2a.

This is the biggest factory We form the superlative by

in the area. 2a. adding – est to one-syllable
1. Adjectives adjectives ant to two syllable
2b. I have many old books but adjectives ending in –y
this is the most interesting.
using most + two- and more
Order of adjectives than two-syllable adjectives
Some adjectives can be used before a noun in English. See page
64 for a guide to the order in which they can be used. In general 3. He is as strong as a horse. 3. We use as + adjective + as
we put the precise adjective nearest the noun but it is not always He isn’t as/so clever as his for positive comparisons or
easy to decide which is the most precise: a possible order would sister. not and as/so + adjective + as
be: for negative comparisons
(1) (2) (3) (4)
determiner, your own options, dimensions (size, weight), age,
(5) (6) (7) (8) (9) 1.3.2. Adjectives of one syllable
shape, colour, place of origin, material, purpose.

Examples:
- a Chinese silk wedding dress 1. If the adjective ends in two Exceptions:
- some short blue denim jeans consonants (e.g. –ng, - rd, -rm) Good better best
- an awful old stair carpet just add –er, -est to the Bad worse worst
adjective: Much/many more most
long, longer, longest Far farther farthest
hard harder hardest (used to describe distance, but
warm warmer warmest can also mean “additional,
2. If the adjective ends in one extra” – e.g. further details,
1.2 Other points to notice vowel or one consonant (e.g. – further information)
in, -at, -ot) double the old older oldest
about the order and use of consonant and add –er, -est to (used to describe objects and
adjectives the adjective:
thin thinner thinnest
people)
old elder eldest
1. He is 1 metre 30 tall. 1. Adjectives describing fat fatter fattest Notice elder, eldest are used
measurement come after the hot hotter hottest before a noun to talk about
2. I don’t like living alone. measurement. 3. If the adjective ends in –e family relationships, but after
add –r, -st to the adjective: verb only older oldest are
3. It’s difficult to read. 2. Some adjectives (e.g. alone, wide wider widest possible (e.g. My older/elder
The instructions are easy to afraid, alive, awake) come rude ruder rudest brother, My brother is older
follow. after the verb, never before a than I am).
noun.
4a. She was worried about
him. 3. Adjectives are often
He’s a worried man. followed by an infinitive with
to.
4b. It’s all very worrying.
It’s a worrying time for all 4a. Adjectives ending in –ed
of us. come after a verb like be, seem
or before a noun and describe
a person’s feelings.

4b. Adjectives ending in –ing

come after a verb or before a
noun and describe the person
or thing that produces those
feelings.

1.3 Comparative and 1.3.3 Adjectives of more than

superlative of adjectives one syllable
1. I’ve never been happier 1. If the adjective ends in –y,
than I am now change the –y to –i and add –
1.3.1 Form Friday 13th is the unluckiest er, -est to the adjective.
1a. London is bigger than We form the comparative by: day in the year in Britain. Exception: friendly, more
Edinburgh. 1a. adding –er to one-syllable friendly, most friendly
1b. This armchair is more adjectives and to two-syllable 2. Sally is cleverer/more
comfortable than that adjectives ending in –y clever than her brother. 2. Some adjectives with two
wooden seat. The commonest/most syllable can form their
using more + two- and more common cause of road death comparative and superlative in
than two-syllable adjectives + is careless driving. two ways: either by adding –
than (e)r, -(e)st or by using more,
3. I find science more most. weekly. at the beginning for emphasis
interesting than the arts. 3. If the adjective has three (or We are paid monthly. 4a. Adverbs which tell us
He told me the most more) syllables use more, most 4b. Every Saturday we go out. “how often’ usually come in
extraordinary story. + adjective. 5a. He never buys cigarettes. the end position.
He always makes his own. 4b. Phrases like every week,
5b. She is always late. every Saturday can also come
2. Adverbs 5c. They’ve never offered to at the beginning of a sentence.
help. 5a. Adverbs which do not tell
We are often being asked us “exactky when” usually
for information of this kind. come before a one-word verb.
2.1 Form 6. Sit down here. 5b. If the verb is be they
always follow the verb.
1. quick quickly 1. Adeverbs can be formed He went to the cinema to the 5c. If it is a two or more word
slow slowly from adjectives by adding - ly High Street in town. verb they come after the first
2. careful carefully 2. The same rule applies to Put the book on the table in part of the verb.
beautiful beautifully adjectives that end in –i. the dining room. 6. Adverbs and adverb phrases
3. lucky luckily 3. To form adverbs from 7. He reads his newspaper which tell us “where” usually
funny funnily adjectives ending in –y, quickly at the breakfast table come in the end position with
4. He greeted me in a friendly change the y to I and add –ly. every morning. the direction (to the cinema)
way. 4. To form adverbs from mentioned first and the places
She looked at me with a adjectives ending in –ly we second (smaller places come
silly expression on her face. use a phrase “in a … way” etc. before larger ones).
5. We arrived late. 5. Some adjectives do not 7. Adverbs and adv. Phrases
Stand up straight. change when they become which tell us “how, where and
He works very hard. adverbs. when” usually come in that
Don’t walk so fast. Notice: lately and hardly have order in the sentence (e.g. how
a different meaning from late = quickly, where = at the
and hard: lately – recently, breakfast table, when = every
hardly – scarcely. morning).

