex-
amination of submitted plans and reduces the risk of omissions. Building control
officers frequently give advice to intending applicants, particularly those relating
to small alteration and conversion jobs, before applications are submitted.

Approwl and Rejection Notices

Following examination of the application, the building control officer will report
to his committee on the proposals, giving brief details and recommending appro-
val or rejection. It is not possible to issue an approval subject to conditions as in
the case of planning applications. After the committee meeting the appropriate
approval or rejection notice will be sent to the applicant, and it could take the
form shown on p. 255.
 Typical Builcliq ReJUlations Register

Date of Brief Name& Name& Date

Application description Location considered by Committee
number application address of address of
ofproposals agent (if any) decision
applicant Committee
216/BR/76 10/4/76 Alterations and 'Ivyholme' Miss E. P. Jones Mr A. P. 26/4/76 Approved
improvements Mersham and Miss R. T. Thomas, 12
Long Long Row,
Northampton

217/BR/76 12/4/76 Conversion of 65 Thorney Mr E. J. Messrs Sim- 26/4/76 Approved

bedroom to Lane, Bedrock Robinson mons and
bathroom and Peters, 10 High
newWC Street, Newville

218/BR/76 15/4/76 New Dutch Cowslip Farm, Rt Hon. P. J. Mr B. R. John- 26/4/76 Approved
barn and im- Granby Tresby-Brown, son, 15 Market
plement shed Manor House, Place,
Oxley North wold

219/BR/76 18/4/76 New chalet Adjacent to 18 Mr H. S. 26/4/76 Rejected

bungalow and Swallow Close, Mackay, 18 - (drainage and
garage Girton Swallow Close, open space)
Girton
- - - -
 Building Control 255
PENDLETON DISTRICT COUNCIL
Date: 28 April1976
Reference: 217/BR/76

Messrs Simmons and Peters

10 High Street
Newville
Dear Sirs
Public Health Act 1961-Building Regulations
Your Building Regulation application dated 12 April1976, relating to the con-
version of a bedroom to bathroom and the provision of a new WC at 65 Thorney
Lane, Bedrock for Mr E. J. Robinson, has been approved.
The necessary notices for completion and submission to this office at the various
stages of the work are attached.

C. A. Smith
ChiefBuildingControl Officer

Planning Control
External maintenance, improvement or alteration, when they are works which
materially affect the external appearance of a building, require planning per-
mission. While acknowledging that painting is exempt from planning control,
there is a need to keep the external painted surfaces regularly painted for both
protective and decorative reasons. Planning control is unlikely for instance to
prevent the spoliation of the elevations of buildings, particularly old ones, by in-
compatible pointing of brickwork, rendering attractive brickwork and replacing
with modern unsuitable windows. This can only be secured on the wider front by
raising the standards of aesthetic appreciation and sympathy with older build-
ings of both clients and builders alike and recognition of the importance of har-
mony, scale, composition, texture and colour.
Improvement works do not usually require consent under the Town and
Country Planning Acts unless the size or appearance of the building is altered; all
conversions schemes require consent to cover the change of use.
Buildings of special architectural and historic interest are protected under the
Town and Country Planning Act 1971 and the Civic Amenities Act 1967. There
are restrictions on the demolition, alteration and extension of these buildings. All
scheduled buildings require separate planning applications and press and site ad-
vertisement notices must be displayed. There are a number of advisory bodies
whose function it is to promote public interest in and assist in preserving older
buildings; a selection of these bodies follows on p. 256.
Planning Permission
The law relating to town and country planning is mainly contained in the Town
and Country Planning Act 1971, which consolidated in a single Act most of the
previous law on the subject. The local planning authorities are primarily the
256 Building Maintenance

county councils but the development control functions are shared with district
councils in varying ways. Department of the Environment circular 227/73 aimed
Bodies Main Objectives

Historic Buildings Councils Advise on grants for repair and mainten-

(England, Scotland and Wales) ance of buildings of architectural and
historic interest
Civic Trust Initiate improvement schemes to tidy and
(Various regional offices) brighten drab areas
Georgian Group Promote public interest and give advice
on repair, adaptation and preservation of
Georgian buildings
National Trust Promote preservation of buildings of
architectural and historic interest
Victorian Society Promote preservation of 19th century
architecture
Pilgrim Trust Make grants for repair of ancient
buildings
Society for Protection of Ancient Advise on problems affecting old buildings
Buildings and arrange annual course on repair of
ancient buildings for architects, surveyors
and builders.

at accelerating and simplifying planning procedures by giving executive powers

to local planning committees to decide the less complex applications, without ref-
erence to higher committees or full council and the delegation of a wide range of
decisions to planning officers. The circular also advocated increased consultation
between applicants and planning officers and the compilation by local auth-
orities of comprehensive guides to their development control policies as a code of
practice for the public and for developers. For its part the Department of the En-
vironment proposed to reduce the number of applications referred to the Depart-
ment and to have all suitable appeals against planning decisions settled by the
written representation method to avoid delays in arranging formal public in-
quiries.
Planning permission is required for 'development' as defined by the Town and
Country Planning Act, namely the carrying out of building, engineering, mining
or other operations in, on, over or under land, or the making of any material
change in the use of buildings or other land. The Act lists a number of operations
or uses which do not constitute development. These include roadworks and ser-
vices of statutory undertakers.
The Use Classes Order 1972 classifies buildings with similar uses into nineteen
use classes. For instance, class I embraces shops of all kinds but excludes garages,
fun fairs and petrol filling stations. It does however include hairdressers' and
undertakers' establishments, laundries and dry cleaning receiving offices. Class
II consists of offices, including banks, while class III comprises light industrial
 Building Control 257

buildings, which can be located in a residential area without detriment by reason

of noise, smell, vibration, fumes, soot, ash or grit.
The Order provides that if the use of a building is changed but it still remains
in the same class, then the change will not constitute development and planning
permission will not be required. Hence permission will not be needed to change a
newsagent's into a hardware shop, or a butcher's into a greengrocer's shop, as
these do not constitute a material change of use. On the other hand if it is pro-
posed to change the use of a building from one class to another, such as from a
shop to an office, then permission will be required.
It will be observed that the change in use must be material to constitute devel-
opment; trivial changes will be disregarded. Whether a change of use is material
is often a matter of degree. For example an architect may use one room of his
house as an office without changing the predominantly residential character of
the dwelling, but if he converts a number of rooms to drawing offices, print
rooms, plan stores and similar uses, the essentially residential use may cease,
involving a material change of use and the need for planning permission. 3
The 1971 Act empowered the Minister to make development orders which
grant planning permission for specified types of development. It is unnecessary to
make application for planning permission for development coming within one of
the twenty-three classes of permitted development listed in the Town and
Country Planning General Development Order 1973. The two most common
forms of permitted development which are particularly appropriate to mainten-
ance and improvement work follow.

Class /-Extension ofa Dwelling House

The cubic capacity may be increased by up to SO m3 or one-tenth of the original
capacity, whichever is the greater up to a limit of 115m3 • The extension must not
increase the height of the building nor must it project beyond the front of the
original building. The erection of a garage in the curtilage of a dwelling house is
treated as an enlargement of the house. Permitted development under class 1 in-
cludes the erection of a porch outside an external door of a dwelling. Its area must
not exceed 2m2 and its height 3 m and no part must be within 2m of a boundary
which fronts on a highway.
Other developments permitted under class 1 comprise the construction within
the curtilage of a dwelling house of a hardstanding for vehicles or the erection of
a storage tank for oil for domestic heating. The tank must not have a capacity ex-
ceeding 3 500 litres and no part of it must be more than 3 m above ground level or
project beyond the forwardmost part of any wall of the house fronting on a
highway.

Class If--Sundry Minor Operations

Permitted development within class II includes the erection of gates, fences and
other means of enclosure, provided the height does not exceed 1 m where abut-
ting on a road used by vehicular traffic, and 2 m in other cases. The painting of
the exteriors of buildings, except for purposes of advertisement, is also permitted
258 Building Maintenance

development within class II.

Industrial DefJelopment
The 1971 Act (section 67) provides that every application for permission to de-
velop land by the erection of an industrial building, or to change the use of prem-
ises so that they become an industrial building, must be accompanied by an
industrial development certificate (IDC) issued by the Minister for Trade and In-
dustry. This certificate must certify that the proposed development can be car-
ried out consistently with the proper distribution of industry having particular
regard to the need for providing employment in the area.
An industrial development certificate is not required if the additional floor
space provided by the development, when added to any other floor space result-
ing from any related development, does not exceed 460m2 • This condition ren-
ders it impossible to build a large factory consisting of a substantial number of
units each less than 460m2 in area without obtaining an industrial development
certificate.

Office DefJelopment
The 1971 Act (section 74) makes provision for the issue of office development
permits by the Minister. A permit must accompany each application for planning
permission for office development in Greater London and in other areas of Great
Britain designated by ministerial order. An office development permit is not
required if the proposed office space when added to that resulting from associated
development does not exceed the prescribed exemption limit. The limit provided
in the Act is 280m2 , but the Minister may by order increase or reduce this limit
(but not below 93 m2 ) either generally or for a particular area.

DefJelopment Plans
Local planning authorities (primarily county councils) are required to make a
comprehensive survey of their area and, among other matters, must examine and
keep under review such matters as the physical and economic characteristics of
that area and adjacent areas likely to influence it; the size, composition and dis-
tribution of the population; communications and transport; and any changes in
these matters already projected which are likely to have any bearing on the devel-
opment of the area.
The local planning authority must then prepare and send to the Minister a
report of the survey and also a forecast of the changes which are likely to occur
within a period specified by the Minister. At the same time the authority must
prepare and submit to the Minister for his approval a structure plan for the area.
The structure plan formulates the local planning authority's proposals for the
development and use ofland in their area and relates these proposals to those for
neighbouring areas. The plan must be accompanied by diagrams, illustrations
and such descriptive matter as the authority consider necessary for explaining
their proposals. In preparing a structure plan, the authority must take steps to se-
cure adequate publicity for the report on which it is based and the matters which
 Building Control 259

they propose to include in the plan. They must make copies of the plan available
and ensure that persons interested are given adequate opportunity to make repre-
sentations. They must also see that each copy of the plan is accompanied by a
statement of the time within which objections can be made to the Minister.
When submitting a structure plan, the authority must inform the Minister of
the steps taken to publicise it and of the consultations with, and consideration of
the views of, interested parties. If the Minister is satisfied that the appropriate
steps have been taken he may then consider the plan and, if he does not reject it,
he must consider any objections which have been made. He must give objectors
an opportunity of appearing before a person appointed by him and, if he decides
upon a local inquiry, he must give a like opportunity to the planning authority
and such other persons as he thinks fit.
In addition to the structure plan, a local planning authority may, and if
required by the Minister must, prepare a detailed plan for the development of any
part of its area, called a local plan. The proposals it contains must conform gener-
ally to the structure plan. The proposals must be given adequate publicity and
the steps to secure this follow closely those required for a structure plan. Objec-
tions to a local plan are considered at a local inquiry arranged by the authority
and presided over by a person appointed by the Minister or in some cases by the
authority itself. After considering any objections, the authority by resolution
may adopt the plan as originally prepared or as modified to take account of objec-
tions. The express approval of the Minister is not required unless he has, before
adoption, directed that the plan shall not come into effect unless approved by
him.

Planning Applications
If a person wishes to undertake development, for which planning permission is
not granted by the current General Development Order, then he must make ap-
plication to the local planning authority for planning permission. Where in doubt
he may apply to the authority for a decision as to whether an application is
necessary (section 53). The application for planning permission is made on the
appropriate form obtained from the local planning authority or the local auth-
ority with whom the application is to be lodged (district council). The appli-
cation must be accompanied by a plan sufficient to identify the land and such
other plans and drawings as are necessary to describe the development. The
local planning authority may require additional copies of the application, not
exceeding three, and such further information as may be needed to determine
the application.
In practice the following particulars are generally required on a planning ap-
plication: name and address of applicant; applicant's interest in land (owner,
lessee, prospective purchaser, etc.); name and address of agent (if any); address
or location of site; present use; vehicular access requirements; total area of site;
area of site covered by existing and proposed buildings; cubic content of existing
and proposed buildings; description of processes in industrial buildings, together
with floor area, provision for loading and unloading vehicles and means of dis-
posal of trade refuse and effluents. In addition they may require an indication as
to whether it is an outline application and a brief description of the development,
260 Building Maintenance
including materials to be used in roofs and external walls of buildings if it is a
detailed application.
Under the 1971 Act (section 26) the classes of development that follow, some-
times referred to as 'bad neighbours,' must be publicised in the prescribed
manner (by a notice clearly visible on the land describing the applicant's inten-
tions and indicating where the application may be inspected).
( 1) Construction of buildings as public conveniences.
(2) Construction of buildings and use of land for disposal of refuse or
waste, or as a scrap yard or coal yard or for winning or working of metals.
(3) Construction of buildings or use ofland for sewage treatment or dispo-
sal.
(4) Construction of buildings to height exceeding 20m.
(5) Construction ofbuildings or use ofland as slaughter house or knacker's
yard or for killing or plucking poultry.
(6) Construction and use ofbuildings as a casino, fun fair, theatre, cinema,
music hall, swimming baths or a Turkish, vapour or foam bath.
(7) Construction and use ofbuildings or land as a zoo or for the breeding or
boarding of cats or dogs.
(8) Use ofland as a cemetery.
Planning applications are normally supported by the following plans.

Site plan required in all cases except where site is included in a layout plan pre-
viously approved, usually to a scale of 1:1250 or 1:500 showing the land covered
by the application coloured pink, and any adjoining land in the same ownership
coloured blue.

Layout plan attached to all applications for permission for building develop-
ment often to a scale of not less than 1:500, showing site boundaries; position of
buildings and roads; proposed use of land and buildings; number of habitable
rooms and bed spaces in residential development; total floor area of commer-
cial and industrial development; land contours at 3 m vertical intervals; lines,
sizes and gradients of services; and trees and other natural features to be pre-
served.

Block and building plans required with all applications for erection, rebuild-
ing or alteration of a building. Block plans are drawn to 1:500 and building
plans usually to 1:100 or in exceptional cases 1:200. Block plans show plot
boundaries; position of existing and proposed buildings; means of access and
drainage arrangements. Building plans show materials; colour of external
walls and roof; details of foundations, walls, floors, roofs, chimneys, etc.; ele-
vations of all sides of building; levels of site, lowest floor, damp-proof course
and street; and sanitary fittings.

Outline Applications
A person may be considering the purchase of land for a particular purpose but
can be uncertain as to whether he can obtain planning permission for that
 Building Control 261

purpose. In these circumstances he will be unwilling to purchase the land or to

prepare detailed plans for its development if there is the possibility of planning
permission being refused. He is however able to make application for outline per-
mission, as, for example, to erect a certain number of houses on a particular plot
ofland. The local planning authority may approve the proposals in principle but
at the same time will specify certain matters, known as reserved matters, to be
subsequently submitted for approval before development can proceed. These
matters usually include the siting, design and external appearance of buildings
and means of access. Permission is generally available for a specified period. 9

Certificates
The 1971 Act (section 27) requires every application for planning permission to
be accompanied by a certificate relating to the applicant's interest in the land
which is the subject of the application, otherwise an application for permission to
develop land might be made without the owner's knowledge. There are four
forms of certificate to be used according to circumstances.

Certificate A is used when the applicant is either the owner or tenant of all the
land in the application.

Certificate B states that the applicant has notified all owners of any part of the
land he wishes to develop.

Certificate C states that the applicant has notified some of the owners but has
failed to notify others because he does not know their names and addresses. It
also states that he has advertised his application in a local newspaper.

Certificate D is used when the applicant cannot discover the names and
addresses of any of the owners. This certificate must also certify advertisement
in a local newspaper.

Planning Register
On receipt by the local planning authority, or possibly a district council, an ap-
plication will be date stamped and entered in the planning register. A copy of the
application is usually submitted to the highway authority when the development
affects a road for which the authority is responsible. A district council normally
retains one copy of the application and forwards two copies to the local planning
authority (county council). The arrangements for the determination of appli-
cations may vary from one county to another. Part of a typical planning register
with two entries follows on p. 262.

Notices
When considering a planning application the planning officer will have regard
to the Development Plan or Structure and Local Plans where available. He will
also consider the effect of proposals on adjoining developments, amenities of the
area and other relevant factors. In general, the decision of the local planning
 N
0\
N

--- -
b:l
Brief Name and Name and Date ~
Application Date description address address considered Committee's I Date of [ Date of I Decision
No. of of Location of of by decision appeal . local on appeal ~
Application proposed applicant agent Committee mquzry ~-
development (if any)

GP/223/76 11/4/76 Outline application South Bitney, Cas- Mr P. J. Lewis, 15 D and E 23/4/76 Permission refused
~
;;·
for residential tie Road OS plot St. Brelade Walk, Carruthers, 8 as development
development at a 364 Jacksville Aubrey Avenue, would be a sub- §
density of 20 (1.22 ha) Chatsford stantial departure l:l
houses per hectare from the County ;:s
Development Plan, ~
which envisages
th~ r~tention of the I
existing
agricultural use.
Development in I
the Bitney Valley
must be restricted
because of deficien-
cies in water supp-
ly and drainage

GP/224/76 15/4/76 New bungalow and Watcham, St Mr R. S. Shipley, 23/4/76 Permission

garage Peters Road 20 Beaufort Close, - granted subject to
Bradwell Church vehicular access
End being constructed
and maintained to
the approval of the
County Council, to
minimise da~r,
obstruction an in-
convenience to
users of the
highway and the
premises
 Building Control 263
authority must be notified to the applicant within two months or such extended
period as may be agreed by the authority and the applicant. Notice must be in
writing and, where planning permission is refused or granted subject to con-
ditions, the authority must state the reasons for its decision. An aggrieved appli-
cant has a right of appeal against a planning decision to the Minister.
A typical planning approval subject to conditions follows.

CRINGLEFORD DISTRICT COUNCIL

Date 26 April1976
Reference GP/220/76

Herbert S. Scribbington
6 Hawthorn Avenue
Tupton-on-Marsh
Dear Sir
Town and Country Planning Acts
Your planning application dated 29 March 1976, relating to the erection of a new
parsonage house for the sequestrators of the Benefice of Bewley, in part of the
field adjoining the Bewley rectory garden is hereby approved subject to the fol-
lowing condition:
Both vehicular and pedestrian access to serve the proposed parsonage
house shall be obtained through the combined vehicular and pedestrian
access serving the existing rectory in the manner indicated on the deposited
plan.
The reason for this condition is to minimise danger, obstruction and incon-
venience to users of the highway and of the premises.

D. F. Marshall
Chief Planning Officer

Procedure at Public Inquiries

Public inquiries are held before inspectors of the Department of the Environ-
ment, in connection with appeals against decisions on planning applications,
building applications and other matters. The procedure must follow The Town
and Country Planning (Inquiries Procedure) Rules 1969 and is similar to that
adopted in a Court of Law, although a greater measure of flexibility and in-
formality is permitted. There is, for instance, some relaxation of the rules of
evidence, and it is usual for witnesses to read their evidence after circulating
copies to the inspector and the opposing party. The procedure at a public
inquiry dealing with an appeal on a planning or building application is as fol-
lows
(1) The applicant or his representative makes an opening statement out-
lining his case.
264 Building Maintenance
(2) The appellant calls witnesses to give evidence and these are cross ex-
amined by the local authority's representative and re-examined, if necessary, by
the appellant. The inspector may also ask questions if he wishes to do so.
(3) The local authority's representative makes an opening statement and
calls his witnesses in the same manner as the appellant.
(4) The local authority's representative can make a closing statement if he
wishes.
(S) The appellant or his representative makes a closing statement.
(6) Any other interested parties are invited to make statements and may be
cross examined.
(7) The inspector may visit the site accompanied by a representative of
each pany, who can identify objects mentioned at the inquiry.
The inspector subsequently prepares a repon for submission to the Minister.
The Minister's decision and reasons must be given in writing to the parties and be
accompanied either by a copy of the inspector's repon or a summary of his con-
clusions and recommendations. 4

Other Statutory Requirements

Highway Matters
The public have a right to pass and repass over a highway and it is an offence to
obstruct a highway in the exercise of this right. At common law, any encroach-
ment on the highway is a public nuisance and a member of the public can accord-
ingly bring an action for damages if he can show that he has suffered 'damage' in
excess of that suffered by the public generally. It is also a nuisance to render the
use of the highway unsafe for the public as by making excavations adjoining it
and leaving them unfenced.'
The contractor, with the consent of the local authority, may deposit tempor-
arily building materials, equipment and rubbish in the street or make temporary
excavation there. Should the authority refuse consent, the contractor has right of
appeal to the Coun. Where consent is given, the contractor must ensure that the
obstruction or excavation is properly fenced and lighted during hours of dark-
ness. He must remove the obstruction or fill the excavation when required to do
so by the highway authority and in any event must not allow the excavation or
obstruction to remain any longer than necessary. A local authority may remove
things unlawfully deposited on a highway which are a danger to users, without
giving notice or obtaining a coun order, and can recover expenses.
The Highways Act 1959 (sections 146 to 150) define the legal matters to be
observed and precautions to be taken when work is undertaken on the highway
or adjacent premises. Every contractor who is about to erect, demolish, alter or
repair the outside of a building in a street, before commencing work must erect a
close boarded hoarding or fence separating the building from the street to the sat-
isfaction of the local authority. This obligation may be dispensed with if the local
authority agrees. The builder, if the local authority so requires, must make a con-
venient covered platform with a handrail to serve as a footway for pedestrians.
This must be kept in good condition and, if the authority so requires, must be
 Building Control 265

lighted during hours of darkness. The hoarding must be removed when required
by the authority.
The Highways Act 1959 (section 62) empowers the highway authority to re-
cover the expenses of repairing a road where damage has been caused by 'extra-
ordinary traffic'. Extraordinary traffic is traffic which by reason of its weight,
nature, extent or mode of operation is likely to cause damage to the highway in
excess of that caused by traffic normally carried by it.

Building and Improvement Lines

The siting of new buildings and extensions to existing buildings is often affected
by building lines. A building line is defined in the Highways Act 1959 (section
73) as a 'frontage line for building'. It may be prescribed by the highway auth-
ority on either one or both sides of a public highway, and no new building, other
than a boundary wall or fence, shall be erected and no permanent excavation
below the level of the highway shall be made, nearer the centre line of the
highway than the building line, except with the consent of the highway auth-
ority, who may impose conditions. The frontage line of existing buildings may in
some cases form the building line. The main purpose of the building line is to
ensure that all buildings are kept a reasonable distance from the highway to pre-
serve amenity and obtain good sight lines.
Under section 74 of the same Act, a highway authority may prescribe improve-
ment lines on one or both sides of a street and they represent the lines to which
the street will eventually be widened. This procedure is normally adopted when a
public highway is narrow or inconvenient without any sufficiently regular
boundary line, or it is necessary or desirable that it should be widened. Similar
prohibitions apply to building work in advance of an improvement line as those
applicable to building lines, except that boundary walls and fences are not
excluded.6

Dangerous and Dilapidated Buildings

Where a building is dangerous, because of its condition or by reason of overload-
ing, the local authority may, under the provisions ofthe Public Health Act 1961
(section 25), in an emergency take steps to remove the danger. If reasonably
practicable, they must notify their intention to the owner or occupier. Further-
more, the surveyor of a local authority is empowered to act in cases of emergency
without seeking specific authority from the local authority.
The same Act (section 27) deals with ruinous or dilapidated buildings which
are detrimental to amenities. The local authority may by notice require the
owner to repair the building or, if he so chooses, to demolish it and remove the
rubbish. Under section 29, a contractor who is about to demolish a building must
notify his intention to the local authority. The authority may then issue a notice
requiring him to take certain action. For instance, he may be required to shore up
adjacent buildings; to weatherproof their exposed surfaces; to remove material
and rubbish resulting from the demolition; and to disconnect and seal off any
drains, sewers or water pipes as may be required.
The contractor cannot however be required to enter upon land which is not
266 Building Maintenance
under his control. An appeal can also be lodged against a request to shore up an
adjoining building on the ground that the building is not entitled to the easement
of support from the building being demolished, and therefore ought to contribute
to the cost of shoring. A similar claim for a contribution may be made in respect
of waterproofing of an adjoining building.

Other Statutory Provisions

In addition to the provisions of the Public Health Acts concerning the compul-
sory repair of dilapidated property, the Housing Acts also contain provisions for
the compulsory repair of houses unfit for human habitation.
The Factories Act 1961 makes provision for securing satisfactory means of
escape in case offire in the majority offactories and for the issue of certificates by
the fire authority. The same Act prescribes certain minimum standards for space,
heating, ventilation, lighting, cleanliness, sanitary conveniences and welfare pro-
visions. While the Thermal Insulation (Industrial Buildings) Regulations 1958
prescribe minimum standards of thermal insulation against heat loss from the
roofs of industrial buildings. Boiler houses, unheated buildings and buildings
which are heated solely by the manufacturing process are exempt from the regu-
lations.
The storage of petroleum in bulk requires a licence from the local authority to
which conditions may be attached under the Petroleum (Consolidation) Act
1928. The conditions may cover the mode of storage, the nature and situation of
the premises, the nature of any goods stored with it, facilities for testing and
other safeguards.
The Clean Air Act 1956 aims at the ultimate elimination of smoke and other
forms of atmospheric pollution arising from the operation of industrial furnaces
and domestic heating appliances. The Act makes it an offence to emit dark smoke
from a chimney but the Minister may by regulation exempt periodic emissions.
All new furnaces must be smokeless and minimise the emission of grit and dust as
far as practicable. This provision does not apply to domestic furnaces with a heat-
ing capacity not in excess of SS 000 BTU/h. Furthermore, a local authority may,
by order confirmed by the Minister, declare the whole or any part of its area to be
a smoke control area, when it will be an offence to emit smoke within that area. If
the Minister confirms a smoke order, anyone with an interest in a dwelling situ-
ated in the area who spends money on an installation designed to prevent a
breach of the order is entitled to claim 70 per cent of his expenditure from the
local authority. The local authority may also pay all or some of the remaining 30
percent.
The Offices, Shops and Railway Premises Act 1963 is designed to give protec-
tion to office and shop workers comparable to that given to industrial workers by
the Factories Act. The most important regulations made under the Act relate to
dangerous machines, washing facilities and sanitary conveniences. The Act also
prescribes minimum standards in respect of cleanliness, overcrowding, temper-
ature, lighting, accommodation for clothing, construction and maintenance of
floors, passages and stairs, and fire precautions. Hotels and restaurants are ex-
amined under the Food Hygiene Regulations.
Other regulations affecting building work include water by-laws administered
 Building Control 267

by the new water authorities and covering water supply installations and the use
of water.
The lEE Regulations issued by the Institution of Electrical Engineers lay
down minimum requirements for electrical work. Finally, as described in chapter
1, the Defective Premises Act 1973 places a statutory duty on any person respon-
sible for the provision of a dwelling, whether by building, conversion or enlarge-
ment, to use proper materials and for the work to be carried out in a professional
or workmanlike manner, providing a dwelling fit for habitation.
The Fire Precautions Act 1971 ensures a minimum standard of fire precau-
tionary measures for certain buildings such as institutions for entertainment,
teaching, treatment or care and most purposes entailing access by the public, and
the issue of certificates specifying the means of escape, fire fighting equipment
and fire alarms.

