Physics Factsheet
www.curriculum-press.co.uk Number 84
Uses of Capacitors
Factsheet 29 provided a thorough discussion of capacitor theory. It may
well be worth looking through this again.
Example:
In this Factsheet we will be looking at the ways that capacitors can be used (a) To what fraction of its original voltage does a discharging
in electronic circuitry, and the types of capacitors that are in common use. capacitor drop after 3 time constants (T=3RC)?
(b) How many time constants does it take for the voltage to drop to
A brief summary of relevant theory 25% of its initial value?
1. Charge and discharge rates:
Solution:
R (a) e-3T/RC = e-3 = 0.050
-t
+ + (b) e-t/RC = 0.25, = ln 0.25 = -1.39, t = 1.39RC = 1.39T
V C R RC
C -
-
.
Charging Most uses of capacitors involve this time constant. It can be seen that
Discharging
increasing R or increasing C results in a larger time constant. The charge and
A capacitor charges or discharges through a resistor following an exponential discharge rates change more slowly.
curve. The time constant, T, is defined as: T = RC (s)
2. Capacitance and Energy:
The discharge graphs resemble:
When a capacitor C is charged to a potential difference V, a charge Q is
V, I, Q stored in it. Q = CV, or C = Q/V (farads)
The energy stored on this capacitor can be written:
E = ½CV2 = ½QV = ½Q2/C (joules)
3. Reactance:
In an a.c. circuit, a capacitor C has a reactance.
t 1
XC = (ohms)
Things are slightly more complex for the charging graphs. The p.d. and (ωC)
charge stored increase as the charging current falls: Where ω is the angular frequency (ω = 2πf).
I
Reactance for a capacitor is equivalent to resistance for a resistor.
At very high frequencies the capacitor acts as a short circuit; at
very low frequencies the capacitor blocks most of the current.
Example:
(a) A 1.5µF capacitor is placed in a mains circuit (f=50Hz).
t Find its reactance.
V,Q
(b) It is then placed in a d.c. circuit (batteries). What is its
reactance now?
Solution:
(a) XC = 1/(ωC) = 1/(2π × 50 × 1.5×10-6) = 2.1kΩ
(b) XC = 1/(ωC) = Infinity, as the frequency is zero.
t
In a d.c. circuit, the capacitor does not let any current through.
In each case the current drops to 0.37 of its initial value after one time
constant: e-t/RC = e-1 = 0.37
1
84. Uses of Capacitors Physics Factsheet
Uses of Capacitors The voltage across the load is smoothed by this extra flow of charge.
1. Coupling
Because a capacitor blocks d.c. signals, it can be used between stages of an V
amplifier, or to connect the amplifier to a loudspeaker. Only the a.c. signal
C charging C discharging
can get through.
C
Stage 1 R
Stage 2
t
If the input signal is a square wave:
There is still a slight ripple in the voltage. The larger the capacitance, the
smaller the ripple will be. If the load only requires a small current flow (e.g.
electronics), then the smoothing can be almost perfect.
Input Current
A high value capacitor can be used to smooth d.c. voltage
0V for many applications.
Output Current 0V 3. Energy discharge
In certain devices, it is important that all of the energy is supplied in a
sudden pulse. Examples are flashguns and some types of lasers. This
requires a very high current flow for a very short period of time.
It is important that the time constant of the coupling circuit (RC) is much Power supplies cannot do this.
greater than the period of the input signal. If the capacitor were to become V r
significantly charged (or discharged) during each half cycle, then the current
flow would fall. This would cause distortion in the output.
Input Current
0V
Load R
Output Current The internal resistance, r, limits the flow of current,
(RC too small) V
0V I= , restricting the rate of energy transfer.
(R+r)
Obviously this would not be acceptable. However, if energy is stored on a capacitor, then the discharge current can
be very large, as long as the resistance of the load, R, is very small. The
Only the varying component of a signal can travel through a initial current flow is given by I=V/R. If the load is tiny, then the rate of
capacitor. energy transfer P=V2/R can be very large.
The lack of significant internal resistance means that a
2. Smoothing charged capacitor can deliver energy very quickly (for a short period
A diode bridge rectifier changes a.c. voltage (e.g. mains) into d.c. voltage. of time).
This is often required in electronic circuitry. However the d.c. output of
the rectifier is not steady: 4. Oscillation
The charge and discharge rates for a capacitor circuit can be used to produce
an alternating signal. The frequency depends on the components chosen.