2.2 Comparative and 2.4 Adverb or adjective?

superlative of adverbs
1. She drives more carefully 1. We usually form the That smells good but it tastes Notice: If the verb is seem,
than her husband. comparative and the awful. appear, look, sound, feel, taste
This is the most efficient superlative by adding more we use an adjective, not an
run office in the area. most + adverb. adverb.

2. He arrived later than you. 2. Adverbs with the same form

He walked the fastest. as adjectives form their
comparative and superlative
with –er –est.
3. Articles
Notice some exceptions to
these two rules:
Well better best
Badly worse worst 3.1 Indefinite article (a/an)
Little less least
Much more most
1. You will need a pen and an Use with singular countable
exercise book. nouns:
2.3 Position of adverbs and 1. for more general meaning
2. There was a terrible storm (it doesn’t matter which pen).
adverb phrases in sentences last night. The storm swept Notice: an is used before a
1. He plays the piano well. 1. Adverbs which tell us across the whole country. word that begins with a vowel
She sings beautifully. “how” usually come in the end sound (e.g. an hour, an heir, an
2a. She’s very clever. position. 3. A million people received MP but a university).
I can hardly read it. 2a. Adverbs which tell us “to our help last year. A few, 2. for a noun mentioned for the
I don’t quite understand. what extent or to what degree” however, were not so lucky. first time. Notice: we use the
2b. I have enough money. usually come in the middle for the second mention.
He’s not tall enough to join position. 4. We come to classes twice a 3. with numbers (e.g. a
the police force. 2b. Notice: enough comes week. hundred, a thousand, a
They don’t work hard before a noun and after an million) and fractions (e.g. a
enough. adjective or adverb. 5. She’s a lorry driver. half, a quarter etc.).
3a. He’s coming tomorrow. 3a. Adverbs which tell us Notice:
3b. Yesterday he was in Paris. “when” usually come in the A few (people) = some;
Today he’s in Rome. end position. A little (help) = some
4a. The magazine comes out 3b. They can come at the but
 0 few = not many 3a. for newspaper headlines
0 little = not much b.for telexes (where the
4. to mean “every” with message should be as short as
expressions of time (e.g. once possible)
a year) c. for personal, informal
5. to describe a person’s job or messages
situation 4. before a second noun in a
linked part of nouns