Control of Work in Progress

Under the Building Regulations, 2 a contractor carrying out building works to
which any of the regulations apply, is to give the local authority not less than 24
hours' notice in writing of (a) the date and time at which the operation will be
commenced; (b) before the covering up of any excavation for a foundation; any
foundation, any damp-proof course; or any concrete or other material laid over a
site; (c) before any drain or private sewer will be haunched or covered; and (d)
notice in writing not more than 7 days after the work oflaying such drain or pri-
vate sewer has been carried out, including haunching or surrounding the drain or
private sewer with concrete and backfilling the trench.
If the contractor neglects or refuses to give such notice, he may subsequently
be obliged to comply with a notice in writing from the local authority requiring
him within a reasonable time to cut into, lay open or pull down so much of the
building, works or fittings as prevents the local authority from determining
whether any of the regulations have been contravened.
Where a contractor receives notice in writing from the local authority of con-
travention of the regulations, he shall give notice in writing to the authority
after he has taken steps to secure compliance with the regulations. The contrac-
tor shall also give notice in ~riting to the local authority not more than 7 days
after completion of any building work which is subject to the regulations. The
local authority officer is empowered to test drains and private sewers and to take
samples of materials.
The building inspector or building control officer to the local authority nor-
mally issues a set of printed or duplicated notices covering the various stages
previously listed, which the contractor subsequently dates and returns to the
authority, taking care to give at least 24 hours' notice. The 24 hour period may
not include Saturdays, Sundays or bank holidays. The local authority officer
normally arranges an inspection of the work, and the date of each inspection
and the findings are often recorded on the facing page in the building register,
thus maintaining a complete record of each job. Another alternative is to file
progress sheets for each job in the appropriate plan folder.
On completion of building work the local authority may on request issue a
268 Building Maintenance
certificate certifying satisfactory completion of the work in accordance with the
regulations. The local authority is not compelled to issue such certificates and
rarely does so in practice, as a full time clerk of works would be needed on each
job to enable them to be issued with confidence.
Building work in progress will also be inspected as pan of development control
under the Town and Country Planning Acts, to ensure that development pro-
ceeds in accordance with the approved applications and any conditions that may
have been imposed. Where development has been carried out without planning
permission or conditions attached to permission have not been satisfied, then
there is a breach of planning control and the local planning authority may serve
on the offender an enforcement notice requiring him to remedy the breach. If the
breach consists of carrying out, without permission, building, mining, engin-
eering or other operations, or the failure to comply with conditions relating to
these operations, then the enforcement notice must be served within four years
from the date of the breach.
The local planning authority is also empowered to serve a 'stop notice' on any
person having an interest in land and who is carrying out operations on it. The
authority must serve an enforcement notice and then, at any time before the
notice takes effect, may serve a stop notice which will prohibit continuance of the
operations specified in the enforcement notice. The stop notice must specify the
date upon which it is to take effect, which must not be less than 3 or more than 14
days after service, and the stop notice will cease to have effect when the enforce-
ment notice becomes effective.

Easements
Difficulties may sometimes arise in carrying out building extensions through the
existence of easements, in which the owner of the dominant tenement secures a
right over another property (the servient tenement). The tenements must be in
different ownerships, the right must be capable of being granted, the servient
owner must not be involved in any expenditure in complying with the easement
and it must not involve the removal of anything other than water from the ser-
vient tenement. A legal easement is made by a grant from the owner of the ser-
vient land or by prescription (long use of the privilege by the dominant owner
under certain conditions), and is binding on all persons who occupy the servient
tenement.
The more common easements affecting building development are as follows
(1) Right of light: the right of light to a building becomes legally protected
after it has been enjoyed for a period of twenty years. A right of light prevents the
owner or occupier of land from creating buildings on it which will obstruct the
light passing on to the other person's land.
(2) Right of support: the ownership ofland carries with it the right to sup-
port from the adjoining land but not for the support of any buildings subse-
quently erected on it.
(3) Right of way: a private right of way may be presumed if it has been
enjoyed for twenty years and becomes absolute if enjoyed for a period of fony
 Building Control 269

years. Public rights of way are not easements.

(4) Right of drainage or pipe easements: the right to drain across the prop-
erty of another. An easement which permits the dominant owner to lay pipes
across the land of the servient owner, whether for purposes of drainage or water
supply, may sterilise the strip ofland through which it passes and provision will
have to be made for access to and inspection of the pipes.7

Disputes over Site Boundaries

On occasions disputes arise as to the ownership of land and the boundaries be-
tween adjoining plots. The difficulties may stem from one of a number of causes
and the more common ones follow.
(1) Fences are normally erected by persons with limited knowledge of set-
tingout.
(2) Many fences are constructed of materials which are subject to decay.
(3) Deeds often fail to specify the position of the boundary line in relation
to the fence--whether on the centre line or one face of the fence.
A common approach is to assume that the smooth side of a fence faces the
adjoining owner. Unfortunately this rule is not infallible, as for instance where
an owner has renewed his fence without being permitted access to his neighbour's
land. This results in the owner being obliged to nail the pales on his own side
owing to the physical impossibility of working overhand. Again it might be that a
previous owner preferred to see the more attractive side of the fence and hence
erected the posts on the boundary and the boarding on the inside face. However,
in all cases the deeds of both properties should be inspected, as they may contain
important dimensions or other information, and Ordnance Survey maps.•

References
1 Greater London Council, London Building Acts 1930-39, Constructional
By-laws, with Explanatory Memorandum (1972).
2 The Building Regulations 1972, S1 317 (H.M.S.O., 1972) and The Building
(First Amendment) Regulations 1973, S11276 (H.M.S.O., 1973).
3 A. E. Telling, Planning Law and Procedure (Butterworth, London, 1973).
4 H. W. Clarke, Administrative Law for Surveying Students (Sweet and Max-
well, London, 1970).
S K. Davies, Concise Law ofHighways (Estates Gazette, 1969).
6 I. H. Seeley, Building Technology (Macmillan, London and Basingstoke,
1974).
7 I. H. Seeley, Building Economics (Macmillan, London and Basingstoke,
1974).
8 N. C. V. Jones, 'Disputes over Ownership of Site Boundaries,' Building
Trades Journal (19 January 1973).
9 K. Manson, 'Duration of Planning Consents to Build', Bldg Trades J.
(19/26 December 1975).
12. PLANNING AND FINANCING MAINTENANCE WORK

Planning, budgeting and controlling the cost of maintenance work are essential
operations if buildings are to be maintained effectively within available funds.
This leads automatically to regular inspections and the implementation of
programmes of planned maintenance. These activities need to be backed up with
adequate data and particularly a full awareness of maintenance and operating
costs.

PliUUlin1, Budgetlq ud Controlllng the Cost of Malntenuce Work

Planning
Planning and budgeting are two highly interrelated activities which must pro-
ceed simultaneously. It is not possible to plan maintenance work without knowl-
edge of the costs involved, or to budget for the work in the absence of an effective
programme. Nevertheless, effective building maintenance is dependent upon
making the correct decisions and satisfactorily implementing them.
Building maintenance should be regarded by management as part of the total
operating strategy; that far from being a 'make do and mend' service, it should be
viewed as a property conserving activity contributing significantly to the success
and well-being of the operations and occupants within it. With manufacturing
organisations adopting carefully structured procedures, building maintenance
claims can be justified on financial grounds in comparison and in competition
with other direct profit making projects, 1 showing dividends as good as or better
than other activities.
A study oflocal authority housing maintenance2 showed the general standard
of maintenance on certain post-war housing estates to be reasonably high, but
the greater part of expenditure was made on basic fabric maintenance and on
satisfying tenants' requests. Some areas of maintenance were neglected and there
was a long waiting list of requests requiring attention, showing the need for a
positive programme of maintenance. Closer examination revealed that building
maintenance policy was influenced by four criteria which could on occasions be
conflicting, namely
(1) social-to provide a quick service to high standards of quality;
270
 Planning and Financing Maintenance Work 271
(2) financial-to invest funds in activities in the most efficient manner
with due regard to the effects on debt charges, subsidies and rents;
(3) technical-to maintain property at a level deemed necessary after a
thorough and regular technical survey;
(4) to provide continuous employment for certain operatives within a fixed
budget.

Policy Formulation
The ability to formulate a long term maintenance strategy and prepare budge-
tary forecasts is one of the benefits of having a maintenance policy. 3 James4 has
suggested that the following five factors should be considered when formulating
a maintenance policy.
(1) The aims of the parent organisation-the nature of the end product
and how it is produced and the requirements in buildings and services.
(2) The standards required-influenced by aims of the organisation but
may vary between different buildings.
(3) Legalliability-<:ompliance with statutory requirements.
(4) Method of execution-such as direct labour or outside contractors,
with particular attention paid to the effect on production.
(S) Cost and method of financing-with decisions supported by cost bene-
fit analyses where appropriate showing that previous criteria (1-4) have been
considered and optimum solutions proposed. All this information can then be
translated into maintenance, cleaning and operating profiles for use not only in
management of property but also for guidance of designers of new buildings so
that total cost concept may be used.
In the detailed formulation of maintenance policy for specific property, the fol-
lowing approach has much to commend it.
(1) Analysis of present condition of buildings, their nature and use, and
estimated life cycle.
(2) Outline programme of work necessary to put and keep the buildings in
satisfactory condition.
(3) Determine the method of implementing the programme.
(4) Calculate the approximate costs-total and annual. In most cases two
assessments will be needed: first, for the period while the buildings are put in
repair-including the routine repair in this phase--and then the assessment of
the cost of keeping them in that state. 5
It may be helpful at this stage to apply these principles to a specific situation, in
this case a major property holding consisting of a range of large and small build-
ings of diverse age, construction and use. There is a large maintenance staff of
poor calibre with greater experience of plant than fabric, and they are often
diverted on to minor improvement work. The buildings reflect an absence of
regular routine maintenance and finance is limited.
An investigation shows that there is no planned routine maintenance and that
the owners are unaware of the serious and expensive results of neglect. The roofs
are in particularly poor condition. Although finance is limited, it is still ill used
272 Building Maintenance

and often divened to improvements at the expense of maintenance. There is no

central control of maintenance expenditure or priorities, and the works mana-
gers of individual buildings undenake their own repairs.
The outline policy recommends the following action.
( 1) Centralisation of administrative and technical control of maintenance.
(2) Listing of priorities and drawing up a programme for remedying
serious backlog, with emphasis on financial consequences of funher ad hoc ar-
rangements.
(3) Assessing the finance required over a five-year period and justifying the
need for a larger allocation of funds, while ensuring that the programme is suf-
ficiently flexible to fit into the existing allocation if no funher funds are fonh-
coming.
(4) Ensuring that the neglected structural repairs are carried out and that
external painting is undenaken at the same time to make the best use of scaf-
folding.
(S) Reorganisation of maintenance staff securing a suitable balance be-
tween engineering and building operatives.
(6) Newer buildings to be subject to planned preventive maintenance pro-
gramme to prevent deterioration. 5
Long term policy concentrates on putting buildings into a satisfactory state of
repair, because of the prevalence of ad hoc maintenance based on breakdown
maintenance. The earlier years of the programme may be relatively expensive
(the cost of neglect) but succeeding years should, assuming the correct diagnosis
and decisions, result in a lower and steadier level of expenditure.
Sometimes the cost of putting in good repair so greatly exceeds current annual
maintenance as to disturb management, hence the case must be argued soundly
and well. The most convincing argument for spending more is an assessment of
the eventual cost of deferment. If inadequate funds are available, the rectifica-
tion period will have to be extended. Periodic inspection-preferably annu-
ally-is the best method of ensuring that the right policy has been devised and is
being implemented and adapted, if necessary, to meet changing conditions. 5
The Depanment of Health and Social Security has emphasised the need for
maintenance managers to prepare costed long term and annual programmes of
work which distinguish between work of a periodical nature, work of an irregu-
lar nature, planned preventive type maintenance and provision for day-to-day
requisitions and emergencies. Provision must also be made for minor improve-
ments. It is intended that long term programmes should be on a rolling basis
being reviewed and moved forward as each annual programme is prepared.6

Standards ofMaintenance
If insufficient maintenance is carried out, the fabric of buildings first become
unattractive, then unacceptable to the occupants and finally dangerous and un-
inhabitable. The maintenance manager has to decide the optimum level of main-
tenance work required on the fabric to preserve an acceptable environment in
the buildings under his care. He has for instance to decide whether a building
should be patched temporarily and replaced later or be replaced immediately.
 Planning and Financing Maintenance Work 273

To determine the best course of action he needs to consider the use and condition
of the building, the comparative cost and effectiveness of different types of repair,
the expected future life of the building, acceptable standards of maintenance and
similar matters. 7
The first step is to determine reasonable standards of maintenance for the
various building elements, such as paintwork, rainwater goods, and windows and
paths. These usually fall into two categories:
(1) The smaller number where standards can be related directly to cost. For
example it is evident that a roof should not be permitted to deteriorate until it
leaks as this will give rise to higher future maintenance costs.
(2) The majority where maintenance costs do not increase appreciably as
the condition deteriorates. For instance it costs little more to repaint internal wall
surfaces after seven years than after five, although the appearance has worsened.
Hence discussions are needed with management and occupants to agree appro-
priate standards. 7
After establishing reasonable standards it is necessary to estimate the deterio-
ration rate of each element, so that changes in its condition can be related to its
age. This rate is influenced by a number of factors such as aspect, age and loca-
tion. The maintenance manager should supplement published data with his own
information on the history of elements.7
The next step is to decide the maintenance policy to be implemented for each
element, determining also the method and materials to be used. The costs of
maintaining each element can then be estimated over a period of time-possibly
20 or 30 years. Over this time scale most elements will need replacing or repairing
and average annual maintenance costs can be computed. 7
Finally the average annual costs of implementing the maintenance policy can
be assessed, by summing the average annual costs of all the elements. If the total
cost can be met from available resources, the maintenance manager can prepare
a programme for work, but if the resources are insufficient then lower standards
of fabric maintenance will have to be set which are consistent with available
funds.'

Budgeting
A budget has been defined as 'a financial and/or quantitative statement prepared
prior to a defined period of time of the policy to be pursued during that period for
the purpose of obtaining a given objective'. 1 The budget limits will be established
after inspections, critical analyses and estimates have provided the essential sup-
porting data as previously described. Budgetary control is an important manage-
ment function aimed at planning and controlling the use of its resources in order
to achieve its objectives. In practice this is not always achieved, as indicated by
the Committee on Hospital Building Maintenance9 which reported 'there is no
evidence to show that the existing financial allocation for building maintenance
was either sufficient or that it was being distributed on the most equitable basis
relative to need and priority'. All too frequently a maintenance budget is based
on the previous year's allocation plus a percentage. Admittedly, there is no stan-
dard method of budgeting, but the skills and empiricism of building surveyors
274 Building Maintenance

with their wide ranging experience of the construction, use, performance and
cost of repair of buildings, can help to provide a sound base for budgeting. 10
The budget as a plan stipulates the use of the organisation's available funds
over the projected time span towards the various objectives and opportunities
within the total plan. It is thus the basis of control-the monitoring, evaluation
and provision of a basis for decision taking upon ongoing operations and future
plans.U
To devise an effective budgetary control system the following criteria must be
satisfied.
( 1) A clear understanding of objectives and their order of priority.
(2) A systematic analysis and evaluation of the needs and demands stem-
ming from the objectives.
(3) A rational balancing of these demands against the desired objectives
within the known constraints of labour, materials, time, managerial skills and
funds.
(4) The avoidance of waste of financial resources.
(5) The development of a control system based upon identification of
needs, adequate measurement of resource requirements, setting of work stan-
dards, measurement of performance, evaluation of significant deviations from
standards, and the control of present and future opportunities through this
knowledge. 11
From these principles implementation of the budgetary control system will re-
quire: organisational plans for a specific period; definition of resources required
to accomplish the allotted tasks, establishing operating standards and targets to
be achieved; information systems to generate, collate and evaluate data for
decision taking and control purposes; detailed plans and programmes for achiev-
ing objectives; a framework for decision taking and a basis for measuring ef-
ficiency, effectiveness and profitability. 11

Cost Structure Analysis and Budgeting

Budgets are based upon work to be done and are expressed in terms of financial
expenditures. The costs are built up from labour, material and other expenses
contributing to the maintenance work. The costs can be classified under various
headings.

Bedrock costs are incurred to maintain the assets in a serviceable condition,

regardless of whether or not the property is used productively.

Programme costs are incurred by specific decisions of management with a view

to improving the level of activity, technology of operations, quality of the en-
vironment and/or public relations image.

Operating costs are incurred by decisions of management in fulfilling the ope-

rating role of the enterprise; they may be variable when geared to the level of
business activity, or fixed as in the case of heating plant.
 Planning and Financing Maintenance Work 275

Committed costs stem from past decisions over which present management has
little or no control, while management has some discretion about the level of
managed costs.

Engineered costs arise where for a given future activity the optimum amount of
work and hence of cost can be measured. 11

Budgets and Building Maintenance

There are often technical difficulties in assessing the quantity, problems in ex-
ecution and costs of building maintenance work, but overruns and under-
estimates frequently result from failure by management to recognise the value and
need for realistic budgets. In many enterprises the cost of building maintenance is
such a small proportion of total expenditure that it is not accorded a very high
priority. Hence the process of compiling and appraising the budget is conducted
on a level of additions to last year's expenditure rather than upon current costs or
future needs. 11
The building maintenance budget is easily pruned if pressure is exerted for
funds for other purposes. It is comparatively easy to defer the incidence of spend-
ing on maintenance because the impact of so doing is seldom obvious, and the
insidious nature of the needs is not fully recognised. Few organisations regard
building maintenance as the preservation of the value of the asset as a function-
ing property. Thus budgeting for the total upkeep of the property is rarely con-
ducted in full knowledge of all relevant facts. Various aspects of property upkeep
are often tabulated under differing budget heads; accountability is thus diffused
and control becomes difficult to exercise. 11
Constant or bedrock costs represent an inescapable minimum expenditure.
General and specific programmes may impose additional maintenance respon-
sibilities which can be separately identified and costed. The identification of the
fixed and variable elements of operating expenditure related to changes in the
level of activity should assist in avoiding illogical budget pruning. 11
A basic aim of management is to minimise the discretionary or contingency
amounts in a budget, and wherever possible to determine the proper amount for a
given level of activity. In establishing the budget for building maintenance too
much attention is often paid to the previous year's expenditure and insufficient to
technical requirements.
In preparing a maintenance budget a distinction can be made between current
foreseeable work such as painting, clearing gutters and cleaning, and non-
recurrent foreseeable work such as repairs to floors, roofs and the like. In the
absence of a technical survey, the contingency sum for unforeseen work is likely
to be high and it becomes more difficult to plan and control efficiently. 13

Relationship between Budget and Finance

Finance is provided from either capital or revenue sources. Capital is normally
provided for new works only and revenue for running costs, but this seemingly
straightforward procedure is upset by one factor-the expenditure on renewal or
replacement. These latter processes often involve large sums that increase the
276 Building Maintenance

revenue budget by a varying and substantial extent. In theory 'depreciation'

should provide the financial aid required for renewal or replacement-the non-
recurrent maintenance costs--but too often it is merely a 'book' figure and the
cash is not available. There is a tendency to invest the capital in new works only
and to pay insufficient or no regard to a replacement policy. 12
There is a tendency to pay for renewals and replacements by reducing expendi-
ture on routine maintenance. Furthermore, variations in the cash flow available,
such as from profits, can cause a serious disruption to renewal and replacement
programmes. Delayed expenditure in these areas means higher future costs,
owing to increased prices and possibly higher operating costs. Larger items of
machinery are generally financed out of capital whereas items like roof renewals
or replacement of building services are often treated unsatisfactorily as write-off
or revenue expenditures. 12
To overcome these difficulties, Jarman12 advocates financial authorisations
for new assets to include the capital cost of the project, depreciation and running
costs, so that it is considered as a whole from initial conception. With existing
assets, the condition should be assessed and monies set aside for planned renewal
and replacement.

Controlling Cost
Ray 14 has described the management process of control as
(1) setting performance standards at the appropriate level to achieve a
given objective;
(2) measuring actual performance and comparing it with the standard;
(3) taking appropriate action in the event of actual performance deviating
from standard.
To achieve effective total cost control, Jarman 13 has advocated the following.
(1) A sound knowledge of the relationship between budgeting and finance.
(2) A logical breakdown of the budget into specific sections under capital
and revenue, with particular reference to renewals and replacements.
(3) Reasonable assessment of the factors affecting the budget, including a
plan for maintenance.
(4) A method of calculating economic assessments of capital, renewal and
replacement expenditures, using discounted cash flow analysis.
(S) Evaluation of the results of non-maintenance, such as lost amenities or
production due to breakdown, excessive running costs and increased health
hazards.
(6) Budgetary control, including a calendar programme for authorisation
and implementation of plans for capital, renewal and replacement expenditures.
(7) The use of accurate costing techniques, including cost coding and
classification systems, methods of cost collation and investigation, and feedback
of relevant cost information for control purposes.
Hill 15 has described how a computer program can be used to ensure effective
budgetary control by providing a pattern of regular and frequent print-outs giv-
ing for each level of management appropriate details of expenditure--actual and
 Planning and Financing Maintenance Work 277

committed-and physical progress for each project under each separate budget
heading. In this way performance can be compared with forecast in terms of time
and resources but particularly in relation to finance. Likely problems and devi-
ations in the budget can be quickly identified and corrective action taken in good
time.
The detail into which each separate project is subdivided and programmed will
depend on the degree of management control that is required, but it is important
that the print-out for the lower levels of management should show separate pro-
jects, each with its own sub-budget. A computerised system will meet the overrid-
ing requirement which is the continuous provision of up-to-date information and
a quick reaction at the first sign of deviation from the budget or programme.

Planned Maintenance
Nature ofPlanned Maintenance
There is growing interest in applying planned preventive maintenance to build-
ings following its established use in engineering. In engineering the maintenance
operative takes with him tools and materials and performs such tasks as lubri-
cating bearings and adjusting tolerances, and will in most cases attend to these
items fairly frequently whether or not a defect is apparent. In the context of
building maintenance a change of emphasis is needed with a higher proportion of
inspections, with treatment only if a defect is detected. 16
Robertson 17 has subdivided planned maintenance of buildings into three
classes.
(1) Planned preventive running maintenance--work which can be done
while the facility is in service.
(2) Planned preventive or corrective shut-down maintenance--work
which can only be done when the facility is, or is taken, out of service.
(3) Planned corrective breakdown maintenance-work which is carried
out after a failure, but for which advance provision has been made, in the form of
spares, materials, labour and equipment.
A system of planned maintenance consists of two mutually balanced com-
ponents-planned preventive maintenance and planned corrective mainten-
ance. Both must be organised with forethought, control and records, but their
nature is different. In the case of planned preventive maintenance, each item
of work is identified some time before failure or a diminution from an accept-
able standard of the facility. Planned corrective maintenance differs in that
restoration to the acceptable standard is required, and corrective maintenance
must have a prior claim on available resources. 17
In practice, the most common approach to building maintenance is to wait
until a defect is reported to the maintenance organisation by the occupants.
Often a better approach would be to adopt a policy of periodic inspection of
the property and subsequent rectification of observed defects. Observing and
rectifying a defect at an early stage is likely to reduce repair costs. Further-
more a large proportion of maintenance work is identified and grouped at dis-
crete points in time. The maintenance organisation is thus able to allocate its
278 Building Maintenance

resources and rectify the defects in the most efficient manner. In many large
building complexes the majority of maintenance repairs are single trade repairs,
such as plumbing or joinery work. These trades can operate as autonomous
groups within the parent maintenance depanment and a strong case could be
made for inspections on a trade basis, such as plumbing systems every 2 months
and slated roofs once a year. 11
Maintenance programming should ideally be preventive as far as practicable,
based on regular inspection at intervals designed to prevent trouble from deve-
loping or accumulating. Admittedly not all building defects can be prevented but
many can and others will be rectified before they become more expensive. The
frequency of inspection is the crux of the matter so that the right balance is struck
between the cost of inspection and prevention on the one hand and expenditure
on repairs on the other. Dramatic examples can be given of expensive repairs
which could by relatively small outlay have been avoided, such as a major out-
break of dry rot stemming from a single long neglected leaking rainwater pipe.
Speight 10 has drawn attention to the high cost of the consequences of neglect of
historic buildings, not only in hard-to-raise funds, but also in the irretrievable
loss of our heritage of ancient materials, craftsmanship and even entire build-
ings.
Having decided a maintenance policy, the next step is to prepare a mainten-
ance programme. There may be a need to deal with a backlog of general disre-
pair; to plan major restoration works some years ahead; to deal with year to year
painting, decoration and associated repairs; and to operate a system of regular in-
spection and minor repairs. Very often it entails programmed maintenance
within a restricted budget-deploying scarce resources to satisfy many de-
mands--entailing a professional assessment of the overall situation, inspection
of specific problem areas, formulation of general strategy for containing or re-
moving critical problems and for reducing the breakdown aspect of maintenance
to an acceptable level.

Inspection Cycles
Inspection cycles are an imponant component of an efficient maintenance ser-
vice. The facilities which are most subject to wear and tear are the services which
contain pans that are affected by friction, heat or dynamic stress. Suppliers nor-
mally prescribe inspection cycles for these items which are kept within antici-
pated endurance limits. Planned maintenance of services is essential to avoid
inconvenient and often costly failures. Similarly the fabric of a building must
also be inspected at regular intervals and this can be related to the endurance
characteristics of a significant component or material. For example external
painted surfaces normally last for about 5 years without attention, although
there are variations due to geographical location and the degree of atmospheric
pollution, and this could provide the basis for the cyclic inspection of the fabric.
Buildings cannot however be left uninspected for 5 years and interim examina-
tions should be carried out at intervals of not less than 12 months. The aim of the
intermediate inspection should be to detect defects which would result in pro-
gressive deterioration if left unattended until the next cyclic inspection. 19 The
linking of inspections of local authority houses with external painting cycles is
 Planning and Financing Maintenance Work 279

also suggested by the Local Government Operational Research Unit,10 although

the Unit also examines the purpose of inspections-whether they should be con-
fined to individual elements in a large number of houses or to all elements in par-
ticular houses, either of the same age and type or on the same estate.
A study of hospital maintenance11 examines a variety of approaches ranging
from ad hoc inspections to annual inspections and different inspection fre-
quencies for different elements. Having regard to the dispersed locations of
hospitals, the study recommended 2-yearly regular inspections together with
interim inspections where necessary. On inspection it was suggested that the fol-
lowing information should be recorded on standard inspection forms and this in-
formation provides the starting point for the next inspection:
(1) locality and identity of elements;
(2) type of job (for example, patch or replace);
(3) extent of job (such as area involved);
(4) estimated total cost;
(5) estimated year of treatment.
Stevens11 devised a classification system for assessing building condition to se-
cure uniformity of approach. He prescribed five categories of condition ranging
from class 1 (very good) to class 5 (dangerous). In like manner the levels of main-
tenance to be achieved will be influenced by the type of building and the use of
the part under consideration, and these can also be assessed on a five-point
system ranging from level1 (very high; applicable to board rooms and operating
theatres) to class 5 (very low; prior to demolition).

Programming Maintenance
To prepare a programme it is necessary to assess the general condition of the
buildings, services and external works and to consider these against the criteria
currently adopted. The repair and replacement work is costed and priorities es-
tablished having regard to any cyclic arrangements.
Maintenance of the very large Shell Centre on London's South Bank is based
on a 9-year cycle and covers fabric maintenance, redecoration, major cleaning,
and maintenance of plant, services, fixtures and fittings. The building and site
are divided into nine zones for maintenance purposes. Work load is controlled
through a card index system which permits levelling out work peaks, control of
costs against budgets and the forecasting of areas where reductions in the main-
tenance budget can be accommodated in the short term if spending has to be cur-
tailed. Based on experience the programme adopted is a 9-year redecorating
cycle, 3-year cleaning of offices and an 18-monthly cleaning of walls in corri-
dors.13

Painting
Painting embraces a variety of activities including washing down; washing down
and touching up; washing down and applying one coat of paint; and washing
down and applying one undercoat and one finishing coat. Paintwork should be
inspected to verify the need to repaint as programmed; for example the exterior
280 Building Maintenance

may last 6 years instead of S and exposed elevations may require more frequent
decoration. Hence on large buildings or groups of buildings it is often preferable
to paint by elevations rather than buildings. 24
If the painting of external woodwork is neglected, the timber may decay pre-
maturely. The effectiveness of paintwork on external joinery is dependent on a
wide range of factors-painting cycle; age of building; quality of timber, joinery,
paint and painter•s work; system of painting; use of building; local climatic con-
ditions; design of building; and degree of exposure. The greatest rate of deterio-
ration occurs on south and west elevations to sills and bottom rails of both upper
and lower sashes. Christer25 concludes his investigations into external painting
cycle periods by asserting that there is no economic optimal painting cycle.
The Greater London Council formulated the following painting programme
for housing estates.

External S-year cycle with new property painted in third or founh year if
found necessary; shon life property to be painted iflife is 2 years or more and it
has not been painted for 4 years; extensive repairs prior to painting are to be exe-
cuted 1 year ahead of the painting programme and minor repairs completed 3
months before painting commences.