R
A large capacitance across the output stores charge, which can then be V1
discharged through the load as the output voltage from the rectifier falls. -
V0
C +
V2
R1
d.c. supply
Output C Load R R2
0V
2
84. Uses of Capacitors Physics Factsheet
This is an astable multivibrator. When V1 becomes larger than V2 , the Some useful capacitors
output Vo instantly becomes negative. Capacitor, C, discharges through The basic capacitor has two conducting plates separated by a dielectric
resistor, R, until V1 becomes less than V2 . The output Vo jumps to a material. The capacitance is given by:
positive value. The capacitor charges up (through R) until V1 becomes
greater than V2 , forcing Vo to go negative again. C = Aεoεr
d
The output voltage is a square wave. A is the area of each plate
εo is the permittivity of free space
V0 εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric
d is the separation of the plates.
t There are different ways that practical capacitors can be constructed.
1. Film capacitors
The frequency is controlled by the values of R and C, as time constant RC paper
determines the rate of charging and discharging (and thus the rate at which metal foil
V1 changes). Often R is a variable resistor, allowing the operating frequency
to be adjusted. paper
metal foil
An RC circuit can be used to determine the rate of switching
in many types of oscillating circuits.
The paper and metal strips are rolled into a cylinder, forming large areas of
metal separated by waxed paper as the dielectric. These capacitors are
5. Tuners very cheap. They make good general-purpose capacitors.
A traditional and simple tuning circuit for radios, televisions, etc, relies on Often plastic films such as polycarbonate and polystyrene are used instead
a capacitor and inductor in parallel. of paper, as they improve the frequency response.
Aerial 2. Electrolytic capacitors
Once again thin strips of material are rolled into a cylinder to form a large
area in order to maximise capacitance. But this time the dielectric is just a
thin film of aluminium oxide formed on the positive strip of aluminium foil
(the anode).
C L Output
paper soaked in electrolyte
aluminium foil
paper soaked
All the carrier frequencies are picked up by the aerial. By choosing the in electrolyte
aluminium foil
correct values for C and L, the device can be tuned to a selected frequency.
A chemical reaction forms the oxide layer. It may be less than 10-6m thick,
greatly increasing the capacitance. Electrolytic capacitors routinely have
capacitances of hundreds of microfarads, or even more.
Output
Their high capacitance makes them very useful in smoothing and coupling
circuits. However they have a constant leakage current (limiting their use in
low power electronic circuits), and must be put in the circuit the correct
way round to avoid damage (they are polarised).
3. Variable air capacitors
Tuning circuits require a capacitor whose value can be changed. The variable
f air capacitor accomplishes this by changing the effective area of the plates
fR facing each other.
The reactance of the inductor increases with frequency; the reactance of
the capacitor decreases with frequency. The maximum voltage across the
tuner occurs when:
1
fR =
(2π√LC)
fR is the resonant frequency.
An L-C parallel circuit allows us to tune to a selected frequency.
A variable capacitor makes tuning through a range of frequencies Turning the knob rotates one set of plates, changing the effective area. The
possible. actual capacitance is small. The important point is that it can be varied.
3
84. Uses of Capacitors Physics Factsheet
Questions
1. In a coupling circuit, sketch the output current (from a square wave
input) if the time constant is much smaller than the period of the input
signal.
2. In a smoothing circuit, the load requires a steady current of 0.5 amps.
The smoothing capacitor holds a maximum charge of 2.4×10-4 coulombs.
Is the smoothing likely to be very effective at mains frequency?
3. Two strips of paper and two strips of metal foil are rolled up to make
a paper capacitor. Each strip is 50cm long, 2cm wide, and has a thickness
of 0.1mm. Find the diameter of the cylinder formed.
4. Give one advantage and one disadvantage of electrolytic capacitors.
Where are they used?
5. Two ways that capacitance can be maximised are by increasing the area
of the plates or by decreasing the separation of the plates. What methods
are used in film, electrolytic, and air capacitors to maximise capacitance?
Answers
1.
The capacitor becomes completely charged or discharged, and the current
drops to zero.
2. For mains electricity, one-half of a cycle lasts 0.01s.
The charge required to provide the current in this time:
Q = It = 0.5 × 0.01 = 5 × 10-3 coulombs.
Although the capacitor only has to supply the charge for part of the
cycle, there is far too much charge required. The capacitor is much too
small.
3. Volume cylinder = Volume rectangle
(choose cm as unit)
πr2l = lwt, πr2 = wt, r2 = 4 × 50 × 0.01 / π
r2 = 0.64cm2, r = 0.80cm d = 1.6cm.
4. Advantage – large capacitance.
Disadvantage – leakage current, polarised.
Used in smoothing and coupling circuits.
5. Film capacitor – large area.
Electrolytic capacitor – large area, small separation.
Air capacitor – neither.
Acknowledgements:
This Physics Factsheet was researched and written by Paul Freeman
The Curriculum Press,Bank House, 105 King Street,Wellington, Shropshire, TF1 1NU
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