3.2 Definite article (the)

1. Jane: A man phoned last Use with most nouns for more
night. specific meaning:
Peter: Well, what did the 1. to refer back to something 3.4 Changes of meaning
man want? already mentioned
2.Last night I read the book 2. when we know which one Sometimes the use (or omission O) of the article changes the
you recommended. we are talking about meaning of what we say.
3. The sun rises in the east and 3. when we refer to only one
sets in the west. of its kind
4. The computer has Notice these other uses of the:
revolutionized office systems. 4. with singular countable 3.4.1 Meals
5. You can buy the best pizzas nouns when they stand for an 1. A dinner was held last night 1. a/an or the for particular
in town at Paulo’s. invention or a species at the Savoy. meals
6. The English and the French 5. with a superlative (the first, The dinner we held last night 2. no article (0) for mealtimes
agreed to build a channel the most enjoyable) was marvelous. in general
tunnel. 6. with adjectives as plural 2. Come to 0 dinner next
The strong should help the nouns Saturday.
weak. 7. with the names of countries What time do you have
7. I live in the United or groups of islands which are breakfast.
States/the Netherlands/the plural. Notice these
Falklands/the West Indies/the exceptions: the United
Philippines/the USSR.
8. Paris lies on the Seine.
Kingdom, The Yemen
8. with names of rivers, oceans
3.4.2 Transport
The Atlantic separates and seas 1. I hailed a taxi but it didn’t 1. a/an or the for particular
Britain from America. stop. forms of transport
It’s very hot in the The six o’clock train was en 2. no article (0) for the form of
Mediterranean at the moment. minute early. transport in general
2. I always travel by 0 bus.
I came home on 0 foot.
3.3 No article (0)
1a. 0 Museums are interesting We do not use an article:
0 places. 1a. with plural countable
1b. 0 Sound travels very fast nouns and 3.4.3 Places
in 0 water. 1b. with uncountable nouns
2a. I live in 0 Rome/0 Percy when speaking about the noun
Road/0 China/0Jersey/near 0 in general (e.g. food, music, 1. The meeting was held in a 1. a/an or the to refer to a
Lake Windermere. love etc.) Compare: I hate the school. particular or known place or
2b. I shop in 0 Harrods. sound of a drill (a particular The workmen are busy in the building
2c. I read 0 Punch. sound). Notice: a few church repairing the roof. 2. no article (0) to refer to the
2d. The queen lives in 0 uncountable nouns (e.g. 2. He’s at university normal activity which goes on
Buckingham Palace. advice, news, luggage, (studying). at a place or building
2e. He went to 0 Shelffield information, research) require She’s in hospital (receiving
University. phrases like: a/the bit of a/the treatment).
3a. 0 MAN FOUND DEAD piece of to refer to a particular He is in prison (serving a
ON 0 TUBE example of that noun: a bit of sentence).
3b. Send 0 representative advice, a piece of news.
immediately. 2. with the names of most
3c. 0 Dinner in 0 oven. a. towns/cities, streets,
4. You will need a knife and countries, single/individual 4. Conditional sentences
fork. Take a bucket and spade islands, lakes
to the beach. b. shops
c. magazines. Notice these Both if and unless (= if … not) can be used to introduce
exceptions: The Economist, conditional sentences. The if clause can come before or after the
the Listener and most news main (or “result” clause). Notice we often use a comma when
papers (The New York Times, the if-clause comes first.
The Daily Mail)
d. named buildings
e. named institutions (e.g.
universities, schools, churches
etc.)
4.1 Conditional 1 5.2 Verbs followed by the
infinitive
1a. If you take drugs regularly, USE:
you become addicted to them. 1a. for general facts that do not
1b. If you mix the colours blue change 5.2.1 Verb + infinitive with to
and red, you get purple. 1b. for scientific facts. Notice
2. If you work hard, you’ll get the verbs in both parts of the
I can’t afford to have a holiday Some verbs are followed by
a good job. sentences are in the present.
this year. the infinitive with to. Here are
Unless you study, you won’t 2. maionly for future
We decided to get married. some of the most common:
pass your exams. possibilities. Notice the verbs
I managed to find another
I’ll explain it again if you after if and unless are in the
glass to replace the one I Afford forget
don’t understand. present but the verbs in the
broke. Appear happened
“result” part of the sentence
Arrange hope
are in the future.
Decide intend
Fail learn
4.2 Conditional 2 Mange
Mean
promise
refuse
1a. If I had a million pounds, I Use: Offer seem
would buy a yacht. 1a. the “unreal” or improbable Plan threaten
If he knew the answer he conditions in the present or prepare
wouldn’t tell me. future
If Mary were here now, she 1b. for giving advice and
would drive me home. suggestions. Notice the verbs
1b. If I were you, I wouldn’t after if in the “result” part of
marry him. the sentence are in present
conditional.

4.3 Conditional 3 5.2.2 Verb + direct object +

infinitive with to
1a. We wouldn’t have gone Use: He advised me to take the Some verbs have a direct
abroad for our holidays if we 1a. for “unreal” or impossible exam. object before the infinitive
hadn’t bought a new car. conditions in the past. They persuaded me to stay for with to. Here are some of the
1b. If we hadn’t set out late, 1b. to imply regret a few days. most common:
we wouldn’t have been caught 1c. to imply criticism. Notice Advise persuade
in the traffic jam. the verbs after if are in the past Allow remind
1c. If you had listened to your perfect but the verbs in the Encourage teach
father, you wouldn’t have “result” part of the sentence Force tell
made so many mistakes. are in the perfect conditional. Invite warn
order