Internal normally every S years. 26

Choosing the correct paint for the job is vitally important. The difference in
initial cost between a satisfactory material and a cheap paint is insignificant com-
pared with the additional labour and disruption costs in having to repaint 1 year
earlier, together with possible deterioration of the base material in the meantime.
It is generally necessary to schedule painting offactories to avoid interference
with production and this often entails doing the painting during the 2-week
annual shut-down period, with any unfinished work completed during evenings
and weekends. The problems can be reduced by the use of modem paint systems
and methods of application.
In aggressive areas it may be better not to use cycles based on complete
repainting but to spot prime and apply one finishing coat as and when neces-
sary. For instance one large factory chimney is repainted every 2 years at a
cost of about £1000, whereas if painted on a S-year cycle the cost of repaint-
ing and disruption of production would be about £11,000. 27

Cleaning
The cost of cleaning and maintaining a normal building over a 20- to 30-year
period can equal the initial cost of the building. Cleaning can in fact be
regarded as pan of maintenance in that in pan it is a preventive and protec-
tive activity. For example, regular washing down of painted wall surfaces
reduces subsequent painting costs.
Programming of cleaning work should be preceded by a survey of the
various floor and wall finishes with their respective areas and uses. Uses have
a bearing on cleaning frequency as for example windows in offices, display
rooms and dining areas are usually washed more frequently than those in
 Planning and Financing Maintenance Work 281

storage and factory production areas. Generally, 40 to 45 per cent of all

cleaning time is devoted to floor surfaces. Work sheets are compiled for daily,
weekly, monthly, quarterly and annual operations and these will provide the
basis for estimating labour requirements.
Cleaning equipment and products must be carefully selected to secure the best
results at an advantageous price. The choice is influenced by such factors as stan-
dard of appearance, amount of wear, degree of soiling, type of equipment avail-
able and quality of cleaning staff. It is good policy to minimise the number or type
of products in use, and the cheapest product is not necessarily the most economi-
cal. Supervision and inspection of cleaning work is vitally important, and clean-
ing equipment must be properly maintained. 21

Engineering Services
In the planned maintenance of engineering services in buildings, it is vital to
define clearly the tasks to be performed and then to programme the work in a
logical manner. If properly planned, malfunctioning components will be detected
at an early stage enabling simple corrective action to be taken, rather than wait-
ing for a complete failure and then being faced with an expensive replacement; in
addition productivity will be increased by the reduction in travelling and waiting
time.
The majority of engineering planned maintenance schemes have tended to
concentrate solely on planning the activities of tradesmen to carry out predeter-
mined tasks at regular frequencies, and this often falls short of the ideal. The
tradesman is inevitably limited in his ability to inspect installations for correct
operation. For example all the component parts of an air conditioning plant may
appear to operate satisfactorily but unless the airflows, temperatures and humid-
ity are measured and checked against the design one cannot be certain that the
plant's performance is satisfactory. Similar checks should be carried out on
boiler efficiency, water treatment, electrical insulation and earthing, heating
systems and domestic hot water calorifiers. 29
Another major shortcoming of frequency based maintenance for engineering
services is the large number of inspections that results. Most of the maintenance
tasks are better dealt with by periodic inspections carefully planned and carried
out by competent persons, followed by specific corrective action. The person in-
specting equipment should be supplied with full diagrams and operating data,
any instruments required and information on their method of use. Some prepara-
tory work such as draining down, removing lagging and opening up may be
required and this should all be pre-planned. 29
The method of controlled maintenance adopted by the British Steel Cor-
poration at their Port Talbot Works, which has resulted in large savings in ope-
rating and maintenance costs, deserves mention. Lubrication tasks are carried
out on a frequency basis but otherwise all maintenance is done on request only.
The plant is inspected regularly and any faults found are assessed for urgency.
Some will require immediate attention if only to effect a temporary repair. In
these cases the inspector raises a requisition and job is put in hand straight away.
In most cases, however, the job requires planning and if detected early enough
can wait for a convenient shut-down. The work is planned, spare parts ordered
282 Building Maintenance

and labour and time requirements assessed, and then all this information is
stored in a computer memory until the appropriate time. When convenient the
plant is shut down and the carefully pre-planned remedial work is carried out in
the shonest possible time. A considerable reduction in the spares inventory has
been possible owing to the decreased likelihood of an unexpected breakdown. 29

Computerised Maintenance
Following technical inspections and completion of standard inspection repons,
the appropriate data can be fed into the computer which can produce detailed
orders based on standard specification items, and these can be incorporated in
contract documents if required. As an extension of this process, the computer can
print out complete and ready priced maintenance schedules based on the inspec-
tion repon and schedules of prices submitted by contractors. Responsibility for
ordering minor everyday maintenance work can be delegated to caretaking staff,
provided the extent of the delegation is clearly defined and the work restricted to
cenain contractors. Accounts can be checked for accuracy and paid by the com-
puter.15
The maintenance manager must keep detailed records of maintenance expen-
diture and must know what each unit costs to maintain. To establish control
figures, maintenance and running costs of each individual building will be
recorded and analysed to show costs by age group of propeny, type of con-
struction, and location and user. Comparison of expenditure with control figures
will indicate where funher investigations are needed to determine whether a
propeny is being over or under maintained, is being misused, let at an unecon-
omic rent or is suffering from design deficiencies. These processes could be car-
ried out laboriously by clerical staff but the computer is able to receive, process
and print out this information quickly and accurately. 15
The advantages of computer programming are numerous and include the fol-
lowing
(1) reduces clerical staff and management costs;
(2) lessens risk of human error and increases reliability;
(3) provides a check on work done;
(4) permits instant updating;
(5) capable of ready adaptation to suit alterations to buildings and addi-
tions and variations in estates;
(6) can incorporate various management and administrative functions;
(7) can provide management with cost and other supporting data. 10

Recordin& and Dissemination of Maintenance Data

Information Systems
Information and information flows are normally justified by their relevance to
decision taking and the action which has to be initiated. However, the general
view of many concerned with building maintenance is that there is already too
much information in the form of Codes of Practice, British Standards, Building
 Planning and Financing Maintenance Work 283

Regulations, manufacturers' catalogues, research reports, specifications and

drawings. An individual is primarily interested in the information that affects his
area of decision taking-he needs to know the source of information, what
decisions have to be made and what action initiated. To be effective information
has to be collected, collated, presented, and be easily retrieved and capable of
direct application in problem solving and decision taking. 30

Building Records
The first requirement of a maintenance or property manager is to know in detail
what he is managing. Without this basic knowledge he will not be in a position to
decide his maintenance policy or to prepare estimates of expenditure which go to
form his budget. The information he needs includes the geographical location of
each property, the constructional details by elements, age and condition, details
of services, the superficial area and cubic content, the accommodation available,
the current user and any proposals for the area by the local authority which
might affect the property.3 1
There are various ways of recording this information ranging from the simple
card index to the computer, and the method chosen will depend on the size and
resources of the estate. The method of recording is however of secondary import-
ance; the prime requirement is for accurate and relevant information to be avail-
able as quickly as possible. It is likely that in the foreseeable future the
development of computer bureaux will make it possible for the manager of even a
small estate to have access to data through his own desk terminal. 31
There is a risk of accumulating masses of data which can be expensive and of
only limited practical value. The maintenance manager must retain a sense of
proportion and recognise the limitations as well as the benefits of recorded data.
Records cannot for instance detect the leaking drain caused by minor subsidence
or indicate the untrue ring of a timber floor affected by rot. 32

Maintenance Cost Records

There is a vital need for cost information for both overall budgetary control and
for making day to day management decisions. There is a general lack of infor-
mation on the consequences of design decisions as they affect maintenance costs
and insufficient feedback of maintenance cost data. 33
Southwell34 has suggested that maintenance cost records may be kept to fulfil
three separate functions.
(1) Budgetary control-to produce the annual or other periodic sum which
needs to be set aside to provide for maintenance and operating services.
(2) Management control-to permit the day to day control over mainten-
ance expenditure.
(3) Design cost control-to provide full information concerning causes of
failure, types of failure, design faults and similar particulars. Records of roof
repairs are oflittle use unless, for instance, they show the type of tile, quality of
tile, method of laying, angle of pitch and degree of exposure. Chaplin 35 advo-
cated a hierarchical system of grouping or classification of item& for recording
284 Building Maintenance

maintenance work and costs. A primary grouping would be of value to organisa-

tions who do not wish to prepare very detailed records, and would also form the
basis for more detailed recording. Chaplin's primary grouping was
(a) external decoration
(b) internal decoration
(c) main structure
(d) internal structure
(e) finishes and fittings
(f) plumbing and sanitary services
(g) mechanical services, including heating, ventilation and gas installa-
tions
(h) electrical services and kitchen equipment
(i) external and civil engineering works
(j) miscellaneous and ancillary works.
A secondary grouping of plumbing and sanitary services could be hot water
and heating services, and a tertiary grouping of this element could embrace pipes
of different materials, and valves, tanks and cylinders of different materials.
In 1970 the Depanment of Health and Social Security requested hospital
authorities to introduce an improved method of recording and analysing expen-
diture on hospital building and engineering maintenance by the use of founeen
primary and fifty secondary codes.6
There is a wide variation in the method of recording maintenance costs as be-
tween different organisations. Some organisations using directly employed
labour will include overheads and management costs in varying proponions
while others will include none at all. These variations in costing procedures make
for difficulties when comparing maintenance costs. 36
The breakdown of expenditure into elements will isolate expensive items
which can then be investigated. Where expenditure reveals the failure or shon
life of an item, an alternative replacement should be considered. The analysis of
expenditure may also be subdivided according to use and cause of failure under
such headings as vandalism, boisterous use, fair wear and tear, design failure,
permanent failure and poor workmanship. This information should also be fed
back to the design team to secure improved future designs involving lower main-
tenance costs.

Need for Clearing House

A vast amount of information ftows from many different sources to the designer
and his often limited technical library facilities and he tends to become the
human computer which sifts, selects, analyses and co-ordinates this information
for design purposes. A central clearing house can perform this task far more ef-
fectively, as the information needs constantly to be updated, catalogued and
cross referenced, supplemented by graphic details and costs recorded on standard
forms. Such a centre can disseminate information on performance of materials,
formulate standard classification routines for maintenance cost analysis, receive
and analyse costs and circulate results. 37 The RICS Building Maintenance Cost
 Planning and Financing Maintenance Work 285

Information Service (BMCIS) helps to provide this service. 31

Bulldin1 Maintenance Cost Information Service

The Building Maintenance Cost Information Service is administered by the
Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors to help maintenance managers and
property administrators in the maintenance of property, and the service relies
upon their support in providing information and in assisting with feedback.
BMCIS supplies general infon.1ation on cost indices, labour costs, materials and
equipment, control techniques, legislation and statistics, together with digests of
articles of relevance to property managers.
Feedback of technical information from properties in use to the design team
occurs through design/performance data sheets of building failures, which de-
scribe the element or component, forecast the likely long term effect, analyse the
cause of failure, and suggest any design or construction correction which might
have avoided the situation and the necessary remedial action. Case studies con-
sist of factual reports of typical situations and exemplify current operative prac-
tice in both public and private sectors. They can reveal strengths and weaknesses
in an organisation and a commentary on each case illustrates the lessons to be
leamt. 13
Probably the most valuable part of BMCIS is the occupancy cost analyses
covering a wide range of property types. Annual property costs are analysed on
the basis of standard instructions and elements which form part of a techni-
caVfinancial budgetary control system. The analyses provide a unique library of
property occupancy data on organisations and costs. Each analysis contains
details of the building and a note of the managerial criteria which decide main-
tenance policy. Examples ofBMCIS occupancy cost analyses are given in appen-
dixes 2 and 3, covering a home for the aged and an office block.
BMCIS centres its operations on the regular distribution of up-to-date data
which, when filed in loose leaf binders, provide a comprehensive library of infor-
mation and costs concerning property occupancy. It collects and disseminates in-
formation from many sources but to a large extent the data is derived from the
records, operating conditions and experience of its own subscribers. The service
encourages better communications between upper management and mainten-
ance management and also between property occupiers and the design team. The
service is non-profit making and anyone can become a subscriber.

Maintenance Manuals
Need for Manuals
Most buildings, from the dwelling house to the prestige office block, have in-
creased in complexity in recent years. An increasing number of domestic build-
ings are being provided with thermostatically controlled heating and hot water
systems, while large office blocks will probably be equipped with high duty heat-
ing and air conditioning systems, lifts and other items of sophisticated plant and
equipment, all requiring regular and specialist inspection and servicing. The
form of construction may involve new techniques for which conventional main-
286 Building Maintenance
tenance practices may be unsuitable. Although the designer may be aware of ser-
vicing requirements, these are rarely communicated to those responsible for
maintenance of the property. A convenient form of communication is the main-
tenance manual which should provide clearly and concisely all the information
needed to maintain and operate the building satisfactorily. 38
Maintenance manuals will facilitate building maintenance and there is a grow-
ing awareness of the need for them to be prepared for new buildings by the design
team, as part of the building contract at an appropriate fee, possibly in the order
of t per cent of the contract sum. A properly prepared and comprehensive
manual will serve three principal functions.
(1) It will enable the property manager to organise the repair and mainten-
ance of the building, its services and surrounds effectively and economically.
(2) It will enable the occupier to clean the building and operate its services
efficiently, thus reducing loss of time and production.
(3) It will establish a link between the project design team and the client
and his maintenance organisation to their mutual benefit. 38

Contents ofManuals
It has been suggested that a maintenance manual should consist of three basic
parts.
(1) A physical record of the building and site, to include materials, services,
superficial area and cubic content, all in sufficient detail to assist the manager in
looking after property efficiently.
(2) Time-based inspection and maintenance cycles for the various ele-
ments, including services, together with detailed check lists, maintenance sche-
dules for engineering services and lists of specialist subcontractors and suppliers.
(3) Information and instructions on maintenance delegated to the
occupier. 31
The type and amount of information in a maintenance manual will vary with
the nature and complexity of the property and its services. The detailed contents
could include the following matters.
(1) Contract and legal particulars, including the design team; contractor
and subcontractors, nature of tenure and details of any easements or other
restrictive covenants, contract particulars and statutory consents, and any
operauve guarantees.
(2) Housekeeping--details of surface finishes and decorations both intern-
ally and externally, with information concerning cleaning and periodical routine
maintenance; this is best prepared in schedule form set against a time scale for
the operations or inspections.
(3) Operation of plant-means of operating mechanical, electrical or solid
fuel plant or fittings, with details of requisite periodical routine maintenance or
servicing; the location of meters, recording devices, stopcocks, valves and the like
should be recorded.
(4) Maintenance and repairs-full details of materials, components and
constructional processes should be given, preferably on an elemental basis in the
 Planning and Financing Maintenance Work 287

form given in appendix 4. All hidden features should be described and special
items noted such as jointing and replacement techniques, method of fixing clad-
ding components to structure and form of repair or replacement, and the method
of dismantling and re-erecting demountable components. The names and
addresses of subcontractors or suppliers of all fittings, components and plant in-
stalled in the initial project shall be given together with catalogue numbers,
colours and other relevant information which may ease the task of ordering re-
placements or spare parts.
(5) Record of maintenance executed-provision for a maintenance log to
permit constant updating and the inclusion of any changes or additions.
(6) Plans and drawings-plans of each floor to a small scale with per-
missible floor loadings and usable areas, all as built, on size A4 or A3 sheets for
convenience, and relevant service layouts.
(7) Emergency information-names, addresses and telephone numbers of
contacts in the event of fire, theft or burglary; gas, electricity or water failures or
leaks; or failure/breakdown of plant; together with location of appropriate
equipment.
(8) Manufacturers' leaflets-these should be incorporated to give an 'after
sales' service, with technical information on cleaning, operating, maintaining
and repairing products. 38
Many local authorities provide their house tenants with a maintenance
manual giving information on the cleaning and operating of the dwelling, its ser-
vices and equipment, together with the locations of stopcocks, valves and other
fittings, and any restrictions imposed on the tenant by the nature of the con-
struction, regarding the fixing of any fittings or execution of any alterations or
adaptations. The inclusion of emergency information is essential. 38

Types ofManual
Carnwath39 has described the criteria which he established when preparing a
maintenance manual-absolute simplicity of identification; minimum of coding
and maximum of easily identifiable abbreviations; special drawings to show
drainage, buried service runs, floor loadings, fire alarm shut off points and like
features; and a general attempt to make the building as easy to run and the
manual as easy to read as possible. His manual was divided into three volumes as
follows.
(1) Building specification with key drawings, names and addresses, paint
colours, materials, plant type numbers, light bulb wattages, etc., to assist anyone
requiring detailed information quickly or to replace damaged items.
(2) Maintenance reference, describing all cleaning and maintenance re-
quirements and frequencies, and giving areas of particular materials and num-
bers of plant and equipment. It assists the maintenance manager in planning his
workload and contains particulars to send to cleaning contractors as a basis for
their quotations.
(3) Current and forecast budgets and programmed replacement dates for
plant.
288 Building Maintenance

All volumes are contained in loose-leaf folders and the maintenance manager
is encouraged to update it by inserting comments on performance, revising
specifications as new items are fitted and modifying maintenance procedures
and frequencies.
Typical manual schedules follow.

Materials Schedule
Element Number-2 (floors/ceilings)
Item No. Item Location Description and Manufacturer or
Comments Supplier

2/1 Acoustic Basement access Gold bond fissured Supplied and fixed
Tiles corridor solitude tiles, 300 by Anderson Con-
mm square, self struction, Twicken-
finish on Ander- ham
son's ']-type' suspen-
sion, with white
semi-gloss stove
~amelled edge
tnm

2/2 Asphalt Tank room Includes skirting 300

floor mmhigh

2/3 Carpet Offices 'Debron' l1 metre Supplied and laid by

tiles square Carpet Tile Co.
Stipple range, colour Berkhamsted.
103 'brindle brown'. Maker-Carpet
Arborite skirting Manufacturing Co.

Another form of maintenance manual adopted by the Clwyd and Deeside

Hospital Management Committee,40 contained the following data
(1) briefhistory;
(2) short specification outlining system of construction, principal materi-
als and finishes;
(3) floor plans as a minimum with sections and elevations wherever pos-
sible;
(4) description of renovations, extensions, adaptations and major repairs;
(S) graph showing maintenance expenditure from 1960 to date with
provision for continuation for further ten years for the particular hospital and
average of all Welsh hospitals, and material and labour costs;
(6) estimate of annual maintenance costs for next ten years subdivided into
(i) larger repairs and infrequent items; (ii) periodic repainting, wall washing and
road surfacing; and (iii) minor day to day repairs;
(7) schedule of statistics-number of beds and net cubic capacity provide
two standards for assessing performance;
Clelllliq Schedule
Element Num.ber-2 (floors/ceilings) Maintenance Frequency
Item Maintenance Twice One Three Six One year "t::
No. Item Specification Quantity Location Daily Day Week month months months or longer iS"
;::t
;::t

2/1 Acoustic Vacuum clean with 210m2 Basement Vac. ~·

tiles brush attachment access corridor once ~
;::t
year l:l...
'l1
2/2 Asphalt Wash with clean 25m2 Tank room Wash i"
floor and water and wipe dry ;::t
skirting ....
~·
2/3 Carpet Vacuum shampoo 4900m2 Offices Vac. Clean ~
tile clean with propriet- ;;·
ary carpet shampoo
and report wear ~
!i....
"'
~
~

N
00
\0
290 Building Maintenance

(8) schedule of measurements for external repainting;

(9) room schedule.

Other Matters
Information should be provided on methods of jointing and techniques for repair
and replacement of units, especially those likely to be the subject of maintenance
work. For instance information could be included on the fixing of cladding panels
and how they may be removed and replaced without damage and methods of
weatherproofing joints between units. The manual should enable faults to be
analysed quickly with a minimum of preliminary investigation, and to permit
rectification without causing further damage.
All finishes should be cleaned in accordance with the manufacturers' instruc-
tions, as failure to do this may reduce their effective lives. For example vinyl ftoor
finishes should normally not be cleaned with strong detergents, wax polishes or
scouring powders; in like manner steel wool, strong acids and alkalis and abras-
ive cleaners should not be used on aluminium window frames. The success of a
manual is to a considerable extent dependent upon manufacturers providing suit-
able literature prepared as an after sales service to consumers, giving the meam
of cleaning, operating and servicing their products.

Costs in Use
When designing a building the design team should ideally consider the total costs
of alternative designs, embracing both initial and future costs. The costs in use
approach enables the way in which a building functions to be expressed in terms
of the costs of renewing and repairing the fabric and fittings, of heating, lighting
and fire insurance, and of the labour needed to operate the building. These costs
can be added to the amortised initial cost of the building to give the annual cost in
use. The use of this technique makes it possible to combine all the costs of the
building and so enables the vast range of factors on which judgement is necessary
to be reduced to a comparison of a single cost, 41 as described in chapter 1. A
further useful guide to cost in use data and techniques is given in reference 4 2.

Effect ofTuation and Insurance

Stone43 believes that the incidence of taxation can have a considerable effect on
the design economics of buildings. For instance, with industrial buildings some
relief can be obtained on the initial cost, through depreciation allowances, invest-
ment, initial and cash allowances, their actual form and impact varying from
time to time. Amounts spent on maintenance and repairs, heating and lighting,
and other running expenses, are classified as business expenses and are deduct-
ible from profits in the case of all types of buildings. The exact incidence of tax-
ation varies with the circumstances of the taxpayer. Public authorities do not
normally pay tax and so are not affected. Stone43 postulates that current regu-
 Planning and Financing Maintenance Work 291

lations and levels of taxation tend to favour alternatives with low construction
costs and high running costs, since a typical industrial concern might obtain
about £45 tax relieffor each £100 spent on running costs but only about £25 on
each £100 ofinitial costs. The total costs of buildings can thus be influenced con-
siderably by the form of taxation. For example, value added tax can largely
eliminate the tax advantage previously accruing to running costs.
The Government Committee on Building Maintenance set up a working party
'to consider whether there is evidence that tax considerations affect decisions on
the balance of capital expenditure and subsequent maintenance expenditure on
buildings, and if so, to examine the practical effects', and its report was published
in 1969. 44 The Income Tax Act 1952 admitted for deduction against liability for
income tax and, more recently, corporation tax, the whole of maintenance expen-
diture on buildings, including running costs, but exclusive of any element of en-
largement or betterment. Items of capital expenditure are excluded from
deduction. However, in 1945, a depreciation allowance was introduced on all in-
dustrial buildings and a system of initial allowances operated which accelerated
the process of depreciation for tax purposes. These allowances have varied from
time to time and in 1974 stood at 4 per cent annual depreciation on cost and 50
per cent initial allowance, which together assume an effective asset life of about
13 years. There are no allowances on commercial or residential property.
In certain circumstances industrial premises receive even more favourable
treatment, for instance, plant and machinery in a building are eligible for a first
year allowance of 100 per cent of cost, or alternatively they can be operated so
that the first year allowance is claimed at less than 100 per cent, with the balance
written off from the second year onwards at 25 per cent of the balance. From
November 1974, expenditure on thermal insulation ofindustrial buildings quali-
fied for a special! 00 per cent allowance.
Furniture, fittings and office equipment in any business or profession rank for
plant and machinery capital allowances under the Capital Allowances Act 1968.
The following percentage grants are payable under the Local Employment Act
1972.

Special Development Development Intermediate

Areas Areas Areas

New machinery 22% 20% nil

Buildings and works 22% 20% 20%
plus tax allowances as previously described on buildings and machinery.

There is thus a wide variation of fiscal relief against building expenditure,

ranging from the total absence of relief against investment in commercial or resi-
dential property, through the general run of investment in industrial property, to
the favoured case of a building treated as plant for tax purposes and situated in a
development area. The case has often been argued that whilst maintenance ex-
penditure is wholly allowable against liability to tax, and capital expenditure,
subject to the incidence of grants and allowances, is not allowable, then a given
volume of maintenance work must be less expensive to the property owner than a
292 Building Maintenance
corresponding volume of new construction; hence building expenditure is liable
to bias against new construction in favour of maintenance, even when mainten-
ance would otherwise be uneconomic. If this is so, the demand for maintenance is
increased at the expense of demand for new construction, which would put the
same volume of physical resources to more productive and less labour-intensive
use. Maintenance-saving investment is also stifled; the use of buildings is pro-
longed beyond their natural life, existing buildings are put to uneconomic uses,
and the quality of the environment deteriorates.
The DOE working party44 asserts that there can be alternative explanations.
First of all, despite every fiscal inducement, it remains genuinely uneconomic to
retire apparently obsolete buildings; fiscal policy has yet to realise the full devel-
opment potential of land; and finally there may be an innate resistance among
businessmen to investment in construction unless necessary, or for prestige.
It might be argued that if the belief exists, rightly or wrongly, there is at least
an unconscious tendency for investment decisions to be biased in favour of higher
maintenance and lower capital costs. The working party believes that fiscal con-
siderations have but a marginal influence on investment decisions in new build-
ing, and that the harmful effects of fiscal discrimination between new
construction and maintenance may thus be less prevalent than is supposed. Fur-
thermore, Drake45 postulates with some justification that the argument de-
scribed earlier is conceptually in error since money saved by building more
cheaply initially would be invested elsewhere to produce at least an equal return
and consequentially equal tax liability.
Stone46 bas described bow the design and layout of buildings may also influ-
ence rating valuations and premiums payable for fire insurance. For industrial
buildings, floor space is rated according to the level of amenities provided; thus
upper floors, and areas which are unheated, have low storey heights or can only
carry low loads will be assessed at lower rates. However, an attempt to reduce
rateable value by lowering standards may adversely affect efficiency and
flexibility. Fire insurance premiums are related to the degree of fire risk and
reductions in premiums may be made for design features which are likely to
reduce fire spread, such as the use of noninflammable materials or those
which resist the spread of fire, and the provision of fire-fighting equipment
like sprinklers. It may not pay to install sprinklers or automatic fire alarms
where the annual equivalent cost of provision and maintenance is greater
than the reductions in fire insurance premiums.

References
1 Building Maintenance Cost Information Service, Occasional paper No.
4: Building Maintenance and Corporate Strategy in a Manufacturing
Company Committed to Growth (R.I.C.S., 1972).
2 Building Maintenance Cost Information Service, Occasional paper No.
2: The Management of Building Maintenance in a Local Authority.
(R.I.C.S., undated).
 Planning and Financing Maintenance Work 293

3 D. B. James, 'The Maintenance Manager-Forward Planning and

Budgeting,' Building Maintenance (May/June 1972).
4 D. B. James, 'The Maintenance Manager and Maintenance Policy,' Build-
ing Maintenance (March/April1972).
5 B. A. Speight, 'Formulating Maintenance Policy,' The Chartered Surveyor
(April1970).
6 H. R. P. Gregson, 'Putting Maintenance into Perspective,' Fourth National
Building Maintenance Conference, (Department of the Environ-
ment/Building Maintenance (H.M.S.O., 1973).
7 R. G. Howell, 'Making the Right Decision,' Third National Building Main-
tenance Conference, (Department of the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1971).
8 J. D. M. Robertson, 'Getting Facts to Support Decision-taking,' Building
Maintenance (July 1974).
9 Committee on Hospital Building Maintenance, Report of Committee,
1968-70 (H.M.S.O., 1970).
10 B. A. Speight, Property Maintenance and Management: Policy and Pro-
gramming (Focus Professional Services, 1972).
11 Building Maintenance Cost Information Service, Occasional paper No. 5:
Budgetary Control and Building Maintenance (R.I.C.S., 1973).
12 M. V. Jarman, 'Selling Maintenance to Management-The Use of Proper
Costing,' Profitable Building Maintenance Conference, 1967, (Department
of the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1969).
13 J. D. M. Robertson, 'Property Occupancy Costs,' Building Maintenance
(March/April1972).
14 G. H. Ray, 'Budgeting for Maintenance,' Second National Building Main-
tenance Conference 1969, (Department of the Environment, H.M.S.O.,
1970).
15 J. Hill, 'Computing for Maintenance,' Building Maintenance (August
1970).
16 Local Government Operational Research Unit, Report D 9: Building Main-
tenance: How can OR help?(H.M.S.O., 1972).
17 J. A. Robertson, 'The Planned Maintenance of Buildings and Structures,'
Proc. Instn civ. Engrs, Paper 7184S (1969).
18 A. H. Christer, The Relationship between Planned Periodic Inspection
Maintenance and Further Repair within the Context of Building Mainten-
ance, University of Strathclyde, Department of Operational Research
(1972).
19 J. Hill, 'A Review of Maintenance Practice in Property Management,' The
Quantity Surveyor 26.3. (1969).
20 Local Government Operational Research Unit, Report C 188: Evaluating
Alternative Housing Maintenance Strategies: Proposals for a Study to De-
velop aNew Method (H.M.S.O., 1973).
21 Local Government Operational Research Unit, Report C 144 Hospital
Building Maintenance: Can Decision Making be Improved? (H.M.S.O.,
1972).
22 R. F. Stevens, BRE Current Paper 55/74: Maintenance Standards and
Costs (1974).
294 Building Maintenance

23 E. C. Lovelock, 'Define your Objectives,' Building Maintenance (Sep-

tember/October 1973).
24 R. J. Bushell, 'Building Planned Preventive Maintenance,' Building Main-
tenance (September 1970).
25 A. H. Christer, A Study of External Painting Cycle Periods: Note 22. Uni-
versity ofStrathclyde, Department of Operational Research (1973).
26 H. Graham, 'Maintenance Standards-Local Authority Housing,' Munici-
pal Building Management, vol. 2 (1973).
27 - 'It Pays to Plan with Paints,' Building Maintenance (July/August
1973).
28 J. B. King, 'Planned Cleaning,' Second National Building Maintenance
Conference, 1969, (Depanment of the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1970).
29 B. P. Holloway, 'Considering Planned Maintenance,' Fourth National
Building Maintenance Conference, Department of the Environ-
ment/Building Maintenance (1973).
30 J.D. M. Robenson, 'Data Collection and Analysis,' Fourth National Build-
ing Maintenance Conference Depanment of the Environment/Building
Maintenance (1973).
31 Depanment of the Environment, 'Practice in Property Maintenance Man-
agement,' (H.M.S.O., 1970).
32 - 'Who is Wasting whose Money,' Building Maintenance (September
1971).
33 J. Griffiths, 'Building Maintenance Information,' Third National Building
Maintenance Conference, 1971, (Depanment of the Environment,
H.M.S.O., 1972).
34 J. Southwell, 'Methodology in the Use of Maintenance Costs for Systematic
Design,' Nottingham Regional Conference No. 3, Trent Polytechnic (Royal
Institution of Chartered Surveyors, 1967).
35 M. F. Chaplin, 'Analysis of Maintenance,' Maintenance of Buildings Con-
ference, (Depanment of the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1965).
36 W. T. jackson, 'The Maintenance of Buildings-Organisation and Plan-
ning,' Building (2 September 1966).
37 H. E. Buteux, 'The Maintenance of Buildings-Implications for the Archi-
tect,' Building (26 August 1966).
38 Depanment of the Environment, Maintenance Manuals for Buildings
(H.M.S.O., 1970).
39 D. Carnwath, 'Design Responsibility and Maintenance Manuals,' Third
National Building Maintenance Conference 1971 (Depanment of the En-
vironment, H.M.S.O., 1972).
40 E. J. Nichols, 'Maintenance ofHospitals,' Building (8 October 1971).
41 I. H. Seeley, Building Economics (Macmillan, London and Basingstoke,
1974).
42 Depanment of the Environment, Costs in Use-A Guide to Data and Tech-
niques (H.M.S.O., 1972).
43 P. A. Stone, 'The Application of Building Design Evaluation Techniques,'
Building (20 March 1970).
44 Department of the Environment, Implications of Taxation Provisions for
 PlanningandFinancingMaintenance Work 295

Building Maintenance, (H.M.S.O., 1969).

45 B. E. Drake, 'Do Buildings Need to Last?' Maintenance by Design Seminar,
(Department of the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1969).
46 P. A. Stone, 'The Economics of Building Designs,' Journal of the Royal
Statistical Society, Series A (General) 123.3 (1960).
13. EXECUTION OF MAINTENANCE WORK

Maintenance work can be undenaken by contractors, direct labour forces or a

combination of both systems, and the decision may be based on a number of cri-
teria. The structures of maintenance organisations are examined together with
programming and operational activities. Finally the training of maintenance
staff and the operation of incentive schemes are considered.

Choic:e between Direct and Coatract Labour

General Background
Building maintenance is not a single industry and is executed by contractors
working for profit and by commercial enterprises and public authorities as an
adjunct to other functions. Contractors in fact account for less than half of all
estimated expenditure on building maintenance; nevenheless they constitute the
more flexible pan in that they are subject to direct economic pressures and can
respond fairly readily to changes in the pattern of demand. Direct labour organi-
sations are rather more rigid in structure and the absence of a profit motive re-
quires the substitution of other forms of motivation and objective. 1 In all cases
the service should be effective and the total cost economic. 2
It is possible that the form of construction, use of the building or maintenance
policy may dictate whether directly employed labour, or contractors, or both will
be the most advantageous. 3 There are no general recommendations that will pro-
vide the correct proportions of direct and contract labour for all maintenance
depanments; each has to be treated separately. In reaching a decision, the
maintenance manager should compare the costs and services provided by con-
tractors with his own directly employed labour force, taking into account the
availability of labour and the type and location of buildings to be maintained.
The type of maintenance organisation serving a single large complex of hospital
buildings in continuous use will be ill-suited to maintain the dispersed propenies
of a large county council. Direct labour forces are particularly well placed to cope
with emergency repairs to large commercial and public buildings, while small
contractors can provide a good service to householders.
The cost of directly employed labour is made up of wages and materials; ad-
ministrative overheads such as labour oncosts, and associated clerical, travelling
296
 Execution ofMaintenance Work 297

and supervisory costs; and depot costs. The cost of employing a contractor con-
sists of the contractor's charges plus administrative overheads, such as inviting
and comparing tenders, drawing up contracts, work supervision and checking
invoices. 4 Hillebrandt5 describes how in one survey, 82 per cent of household jobs
and 89 per cent of those for commercial enterprises, emanated from an approach
to a single contractor. Most employers chose either a firm they had used before, a
firm they knew personally or a firm recommended to them. The same survey
showed a high level of satisfaction as only 6 per cent of the householders and 8
per cent of the commercial employers were dissatisfied with the work executed. It
was also evident that the small contractor frequently gave advice to the employer
on the work to be carried out. 5

Application in Practice
The main advantages of directly employed labour are
(1) that it allows full control of activities of operatives, permitting reason-
able flexibility and direct quality control;
(2) that it should ensure good standard of workmanship by craft operatives
who enjoy continuity of employment but recruitment may be a problem;
(3) that there is a standard complement oflabour available;
(4) that the maintenance manager can introduce and operate incentive
schemes;
(5) that it is panicularly well suited for execution of emergency repairs, as
the labour force is familiar with location of stopcocks, switches, manholes and
the like, operational services and services requiring panicular or unusual skills
for which employees can be trained.
On the other hand the establishment of a direct labour maintenance force will
require the provision and administration of supponing facilities such as stores,
workshops, transpon and accounting services; a high standard of supervision
and control to ensure economic programming, and good productivity and quality
of work; and experienced and efficient management to provide effective labour
relations and communications. 6 With direct labour work the difference between
estimated and actual cost can be considerable; a special repon by one local auth-
ority on schemes undenaken by its works depanment showed that some jobs cost
two to three times the original estimate, while claims that direct labour yields a
higher standard of work are often difficult to substantiate. 7 Accounting pro-
cedures of direct labour organisations vary considerably and some ration-
alisation would facilitate statistical analysis to general advantage.• Some
criticism oflocal authority direct labour expenditure is founded on the assertion
that some costs are hidden and one local authority auditor has questioned how it
can be established that a direct labour organisation is effectively competing with
contractors, when it operates depots for which the costs are unknown. 9 Direct
labour has no bad debts, no costs of tendering in competition but, on the other
hand, often has a high rate of sickness around 6 per cent, and its higher ratio of
staff to operatives may exceed the contractor's profit element.
Contractors play an imponant pan in maintenance work, both for putting
buildings in repair and for the larger periodic works. Successful results depend
298 Building Maintenance

on exacting and well detailed specifications and close supervision. Special con-
tractors are indispensable for maintenance of lifts and other sophisticated plant
and for specialist trades such as asphalt and terrazzo work. 10
Maintenance work loads tend to fluctuate, particularly with redecorations
where external work is seasonal. With certain buildings such as universities,
polytechnics and colleges, some work can be undertaken only during vacations
resulting in heavy demands in the summer. Direct labour gangs cannot be built
up to cope with such diverse seasonal loads, otherwise they will be under-
employed at other times of the year. 11
Bampton 11 postulates that it may be preferable to confine direct labour to little
more than emergency and scheduled maintenance, and to use contractors for the
seasonal, major and specialist work, although many efficient direct labour organ-
isations would quarrel with this approach. Contractors need long term contracts
to give the employer good service on advantageous terms.

Structure of Building Maintenance Departments

The structures of building maintenance departments show wide variations and
need tailoring to meet the requirements of a particular authority or organisation.
Arrangements that have proved successful in one situation will not necessarily
function effectively elsewhere. An indication of the range of variations can be
obtained by comparing the structures of a few departments.
The Greater London Council maintains a quarter of a million dwellings re-
quiring a carefully controlled, planned system of maintenance. The authority's
administrative area is divided into ten districts each with a central planning
office which organises the craft operatives into mobile teams. u
Sunderland Metropolitan District has a public works department with a
comparatively simple executive and administrative structure aimed at giving the
director of works adequate time for public relations work and to investigate pos-
sible improvements. The public works committee (direct labour) deals with pro-
gress reports of work in hand, numbers employed, engagement of apprentices,
retraining, financial position of contracts, approval of tenders for plant and ma-
terials and retrospective confirmation of actions taken by the director of works.
The Sunderland public works department is divided into five sections-building
maintenance, technical services, administration, capital works, and engineering
groups. The building maintenance section through a deputy director and main-
tenance manager control all maintenance and minor works and have heating and
plumbing, painting, joinery, and general workshops. 13
The London borough of Hounslow maintains 17 000 dwellings and 3000
garages with a labour force of 185, and about 47 000 maintenance orders are
issued annually. The maintenance work is controlled by an assistant director
(works) supported by a technical manager (modernisation) with 17 technical
staff, a technical manager (repairs) with 13 technical staff, a maintenance con-
trol officer with 5 assistants, and a chief maintenance superintendent with 2
maintenance superintendents (covering one-half of the authority area each), 4
area foremen, 4 painting foremen and depot clerks. 14
Whitehead 15 has described how local government reorganisation in 1974
 Execution ofMaintenance Work 299

offered economies of scale with improved opportunities for standardisation and

specialisation. He suggested a number of area maintenance units assisted by a
planning and control group. The area maintenance units would operate under
the control of an area manager, responsible for carrying out programmed and
contingency maintenance works in his area within the prescribed budgetary pro-
visions, and who would be assisted by a supervisor, technicians, work study
officer and clerical personnel. The planning group would undertake the prepara-
tion of routine planned maintenance programmes for each area, allocation of
manpower and other resources, preparation of area budget estimates and main-
taining the performance of area maintenance units and co-ordinating their ac-
tivities.
To quote a further example, the London borough ofBarking 16 has a building
works department controlled by the building works manager who is responsible
to the building works committee. The department's annual turnover in 1973 ex-
ceeded £4m, mostly carried out by direct labour and comprising 49 per cent
housing maintenance, 15 per cent maintenance of schools and other public build-
ings, 20 per cent capital works construction contracts, 9 per cent improvements
to corporation dwellings, and 7 per cent installation of water heaters to cor-
poration dwellings. In 1974 the department had 90 staff and 603 manual
employees including 31 bricklayers, 78 carpenters, 9 glaziers, 255 painters, 14
plasterers, 29 plumbers, 6 slaters and tilers, and 166labourers. The 1974/7 5 esti-
mates showed the following allocations.
percent
External decorations 18
Internal decorations 14
Repairs on relets 18
General repairs 22
Electrical work 7
Special repairs 9
Miscellaneous 5
Supervision 7

Maintenance Depots
Area Depots
Tradesmen normally operate from depots which should include facilities for
changing clothes, washing, and drawing stores and tools. The economics of pro-
viding a central depot as against a number of smaller depots dispersed through-
out the administrative area needs to be examined. The optimum number, size
and location of depots is an operational research problem that requires for its
solution a detailed examination of the total costs of running the depots, geo-
graphical distribution of jobs, their urgency and how long they take to complete. 4
Depots provide tradesmen with the materials they require and the mainten-
ance manager has to determine the correct stock levels. He needs to consider how
frequently each item is required, how long it takes to replenish stocks when they
300 Building Maintenance

run low, the relative seriousness of stocks running out, the cost of purchasing
stock in different quantities and the storage costs associated with bulk purchas-
ing.''
The Metropolitan District of Sunderland with a works labour force of2350 in
1974 and an annual turnover in excess of £1Om, is zoned into fourteen sub-areas.
Each sub-area has a small depot, office, stores and workshops, suitably sited at
geographically advantageous points mainly on housing estates. Each depot is
controlled by a foreman who is responsible for maintenance work in the sub-area
which normally contains 2000 to 3000 dwellings. 13

Mobile Depots
Mobile depots can often be used to advantage with housing maintenance, par-
ticularly in rural areas. Their use needs to be carefully planned to provide an ef-
ficient service and the following arrangements introduced by a contractor have
proved satisfactory in practice. 17
Site instructions for repairs are as far as possible grouped into areas or streets,
whereby the team has sufficient work for at least two days ahead. To overcome
the common problem of non-accessibility, the team foreman calls at all houses
which it is proposed to visit the following day. He makes the call at the end of the
working day by which time there is usually someone at home; arrangements can
then be made for someone to be available the next day or for a key to be left with a
neighbour. 17
The problem of stores availability is almost completely overcome by a wide
selection of articles carried in the mobile workshop, including standard doors and
windows and plumbing spares. It is seldom that the mobile workshop has to
return to base during the day. Stores are replenished at the end of each day's
work. There is considerable advantage in having a mobile workshop readily
accessible to the repair work. Even the most straightforward repairs, such as
easing doors and windows present cleaning problems when carried out in the
house. They can now be done, whatever the weather, close at hand in the mobile
workshop. The mobile unit described by Humberstone 17 is used for the mainten-
ance of 2600 dwellings with a team consisting of a foreman, 2 carpenters, 1
plumber, 1 bricklayer-handyman and 1 painter-glazier.
Humberstone 17 used a mobile workshop based on a diesel-engined Ford Tran-
sit 1.75 t vehicle. On one side of the workshop is fitted a joiner's bench and the
other side is racked to assist in the identification of small stores. There is an elec-
tric circular saw which can be used on the bench or outside; although not large it
caters for almost all the requirements of small maintenance jobs.
A mobile workshop could take the form of a motorised workshop or be a cara-
van type workshop towed by a Land Rover or lorry. In making a choice the fol-
lowing factors should be considered.
(1) How long is the mobile workshop likely to remain in any one place?
(2) Could the towing vehicle be used for other duties when not required for
moving the workshop?
(3) The consequential gain or loss from Road Fund licensing costs in each
case.
 Execution ofMaintenance Work 301

(4) The cost of replating a motorised workshop every 18 months and the ef-
fect on overall costs. 17

Programming of Maintenance Work

Planning the Workload
In planning maintenance work, the maintenance manager aims to match the
available resources with the workload. Effective forward planning is difficult
with this category of work because of the large number of uncertain factors
involved. Hence it is advisable to adopt a two stage planning system. 4
(1) An annual plan is prepared showing the expected workload for the coming
year and how this can be matched effectively with available resources. Jobs are
best grouped according to their work content, urgency, amount of notice
required and restrictions on timing. A simple classification is jobbing repairs,
fabric maintenance and modemisations. Using a classification of this type, a de-
tailed plan can be formulated of the work to be done by each trade during the
coming year. 4
(2) The completed plan is translated into a weekly work schedule, with a rol-
ling programme prescribing the workload for about 6 weeks ahead. This pro-
gramme is updated regularly to take into account the most recent information on
the content and timing of specific jobs and availability of resources. In this way
the maintenance manager retains close control of the maintenance work and
when events diverge from the plan, it allows him to take corrective action at the
earliest possible time. 4
Fox 18 has described how the majority oflocal authorities find it convenient to
employ their own direct labour organisation in order to control the order of
priorities and to build up comprehensive information on the nature, condition
and requirements of their own properties. A direct labour organisation generally
caters for most routine jobs, while specialist work such as electrical or heating
may be let out to outside firms. It is usually advisable to put out to tender any ab-
normal increases in workload, including possibly part of the painting work to
avoid employing too many painters in the winter. Furthermore, obtaining tenders
from contractors will provide a useful indication of the cost effectiveness of a
direct labour organisation. On occasions the extent of a maintenance pro-
gramme may be too rigidly constrained by the size of the direct labour organi-
sation rather than the needs of an effective maintenance service.
It is surprising that some local authorities organise their maintenance service
without attempting to match expected demands and resources. It is possible to
estimate annual and seasonal variations in workload and the proportion of the
labour force likely to be available. Admittedly, some maintenance jobs can be
unpredictable in work content, but without a forecast of probable future work
the effects of abnormal delays and the necessary remedial measures cannot be
predicted. Even with formal planning, work does not arise in a uniform flow.
There are inevitably peaks and troughs for most trades, dependent upon clima-
tic conditions and changes in local authority policies and attitudes. 18
Many local authorities endeavour to restrict severely the repairs undertaken
for tenants, often to the extent of issuing conditions of tenancy of doubtful
302 Building Maintenance

legality, such as requiring the tenant to protect from frost badly designed and
very vulnerable fittings and services. The primary objective of this policy is to
limit maintenance expenditure and to avoid as far as possible undertaking small
jobs which can be proportionately very expensive. Fox 18 advocates the greater
use of local authority consortia to obtain quotations for materials for mainten-
ance and to encourage tenants to take more interest in the maintenance of their
houses.

Use ofProgrammes
Frequency based programmes can be prepared for internal and external painting
and for washing down. These programmes can be based on manuals drawn up for
each building recording all relevant data such as painting specifications, superfi-
cial areas and a cost index based on the actual cost in a particular year. A pro-
gramme of preventive maintenance such as drain clearing, gutter clearing, tap
re-washering and oiling and adjusting door furniture can also be prepared for
each building. 19
The main part of any maintenance programme is usually a series of pre-
planned inspections. An annual inspection by a structural engineer ensures the
stability of the structure. A check list ensures effective inspections at suitable
intervals. The programme of inspections can be fed into a computer which prints
out a slip requesting the inspection on a specific date. The report of defects pre-
pared on inspection is then assessed for urgency. Where these are urgent a requi-
sition can be prepared and corrective work put in hand. Less urgent jobs can be
planned and fitted into a work programme provided it can be kept within the
budget. The information can then be returned to the computer for updating the
historical record. 19
Buteux20 has described how the Scottish Special Housing Association operates
a planned maintenance system based on a 5-year painting cycle. The first priority
is the replacement or repair of any item to be subsequently painted. Alongside
this is work urgently needed for reasons of safety or hygiene, such as rewiring, re-
placement of sanitary ware or making good defective structural work. Effort is
made to ensure that the work would not be quickly overtaken by more compre-
hensive schemes of maintenance or modernisation. More comprehensive im-
provements are undertaken under three main headings.
(1) Internal improvements: improved insulation, central heating, re-
modelling of kitchens and upgrading of bathroom fitments.
(2) External improvements: general facelift to property not being part of
maintenance paintwork cycle, such as tiled roofs, fencing and footpaths.
(3) Site improvements: car parks, children's play areas, landscaping and
general environmental improvement.
A typical painting schedule would show the locations of dwellings on the left-
hand side and the columns would be headed with years. In addition the number
of dwellings, type of dwelling (for example, pre-war three bedroom) and possibly
the date of erection may be inserted. The schedule will show the painting pro-
gramme for each group of dwellings and whether this has been implemented in
the past. Schedules can also be prepared to cover other major items of repair or
 Execution ofMaintenance Work 303

replacement such as re-roofing, replacement of paths and fences, rewiring and re-
placement of sanitary fitments.
Graham21 has formulated the following maintenance standards in addition to
the painting cycles described in chapter 12 as a basis for programming of housing
maintenance work.

electrical wiring: every 25 to 30 years

renewal of gas water heaters: every 25 years
servicing of gas appliances: annually
servicing of electric water heaters and incinerators: annually
cleaning of ventilation ducts: annually
servicing floor springs to swing doors: annually
cleaning gullies: annually
refuse hoppers on balconies: clean three times each year
ground floor dust chute chambers: clean three times each year and paint in-
ternally as required
grass cutting: generally every 9 working days, reducing to 7 days in peak
growing periods and increasing to 10 days in slow growing periods
hedge cutting: twice each year (ApriVMay and August/September)
hedge splitting: one fifth each year (October/March).

Graham21 has also indicated the maximum periods established for execution of
work by the Greater London Council
emergencies: make safe or complete within 24 hours of notification
bricklaying: within 5 weeks
carpentry: within 4 weeks
plumbing: within 3 weeks
glazing: within 2 weeks
electrical work: within 1 to 2 weeks
space heating: within 3 days

Stevens, 22 while accepting that many building components deteriorate gradu-

ally, believes that consideration of the physical needs of the building might indi-
cate that different speeds of service would be appropriate for different types of
repairs. He suggests the following categories of priority.
(1) several hours: major water leaks, gas leaks and dangerous wiring
(2) several days: minor water leaks, reglazing, repairs to external doors
and heating repairs in winter
(3) several weeks: major plastering repairs, and blocked rainwater pipes
and gutters
(4) several months: renewal of gutters, easing of windows and doors, and
repointing brickwork.

King2 3 has estimated times for a range of cleaning tasks calculated on a unit of
1000 ft 2 of floor area but admits that these will vary according to the type of
building and its use. These form useful guidelines and some of the more common
tasks follow with the unit converted to 100 m2 of floor area.
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 Execution of Maintenance Work 305
Activity Time in minutes per 100m2 of floor area
Office and toilet cleaning 60-70
Impregnated mop sweeping 10-15
Damp mopping 18-25
Wet mopping, rinsing and drying 60-70
Hand scrubbing and drying 180-200
Machine scrubbing 12-45
Machine drying (suction) 25-30
Stripping and re-waxing 160-180
Vacuum sweeping 30-35
Hand sweeping 20-25
Applying wax polish manually 85-100
Applying liquid polish manually 45-50
Applying liquid polish with applicator 30-40

Organisation of Maintenance Work

Recording of information concerning properties and repairs is best undertaken
on a card system providing ready means of communication by means of a com-
puter. The records are sometimes described as a property register. The computer
can be programmed to give either fixed format reports providing answers to indi-
vidual questions or an analysis across the full range of properties. On such a
system operated by the Scottish Special Housing Association 20 the information is
held on standard 80 column punched cards, using a very simple code to identify
each street. On being given a cycle number the computer can provide a print out
of street names and house numbers in the sequence of inspectors' areas, to insti-
gate the planned maintenance inspection process. The inspector will be told
which houses and elements to inspect.
In this way a centrally updated and accurate information service is secured. It
also provides an effective management tool capable of very fast pre-inspection as-
sessment of problems and realistic projections. 20
The primary functions of control cards are to contain details of property and
maintenance work. A typical control card is shown in table 13.1.24
With private properties there may be agreements between landlord and tenant
which restrict access to the property. Records should show tenancy details and
arrangements. Repairs to roofs, or electrical or heating services may be charge-
able to a number of tenants. Furthermore, tenants may require notice of inten-
tion to inspect.

Notification ofDefects
An analysis of methods of notification undertaken at Hounslow Borough in 1970
showed a variety of communication routes.

Method Percentage
Tenant returning pre-paid complaint card 25
Telephone call from tenant 39
306 Building Maintenance

Tenant notifying complaint to officer oflocal authority

on site 7
Letter from tenant 10
Tenant notifying defect in person at a depot or
housing office 9
Officer of local authority finding defect 10

It was found that requests for work were sometimes mislaid because of the many
and varied procedures that existed for notifying repairs, and the absence of a
record card for each propeny made it difficult to trace some enquiries. Hence in
1971 a new system was introduced whereby all complaints passed through main-
tenance control where a maintenance complaint card was completed, and a prop-
eny card index system was established. 14 A typical tenants' request card is shown
in table 13.2 on which is entered the tenant's name and address and the nature of
the complaint. 24

Execution ofMaintenance Work by Maintenance Departments

Even with jobbing repairs such as repairs to dripping taps, broken windows or
faulty door latches, the maintenance depanment has to decide on the method of
execution and has a number of choices.
(1) Whether to use its own operatives or contractors, or to make the tenants
responsible for cenain repairs.
(2) Decide on urgency of jobs-whether to put into effect or to postpone
until the next planned maintenance cycle.
(3) Decide on response time to tenants' requests for non-emergency work.
Relet repairs undenaken prior to reletting a house to a new tenant include paint-
ing and decorating as well as general maintenance work, such as replacing
cracked sinks or relaying badly damaged floors. The extent of the work can be af-
fected by the policy on planned maintenance and jobbing repairs. Once again
some types of non-emergency work could be postponed until the next planned
maintenance cycle. 25
The majority of direct labour maintenance systems operate on a job ticket,
request or order arrangement, whereby operatives only do work contained on a
job form. One such system embraces forms offour colours used for housing main-
tenance.

Red forms are used for emergency work in response to tenants' requests and
must receive attention within 24 hours.

White forms are used for normal tenants' requests and may be prepared by rent
collectors. No guarantee is given as to when the job will be completed but the
tenant is asked to give access times.

Blue forms are used for tenancy changes where a foreman inspects all proper-
ties after the outgoing tenant has vacated, and all work necessary prior to relet-
ting is entered on blue tickets for the appropriate trades. Three weeks are
normally allowed between tenancies for such work.
 Execution ofMaintenance Work 307
Green forms are used for work involving several trades. The initial form (red,
white or blue) is passed to the first trade which after completion arranges for the
chargehand to make out a green form for the next trade. 26
The white forms are prepared from descriptions supplied by tenants and re-
quire some degree of pre-inspection depending upon the nature of the job descrip-
tion. On average each man in a gang completes six jobs per day and, on this basis,
the foreman sends selected job forms to the chargehand at least three working
days prior to the scheduled work visit. This enables the chargehand to make any
necessary pre-inspections and to obtain materials and plant in time for the
scheduled visit. 26
A typical job request form is shown in table 13.3 to provide foremen and
tradesmen with all requisite information, including location, tradesmen and time
taken and materials used. Once again the colours of forms have special signifi-
cance--pink for emergencies to be done in hours, green for urgent work to be
done in days, and white for routine work which could extend over weeks. 24
Yet another works order system uses different colours according to the person-
nel for whom they are intended-pink: record, white: operative, yellow: fore-
man, buff: plant/transpon, and blue: work study/bonus. 27
At Hounslow 14 the request form is termed a housing maintenance order and is
produced on AS size paper with two different coloured copies. When operatives
find no occupants at home, they leave call cards which ask tenants to specify a
convenient time for the operatives to call. Tenants who do not return the pre-
paid call card receive a follow up card which states 'if no reply is received within
seven days we shall assume you no longer wish to have the matter attended to'.
For jobs delayed beyond two months, maintenance control estimates the prob-
able date of execution and sends a two month delay card containing this infor-
mation to the tenant.
In addition a check is made on jobs outstanding at the end of each week for
each trade and depot. This is multiplied by the appropriate average work time
(3.50 hours) to determine the likely delays in execution on the basis ofthe avail-
able labour force. 14
The planned maintenance and operation system used by the Department of
the Environment 28 embraces
(1) providing workmen with information on work to be done (job sheets);
(2) overall planning of the work (planning chans);
(3) issuing orders for work to be done (work dockets, contractors' orders);
(4) keeping records of work done (by books).

Another system-the Plant Information Management System29-has the fol-

lowing routine inputs
(1) budgets (annually);
(2) work orders or requests or maintenance jobs to be done;
(3) timesheets, on which tradesmen record the hours worked on each job;
(4) stores warrants, recording the value of stores items issued for each job;
(S) purchase orders for each job;
(6) invoices to match the purchase orders;
(7) lost production records;
 Official Use
Only
"HOUSING MAINTENANCE REQUEST"
BLOCK LETTERS PLEASE

Name. Tel No •....................

Address
Keys at ... At home a.m.fp.m. (Not Sat.) Date ................... .
Please give precise nature of fault and, where possible, location (indicate by tick in box)
Location Nature of Fault
External O Internal 0
Room: Kitchen 0
Living 0
Dining 0
Bedroom 0
Bathroom 0
w.c. 0
NOTES: Please use this card to request repairs. Urgent calls Telephone Newtown 53844
Unless otherwise notified repairs may normally be expected to be carried out
within severi days.
Table 13.2 Tenant's Request Card

I
NEWTOWN CORPORATION
_ _ _ _ _ _____.HOUSING MAINTENANCE REQUEST'-------
I
Name............................................ Address ............................................................................... .

Keys at....................................... . At home a.m.fp.m. Date ........................................... .

Trade Location Repair Tradesman

0 Internal Materials Used

D Carpenter D External
D Electrician
D General 0 Kitchen
0 Painter D Living
D Plumber D Dining
D Glazier D Bedroom
D Mason 0 Bathroom
ow.c. Time Taken:
Special l n s t r u c t i o n s f - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Comments
Other Trades Necessary Signature Date ........................... .
Tradesman ................................... .
Foreman ............................... .

Table 13.3 Job Request Form

 Execution ofMaintenance Work 309

(8) job completion sheets, outlining what was actually done.

Execution ofMaintenance Work by Contractors

The maintenance contractor must be able to process efficiently all enquiries and
orders by submitting quotations or issuing works orders. Effective communi-
cation is important so that building owners are kept informed and the contrac-
tor's own staff are aware of their involvement. Operatives have to be deployed to
cope effectively with the workload, adequately backed with materials and plant.
An easily operated and yet foolproofbooking and costing system is needed to pro-
vide quotations and accounts, together with the necessary feedback of cost data,
including the analysis of oncosts. 30
On maintenance work, operatives are required to work more on their own, are
more scattered and have less supervision, often restricted to a travelling foreman,
surveyor or works manager. On larger jobs there may be a foreman resident on
the site, although he will probably be a working foreman. 31
Yard stocks of all regularly used materials should be maintained, as purchas-
ing materials in small quantities is expensive. Purchasing in bulk where practic-
able is advantageous, when materials will be distributed from stock to each job.
Bulky materials such as aggregates, bricks and hardcore are expensive to trans-
port and deliveries should be so arranged to reduce double handling to a mini-
mum. Some maintenance jobs may require very small quantities of materials
such as SO kg of cement and a wheelbarrow load of sand, which should be drawn
from a bulk supply where possible. 31

Management ofMaintenance Work

The majority of repairs to local authority dwellings are completed within a
reasonable time and often it is suspected to a higher standard than that expected
by private tenants or owner-occupiers. Much of the criticism stems from short-
comings of management, by the failure to inform tenants why a repair cannot be
executed or has to be delayed. Easy repairs may be executed promptly while more
difficult ones are postponed and sometimes overlooked. There is a good case for
issuing more information to tenants on housing maintenance policies and the
channels available for securing service and making complaints. 11
Thurley and Richardson 32 have outlined some of the main problems in hous-
ing management
(1) communication problems between tenants and management and vice
versa;
(2) maintenance standards are seldom dearly defined or generally recog-
nised;
(3) maintenance is susceptible to financial stringency and cut-backs in re-
sources and future plans, with problems in assessing priorities;
(4) difficulties in obtaining adequate control data for maintenance man-
agement.
The views of a housing estates association33 are useful. Tenants tend to feel
they are being made irresponsible as they are given no opportunity to involve
310 BuildingMaintenance

themselves responsibly in the decisions affecting their environment. They have

little or no say in the choice of colour schemes, in the timing and frequency of
repairs, and in the design, provision and management of amenities. London ten-
ants believed they were the recipients of decreasing services through the with-
drawal of residential caretakers and substitution of mobile arrangements,
reduced rent collection facilities and difference in level of service provided be-
tween older and newer estates. They complained about the delays in carrying out
repairs, the amount of chasing needed to obtain action and the extent of bad
workmanship.
Fox34 has attempted to identify some of the main needs associated with hous-
ing maintenance.
( 1) All repairs, except those resulting from deliberate maltreatment by the
tenant, should ideally be the responsibility of the housing authority. Most non-
urgent repairs can wait for execution under a planned maintenance cycle if the
delay does not exceed one year and this is explained to the tenants so that they
can make temporary arrangements or even do it themselves.
(2) Many housewives go out to work and access can often be obtained only
by appointment.
(3) More time should be devoted to routine inspections to ensure that at-
tention is paid to repairs not reponed by tenants. One approach is to use mobile
gangs of mixed trades, with foremen more concerned with inspection, manage-
ment and tenant relations than with supervision of tradesmen, on the assumption
that operatives have adequate incentives through bonuses as described later in
the chapter.
(4) It is advisable to determine common acceptable standards of mainten-
ance as guidelines for housing authorities. Costs of direct labour forces and con-
tractors' prices for similar work should be compared to provide comparative
yardsticks for efficiency.
(S) More use could be made oflocal authority consortia to obtain bulk quo-
tations for materials for housing maintenance.
(6) Tenants should be encouraged to take more interest in the maintenance
of their dwellings, and in some areas tenants' associations could be consulted
more frequently so that they could for instance help to decide priorities of expen-
diture, treatment of common areas and colour schemes.

Costing and Accounts

The clerical and accounting processes supporting a direct labour organisation
can be simplified and accelerated by the use of the computer. Staff records can be
filed and quickly retrieved, time sheets can be processed to produce wage make-
ups and salary cheques, stores accounting and ordering can be programmed so
that stocks are recorded and checked and materials and components ordered at
pre-set levels, and the cost of labour and materials can be coded and charged
against budgets for control purposes. Time sheets for plant and transport can be
recorded, costed and charged to budgets and running times and travel distances
recorded against planned maintenance schedules. 35
Where work is carried out by contractors, it may be the subject of a daywork
 Execution ofMaintenance Work 311

order with the account rendered on a time and material basis with percentage ad-
ditions for overheads and profit; the certified account could be checked by the
computer for arithmetical accuracy and payment made direct to the contractor's
account. Alternatively it may be by order describing the work, with the account
settled on the basis of measurement against an agreed schedule of prices or by
lump sum offer based on specification or bill of quantities and drawings, from
selected tenderers; the account and measurements could be cenified and priced
against the contractor's agreed schedule of prices to provide payment or the
account certified and checked for arithmetical accuracy by the computer. 35
Contractors will decide the costing system that best suits their needs and which
gives up-to-date information quickly. The basic cost elements of maintenance
work are as follows
( 1) labour costs: from weekly time sheets;
(2) material costs: from merchants' invoices and stock issues from yard on
costing dockets;
(3) transpon costs: from drivers' log sheets or time sheets;
(4) expenses: from claims and petty cash vouchers;
(5) fees or charges: such as water and district surveyor (GLC);
(6) plant costs: from hire charges or internal costs. 31

Tools and Plant

The maintenance contractor or department needs to have the use of appropriate
power tools and plant, the range of which has increased extensively in recent
years. The contractor has to decide whether to purchase outright or to hire the
plant and there is generally a case for both approaches. Ideally the most regularly
used items should be purchased and less popular items hired, but having regard
to finance, and storage and maintenance facilities. Plant must be used effectively
and reasonably frequently to be viable.
Carrying out maintenance and jobbing work inevitably means a considerable
amount of travelling from one job to another, also more materials have to be col-
lected from stores or merchants' stocks because of the need to secure prompt
delivery on site. It is not always possible to predict precisely all material require-
ments until work is exposed, opened up or inspected. For instance, the repair of a
leaking drain may require bends or other fittings which have to be collected as
required. 31
Light vans and pick-up trucks are very popular with maintenance contractors.
It is generally more convenient to have a large number of small vehicles rather
than a smaller number of large ones. Small vehicles have various advantages
such as ease of handling in confined spaces and ability to load and unload on
domestic drives. 31
Maintenance and cleaning contractors may now be faced with maintenance
and cleaning of buildings at different angles and at heights of 30m or more. One
useful item of equipment is a hydraulic platform to lift men and tools to overhead
working positions for cleaning and renovating buildings, for lighting mainten-
ance, painting, welding, property repairs and general overhead maintenance
work. An alternative is multiple staging towers, based on a scaffolding principle
312 BuildingMaintenance

but far less costly and involving less trouble and time in erection. There are many
companies offering plant hire facilities but special care is needed in selecting the
best type of plant for the panicular job. 36

Ordering Materials and Stock Control

Maintenance operatives need to be backed by a steady flow of materials and com-
ponents of the right type and at the right time, as waiting time is expensive. Most
building maintenance depanments have at least one small store to hold those
items that are in frequent demand or difficult to obtain at shon notice. A number
of fundamental questions have to be answered.
(1) What items should be kept in store and in what quantity?
(2) At what level should they be re-ordered and in what quantities?
(3) How to balance the discounts available for bulk purchase against the
cost of storage?
(4) Should stores be kept in sub-depots or a central depot?
(5) Which items could be more economically delivered direct to site by sup-
pliers?
Operational research has provided a methodology for tackling these questions
which can lead to significant reductions in purchasing costs and store holdings. 6
Where stores are held against issue it is imponant that satisfactory storage ar-
rangements are provided to prevent the deterioration of stock, which could offset
the savings accruing from bulk purchases. Ironmongery, mastics, emulsions, fire
pans and many other materials and components deteriorate rapidly and may
become unusable if stored in damp premises. Cement and plasters should be
rotated so that old stock is used before new. It is also imponant to employ a com-
petent storekeeper of high integrity. with a good knowledge of building
materials, their worth and how they should be handled and stored, and the
ability to keep accurate and neat records. 37
When operatives require materials from the stores, a stores requisition is nor-
mally completed listing the job reference. This requisition will desirably have the
workman's signature for receiving the materials, a supervisor's signature author-
ising the use of the materials, and the storekeeper's signature covering their issue.
These forms will pass to the treasurer's depanment or other appropriate section
for costing together with completed time sheets. Where materials have been allo-
cated to a job and not used they can be returned to stock and a credit note issued
to ensure that stock records are correct. 37
It is advisable to keep a catalogue of the stores with each item allocated a code
number. The catalogue should ideally be subdivided into categories of stores
items for ease of reference and to assist in planning the stores layout. It is also
advisable to stipulate the maximum and minimum stock level for each item, to-
gether with the current unit price. The computer can print out at prescribed
intervals, a list of items which do not conform to the stipulated stock levels.
Annually or at other suitable times a complete inventory of stores can be printed,
giving the average unit price per item based on invoices of the preceding year, the
quantity of each item in stock, the monetary value of stock per item, and the total
monetary value of stock. As an additional aid to stock control, attention can be
 Execution ofMaintenance Work 313

drawn to those items which have remained unchanged throughout the year. 3s
The purchasing of materials and components entails investigating and select-
ing sources of supply, obtaining quotations and placing orders, interviewing
merchants and suppliers' representatives, keeping catalogues and other trade
literature suitably indexed and being familiar with market conditions and trends.
On delivery of materials, the delivery note should be checked against the original
quotation for price and the quantity and quality of materials checked before the
delivery note is signed. The materials should be recorded in a stock book or on a
tally card and delivery notes cross referenced to the order number. Invoice par-
ticulars are often recorded in a purchases day book with the costs of materials
entered on cost sheets, and the invoices filed for future reference.

Programming and Progressing Maintenance Work

To maintain regular progress of building maintenance work, a progress chart
should be prepared before the work is commenced. The availability of men, ma-
terials and plant are the key factors in determining the time required to complete
the work. The first step is to determine the various operations involved and
which are to be performed by the contractor and which by subcontractors. The
estimated time required for each operation is then logged on the chart in the se-
quence in which it will be carried out on site, commencing with such items as
excavating for and concreting foundations which must be completed before the
walling can proceed. Storage capacity on the site may affect the speed at which
the work can be carried out. The contractor must then consult with any nomin-
ated subcontractors to ensure that they can work to the programme. The pro-
gress chart is used throughout the contract to record the actual progress and any
variations require discussion and adjustment oflabour and materials to bring the
work back on to target.
One commonly used method for planning and controlling building work is the
critical path method by which analysis of the operations is recorded in a diagram-
matic form enabling each fundamental problem to be investigated separately. It
employs a network to show the jobs (activities) to be done and their interrelation-
ship. From the statement provided by this diagrammatic method and the esti-
mates of times taken to do individual jobs, it calculates the duration of the
project, the critical path (that sequence of jobs which defines project duration)
and the float (or permissible delay) for non-critical jobs. A schedule or pro-
gramme for the whole project is thus devised. 39
Its primary advantages are as follows.
( 1) It separates planning the sequence of jobs from scheduling times for the
jobs.
(2) It shows the interrelationship of jobs and enables people to see not only
the overall plan but also the ways in which their own activities depend upon, or
influence, those of others.
(3) By setting out the complete plan it is easier to assess its soundness and
so prevent unrealistic or superficial planning.
(4) The effect on the project of alternative methods or individual job times
can be examined at the outset.
314 Building Maintenance

(5) The total requirements of manpower and plant can be readily calcu-
lated.
(6) If the completion date has to be advanced, attention can be concen-
trated on speeding up the relatively few critical jobs and avoiding wasting money
on accelerating non-critical jobs.
(7) Schedules may be based on consideration of costs so as to complete pro-
jects in a given time at minimum expense.

Training for Maintenance

The knowledge and skills required for maintenance could form additional
modules to the basic training already received or about to be received in new
work. The nature and scope of this training will vary between the professions,
management, supervisors, crafts and less skilled operatives.
The professions, managers and supervisors concerned with new construction
need to understand the effect of their activities upon the life and use of the work
they produce. Operatives should appreciate the effect of sub-standard work on
maintenance costs, while those concerned wholly or mainly with maintenance
work should have a detailed understanding of these aspects. 40

The Construction Industry Training Board

This Board was set up under the Industrial Training Act 1964 and is the Board
primarily responsible for training in the building maintenance field. Industrial
training boards have three main objectives
(1)' to secure an adequate supply of properly trained persons at all levels;
(2) to secure an improvement in the quality and efficiency of industrial
training;
(3) to share the cost of training more evenly between firms.
A Board can provide its own training courses or arrange for other organisa-
tions to provide training. It imposes a periodic levy on employers within the scope
of the Board to raise funds, from which it makes grants to those employers whose
training programmes meet the standards set by the Board.
The Construction Industry Training Board (CITB) recognised the import-
ance of effective training arrangements covering the work of building mainten-
ance and can influence this through the grant system. More directly it provides
courses for operatives in various trades related to maintenance and repair work,
as well as courses for supervisors and training courses in general management.
The trade courses cover craft skills in maintenance work, recording and measure-
ment of work, awareness of the costs of minor works, setting out, recognition of
faults and elements of public relations. Unfortunately the professions in the
design team are outside the scope ofCITB, although they include a large number
of potential recruits for maintenance management courses, which are particu-
larly aimed at eliminating some of the avoidable defects in the maintenance
 Execution ofMaintenance Work 315

system. 41

Training ofManagers
Most of the degree courses in building and related subjects in universities, poly-
technics and other colleges in 1970 devoted less than 5 per cent of the timetable to
building maintenance. There is however an increasing awareness of the import-
ance of this subject among educational establishments and the number of re-
search projects in this area is increasing. 42 Oakley4 3 has emphasised the need for
adequate study of management aspects including maintenance control, oper-
ational research, management techniques, marketing of maintenance services,
labour relations and control of human resources and maintenance standards.
The greater use of building surveyors would lead to more effective building
maintenance, and this entails attracting well trained persons of the same level of
ability as in the other building industry professions, with identifiable promotion
prospects based on qualifications, ability and experience. Apart from adequate
salary, the building surveyor engaged on building maintenance should obtain
substantial job satisfaction by feeling that he is part of a team of professionals
doing a constructive and worthwhile job.
Student designers ideally should be made fully aware of the effect of design
and material failures and of the practical considerations of their work. They
should also become familiar with data recovery and analysis procedures and thus
know where to obtain the appropriate information within a reasonable time
scale. 44

Training of Supervisors
The generally accepted minimum qualifications for supervisors are a Higher
National Certificate (HNC) or a Higher National Diploma (HND) in Building
or Construction.42 The part time HNC is more appropriate for experienced men
in post, while the HND caters for the bright, younger man who wishes to advance
to a position of responsibility. There will be some building maintenance super-
visors of long experience who will be unable or unwilling to attend an HNC
course and for these persons short residential courses might be appropriate. Ban-
ister4' has suggested the inclusion of work study, safety and legal aspects of build-
ing work, cost control and labour relations in such courses. In due course
national certificates and diplomas will be superseded by Technician Education
Council qualifications.

Training of Operatives
There is a shortage of genuine maintenance craft operatives. The absence of the
stresses and incentives of new construction tends to attract the older or unskilled
worker who is prepared to accept lower remuneration in return for a slower rate
ofwork. 42
The aim of maintenance contractors and organisations should be to attract
men who have a high standard of skill, even higher than that required for men on
new work. Many of them have to be capable of covering both old and new work
316 BuildingMaintenance
and thus need to be adaptable and discerning, to know what to do and when to
seek advice or instructions. They must be convinced that their work is as essential
as new construction, take pride in producing a high standard of work, master the
use of new materials and techniques and be keen to use tools and plant where
practicable. 46
A large proportion of maintenance work calls for operatives who are skilled in
the traditional trades and this situation is bound to continue. At the same time
there are many operatives who are skilled in more than one trade and generally
concentrate on one particular class of maintenance work. Maintenance costs can
be reduced by increasing the number of maintenance operatives skilled in more
than one craft such as bricklayer-mason-tiler, carpenter-joiner, painter-glazier-
plasterer and other combinations. This type of operative is particularly valuable
on the smaller maintenance jobs. No building owner wants a job held up period-
ically waiting for various craft operatives to arrive, nor do operatives themselves
wish to see their work delayed for a task which they know they are competent to
do themselves. Hence the maintenance sector should be viewed in a different way
from new work when considering the labour aspect. 46 Indeed it is virtually im-
possible to organise maintenance work effectively if hard and fast demarcation
lines are applied. 47
Training arrangements for operatives normally follow one of three patterns.
(1) Boys on pre-apprenticeship and full time courses followed by appren-
ticeship to a craft or modifications of this arrangement.
(2) Training of young tradesmen to improve skills and prepare for respon-
sibility.
(3) Training of older men in specialist subjects and use of new materials
and techniques. 46
With pre-apprenticeship schemes, maintenance contractors and organisations
receive reports from building schools or technical colleges and thus have a good
indication of the boy's potential. Apprentices should be placed in the care of
good, well experienced craftsmen, be permitted to attend day release courses
and encouraged to sit their craft examinations. Block release and day release
courses result in more men being absent from jobs, but this is a problem
which the contractor or maintenance manager must solve and it also requires
acknowledgement by the building owner. Younger craftsmen engaged in
maintenance work should also be encouraged to learn from the more experi-
enced men. 48

Maintenance Incentive Schemes

ObjectifJes, Scope and Requirements ofSchemes
The aim of a local authority when introducing an incentive scheme is to
obtain maximum value for money from its maintenance or, expressed in
another way, to achieve maximum efficiency in maintenance. The contrac-
tor's aim is to make a profit while the building owner wants to keep cost
down to a minimum, so there may be some conflict in the aims of the latter
two individuals. 49
 Execution ofMaintenance Work 317

An incentive scheme may be defined as a means of relating a worker's re-

muneration to his performance; the employer will benefit from increased pro-
ductivity and the employee will gain from higher wages provided that he is
prepared to work consistently.
The following principles should be observed when formulating an incentive
scheme.
(1) The scheme must be fair to all parties.
(2) The bonus earned should be closely related to the effort expended.
(3) The standard of performance required to secure bonus payment must
be realistic and attainable by the average operative.
(4) Bonuses should not be affected by matters outside the operative's con-
trol.
(5) Bonus payments should be made as soon as possible after the work has
been performed.
(6) The scheme must be relatively permanent-withdrawing a scheme be-
cause of temporary adverse economic conditions is damaging to industrial re-
lations.
(7) Operatives should be able to calculate their own bonuses.
(8) The scheme must be approved by trade unions, operatives and super-
visors.
(9) There must be a suitable grievance procedure.
A number of criticisms have been levelled at incentive schemes, which are now
listed, but most of them can be avoided in practice with well designed schemes.
(1) The employer is involved in additional work and costs in formulating,
introducing and operating the scheme.
(2) Bad feeling may be generated in an indirect work force if the direct
labour operatives are constantly receiving a high bonus.
(3) Unsatisfactory schemes cannot be lightly withdrawn because of the ini-
tial costs incurred and the bad feeling which would result among operatives.
(4) Disputes may arise which could lead to strikes.
(5) Some operatives may devote their efforts to exploiting loopholes in the
scheme.
(6) Not all forms of maintenance work lend themselves to incentive
schemes.
(7) The quality of work may suffer unless there is extensive supervision
and/or inspection of the work.

Methods ofAssessment ofBonus

A number of methods have been used.
( 1) Expenditure or cost of work done, based on the cost of wages, materials
and overheads as compared with estimates. This is not a satisfactory method be-
cause of the variations in approach but it is important as a measure of the success
of schemes.
(2) Materials used as a measure of work done, but this also introduces a
number of variables which make for difficulties in assessment.
318 Building Maintenance
(3) Orders performed-the least reliable method due to variations in the
scope and content of orders.
(4) Standard times-based on work study or records of previous jobs.
Work study provides the most common approach and consists ofbreaking down a
job into elements and computing average times for each element or activity. A
standard time for any job is obtained by totalling the times for the various ele-
ments. For example an item of replacing a cistern could be broken down into (a)
inspect cistern, (b) disconnect and remove cistern and (c) install and connect new
cistern. Allowance will also have to be made for travelling between jobs and for
ordering and collecting materials, together with possibly a pre-investigation al-
lowance.49
The alternative historical method is simpler but involves some loss of accuracy
depending on the care with which the time sheets have been compiled. The stan-
dard times approach is generally the most satisfactory method but the standard
times must be very carefully computed; high values are to the employer's disad-
vantage and low values will bring complaints from the work force. The system
must be simple and readily understood, adopting targets that are small, easily
identifiable by the operative and agreed before work is commenced. The ad-
ditional sums payable to operatives are based on a percentage of the time savings
against standard times, the percentage credited to the operative is often about 75
per cent with the remaining 25 per cent going to meet the cost of implementing
the scheme. The number of operatives in a gang working for bonus should be
kept as small as possible, and operatives should have the opportunity to increase
wages by 25 to 35 per cent. 50

Incentive Schemes for Small Builders

A government survey51 was unable to recommend a single scheme for general use
as they must be tailored to suit the requirements of individual firms. Targeting
based on estimator's prices, particularly where analytical estimating is practised,
is recommended for all priced work, carefully checked and closely linked with a
system of control oflabour and profitability. Records should be retained to build
up a library of standard data for future use of both estimating and targeting
purposes.
A system of immediate profit sharing where profits are calculated and shares
paid out on completion of each job is worthy of consideration by firms employ-
ing not more than about ten men. This approach is unlikely to be suitable for
daywork.
A more recent government report 52 shows that small firms can operate suc-
cessful incentive schemes giving benefit to management sufficient to allow the
whole of the savings in man-hours and profits from increased production to be
passed on to operatives. The chief gains to management accrue from savings in
oncosts; better control of labour, materials and transport; improved feedback of
production information (leading to speedier and more accurate invoices to the
client and better estimating for future jobs); and stability oflabour through in-
creased earnings without inflationary consequences. Other benefits to manage-
ment consist of improved accounting procedures introduced in conjunction with
 Execution ofMaintenance Work 319

the incentive scheme; closer control of cost and better information on cash flow
and profitability.
Tredwell53 has outlined some other advantages gained by contractors intro-
ducing incentive schemes for building maintenance work. The labour force
becomes much more efficient, thus reducing wasted time, utilising the full work-
ing hours, requesting instructions instead of waiting; planning and organising
their own work and thinking about and improving their own methods. The man-
agement gains from reduced labour oncosts and site oncosts, increased ratio of
materials to labour with increased profit, faster turnover of capital and general
overheads spread over greater volume of work. In addition management can see
the productivity level of gangs or individuals and knows with greater certainty
the time required for jobs and so is able to plan future jobs with greater confi-
dence.

Incentive Schemes in Operation

Edmunds54 has described the operation of an incentive scheme to a direct labour
building maintenance force employed by the Greater London Council. He out-
lined the need for full consultation with trade unions and operatives and the need
to give an assurance that there would be no redundancy. The clerical procedures
and stores systems were reviewed as part of the works study assignment. The
number of foremen was increased to give a ratio of one foreman to eighteen oper-
atives, and these were also paid bonus.
Target times based upon work study were established for the range of work
done, and bonus may be earned on all work for which target times have been set.
Target times are expressed in standard hours and include allowances for rest and
personal needs, minor interruptions and delays. Each operative completes a
record sheet showing how each day is spent, and when checked and signed by the
foreman the sheets are used to calculate bonus, which is paid 1 week in arrears. In
order to safeguard the health of the men and to maintain the quality of work, a
maximum bonus equivalent to a performance of 1.25 x standard times operates.
All time that is spent on unmeasured work or lost is excluded from the bonus
calculation and paid at the basic rate of pay.
The first responsibility for quality and safe methods of working lies with the
man or team. Bonus is not paid, nor is the operation of a bonus scheme accepted
as an excuse for substandard work or for unsafe working methods, for which
checks are made.
Mter 1 year's operation, the scheme showed an increase in productivity of 86
per cent, increase in operative's earnings of 27 per cent and a reduction in unit
labour cost of 37 per cent. Apart from these benefits the authority was able tore-
cruit and retain a better standard of operative, secure more economic use of ma-
terials, obtain a better standard of service, and receive a weekly statement of
performance presented against a prepared budget.

References
1 Department of the Environment, Building Maintenance: An Interim
Report (H.M.S.O., 1969).
320 Building Maintenance
2 G. G. Corder, Organising Maintenance (British Institute of Management,
1963).
3 B. A. Speight, 'Maintenance in Relation to Design', The Chartered Sur-
veyor (October 1968).
4 R. G. Howell, 'Making the Right Decision', Third National Building Main-
tenance Conference 1971 (H.M.S.O., 1972).
S P.M. Hillebrandt, Research report No. 10: Small Firms in the Construction
Industry (Committee oflnquiry on Small Firms, H.M.S.O., 1971).
6 Department of the Environment, Practice in Property Maintenance Man-
agement (H.M.S.O., 1970).
7 M. Hoppe, Millions Down the Drain (Aims oflndustry, 1971).
8 Institute of Municipal Treasurers and Accountants, Housing Maintenance
and Management Statistics 1968-9 (1970).
9 R. Exley, 'Featherbedding Trading Undertakings', Local Government
Chronicle (26 September 1970).
10 B. A. Speight, 'Formulating Maintenance Policy', The Chartered Surveyor
(April1970).
11 E. Bampton, 'Direct Labour or Contract?' Profitable Building Mainten-
ance Conference 1967, (Department of the Environment, H.M.S.O.,
1969).
12 L. Warren, 'Planned House Maintenance Saves GLC £1.Sm a Year', Build-
ing Maintenance (February 1974).
13 J. Edwards, 'A Public Works Department', Municipal Building Manage-
ment, vol. 2 (1974).
14 P. Griffith, 'A New Approach to the Control of Housing Maintenance
Work', Municipal Building Management, vol. 1 (1973).
1S K. H. Whitehead, 'The Management of Maintenance Services in Local
Government', Journal of Institution of Municipal Engineers, vol. 100
(April1973).
16 R. Lang, 'DLBO, London Borough of Barking', Municipal Building Man-
agement, vol. 2 (1974).
17 D. W. Humberstone, 'Mobile Workshops', Second National Building Main-
tenance Conference 1969 (Department of the Environment, H.M.S.O.,
1970).
18 D. Fox, 'Local Authority Housing Maintenance', Municipal Building Man-
agement, vol. 1 (1973).
19 B. P. Holloway, 'Considering Planned Maintenance', Fourth National
Building Maintenance Conference, Department of the Environ-
ment/Building Maintenance (1973).
20 H. E. Buteux, 'Maintenance of Scottish Special Housing Property', M unici-
palBuildingManagement, vol. 4 (1973).
21 H. Graham, 'Maintenance Standards-Local Authority Housing', M unici-
palBuilding Management, vol. 2 (1973).
22 R. F. Stevens, BRE Current Paper 55/74: Maintenance Standards and
Costs (Department of the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1974).
23 J. B. King, 'Planned Cleaning', Second National Building Maintenance
Conference (Department of the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1969).
24 Building Maintenance Cost Information Service, Occasional Paper No. 2: A
 Execution ofMaintenance Work 321
Local Authority (undated).
25 Local Government Operational Research Unit, Repon No. C 188: Evaluat-
ing Alternative Housing Maintenance Strategies (H.M.S.O., 1973).
26 K. E. Thurley, Case Study: an Appreciation of a Housing Maintenance
Planning System, (London School of Economics Management Research
Unit, 1972).
27 W. P. Ridgeway and I. M. Foster, 'Work Planning in House Maintenance',
Housing Review (May/June 1970).
28 Department of the Environment, Planned Maintenance and Operation of
Mechanical and Electrical Services (H.M.S.O., 1968).
29 H. M. Tweeddale, 'Management of Maintenance Costs', The Australian
Accountant (June 1973).
30 K. J. Pearce, 'The Maintenance ofBuildings',Building (17 June 1966).
31 M. N. Anhur, 'Ol'ganising Maintenance on a Small Scale', Second National
Building Maintenance Conference 1969 (Depanment of the Environment,
H.M.S.O., 1970).
32 K. Thurley and A. Richardson, 'Organisational Problems in Housing Main-
tenance',HousingReview (May/June 1972).
33 D. Savill,' Maintenance Standards-The Tenant's View', Municipal Build-
ing Management, vol. 1 (1973).
34 D. Fox, The Local Authority Housing Maintenance Service, (Department
of the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1972).
35 J. Hill, 'Computing for Maintenance', Building Maintenance (August
1970).
36 -'The Cost of a Put Up Job', Cleaning and Maintenance (October 1973).
37 C. Denton, 'Local Authority Housing Maintenance: Selecting and Ordering
Materials', Building Trades Journal (24 February 196 7).
38 E. Chicken, 'Modern Management Techniques in Hospital Engineering
Maintenance', Hospital Development (January/February 1973).
39 -Building Research Establishment Digest 53 (second series): CPM Ex-
plained (H.M.S.O., 1964).
40 S. M. Brown, 'Training for Maintenance, Repairs and Renovations in the
Construction Industry', Profitable Building Maintenance Conference
1967, (Department of the Environment, H.M.S.O., 1969).
41 B. B. Reid, 'Training for Maintenance Management', Second National
Building Maintenance Conference 1969, (Depanment of the Environment,
H.M.S.O., 1970).
42 Depanment of the Environment, Report of the Committee on Building
Maintenance, (H.M.S.O., 1972).
43 D. Oakley, 'Management and Education', Municipal Building Manage-
ment, vol. 2 (1972).
44 Department of the Environment, The Relationship between Design and
Building Maintenance (H.M.S.O., 1970).
45 R. F. H. Banister, 'The Relationship between Engineers and Building
Supervisors-Some Solutions', Hospital Building and Engineering
(November 1970).
46 K. J. Pearce, 'The Role of the Maintenance Contractor', Profitable Build-
ing Maintenance Conference 1967 (Depanment of the Environment,
322 Building Maintenance
H.M.S.O., 1969).
47 K. J. Gould, 'We Need a Different Class of Worker', Building Maintenance
(November/December 1973).
48 R. R. Orchard and C. C. Brownlie, 'The Maintenance of Buildings: the
Contractor's and Operative's Point of View', Building ( 19 August 1966).
49 Department of the Environment, An Introduction to Incentive Schemes in
Building Maintenance (H.M.S.O., 1969).
50 J. T. Butler, 'An Incentive for Men to Work',Master Builder, 18.2 (1973).
51 Department of the Environment, Incentive Schemes Applied to Building
Maintenance by Small Firms (H.M.S.O., 1969).
52 Department of the Environment, Incentive Schemes for Small Builders,
(H.M.S.O., 1974).
53 J. E. B. Tredwell, 'Incentives Applied to Minor Works and Jobbing', Build-
ing Trades Journal (10 July 1970).
54 A. H. Edmonds, 'Practical Experience of Incentives', Profitable Building
Maintenance Conference 1967, (Department of the Environment,
H.M.S.O., 1969).
14. SUPERVISION OF MAINTENANCE WORK

This final chapter is concerned with the supervision of maintenance work as exe-
cuted, to ensure that it is of a satisfactory standard and in accordance with the
drawings and specification. With the larger contracts it is customary to employ a
clerk of works who is constantly in touch with the job, but with smaller jobs
periodic supervision only can be obtained often through the medium of archi-
tects, surveyors, inspectors or other supervisory staff.

Clerk of Works
General Background
There are three main categories of clerks of works.
(1) Maintenance clerks of works who usually hold permanent posts and are
concerned with cathedrals, hospitals, local authority and government buildings.
(2) Estate clerks of works who are responsible for the upkeep of buildings,
fences, roads, water services, drainage and other related facilities on large
country estates.
(3) Clerks of works who are primarily concerned with new building work
and who are likely to move from one job to another as each is completed.
Most clerks of works are building craftsmen and preferably have served as trades
and general foremen. They must have an extensive practical knowledge of build-
ing materials, principles of construction and the execution of techniques in all
trades. They must be able to make basic calculations and take measurements, in-
terpret drawings and other contract documents, write concise letters, prepare
accurate and well presented technical reports and enjoy satisfactory relationships
with all the persons with whom they come in contact. In addition, clerks of works
must be thoroughly familiar with statutory building controls. They need a suit-
able office from which to work. A most useful handbook for clerks of works has
been issued by the Greater London Council. 14

Duties
The primary duty of a clerk of works is to ensure that all the materials and work-
manship are in accordance with the drawings, specification and any other rele-
vant documents. He must refrain from making exorbitant demands or altering
323
324 Building Maintenance
details or materials without the approval of the architect, surveyor or mainten-
ance manager to whom he is responsible. The method of carrying out the work is
the sole responsibility of the contractor, and the clerk of works should not under
any circumstances direct the contractor as to the method to be employed. Where
the clerk of works is dissatisfied with materials or workmanship, he should notify
the foreman in charge as early as possible, and in the event of no changes being
made, the architect or other responsible person should be notified, and he can
issue written instructions to the contractor.
The clerk of works can assist in the smooth operation of the contract by keep-
ing a diary or record of work undenaken by the main contractor and subcontrac-
tors, plant and principal materials delivered to the site, imponant activities,
actions and discussions, weather conditions, any loss of production, issue of
architect's instructions, site visitors and other relevant factors. He often takes
measurements in conjunction with the contractor's representative, of work such
as foundations and drains which will subsequently be covered up, and he may
check timesheets and lists of materials used on daywork and possibly setting out.
A typical extract from the diary of a clerk of works follows.
23 June Weather: mainly dry but two shon showers
Workforce 1S bricklayers, 8 carpenters, 4 plumbers, 2 plasterers, 2
scaffolders, 22 labourers. Newtown Flooring Company
(4)
Materials 4 t cement
8m3 sand
12m3 19 mm aggregate
8000 Himley mixed russets
30 metal casements
Visitors Mr Johnson (architect)
Mr Palmer (Newtown Flooring Company)
Drawings received CE/BH1 and CE/BH2
(boiler house details)
Architect's Foundations to Block D to be stepped.
instructions Eaves overhang on Block C to be increased from 2SO to
300mm
Reports Weekly repon 23 (16-23 June) given to Mr Johnson
Block A-PVC flooring laid in rooms 24, 28, 29 and 30
Settingwallsinrooms 1S, 16, 18, 19,22 and 23.
Fixing of door linings
Block B-Roof construction in progress. Service pipe
installation commenced in toilets
Block C-Second lift of brickwork to nonh and east
walls. Brickwork up to d.p.c. in annexe
Block D-Excavation for foundations commenced
Drainage Excavation for main drain discontinued due
to groundwater entering trench
 Supervision ofMaintenance Work 325

Reports
The clerk of works will also prepare repons for consideration by the architect or
other responsible person and these are of three main types-weekly, periodic and
special.

Weekly reports keep the architect fully informed on progress and other rele-
vant matters and may include such aspects as number of men in each trade
employed on site, approximate value of work done during the week, weather con-
ditions, amount of rejected material (if any), general remarks on progress of
work and whether work by subcontractors is on target, deliveries of materials
and whether these are on schedule, and drawings received and required. Progress
of work may be indicated on duplicated plans, possibly by colour with appro-
priate dimensions added. On large jobs, photographs provide useful records of
progress. The clerk of works should retain a copy of each repon on his files.

Periodic reports may be prepared immediately prior to the time when cenifi-
cates will be issued by the architect authorising interim payments to the contrac-
tor. The repon contains details of the work carried out since the previous
cenificate was issued and also lists the materials on site. Where there is no quan-
tity surveyor, the clerk of works may assess the approximate value of the work
done and materials supplied, including additional work and daywork.

Special reports may be prepared from time to time to draw the architect's at-
tention to matters requiring his decision. They could for instance cover the sub-
stitution of unobtainable materials or components, or deal with delays in the
execution of critical items or the failure by the contractor to carry out architect's
instructions.

Site Meetings
Site meetings will be held regularly on larger jobs and are generally convened by
the architect or other person responsible for the supervision of the work. The
main objective is to ensure that satisfactory progress is maintained and to provide
the opportunity for clearing outstanding points. It is imponant that all panies
directly involved are represented including subcontractors.

SettinaOut
Under the normal terms of contract, the contractor is responsible for setting out
the work and is liable for rectifying any mistakes. The clerk of works often checks
the setting out although he cannot be held liable for verifying incorrect setting
out. It is, for instance, vital that frontage lines shall be determined correctly.
They may be prescribed in relation to adjacent or opposite buildings, the road
kerb and on large and open sites, the centre of a road, fence or hedge. The fron-
tage line should be adequately pegged and agreement obtained from all interested
panies. Once the frontage line is fixed, the clerk of works or other supervisory
326 Building Maintenance

person should satisfy himself that suitable and accurate methods are being
employed to set out the remainder of the work.
The positions of walls are normally established with profiles 1 where there is
sufficient space, otherwise marks or incisions on abutting walls or other suitable
method will be used. With sloping sites it is imponant that all measurements are
taken horizontally, preferably with steel tapes. The setting out of a steel-framed
building requires extreme accuracy as the stanchions and beams are cut to
lengths at the fabricator's works, and any error in setting out can involve
expensive alterations on site. It is usual to erect continuous profiles around the
building and to set out the column spacings along them. Wires stretched between
the profiles will give the centres of stanchions around which templets are
formed. 2
When laying drains, painted sight rails should preferably be fixed across the
trench, usually at manholes or inspection chambers, at a height equal to the
length of the boning rod above the inven level of the drain. A line sighted across
the tops of the two adjacent sight rails will represent the gradient of the drain at a
fixed height above inven level. At any one time there should desirably be at least
three sight rails erected on the length of drain under construction.
Wooden pegs or steel pins are driven into the trench bottom at intervals of at
least 900 mm less than the length of the straight-edge in use. The use of a boning
rod will enable each peg or pin to be driven until its head represents the pipe
inven at that point. The underside of the straight-edge resting on the tops of the
pegs or pins will give the levels and gradient of the pipe. The pegs or pins are
withdrawn as the pipes are laid. To obtain a true line in a horizontal plane, a side
line is strung tightly between steel pins at half pipe level, with the pipe sockets
just free of the side line. Pins will normally be located at each manhole or inspec-
tion chamber, but intermediate pins will also be needed on very long lengths. 2
The correct determination of levels for foundation concrete, floors and other
features is as imponant as securing the correct lines and positions. A datum of
some kind must be established from which all heights can be determined. It may
be an arbitrary level such as a manhole cover or a specific, suitably marked, point
on a kerb, wall or other feature. In the case of an open site, the datum point may
consist of a wooden peg or steel pin set in conr.rete. Alternatively a datum of
known level may be established related to the nearest Ordnance bench mark,
w.hen it is often referred to as a temporary bench mark. Levels are transferred
from the datum point to the panicular location on site by a dumpy or precise level
and levelling staff, or by the use of a straight-edge and pegs.

Supervision of Building Work

Adequate supervision of new construction and of alteration and repair work is
needed to ensure that the materials and workmanship comply with the contract
paniculars and relevant statutory requirements. In the absence of such super-
vision, inferior materials, poor workmanship and the omission of imponant
details can occur resulting in subsequent trouble and expense to the building
owner. 15 The remainder of this chapter is concerned with the supervision of
 Supervision ofMaintenance Work 327

building work and is subdivided into the appropriate works sections.

Demolition Work
It is generally necessary to give the local authority notice of intention to demolish
buildings and for the demolition work to be under the supervision of a competent
person who is experienced in the type of demolition work which is to be under-
taken. The local authority may require any of the following works to be carried
out.
(1) Shore up adjacent buildings.
(2) Weatherproof any surfaces of an adjacent building which are exposed
by the demolition.
(3) Remove material or rubbish resulting from the demolition and clear-
ance of the site.
(4) Disconnect and seal at specified points any sewer, drain or water pipe in
or under the building to be demolished.
(5) Remove any such sewer, drain or water pipe, and seal any sewer, drain
or water pipe with which the sewer, drain or pipe to be removed is connected.
(6) Make good to the satisfaction of the local authority the surface of the
ground disturbed by the preceding operations.
Safety aspects must be fully considered and adequate precautions taken.
Before and during demolition work, all electrical services must be disconnected
from the main supply, and only apparatus used for the demolition may be electri-
cally charged. A thorough investigation should precede the demolition work to
ensure that there can be no risk of fire or explosion through leakage or accumu-
lation of gas or vapour, and no possibility of flooding from water mains, sewers or
culverts.
If the building to be demolished adjoins the public highway, adequate close
boarded hoardings to the approval of the local authority are required. Hoardings
must be painted white for ease of observation and be free from sharp comers or
projections which could be a nuisance to pedestrians. Each end of a hoarding
should desirably be fixed at an angle from the wall to the front face of the projec-
tion. Adequate lighting should be provided during the hours of darkness at each
end of the hoarding and along its length. Attention should also be given to the
special needs of blind persons.
Where space is very restricted, it may be necessary to erect gantries, which are
also subject to local authority control. A gantry is a temporary elevated working
platform at about first floor level over a public footpath, on which materials may
be received and from which rubble and surplus materials may be removed. They
must be properly designed to support the loads which they will have to carry and
to prevent danger or nuisance to the public from falling materials, dust or water.
They can be constructed of timber, steel or a combination of them, with a mini-
mum headroom over the footpath of 2.40 m and with the front of the gantry at
least 450 mm back from the kerb face. Gantries require lighting at night and ver-
tical members should be painted white for at least 1.50 m above ground.
When demolishing buildings no floor, roof or other part of the building shall
be overloaded with debris or other material. Before and during demolition, the
328 Building Maintenance
building to be demolished and adjoining buildings must be carefully observed
and shoring of one or more of the forms described in chapter 2 should be erected
at the first sign of weakness. The demolition work must be carried out meth-
odically and special precautions are needed where the cutting of reinforced con-
crete, steelwork or ironwork forming part of the structure may suddenly twist,
spring or collapse on completion of the cutting operation. Reinforced concrete
buildings need special consideration with demolition commencing on the upper
ftoors, thereby reducing the loads on columns as work progresses.

Excawtion
All vegetable soil must be removed from the area to be occupied by the building,
and stored ready for re-use. Trenches must not be excavated deeper than neces-
sary to ensure firm trench bottoms for receipt of foundations and pipes. The
widths of trenches need checking to ensure adequate spread of foundations.
Trenches must be kept clear of water and backfilling carried out uniformly and
effectively on both sides of walls in shallow layers.
The safety of excavations is very important. Where the sides of excavations re-
quire temporary support, to prevent the risk of earth or other material falling
into the excavation with consequent danger to workmen and others on the site,
adequate timbering or other support must be provided by suitably skilled per-
sons. The supports should be inspected once every seven days by a competent
person to ensure that they are in good condition and free from movement. These
inspections should be duly recorded in a register kept in the site office.
The supporting material must be free of projecting nails which could be
dangerous to persons on the site. Materials must not be deposited or stored near
the edges of excavations where they could cause collapse of the side of the excava-
tion with resultant dangers. Where the work may affect the stability of adjoining
property, adequate precautionary measures must be taken. Any explosives used
for excavation work must be under the control of a competent and experienced
person. When a charge is fired, it is essential that no-one is exposed to risk of
injury. The police must be informed that explosives are stored on the site and of
the purpose for which they will be used.

Concrete Work
The foundations of a building are generally considered to be the most import-
ant part of the construction of a building and every possible care must be taken
in the inspection of foundation work and the concrete used in foundations. The
difficulty and expense in making good defects caused by settlement are ad-
equate reasons for ensuring that the foundations are in all respects satisfactory.
The effect of different ground conditions on foundation design is described in
chapter 2 and particular attention must be paid to made-up ground, ground
subject to mining subsidence, underlying caves, proximity of trees, sloping clay
sites and unequal loading.
Where small quantities of concrete are mixed by hand, the cement must be
evenly distributed throughout the aggregate. Pulling a long pronged rake
through the heap before mixing helps considerably. The wet mixing must be
 Supervision ofMaintenance Work 329

carried out on a platform or other hard, clean surface. The amount of water
added is influenced by the temperature and humidity of the atmosphere and the
nature and absorptivity of the receiving point. A good consistency is obtained
when a handful of concrete, pressed tight, sticks together and does not crumble or
flow.
With machine mixing, the water content should be measured in the mixer
tank, and the ingredients should be mixed to a uniform consistency. When the
drum is discharged, the first barrow load is coarser than the remainder with the
heavier particles gravitating to the bottom. This is particularly relevant when the
concrete is destined for comparatively thin slabs around steel reinforcement, and
some hand mixing after depositing may be needed. After mixing, the concrete
should be deposited without delay and not dropped uncontrolled through a
height exceeding 1 m.
The cement and aggregates must be correctly gauged to give the specified mix.
Gauge box sizes must be checked, and boxes kept clean and filled level when in
use. The sizes of gauge boxes for aggregates are normally based on multiples
which relate to a SO kg bag of cement, but must not be so large and heavy that op-
eratives avoid using them.
When the laying of concrete in foundations finishes part way along a trench at
the end of a day, the end of the concrete should be left rough and inclined as a key
for the next day's work. Before concrete is placed between formwork, the form-
work should be checked as to dimensions, levels and strength. Formwork to
beams should be so secured that it will not move under pressure from the concrete
and a slight camber of about 1/360 span is customary. The side forms are usually
removed after two or three days but a longer period is required for soffits of
beams, depending upon such factors as the loading and the time of year. If a fair
face is required to the concrete, the formwork must be treated so that the con-
crete comes away clean. All formwork must be clean before use.
Concrete in beams must be laid continuously between supports with any
breaks over columns or walls. Where new work is joined to old the joint must be
hacked, brushed clean, wetted and given a coat of grout. Concrete in walls must
be spread in thin layers and be well tamped or vibrated. Concrete in casings to
steelwork should be kept reasonably wet and be well vibrated. Expansion joints
should be provided in large areas of concrete.
Bar sizes, shapes and positions will normally be shown on bar schedules and
the bars in position need checking to ensure that they are in accordance with the
schedule, that intersections are securely wired and that the distances of bars
from edges of members comply with the drawings. After the bottom layer of con-
crete is laid and the bar reinforcement nearly covered, the bars should be lifted
slightly with a hook and shaken to ensure that a full bed of concrete is obtained
under the reinforcement. Temporary fixings keep the bars in the correct pos-
itions.
Freshly laid exposed concrete must be adequately cured by covering with a
tent of plastic sheeting or waterproof paper to protect it from the sun and drying
winds for seven to ten days. Concrete should be at least 4 °C when placed and
should not fall below 2 °C until it has hardened. In cold weather special precau-
tions should be taken such as keeping aggregates and mixing plant under cover,
covering exposed concrete surfaces with insulating material, using a richer mix
330 Building Maintenance

of concrete and/or rapid hardening cement, heating water and aggregate, and
placing concrete quickly.
It is sometimes necessary to carry out site tests on materials to determine their
suitability. The following tests relating to cement and sand serve to illustrate the
approach.

Cement: (1) Examine to determine whether it is free from lumps and of a

flour-like consistency (free from dampness and reasonably fresh).
(2) Place hand in cement and if of blood heat then it is in satisfactory con-
dition.
(3) Settle with water as paste in a closed jar to see whether it will expand or
contract. 2

Sand: (1) Handle the sand; it should not stain hands excessively, ball readily
or be deficient in coarse or fine particles.
(2) Use a standard sieve test-if more than 20 per cent is retained on a
1.25 mm sieve, it is unsuitable for use.
(3) Apply a silt or organic test-a jar half filled with sand and made up to
three-quarters mark with water; shake vigorously and leave for three hours; the
amount of silt on top of sand is then measured and this should not exceed six per
cent. 3
Coarse aggregates for concrete are normally required to comply with the grad-
ing requirements ofBS 8824 and these require checking to ensure a well balanced
mix. The maximum size of coarse aggregate is determined by the class of work;
rarely exceeding 20 mm for reinforced concrete but increasing up to 40 mm for
foundations and mass concrete work. 2
Concrete strengths are influenced by a number of factors
( 1) proponion and type of cement;
(2) type, proponions, gradings and quality of aggregates;
(3) water content;
(4) method and adequacy of hatching, mixing, transponing, placing, com-
pacting and curing the concrete. 2
Concrete mixes can be specified by the volume or weight of the constituent ma-
terials or by the minimum strength of the concrete; the latter approach being
advocated in CP 110.5 The water/cement ratio is a most imponant factor in con-
crete quality. A common but rather imprecise test for measuring the workability
of concrete is the slump test using a 300 mm high open-ended metal cone which is
filled with four consolidated layers of concrete, the cone lifted and the slump or
drop of the concrete measured (20 mm for vibrated mass concrete to 130 mm for
heavily reinforced non-vibrated concrete). 2 For greater accuracy the compacting
factor test should be used. 6

Brickwork
The bricks should conform to the sample deposited with and approved by the
architect or other responsible person. Rough checks for suitability on the site in-
clude striking two bricks together and the resultant sound on impact should be
 Supervision ofMaintenance Work 331

hard and clear, and certainly not dull. Good bricks should withstand transport to
the site without too many breakages. Arrises should be true and dimensions
within the generally accepted tolerances, otherwise the contractor may claim an
extra for sorting and gauging bricks. Lightness of colouring or a pink tinge indi-
cates underburning and is a serious fault as the discoloured bricks are likely to
disintegrate fairly rapidly if used externally and subjected to severe weather con-
ditions. 7 Overbumt bricks may detract from the appearance of facework as they
are likely to be misshapen.
In general the production and use of mortar on site is inadequately controlled.
Using modem workability aids or masonry cements, very weak mortars can
easily be produced and used. The Greater London Council8 instances the collapse
of some garden walls on one town development site resulting from a mortar gaug-
ingof1:16. Ifsulphates are present in the bricks or soil they dissolve in water and
attack Portland cement, forming calcium sulphoaluminate, resulting in expan-
sion of mortar and eventual disintegration. The remedy in this situation is to use
sulphate resisting cement or stronger mortar-1:3 or 1:4--and to avoid bricks
with a high sulphate content. The composition of mortar should be carefully con-
sidered and should ideally have a density as close as possible to the density of the
bricks. A good general purpose mortar is cement:lime:sand (1:1:5-6),
masonry-cement:sand (1:4!) or cement:sand with plasticiser (1:5-6). 9
There are many matters to observe when supervising bricklaying. Brickwork
must be laid to the specified bond, and quoins, piers and reveals should be
checked for plumb and brick courses laid to gauge. It is unsatisfactory for brick-
work to gain for one scaffold height and then lose to obtain the right level at an
upper floor, producing uneven and untidy joints. Bricks with frogs should be laid
frog up with good bed and cross joints well flushed up with mortar.
Brickwork to both external and internal walls should be carried up at approxi-
mately the same rate, leaving indents for half-brick walls and chases for block
partitions. Quoins should be either racked back or part racked and toothed.
Bricks must be well wetted during hot weather and the top of newly con-
structed work suitably protected during frost or heavy rains. Defacement
through scaffold splash must be avoided. Brickwork should be suspended during
frosty weather, but where bricks and mortar are free from frost, work can com-
mence at the beginning of the day if the temperature is not below 2 °C. Special
precautions may be taken to permit bricklaying to proceed during temporary
frosts. An old bricklayer's saying is not without relevance--'when mortar har-
dens on the trowel, sets like beads on the line, and forms a crust on the mortar on
the board, then it is time to pack up and go home'.
Cavity walls need particularly close supervision as there is a tendency for
mortar droppings to bridge the cavity, lodge on wall ties and stand on d.p.c.
trays. Wall ties may slope inwards and be deficient in number. Waterproofing ar-
rangements around door and window openings need checking for soundness.
In the case of facings where a variation of colour is required it is usually advis-
able to use the bricks straight from the stack, provided this does not result in
patches of one colour on laying. Where the facework is to be separately pointed,
the joints should be raked out for a depth of at least 12 mm and care taken to
maintain an even colour of mortar for this work, by ordering sufficient sand for
this purpose. All perpends should be well filled and properly pointed, and putlog
332 Building Maintenance
holes solidly and neatly filled.
For underpinning, bricks must be hard and well soaked during hot weather,
and laid with solidly filled joints. Toothings shall be well formed for linking with
the adjoining sections of brickwork and must be kept clean. The pinning up pro-
cess deserves special attention and is normally executed by ramming in a 25 mm
layer of fairly dry cement mortar with a piece of board.
Damp-proof courses must be provided at the appropriate positions and be con-
tinuous. Damp courses in rolls should be adequately lapped at joints, be well
bedded and kept back 19 mm from the face of the wall to allow for pointing.
Most brickwork is laid from scaffolding which requires particular attention
from the safety aspect. The old wooden poles and putlogs have been largely
replaced by the more efficient steel or alloy tubes with patent scaffold fittings.
They must be maintained in sound condition and be inspected regularly.

Masonry
All stone should be free from cracks, vents and discoloration. For instance some
Portland stone shows a brownish tinge, limestones may contain dark spots and
sandstones may exhibit laminations and discoloured streaks. Sound stone nor-
mally gives a clear ring when tapped with a hammer.
All dowels, cramps and plugs should closely fit the sinkings in the stones and
where of iron should be galvanised or dipped in bitumen. Some stones, particu-
larly sandstones, need protecting after laying from wet weather. Masonry needs
checking to ensure that all stone members such as lintels have adequate bearings
and that they are worked to the required details. As a general rule stone needs to
be laid on its natural bed and be properly cleaned down on completion. Some
stones need treatment on their back faces to prevent surface staining by cement.
When using an unfamiliar stone, the supervisor is advised to visit existing build-
ings where the same type of stone has been used in similar conditions.

Roofing
Slates and tiles should be checked against approved samples. Plain clay tiles
should for instance be free from cracks and twists, be hard baked, have well-
formed nibs and nail holes and have the appropriate cambers. For random slat-
ing the slates are sorted using the largest and thickest at the bottom. Slates and
tiles to be nailed should be fixed with two nails to each slate or tile, and the nails
should have a high resistance to deterioration such as copper or aluminium.
The battens must be checked to ensure that the correct gauge is being main-
tained and that the required constructional details are being obtained at eaves,
ridges and verges, with particular attention being paid to watertightness. A check
should be made to ensure that soakers are fixed around chimney stacks and in
other appropriate locations.
Asphalt to flat roofs should be laid in two thicknesses with 150mm laps to a
finished thickness of not less than 19 mm. Care must be taken to ensure that the
asphalt is of the correct type and quality and is satisfactorily and evenly laid at
the appropriate temperature to suitable falls. Special care is needed at the junc-
tions of flat roofs with parapet walls to secure an effective and watertight joint.
 Supervision ofMaintenance Work 333

When using built-up bitumen felt roofing, it is essential to use three layers
bonded in hot bitumen for all except temporary buildings. Upstands and skir-
tings are best formed by turning up the second and top layers for a minimum
height of 150 mm over an angle fillet and they should preferably be masked by a
metal or semi-rigid asbestos/bitumen sheet (SRABS) flashing. A check should be
made to ensure that each layer of felt complies with the specification, that each is
smoothly and evenly laid to the required falls, and is free from cracks, holes or
other defects.
With copper, lead and zinc flat roofs it is important to check that the correct
quality and thickness of metal sheet is being used and that rolls and drips are
properly formed with adequate laps. A check should be made to ensure that the
sheeting is laid to even and adequate falls and that sheets are free to move on two
edges.
Gutters and downpipes must be checked to ensure that they are of the correct
sizes and properly jointed and fixed. It is not uncommon to see 2 m lengths of
gutter supported by one bracket per length instead of two. Cast iron downpipes
need fixing sufficiently clear of wall faces to permit painting of the backs of pipes.
Balloon gratings to gutter outlets are sometimes omitted despite being clearly
specified.
Thermal insulation to roofs needs checking to ensure that it is of the correct
thickness and properly laid to eliminate gaps and particularly to seal off
vulnerable eaves. Any cold water apparatus above the insulating layer must be
adequately protected.

Carpentry
Carpentry timber should be carefully examined to ensure that it is of satisfactory
quality, conforms to the specification and is of the required dimensions. Struc-
tural timber should be examined for its general character-straightness of grain,
size and type of knots, existence of wavy edges, any discoloration, shakes and
other defects. The timber should be adequately seasoned with a moisture content
roughly equivalent to the humidity of the atmosphere in which it will be placed.
Timber which shows signs of decay or contains considerable sap, bad knots or
shakes should be rejected. Guide notes issued by the Building Research Estab-
lishment (Princes Risborough Laboratory) will assist in the identification of dif-
ferent species of timber. Most carpentry timbers are supplied to nominal sizes
and suitable allowance needs to be made for any planed faces when checking
dimensions. All timber on the site should be adequately protected from the
weather.
Wood is readily attacked by fungi which flourish where timbers become wet
and where there is no ventilation. These conditions can for instance arise in ex-
terior timber framed panels, where small amounts of water can enter without
showing on the interior surface but resulting in rotting at the bottom where
water tends to collect. To overcome this problem panels should be double sealed
with well designed joints and finish to openings. 8 In the more vulnerable loca-
tions described in chapter 4 timber should be suitably treated with preservative.
Floor joists must be laid truly level and be adequately fixed to wall plates
where provided. Any joists that have a curve in the direction of their length
334 Building Maintenance

should be laid with the convex edge uppermost to counteract the tendency to sag.
Joists must be checked for size and spacing. Trimmers are normally 25 mm
thicker than other joists and the jointing of trimming members should be care-
fully checked. Any herringbone strutting must be carefully formed and be taken
across the floor from wall to wall.
Wall plates must be well bedded in an appropriate monar with the ends half
lapped and nailed. Rafters must be properly birdsmouthed over wall plates with
the depth of the birdsmouth not exceeding one-third of the depth of the rafter.
Rafters need checking to ensure that they are laid in a true plane to the appro-
priate pitch and spacing and are of the specified sizes. All other roof members and
joints need to be checked together with any trimming around openings, with raf-
ters properly scribed against ridge boards and hip and valley rafters.
The Greater London Council1 has drawn attention to some of the more com-
mon weaknesses which occur with trussed rafters. These include the use of un-
suitable (ungraded) timber, careless placing of fasteners, use of faulty fasteners,
excessively tight designs resulting in considerable deflection and lack of bracing.
The latter two defects can cause opening up of joints to roof tiles and entry of
water.

Joinery
All joinery timbers shall be checked for quality and the moisture content should
not exceed the prescribed limits to restrict subsequent shrinkage.
Grounds for skirtings, architraves and like features must be securely fixed
without excessive packing. Where fixing bricks are used they should be inspected
to ensure that they will take nails. Floor boards should not exceed the specified
width and should be well cramped up and adequately nailed in the prescribed
manner. Joints to skinings must be well formed.
Doors should be fitted to give 3 mm edge joints for painted work and 1.5 mm
for polished work. Chf'Ck to ensure that they are hung to swing in the correct
direction and that all hinges bear equally, have the correct length of screw with
heads countersunk flush. Adequate allowance must be made for floor finishes.
Keyholes must be in true alignment with locks for ease of insertion and with-
drawal of keys. Doors need checking to ensure that they are of the required type,
construction and dimensions. Hardwood jambs should ideally be screwed and
pelleted.
Casements must be out of winding and must not stick. Any sash bars must be
straight and in alignment, while sliding sashes must have suitable weights and
correct lengths of cord or have the prescribed spring devices. Fasteners to sliding
sashes should be sunk flush, sashes must slide freely and the bottom sash must fit
closely to the sill.
All reasonable steps should be taken to prevent shrinkage of finished work,
with joiner's work ideally framed together about two months before fixing. The
building should be dried out as quickly as possible by using the central heating
system or fires and opening windows on drying days.
Panicular attention should be paid to throatings, grooves and similar labours
to ensure that they conform to the prescribed details and are properly set. Iron-
mongery must conform to the specification or to submitted and approved
 Supervision ofMaintenance Work 335

samples.

Plasterwork
Plasterboard ceilings must be securely fixed with suitable galvanised nails to give
a true plane surface. Each board or lath should be nailed with not less than four
nails to each support equally spaced across the width and driven no closer than
19 mm from its edges. End joints should be staggered in alternate courses with
cut ends located over supports. Plasterboard ceilings are normally finished with
one or two coats of plaster and angles at junctions of wall and ceiling need check-
ing to ensure that they are reinforced with a strip of jute scrim.
Most internal wall surfaces are finished with two coats of plaster and the first
coat should be ruled to an even surface and lightly scratched to form a key for the
finishing coat. The thickness of all coats must be watched. Straight edges and
accurate screeds and grounds are needed to produce a good finishing or floating
coat. The finishing coat must be applied with an even amount of material and
pressure. Irregular or wavy patches should be replastered. Defective work should
be identified at an early stage; irregularities can be felt even if not clearly visible.
Good plasterwork requires skilled craftsmen, good materials and adequate time
to do the work satisfactorily. There must be a good key on all surfaces to be plas-
tered and there is no substitute for this. Galvanised metal angle beads should
ideally be used at all plastered external angles.
Plaster should be stored in a dry place and be 8eparated from concrete floors by
wood battens. The finished plasterwork should be truly vertical, free from
cracks, blisters and other imperfections. Different plasters must not be mixed
under any circumstances and the manufacturer's instructions should be closely
followed. Plaster on the site should be checked to ensure that it is of the type
specified.

Paintwork
All steel and ironwork should be cleared ofloose mill scale and rust before paint-
ing. The preparation of these surfaces is probably more important than the type
of paint to be applied. To remove loose mill scale and rust, methods such as wire
brushing and chipping, hand or mechanical acid pickling or sand blasting may be
used. When repainting previously painted metal surfaces, care should be taken to
remove all traces of rust, following which rust inhibiting priming paint should be
applied to the cleaned surface taking care to cover all parts. The backs of all
metal gutters should be suitably metal primed before the fixing and the inside
surfaces after fixing.
All knots in timber must be sealed with patent knotting before the timber is
primed. Priming paint should not be applied too thickly otherwise it will not soak
into the wood so readily. All cracks and holes must be suitably stopped prior to
the application of paint. These preliminary operations can be omitted when
repainting previously painted woodwork provided the original paint film is
sound.
All coats ofpaint must be properly applied in accordance with the specification
and the manufacturer's instructions. All surfaces must be clean, dry and free
336 Building Maintenance
from dust or grease before paint is applied. Check to ensure that the correct num-
ber of coats of paint are applied in the prescribed sequence. Brush marks applied
parallel with the grain improve the appearance of the work. Surfaces should be
rubbed down with fine glass paper before each succeeding coat is applied. Check
to ensure that all joinery is properly primed, where required, all knots sealed and
nails or screws driven below the surface. Special attention should be given to the
priming of the backs offrames, linings, skinings, fitments and the like which will
come into contact with the structure.
All edges of doors, except bottoms, should be painted and where doors are
painted different colours each side, check that the striking edge is the same colour
as the inside face of the door and the hanging edge as the outside.
The commonest cause of blistering of paint is resin exuding from the wood,
although painting on a frosty or damp surface can have a similar effect. An excess
of oil in the paint may also cause blisters whilst too little oil may tum the paint
into powder on drying. Each coat should be allowed to dry thoroughly before the
following coat is applied. External surfaces are preferably painted during a dry
period when at least two dry days have preceded the day when painting is under-
taken.
Ner.o plaster surfaces may require drying out for several months before they
are ready to take oil paints. Occupants are not generally prepared to wait this
long and there are two alternative approaches-to apply an alkali resisting
primer followed by two coats of oil or paint or to use two or three coats of emul-
sion paint.
Paperhanging needs checkir..g to ensure that the paper is well secured but not
pasted to architraves, skinings and the like. Check that the pattern is matched
and the paper hung plumb.

Glazing
Check to ensure that the glass used is of the correct type and thickness and that
the putty is of suitable quality. Ideally the back putty to glass panes should not be
cut out until a week after front puttying. Ensure that there is clearance between
the edges of the glass and the enclosing wood or metal casement. Large panes
must be well sprigged before front puttying. Front putties should be neatly and
evenly formed to the appropriate lines. The edges of plate glass in shop fronts and
showcases should have their edges blackened.

Plumbing
All materials and components need checking to ensure that they comply with the
specification. Sanitary fitments deserve close examination to ensure that they are
not misshapen, cracked, crazed or pitted and that fittings such as water waste
preventers are free from mechanical defects.
A constant check should be maintained while plumbing work is in progress to
ensure that pipes are of the correct dimensions and laid in the correct positions
with the prescribed provision of valves. All pipes should be properly jointed and
graded where appropriate. Hot water pipes must be adequately fixed but at the
same time permit movement for expansion and contraction. Care must be taken
 Supervision ofMaintenance Work 337

to ensure that floor joists are not weakened excessively through notches being cut
to receive pipes. Pipes should be located so as to be as inconspicuous as possible
but nevertheless be readily accessible for repairs.
Special precautions need to be taken with a single stack plumbing system to
ensure satisfactory operation. For example, the stack must be of adequate size
with airtight joints, and branch pipes must fall gradually and continuously in the
direction of flow and be free from abrupt changes of direction. The vertical dis-
tance between the lowest branch connection and the invert of the drain should
not be less than 450 mm for 3 storey buildings and 750 mm for 4 to 5 storey build-
ings. Waste pipes from wash basins, baths and sinks should be laid to a minimum
to
slope of 1 (20 mm/m), have a maximum length of 1.68 m and be provided with
suitable traps. Wes should be sited as near to the stack as possible and the we
branch should have a generous sweep and enter the stack at an angle of 95° from
the vertical. Bath and wash basin connections opposite a we connection should
be located at least 200 mm above the we connection.
Great care is needed in fitting plastic wastes to sanitary fitments. Most plastic
connections to stack pipes have a rubber bush which on tightening has a ten-
dency to twist on the inside of the stack. This results from the plumber's failure to
make a proper connection but is not always seen and the first indication often is a
blockage in the system. 10

Drainage
Pipes, junctions, bends and other fittings should be checked for soundness and
British Standard kite marks. Gullies, inspection chamber covers and other
special fittings should also be checked for compliance with the specification.
The drainage work needs to be checked against the drainage plan which will
show the pipe runs and sizes, and the location and possibly also the invert levels
of inspection chambers and manholes. The pipes must be laid in straight lines be-
tween inspection chambers or manholes and to even and self-cleansing gradients.
Drains which are very shallow, excessively deep or close to building foundations
will need surrounding with concrete. The alignment of drains can be checked
with a line and gradients with a straight-edge and spirit level, or alternatively a
mirror may be placed at one end of the drain and a lamp at the other.
Drain pipes should be kept clean and must be properly jointed to provide
watertight joints. Many flexibly jointed pipes are now used but where cement
and sand joints are used with standard clayware pipes, the mix should not be
richer than 1:2 to avoid excessive shrinkage on drying. Drain pipes must always
be laid on a firm bed to prevent or substantially reduce subsequent settlement
with consequent strain on joints. Flexible pipes should be laid on a granular bed
not less than 100 mm thick. 11
The Building Regulations 12 require that all drains after laying, surrounding
with concrete where appropriate, and backfilling of trenches, shall withstand a
suitable test for watertightness. The most effective test is the water test in which
a suitable plug is inserted in the lower end of the length of drain which is then
filled with water. For house drains, a knuckle bend and length of vertical pipe
may be jointed temporarily at the upper end to provide the requisite test head. A
drop in the level of water in the vertical pipe may be due to one or more of the
338 Building Maintenance
following causes
(1) absorption bypipesorjoints;
(2) sweating of pipes or joints;
(3) leakage from defective pipes, joints or plugs;
(4) trapped air.
Hence it is advisable to fill the pipes with water for one hour before testing and
then to measure the loss of water over a 30 minute period, normally applying a
test pressure of 1.2 m head of water at the upper end and not more than 2.4 m at
the lower end. It may thus be necessary to test steeply graded drains in stages to
avoid exceeding the maximum head. The Code of Practice 13 recommends that
the average quantity of water added in the 30 minute period should not exceed
0.06litre per hour per 100m per mm of the nominal bore of drain. Where there is
a trap at the upper end of a branch drain, a rubber or plastics tube should be
inserted through the trap seal to draw off the confined air as the pipes are filled
with water. Alternative tests are the air test and the smoke test which are both de-
tailed in Building Technology. 3
Inspection chambers (not exceeding 300 mm deep) and manholes (exceeding
300 mm deep) provide access to drains for maintenance. Their distance apart on
straight lengths of drain should not exceed 90 m and they should also be provided
at changes of direction and gradient, at drain junctions and heads of drains. They
must be of adequate size to permit access for inspection, cleansing and rodding;
have a durable, removable, non-ventilating cover; have step irons or a ladder to
provide access where the depth requires this; and have suitable smooth imper-
vious benching when there are open channels.
The dimensions of inspection chambers and manholes will be largely deter-
mined by the size and angle of the main drain, the position and number of branch
drains and the depth to invert. Brick manholes should always be built in unren-
dered engineering brickwork finished fair on the inside face, to withstand the
humid, corrosive conditions and to prevent cracked rendering falling into the
drains. The bricks should be laid in cement mortar (1:3). Half-brick walls are
permissible for depths not exceeding 900 mm.
The main channel should be formed of half-round channel pipes and branches
are best in the form of three-quarter section standard branch bends discharging
in the direction of flow in the main channel. Check the benching to ensure that it
is smooth and hard and sloped at about 1 in 12 where men may be required to
stand on it. Frames and covers must be well bedded at a suitable level.

Records
A person supervising building work should keep records of site visits, noting
dates, weather conditions, labour force, materials delivered to site, work in pro-
gress and any other important aspects. He will also record his own observations
on the quality of the work and any action that he has taken. He will record details
of any old drains, service pipes or other feature opened up during the execution of
the works. It is good practice to amend the drawings and specification in red to
incorporate any changes that may have been made during the course of the
 Supervision ofMaintenance Work 339

works.

References
1 Department of the Environment, Advisory leaflet 48: Setting Out on Site
(H.M.S.O., 1969).
2 I. H. Seeley, Building Technology, (Macmillan, London and Basingstoke,
1974).
3 - Building Research Establishment Digest 108: Sand for concrete
(H.M.S.O., 1958).
4 British Standards Institution, BS 882, 1201: 1965 Aggregates from natural
sources for concrete, Part 2: 1973 Metric Units.
5 British Standards Institution, CP 110: The structural use of concrete, Part
1: 1972 Design, materials and workmanship.
6 British Standards Institution, BS 1881: Methods of testing concrete, Parts
1-5: 1970, Part 6: 1971.
7 C. Morris, 'Techniques for Preserving our Heritage', Building Mainten-
ance (September 1974).
8 Greater London Council, Development and Materials Bulletin No. 76
(second series) (June 1974).
9 -Building Research Establishment Digest 58 (second series): Mortars for
Jointing (H.M.S.O., 1965).
10 -Building Research Establishment Digest 80 (second series): Soil and
Waste Pipe Systems for Housing (H.M.S.O., 1967).
11 -Building Research Establishment Digests 130, 131: Drainage Pipelines
(H.M.S.O., 1971).
12 The Building Regulations, 1972, Sl 317 (H.M.S.O., 1972).
13 British Standards Institution, CP 301: 1971 Building drainage.
14 Greater London Council, Handbook for Clerks of Works (1973).
15 - Building Research Establishment Digest 176: Failure Patterns and
Implications (H.M.S.O., 1975).
APPENDIX 1: METRIC CONVERSION TABLE

1 in.= 25.44 mm [approximately 25 mm, then (mm/100) x

4=in.]
1ft= 304.8 mm (approximately 300 mm)
1 yd = 0.914 m (approximately 910 mm)
1 mile= 1.609 km (approximately H km)
1m= 3.281 ft= 1.094 yd (approximately 1.1 yd)
(10m= 11 ydapproximately)
1 km = 0.621 mile (f mile approximately)

Area 1 ftl = 0.093 m2

1 yd2 = 0.836 m2
1 acre= 0.405 ha [1 ha (hectare)= 10 000 m2]
1 mile2 = 2.590 km2
1 m2 = 10.764 ft 2 = 1.196 yd2 (approximately 1.2 yd2 )
1 ha = 2.4 71 acres (approximately 2! acres)
1 km2 = 0.386 milel

Volume 1 ft 3 = 0.028 m3
1 yd3 =0.765 m3
1m3 = 35.315 ft 3 = 1.308 yd 3 (approximately 1.3 yd 3 )
1 ft 3 = 28.32litre (1000 litre= 1m3 )
1 gal= 4.546litre
llitre = 0.220 gal (approximately 4! litre to the gallon)

Mass 1lb = 0.454 kg (kilogram)

1 cwt = 50.80 kg (approximately 50 kg)
1 ton= 1.016t[l tonne= 1000kg=0.984ton]
1 kg= 2.205lb (approximately 2-!-lb)

Density llb/ft3 = 16.019 kg/m3

1 kg/m3 = 0.062lb/ft 3

Velocity 1 ft/s = 0.305 m/s

1 mile/h = 1.609 km/h

Energy 1 therm= 105.506MJ

1 Btu= 1.055 kj
340
 341

Thermal 1 Btu/ft2 h °F = 5.678 W/m 2 °C

conductivity

Temperature X°F=t(x-32)°C
X°C=-!x+ 32°F
0 °C = 32 °F (freezing)
5°C=41 °F
10 °C =50 °F (rather cold)
15 °C = 59°F
20°C= 68 °F (quite warm)
25°C=77°F
30 °C = 86 °F (very hot)

Pressure 1lbf/in. 2 = 0.0069 N/mm2 = 6894.8 N/m 2

(1 MN/m2 = 1 N/mm2 )
1lbf/ft = 47.88 N/m2
2

1 tonf/in. 2 = 15.44 MN/m2

1 tonf/ft2 = 107.3 kN/m2

For speedy but approximate conversions

1 lbf/ftl = kN/m 2 hence 40 lbf/ft 2 = 2 kN/m2

20,
and tonf/ft 2 = kN/m2 x 10, hence 2 tonf/ft 2 = 20 kN/m2

Floor loadings office floors - general usage: 50 lbf/ft 2 = 2.50 kN/m 2

office floors- data-processing equipment: 70 lbf/ft 2 = 3.50 kN/m 2
factory floors: 100 lbf/ft 2 = 5.00 kN/m2

Safe bearing 1 tonf/ft2 = 107.25 kN/m2

capacity 2 tonf/ft 2 = 214.50 kN/m2
of soU 4 tonf/ft 2 = 429.00 kN/m2

Stresses 100 lbf/in. 2 = 0.70 MN/m2

in 1000 lbf/in. 2 = 7.00 MN/m2
concrete 3000 lbf/in. 2 = 21.00 MN/m 2
6000 lbf/in. 2 = 41.00 MN/m2

Costs £1/m2 = £0.092/ft 2

1 shilling (5p)/ft 2 = £0.538/m2
£1/ft 2 = £10. 764/m2 (approximately £11/m 2 )
£2.50/ft 2 = £27/m2
£5/ft 2 = £54Im2
£7.50/ft 2 = £81/m 2
£10/ftl = £108/m2
 APPENDIX 2: OCCUPANCY COST ANALYSIS: HOME FOR THE AGED
(BUILDING MAINTENANCE COST INFORMATION SERVICE)
BUILDING TYPE: Old People's Home in Urban Area OWNER/OCCUPIER: Social Services Department

REGION: Inland Provincial Town DATE OF ERECTION: 1968

UPPER MANAGEMENT CRITERIA

To have bright and comfortable surroundings for residents;

Safety of personnel;
To keep within predetermined cost levels;
To maintain a Capital Asset.
BUDGET PROCEDURE
Estimate: Forecast estimates of maintenance recommended by the County Architect are prepared annually and these are
submitted to the Director of Social Services for approval.
Cost control: Competitive tenders are invited for all maintenance works and if within the sums included in the budget,
contracts are placed. Any tenders in excess of the sum included in estimates are reviewed by the
Y-.1
~ Committee and only approved if the additional finance can be met from savings from other items.
N

MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION

Responsibility: Responsibility for the maintenance of all Cotrnty Council's properties is vested in the County Architect.
Total estate: The buildings which form the subject of this particular survey are the main building, garage block and
handym<m's house.
Routine inspections: Regular visits are made to the premises by Building Surveyors of the County Architect's Department, but
minor maintenance is carried out on a requisition basis by the head of the premises.
Painting frequencies: The premises are normally repainted externally every five years and internally every seven or eight years.
Cost records and feedback: The Director of Social Services has a staff who keep a constant check on expenditure to ensure that
it is contained within the budget.
Directly employed labour: The only directly employed labour is a mobile team of groundsmen operating under the direction of
the Cmrnty Estates Officer and Valuer.

Work done by DEL: NIL% and contracted out 100%

Forms of contract: Standard form of fixed price contract devised by the County Council
Contract supervision: All building work is carried out under the direction of the County Architect's Divisional Building
Surveyor and supervised by the Area Building Surveyor concerned.
 BUILDING FUNCTION
Space use: Main uses; residential accommodation, bedrooms, sitting rooms, dining administration etc
Number of occupants: Originally designed for 40 residents with two units of family accommodation for Matron and Assistant
Matron and one handyman.
Design criteria: The building was erected as an Old People's Home to conform to standards laid down by the Department
of Social Services.

FORM OF CONSTRUCTION

Structure: Loadbearing brick walls, precast concrete floor beams.

External walls: Cavity brickwork and some timber window walling.
Windows: Hetal
Roof: Tiled and low pitched over main block, flat and asphalt covered over single storey.
Internal partitions: Mainly lightweight block.
Floor structure: Precast concrete beams.
Floor finishes: Vinyl tiling mainly, quarry tile in kitchen.
~
Fittings & fixtures: Fitted wardrobes and hand basins in bedrooms
~
""'"' Internal decoration: Emulsion and vinyl wall covering.
External decoration: Gloss paint.
Plumbing: Copper and galvanise.
Heating and ventilating: Oil fired low pressure hot water.
Lifts and escalators: Electric passenger lift to first floor. Other M&E services: None

PARAMETERS
Gross floor area: 1,692 m2 Height to ridge 6.700 m Storeys above (and including) ground floor 2 No.
Area of pitched roofs (on plan) 418 m2 Height to eaves 5.260 m Floors below ground floor NIL
Area of flat roofs (on plan) 858 m2 Floor to ceiling height 2. 590 m
Area of external glazing 259 m
2
Area of external works 6,949 m2

COtA'IIENTS
 FINANCIAL STATEMENT FOR YEAR 1972 / 73

Gross floor area: ...1 .>.?.9.2...... m>

Cost per 100m>

Elemmt Total£ Brief description of work
floc.- area

0.
I ~--· & odoptetions IE Nil Nil I 1
- --------
IE-- - -
1. Decoration
1.1 External decoration 653.71 38.63

1.2 Internal decoration 104.94 6.20

Sub-total E 758.65 £ 44.83
2. Falwic
2 1 Exta-nal walls 19.31 1.14

2.2 Roofs 20.97 1.24 '

2.3 Other structural items 9.88 0.59

w
...... 2.4 Fittings & fixtures 83.59 4.94
......
2.5 Internal finishes 18.58 1.10
Sub-total £ 152.33 £ 9.01
3. Services
3.1 Plumbing & internal drainage 40.12 2.37

3.2 Heating & ventilating 69.47 4.11 Servicing and repairs to boiler burners and pumps

3.3 lifts & escalators 118.53 7.01 Maintenance service and new lift safety repairs

3.4 Electric power & lighting 77.44 4.57 General repairs and replacements

3.5 Other M & E surfaces 42.00 2.48 Repairs and servicing to kitchen equipment
Sub-total £ 347.56 E 20.54
4. Cleoning
4.1 Windows 29.20 1. 73
4.2 External surfaces - -
4.3 Internal 7,629.21 450.90
Sub·tot•l rJ ,658.41 £ 452.63
 5. Utilities
5.1 Gas 210.59 12.45

5.2 Electrici tv 392.41 23.19

5.3 Fuel oil 875.77 51.76

5.4 Solid fuel - -
5.5 Water rates 195.44 11.55

5.6 Effluents & drainage charges - -

Sub·total 1:1.,674.21 £ 98.95
6. Administrative costs
6. 1 Services attendants - -
6.2 Laundry 417.13 24.65

6.3 Porterage 248.96 14.71

6.4 Security 248.96 14.71

6.5 Rubbish disposal - -

UJ
~
v. 6.6 Property management - -
Sub·total £ 915.05 £ 54.07
7. Overheads
7.1 Property insurance 97.64 5. 77

7.2 Rates 1 ,394. 25 82.40

Sob-total £1 491.89 £ 88.17

TOTAL £12,998.10 £ 768.20

External works Cost per 100m 2

External area i\J?.l.'.'"()J(.?ClClCJn 2 Brief description of work
Total£ of extern a I area

8. Ext4WIIal works
8.1 Repairs & decoration 53.70 0. 77

8.2 External services Nil Nil

8.3 Cleaning

8.4 Gardening

External Works Total £ £

 APPENDIX 3: OCCUPANCY COST ANALYSIS: OFFICE BLOCK
(BUILDING MAINTENANCE COST INFORMATION SERVICE)
BUILDING TYPE: OFFICE BLOCK OWNER/OCCUPIER: CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

REGION: STEVENAGE, HERTFORDSI-IIRE DATE OF ERECTION: 1964

UPPER MANAGEMENT CRITERIA

The building is maintained to ensure the health, safety and welfare of the staff in order to preserve a high level
of efficiency in dealing with members of the public and to realise the building's economic life, estimated to be
60 years.

BUDGET PROCEDURE

Estimate: Estimates annually for maintenance jobs over £250, remainder from bulk estimate covering all buildings in
depot estate and based on expenditure in the previous years.
Budget: Annual provision of funds based on estimates.
Yearly computer printout of expenditure on the building. ttmthly review to reconcile expenditure and
Cost Control: commitment with budget.
MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION
Responsibility: ~bin Depot Superintendent
Total estate: All Central Government buildings within Depot Area covering mainly N &E Hertfordshire and
Stevenage districts.
Routine inspections: Yearly.
Painting frequencies: External 4 yrs. Internal 8 yrs.
Cost records and feedback: Annual computer printout of maintenance cost on each coded building.
Directly employed labour: Approx 4 hours per week.

Trades: Boiler Attendant

Nunber: I 1
Incentive schemes:
Where the directly employed labour force is ltlied . ~Q •• ~ is added to basic labour rates and cost of materials ex-store.
Work done by DEL .. l .. % and contracted out •.••• %
Forms of contract: Measurec and Daywork Term Contracts and competitive tender I
Contract supervis,on: By llepot Technical Staff
~--·------- I
 BUILDING FUNCTION
Space Use: C,overnment Deparment Offices (87t Office Space, 7% Public Space, 6% Staff facilities)
Number of occupants: 400 staff
Design criteria: Central Government administration
Change of use: N/A

FORM OF CONSTRUCTION
Structure: Concrete frar1e.
~bin elevatiort. Pre-cast cone. panels. End elevation patent concrete profiled block at ground level
External walls: with facing bricks above·
Windows Galvanised steel painted.
Roof: AsJ.lhalt on screed on cast in-situ concrete slab.
Internal partitions: Ham partitions - lightweight block plastered. Remainder - "Pararount" or similar.
Flc·•or structure: Cast in situ concrete.
Floor finishes: Generally lino with some vinyl tiles. Terrazzo to toilets, stairs and landings.
Fittings and fixtures: Built in softwood cashiers desks. ~~tal grilles over.
Internal decoration: Erulsion walls. Oil paint woodwork.
External decoration: Oil paint to windows and frames.
Plumbing: Services copper pipe. Water main cast iron. Drainage cast iron.
Heating and ventilating: 2 l\o. Oil fired L01v Pressure hot water boilers each 1,554,000kJ (total 3,108,000kJ)
Lifts and escalators: 1 lio. 8 passenger 544 kg. 1 Ko. 10 passenger/goods 714 kg.
Other M & E services: Nil

PARAMETERS
5515 m2 Height to ridge m Storeys above (and including ground floor).4 .• No.
Gross floor area:
2
Area of pitched roofs (on plan) ••.•.•.•.. J!l !Ieight to eaves .. l3,0 ••.•.. m Floors below ground floor .!.~~~~!~~-~~~~l .. No.
ll.O Floor to ceiling height .•. ~':'. ~1!1 ••••••••••••••••
Area of flat roofs (on plan) .••.•.. !~~~ .. m2
Area of,external glazing •••••••..• !~?~ .. m2 Area of external works~~?~ •• m2 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ll

COMMENTS
lt:torised storage racking installed for Land Registry at cost of £7,000. This is removable and
Other relevant data: would be taken away if building use changed.
 NOTE: Number of occupants increased to 5CO
FINANCIAL STATEMENT FOR YEAR. ~ 9.?~(3 ... .. .

Gross floor •ea: ....5 .5 ~~....... m'

Cost per 100 m'

Elem..,t Total £ Brief description of work
floor area

0. lmprovanento & -.,cations £ 835.10 £ 15.14 Supply and fix air conditioners. Alter partitions.

1. Decoration
1.1 External decoration - -
1.2 Internal decoration 2690.00 53.67 Generally throughout
Sub-total £ 2960.00 £ 53.67
z. f*ic
2.1 l;.lct ...nal walls - -
2.2 Roofs - -
2.3 Other structural items 473.00 8.58 Stair repairs
w
~
00 2.4 Fittings & fixtures 42.00 0. 76 Sundry noticeboards provided
2.5 Internal finishes 437.61 7.93 Plaster repairs prior to re-decoration
Sub-total £ 952.61 £ 17.27
3. Services
3.1 Plumbing & internal ck'ainage 522.ll 9.47 Hygiene treatment. Check and rewasher taps .

3.2 Heating & ventilating 237.87 4.31 Boiler fittings, heating controls, check fuel gauges,
repair valves.
3.3 Lifts. & escalators 50.00 0.91 lift gates repaired.
3.4 Electric power & lighting 81.85 1.48 Tracing and repairing faults. Install 13arnp socket
outlets.
3.5 Other M & E surfaces - -
Sub-total £ 891.83 £ 16.17
4. Cleaning
4.1 Windows 266.80 4.84 By client contract.
4.2 External surfaces - - No official provision.
4.3 lnt!J'nal 4394.00 79.67 By client contract
Sub-total £ 4660.80 £ 84.51
 5. Utilities I
5.1 Gas 145.00 2.63 Cooking
5.2 Electricity 1643.00 29.79 General
5.3 Fuel oil 2200.00 39.89 Heating
5.4 Solid fuel - -
5.5 Water rates 845.00 15.33 Metered supply
5.6 Effluents&: drainage charges - -
Sub-total £ 4833.00 £ 87.64
6. Administrative costs
6.1 Services attendants - - (DEL Boiler house attendant not included)
6.2 Laun~ 190.98 3.46 By contract
6.3 Porterage - -
6.4 Security 1034.80 18.76 Night Watchman
6.5 Rubbish disposal - - No1111al rubbish covered by cleaning (item 4. 3) & rates
w (7. 2) paper rubbish by contract at no cost.
~ 6.6 Property management
\0 2~81.56 39.56
Sub-total £ 3407.34 £ 61.78 I
7. Ovlll'haods
7.1 Property insurance - - No insurance . I
7.2 Rates 8,828.52 341.41 Assessed contribution.
Sub-total £ 18,828.52 £ 341.41
TOTAL £36,534.10 £ 662.45

External works Cost per 100 m2

External area .... ~~ 8.5........ m' Brief description of work
Total£ of external area
8. Extamolwarka
8.1 Repairs & decoration 59.58 1.27 Fence repairs, road markings.
8.2 External services 460.35 9.83 Drain repairs .
8.3 Cleaning - -
8.4 Gardening 87.56 1.87 Grass cutting.

Ex-1 Works Total £ 607.49 £ 12.97

APPENDIX 4: CLASSIFICATION OF MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS AND REPAIRS

Primary Code Secondary Code

1. External decoration
2. Internal decoration
3. Main structure 31. Foundations and basements
32. Frame
33. External walls, chimneys and flues
(excluding boiler flues)
34. External windows and doors includ-
ing glazing
35. Roofstructure
36. Roof coverings
37. Rooflights and glazing
38. Gutters and ramwater pipes

4. Internal construction 41. Ground floors

(where not part of foundation
slab)
42. Upper floors
43. Staircases and steps
44. Internal walls and partitions
4 5. Doors and screens including glazing
5. Finishes and fittings 51. Ceiling finishes
52. Wall finishes
53. Floor finishes
54. Shelves, built-in furniture and
miscellaneous joinery
55. Ironmongery
56. Cloakroom and similar miscellaneous
fittings
6. Plumbing and sanitary services 61. Cold water service pipes, storage
tanks, cisterns and valves
62. Hot water service pipes, storage
tanks and cylinders, domestic
boilers, valves and insulation
63. Sanitary fittings including taps and
traps
64. Waste, soil and vent pipes
7. Mechanical services including 71. Boilers, firing, instrumentation and
heating and ventilation and gas automatic controls, flues
installations 72. Steam and hot water distribution
including heat exchangers and
heating appliances

Source: Department of the Environment, Maintenace Manuals for Buildings (H.M.S.O., 1970).
350
 Primary Code Secondary Code

73. Workshop equipment, lifting appli-

ances and special industrial equip-
ment
74. External water supply, treatment and
storage plant
75. Lifts
76. Air conditioning, ventilation and
refrigeration
77. General utilities
78. Gas installations and equipment
(except kitchen equipment)

8. Electrical services and kitchen 81. Electrical generation and prime

equipment (all types) movers
82. Electrical transmission and distri-
bution
83. Electrical installations (wiring switch
and control gear)
84. Electrical appliances and fittings
(except kitchen equipment)
85. External lighting and airfield lighting
86. Lightning protection, ELV systems
and equipment
87. Kitchen equipment

9. External and civil engineering works 91. Roads, car parks, parade grounds,
hardstandings and runways
92. Paths, playgrounds and general
paved areas
93. Fences, gates and boundary walls
94. Drains and ditches
95. Sewage disposal
96. Water storage tanks and reservoirs
97. Railway tracks, platform docks,
wharves and jetties, sea defence
walls
98. Horticultural and arboricultural
works
99. Miscellaneous external works

0. Miscellaneous and ancillary works 01. Adaptations and minor new works
02. Replacement of fire damage
03. Routine cleaning

351
INDEX

Abstracting 193 Bedrock costs 274, 275

Accounts 215-16, 24Q-1, 247, 310-11 Billing 193-4
Agrement certificates 173-4 Bills of quantities 190-4, 228
Air conditioning 125-6 Bills of quantities contracts 223
Air locks 123 Bitumen-felt roofs 82-3, 333
Air seasoning 68 Bituminous paints 57-8
Alkali resistant primers 114 Blistering of paintwork 111, 336
Alterations, examples of 144-9 Block plans 260
grants for 152-6 Bloom 113
pricing of 213-15 Blowing of plaster 101
scope of 141-52 Boiler, chimneys for 63-4, 124
sequence of 151-2 hot-water 124
Aluminium sheeting 53 Bonus payments 317-18, 319
Ambrosia beetles 74 Boundaries 269
Analyses 285, 342-5 Boundary walls 39
Antiquities 242 Breakdown maintenance 277
Approximate quantities estimates 201 Bricks, requirements for 330-1
-2, 204-5 specification of 178, 182
Arbitration 242 types of 42-3
Architect, access for 233 Brickwork, cracks in 47-9
functions of 229 defects in 42-8
instructions of 231-2 frost action on 46, 331
Articles of agreement 227, 231 measurement of 195-6
Asphalt floors 77 moisture penetration in 55-7
Asphalt measurement 196-7 mortars for 43-4, 48, 50, 331
Asphalt roofs 83-4, 332 pricing of 209-11
Asphalt tanking 36 settlement of 46-7
Assignment 235 specification of 187-9
Avoidable maintenance 2 stability of 47
stains in 45
sulphate attack on 45-6
Ball valves 119, 121 supervision of 330-2
Garston 121 British Standards 170-2
Banwell report 226 Budgeting 273-7
Bark pocket 69 Builders' accounts 215-16,24Q-1,247,
Basements 35-6 310-11
353
354 Index

Building, dangerous 265-6 Cleaning, execution of 135-6

inspection of 267-8 Cleaning cycles 280-1, 305
setting out of 325-6 Cleaning facilities 136
supervision of 323-38 Cleaning frequencies 136
Building contracts 4, 221-4 Cleaning of brickwork 49
Building control 249, 267-8 Cleaning of flooring 136-7
Building control officer 230, 267-8 Cleaning of kitchens 137
Building incentive schemes 316-19 Cleaning of sanitary appliances 137
Building lines 265 Cleaning of stonework 51-2
Building Maintenance Cost Information Cleaning of windows 136
Service 285, 342-5 Cleaning schedule 289
Building maintenance depots 298-9 Clerk of works 230, 233, 323-5
Building managers 315 Climbing plants 49
Building notices 267-8 Close boarded fences 38
Building operatives 315-16 Code for the Measurement of Building
Building records 283, 338 Work in Small Dwellings 191, 194-
Building regulations 249-54 9
Building regulations applications 251- Codes of practice 172-3
3 Colourless repellent liquids 51
Building regulations registers 253, 254, Colourless stone preservatives 51
267 Colourless waterproofers 58
Building reports 163-4 Committed costs 275
Building supervisors 315 Common furniture beetle 73, 74, 80
Building surveyors 8, 315 Completion 235, 236-7
Composite price rates 202, 204-5
Computer 282, 312-13
Cables 126 Concrete, aggregates for 330
Carpentry, supervision of 333-4 curing of 229-30
timbers 75, 79-80 gauging of 329
Carpets 78 laying of 329
Catalogues 174, 312-13 measurement of 195
Cement paint 57 mixing of 328-9, 330
Cement rubber latex flooring 78 pricing of 208-9
Cellar fungus 71, 72 reinforcement of 329
Certificates 220, 239-40, 244-5 specification of 182
Cesspools 129 supervision of 328-30
Chain link fences 39 Concrete beds 76
Chalkiness 101 Concrete flags 37-8
Check 69 Concrete foundations 26-7, 328
Chestnut pale fences 38 Concrete frames 53-4
Chimneys 61-4 Concrete panels 52-3
Chipped grain 70 Concrete paving 37
Chlorinated rubber paint 57 Concrete roof tiles 81
Claddings 41-2, 52-3 Condensation 58-61
Claims 245-6 Conduits 126
CLASP 29 Coniophora cerebella 71, 72
Clay floor tiles 77 Construction Industry Training Board
Clean Air Act 266 314
 Index 355

Contingency sum 182 Critical path method 313-14

Contract, building 220-1 Cube estimates 200-1
conditions of 180-1 Cupping 70
cost plus 221-2 Cycles, cleaning 280-1, 305
determination of 237-8 painting 108-9, 279-80
Faculty of Architects and Sur- services 303
veyors 243
form of 217-20
JCT conditions of 231-42 Damages 219, 237
lump sum 223 Dampness, causes of 54-6
maintenance 224-5 treatment of 56-8
measure and value 222-3 Damp-proofing, specification of 182-
package deal 223-4 3, 189
parties involved in 229-30 Damp-proofing methods 56, 332
remedies for breach of 219-20 Dangerous buildings 265-6
schedule 222-3 Daywork 245, 310-11
target cost 222 Dead shores 25, 31-3, 35
types of 221-4 Deadwood 69
validity of 218-19 Death watch beetle 73, 74
Contract documents 227-9, 232, 244 Decorations 107-14
Contract drawings 228-9 Defective Premises Act 5, 267
Contract labour 296-8 Defects liability period 243
Contract for minor works 242-3 Demolition work 327-8
Contract procedures 243-7 Department of the Environment 10
Contractor 229-30, 238 Depots 299-301
Conversions, grants for 153-4 mobile 300-1
scope of 148-9 Design of buildings 12-14
Copper roofs 84, 333 Determination 237-8
Cork tiles 78 Development 256
Cost analyses 285, 342-5 Development plans 258-9
Cost benefit analysis 158-60 Dew point 58
Cost classification 283-4 Dilapidations, liability for 160-1
Cost control 276-7, 282, 283 Dilapidations schedule preparation
Cost discounting 17, 19 161-2, 166-7
Cost in use 15-19, 290 Direct labour 296-8
Cost plus contracts 221-2 Discoloration 112
Cost records 283-5 Discounting costs 17, 19
Cost yardsticks 12-13 District surveyor 230
Cowls 63 Doors, defects in 95-7, 334
Cracks, causes of 11-12 security of 130
Cracks in asphalt 83 specification of 185
Cracks in brick walls 47-8 Doorway, pricing of 214-15
Cracks in concrete and calcium silicate Dormers 148
bricks 49 Dote 70
Cracks in external renderings 106 Double glazed windows 88, 89, 115
Cracks in plaster 98, 99, 102 Dovecote 63
Cracks in shrinkable clay 22, 24, 25 Drainage, defects in 128-9
Cracks in wall claddings 41-2 easements for 269
356 Index

Drainage continued timbering to 328

French 57 Extension of time 237
inspection of 267 Extractor fans 60, 61
land 57 Extraordinary traffic 265
measurement of 199
sealing old 327
setting out 326, 337 Factories Acts 1, 2, 266
specification of 187 Faculty of Architects and Surveyors
supervision of 337-8 short form of contract 243
testing 337-8 Failures 14, 41
Drawings 228-9 Fair wages 235
Dry rot 68, 70-1, 72, 75, 80, 93-4 Fair wear and tear 161
Fencing, maintenance of 38-9
measurement of 199
Easements 268-9 Filters 125
Economic life 11 Final account 247
Efflorescence 44-5, 100 Finishings 107
Electrical installations, disconnecting Fire alarms 133, 292
old services 327 Fire precautions 131-4
fire risks in 131-2 Fire fighting arrangements 134
measurement of 198 Fire fighting equipment 132-4, 292
Electrical installations as PC item 187 Fire hazards 131-2
Electrical installations regulations 267 Fire insurance 292
Electrical installations requirements Fire precautions 131-4
126-7 Fire Precautions Act 267
Electro-osmosis damp-proofing 56 Fireplace, closing openings 64
Elemental classification 350-1 Flanking transmission 85
Employer 229, 237-8 Flashings 80
Emulsion paint 57 Flats 146, 147
Enforcement notices 268 Flood damage 137-8
Engineered costs 275 Floor, floating 86, 121
Engineers 229 hardwood strip 78
Entire contracts 220 solid 76
Environmental works 155 sound insulation of 86
Estimates, approximate 200-2, 204-5 specification of 184, 186
approximate quantities 201-2, suspended timber 75-6, 333-4
204-5 thermal insulation to 87
conditions of 206 wood block 78
cube 200-1 Floor area estimates 200
floor area 200 Floor cleaning 136
preparation of 202-15 Floor coverings 76-9
schedule of claim 166-7 Floor levels 326
storey enclosure 201 Floor noises 75
unit 201 Floor seals 78-9
Excavation, inspection of 267 Floor strutting 31, 35, 75
measurement of 195 Floor tiles 77
pricing of 207-8 Fluctuations 241, 246-7
supervision of 328 Flue liners 46, 63
 Index 357

Flying shores 25, 32, 34 Hygrometer 60

Food cupboards 185-6
Food Hygiene Regulations 266
Foreman 230, 233 Improvement, environmental works
Formula price adjustment 246-7 155
Foundations, inspection of 267 Improvement grants 152-6
levels of 326 Improvement lines 265
pedatified 30-1 Improvements, scope of 141-52
requirements of 26-7 Incentive schemes 316-19
French drains 57 Incinerators 128
Frost precautions, brickwork 46, 331 Industrial development certificates
concrete 24, 27 258
plumbing 119-21 Information systems 282-3
Full cell process 68 Injunction 219-20
Fungal attack 70-1, 333 Injury to persons and property 235-6
Furniture beetle 73, 74, 80 Insect attack 71, 73-4
Furring 124 Insecticides 73, 74
Inspection chambers 338
Inspection cycles 278-9
Gantries 327 Inspection of building work 267-8
Garston ball valve 121, 123 Insulation, sound 84-7
Gas installations 127-8 thermal 60, 87-9, 266, 333
General development order 257, 259 Insurance 236,290-2
Glass 115, 184 Intermediate grants 154-5
Glazing, measurement of 198-9 Internal finishings 107
pricing of 211-12 Interstitial condensation 58, 61, 88
supervision of 336 Iron 98
Glazing requirements 114-15 Ironmongery 97
Granolithic floors 76 Ivy 49
Grants, buildings and plant 290-2
improvement 152-6
Jacking 30
payment of 155-6
Job cards 308
Grass cutting 38
Joinery, defects in 93-7
Gravel 36
measurement of 197
Grit blasting 51
pricing of 211
Ground beams 30
supervision of 334
Gutters 80, 333
Joint Contracts Tribunal 227

Hand pumps 134 Kiln seasoning 68

Health and Safety at Work Act 6 Kitchen cleaning 136
Heating requirements 60, 61 Kitchen improvements 143, 185-6
Heating systems 124, 144 Knots 69
High alumina cement 54 Knotting 111, 335
Highways Act 264-5
Hoardings 327
Hot water supply 123-4, 336-7 Labour, direct 296-8
House longhorn beetle 73, 74, 80 oncosts 206-7
358 Index

Land drains 57 Maintenance needs 6-7

Layout plans 260 Maintenance planning 270-l
Lead roofs 84, 333 Maintenance policy formulation 27 I-
Liability for maintenance 4-6 2
Lichens 49 Maintenance programme 301-3, 305,
Lifts 129 313-14
Lighting 127 Maintenance research 10
Linoleum 77 Maintenance resources 7-8
Lives of buildings 10-11, 16 Manholes 129, 339
Local government operational research Manuals 285-90
unit 6, 83, 279 Measure and value contracts 222-3
Local plans 259 Measurement procedures 190-9
Lofts 148 Measurement units 194-9
Luminaires 127 Merulius lacrymans 68, 70-1, 72, 75,
Lump sum contracts 223 80, 93-4
Lyctus powder post beetle 73, 74 Metalwork, corrosion of 48-9, 97-8
measurement of 198
painting of 110, 111
Magnesium oxychloride floorings 78 Metrication 14-15, 340-1
Maintenance, avoidable 2 Mining subsidence 29-31
breakdown 277 Mobile depots 300-1
budgeting for 273-7 MOATS 177
computerised 282 Modernisation of dwellings 144-7
definition of 1 Mortars 43-4, 48, 50, 331
economics of 19-20 Moulds 49, 100
elemental classification of 350-1
nature of 8-10
organisation of 304, 305-13
National Building Specification 175-6
planned 277-82
Newtonite 57
corrective 2, 277
NHBC scheme 4
preventive 2, 277
Noises, floor 75
predictable 2
hot water supply 123-4
shut down 277
plumbing 121-2
significance of 2-3
Normalised level difference 85
standards of 272-3
supervision of 323-38
technology of 11-12
training for 314-16 Occupancy cost analyses 285, 342-5
unplanned 2 Office development permits 258
Maintenance contracts 224-5 Offices, Shops and Railway Premises
Maintenance cost records 283-5 Act 266
Maintenance cycles 303 Open cell process 68
Maintenance data 282-5 Operating costs 274
Maintenance depots 299-301 Organisation 298-9, 304, 305-13
Maintenance incentive schemes 316- Outline applications 260-1
19 Overflows 118, 123
Maintenance liability 4-6 Overheads 207
Maintenance manuals 285-90 Oxidation 83
 Index 359

Package deal contracts 223-4 Planning control 255-63

Paint primers 111, 114 Planning maintenance 270-1
Paint removers 110 Planning notices 261, 263, 268
Painting, blistering of 111, 336 Planning register 261
defects in 108 Plans, block 260
discoloration in 112 layout 260
measurement of 199 site 260
metalwork 111 Plant 203, 311-12
pricing of 205-6, 212-13 Plasterwork, defects in 98-102, 335
quality of 108 measurement of 198
specification of 184, 185 painting of 113-14
supervision of 335-6 pricing of 211
Painting asbestos cement 114 specification of 183
Painting cycles 108-9, 279-80 supervision of 335
Painting of ceilings 113-14, 336 Plastic repairs to stonework 50-1
Painting of masonry 114 Plastics pipes 119
Painting of steelwork 110, 111, 335 Plastics sheeting 53
Painting of walls 113-14, 336 Plastics wastes 337
Painting of woodwork 109-13, 335-6 Plumbing, defects in 118-23
Painting procedures 107-14 measurement of 198
Paints, bituminous 57-8 noises in 121-2
cement 57 single stack 122, 337
chlorinated rubber 57 supervision of 336-7
emulsion 57, 113 Plumbing appliances 122-3, 336
specification of 183-4 Policy formulation 271-2
Paperhanging 336 Polystyrene 88
Paraffin heaters 59 Popping of plaster 101
Pattern staining 114 Preambles 194
Pavings 36-8 Predictable maintenance 2
Pebble dashing 57, 103, 104-5, 106 Prefabricated building extensions
Performance specifications 177-8 149, 151
Permitted development 257-8 Preliminaries 175, 180-2, 194, 203,
Petroleum storage 266 207
Pipes, classification of 179 Preservation of timber 68-9
drain 129, 337 Pricing of alterations 213-15
easements for 269 Pricing of building work 202-13
service 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, Pricing of repairs 166-7
336-7 Primers 111, 114
Planned corrective maintenance 2, Programme, cleaning 280-1
277 costs 274
Planned lighting maintenance 127 maintenance 279, 301-3, 305,
Planned preventive maintenance 2, 313-14
277 services 281-2
Planning, development plans 258-9 Proofs of evidence 164-7
permitted development 257-8 Protimeter 60
Planning applications 259-63 Public inquiries 263-4
Planning approval 263 Putty 115, 184
Planning certificates 261 PVC floor tiles 77, 128
360 Index
Quantity surveyor 229 thermal insulation of 87, 88, 89,
Quantum meruit 220 333
tiles 80-1, 332
zinc 84, 333
Raking shores 25, 32, 33-4, 35 Roughcast 57, 104-6
Records, building work 338 Rubber flooring 77
clerk of works 324
cost 283-5
Rectification work 9 Safety 129-30
Refuse collection from flats 128 Sanitary appliances 121, 122, 336
Rehabilitation, advantages of 156-7 Schedule contracts 222-3
cost benefit studies in 158-60 School conversion 149, 150
financing of 157-8 Seasoning timber 67-8
Reinforced concrete 54 Security 130-1
Relative humidity 58 Selective tendering 226
Renderings 57, 102-6 Serial contracting 223
Renovations 9 Services, improvement of 143, 144
Repairs grants 155 maintenance of 118-129
Replacements 9 programme 281-2
Reports, clerk of works 325 Servicing 8
technical 162-4 Setting out 232, 325-6
Rescission 220 Settlement 23-7, 27-31, 46-7, 240-1,
Research 10 247
Resin pocket 69 Shakes 69
Retention money 220, 240 Sheeriness 113
Ribbing 70 Shoring 25, 31-5
Rights, drainage 269 Showers 123
light 268 Shrinkable clay 23-4, 27-9
support 268 Shrinkage, brickwork 49
way 268-9 clay 27
Rindgall 69 paint 84
Ring mains 126 plaster 98
Rising damp 55-7 timber 67
Roofs, asphalt 83-4, 332 Shut-down maintenance 277
bitumen-felt 82-3, 333 Siliconate rubber latex 56
copper 84, 333 Single stack plumbing 122
flashings for 80 Site arrangements 203, 205
flat, construction 81-2 Site boundaries 269
gutters for 80, 333 Site conditions 170
lead 84, 333 Site huts 203
measurement of 197 Site investigations 22
metal flat 84 Site meetings 325
moisture penetration in 55 Site plans 260
pitched, coverings 80-1, 332 Skirtings, hollow detachable 126-7
timbers 79-80, 334 roof82
pricing of 211 Slates 80-1, 332
slates 80-1, 332 Slenderness ratio 47
supervision of 332-3 Smoke detectors 132-3
 Index 361

Smoky chimneys 61-3 Supervision of maintenance work

Socket outlets 126 323-38
Soils 23-6 Suppliers 239
Sound insulation 84-7 Surface condensation 58, 59
Special grants 155 Suspended floors 75-6
Specification, drafting of 178-80
National Building 175-6
performance 177-8
purpose of 227-8 Taking-off 191-2
sources of information for 169- Tanks 121
74 Target cost contracts 222
typical 180-9 Target times 318, 319
Specification format 174-5 Tarmacadam 36-7
Specific performance 219 Taxation 19, 290-2
Split 70 Tell-tales 28
Sprinklers 134, 292 Tenants' request cards 308
Stable conversion 149, 150 Tendering 221, 225-7
Stains 45, 59, 101 selective 226
Staircases 79 Terotechnology 12
Standard Method of Measurement of Terrazzo floors 76-7
Building Works 191, 194 Testing of bricks 330-1
Standard times 318 Testing of cement 330
Standards of maintenance 272-3 Testing of drains 337-8
States of asphalt 83 Testing of sand 330
Statutory requirements 4-6, 232 Thermal insulation 60, 87-9, 266, 333
Steelwork, demolition of 328 Thermoplastic floor tiles 77
measurement of 197-8 Throat restrictor 62
painting of 110, 111, 335 Tie rods 47
setting out 326 Tiles, external wall 106-7
treatment of 98 internal wall 183
weathering of 54 roof 80-1, 332
Steelwork frames 53-4 Timber, defects in 69-73, 74, 333-4
Stock control 312-13 preservation of 68-9
Stonework, cleaning of 51-2 seasoning of 67-8
colourless treatments for 51 specification of 183
defects in 49-50, 332 treatment of 73-5
measurement of 196 types of 67
repairs to 50-1 Timber floors 75-6, 78, 333-4
Stools 30 Timber roofs 79-82, 334
Stop notice 268 Timber staircases 79
Storage tanks 121 Torn grain 70
Stores, computerised 312-13 Trade catalogues 174
requisitions 312 Training, industrial 314
Storey enclosure estimates 201 Training of managers 315
Structural life 11 Training of operatives 315-16
Structure plans 258-9 Training of supervisors 315
Subcontractors 230, 238-9, 245 Tree roots 24, 25, 29
Sulphate attack 22, 45-6 Trench timbering 328
362 Index

Underpinning 25, 28, 30, 196, 332 Warp 70

Unit estimates 201 Water buckets 134
Unplanned maintenance 2 Water by-laws 266-7
Urea formaldehyde resin 88 Water closets 122-3
Use classes 256-7 Water hammer 122, 124
U-value 60, 87 Water spraying 51
Water test 337-8
W eatherboarding 53
Valuation tables 17 Wet rot 71, 72, 79, 94
Vapour barrier 81-2, 88 Windows, cleaning of 136
Variations 233-4, 244 decay of 93-5
Varnish 111 defects in 334
Ventilation 59, 60, 64, 125-6 double glazing of 88
Vermiculite 88 security of 130
Vibration 89 sound insulation of 85-6
specification of 185
strutting for 25, 31
Walls, boundary 39 thermal insulation of 87, 88, 89
brick 42-9 Wood block flooring 78
cavity 331 Wood-boring beetles 74
defects in 41-2 Working up 192-4
external tiling on 106-7 W rinkling 114
insulation of 87-8
light claddings for 52-3
rubble 196 Yardsticks 12-13
setting out 326
stone 49-52
Waney edge 70 Zinc roofs 84, 333