5. Gerunds and infinitives

5.1 Verbs followed by the 5.2.3 Verb + direct object +
gerund (or –ing form) infinitive without to
I can’t stand waiting in Some verbs are followed by I heard him sing Figaro. Some verbs have a direct
queues. the –ing form. Here are some He let me borrow his car. object before the infinitive
You considered buying a of the most common: He made me tell him the truth. without to. Here are some of
house in the coutryside, but we the most common:
enjoy being in the town too Appreciate keep (on) Feel let
much. Avoid look forward Hear make
I miss living abroad. Can’t help to See
Can’t stand mention Notice: hear and see can be
Consider mind followed by the – ing form to
Deny miss express hearing or seeing only
Deslike object to part of an action (e.g. compare
Enjoy practise I heard him singing in the
Feel like put off bath).
Finish risk
Give up suggest
imagine be/get used to
be worth
 what to do. 3. after certain adjectives +
prepositions. Here are some of
5.3 Verbs followed by either the the most common:
afraid of good at
–ing or the infinitive bad at keen on
1. He continued working/to Some verbs take either the – bored with interested in
work after everybody else had ing form or the infinitive: clever at tired of
left the building. 1. Sometimes there is very fond of worried
2a. I like going to the cinema. little difference in meaning. about
She loves dancing. 2a. When verbs like can’t bear,
2b. I like to go to the cinema like, love, hate, prefer are
once a week. followed by the –ing form,
She would love to dance they tend to refer to a general
the samba with you. activity.
3a. I began studying/to study 2b. but when these verbs are 5.5 Other uses of the infinitive
in 1984. followed by the infinitive, they
I started writing/to write tend to refer to particular 1. I came here to study The infinitive is also used:
when I was very young. occasions English. 1. to express purpose
3b. I began to see that 3a. begin and start can take 2. She doesn’t know what to 2. after who, what, how,
something was wrong. either the –ing form or the do next. whether and verbs like know,
I started to realize what he had infinitive Can you explain how to do explain, wonder. Notice the
done for me. 3b. but before a verb it? infinitive is not used in thios
4a. He stopped smoking last expressing understanding (see, way after why.
week. realize) these verbs are
He remembers going to the followed by the infinitive.
seaside when he was a child. 4. with verbs like stop,
He’ll never forget eating raw remember, not forget, regret 6. Link words
fish for the first time. a. the –ing form refers to what
4b. He stopped the car to pick happens/happened before the
up a hitch-hiker. main verb (e.g. first he
He remembered to post the
letters.
smoked, than he stopped: first
he went to the seaside, now he
6.1 Words expressing result
5a. I tried to phone you several remembers the event; first he
times but I couldn’t get ate raw fish, now he 1a. He was so tired that he 1a. so + adjective/adverb +
through. remembers the event – never went to bed early. that + clause
5b. I tried working in a shop, forget = always remember) He spoke Russian so well 1b. such + noun + that +
but it didn’t interest me. b. the infinitive refers to what that everyone thought he was clause
6. Your hair needs cutting. happens/happened after the Russian. Notice: that can be left out in
The garden wants weeding. main verb (e.g. first he 1b. It was such a difficult informal speech.
stopped the car, then he picked exam (that) he knew he 2. so + clause
up the hitch-hiker; first he wouldn’t pass it. 3a. as a result, consequently
remembered about the letters, 2. It was late, so he decided to can begin a new sentence
then he posted them: take a taxi home. 3b. and, as a result, is used in
5. try can take either the –ing 3a. We have invested too the middle of a sentence
form or the infinitive but much money in this project. 4. therefore often comes in the
a. it is followed by an Consequently, we are in middle of a sentence (it can
infinitive when we mean “to financial difficulties. also come at the beginning or
attempt to do something” 3b. His wife left him and as a the end).
b. it is followed by the –ing result he became very
form when we mean “to depressed.
experiment” 4. We feel, therefore, that a
6. neead and want can be decision must be made.
followed by either the –ing
form or the infinitive , but
when they are followed by the
–ing form the meaning is
always passive.

5.4 Other uses or –ing form 6.2 Words expressing reason

1. Walking is good for you. The –ing form is also used: 1. Seeing that/Since/As we 1. such, as, seeing that +
2. After walking to work, I’m 1. as the subject of a clause or arrived late, all the best seats clause often come before the
ready to sit at my desk all day. sentence had been taken. main clause
3. I’m afraid of missing the 2. following time words like We couldn’t find a good seat 2. because + clause usually
train. after, before, when, since, because all the best ones had comes after the main clause
He’s good at telling others while been taken.
3. We were unable to go by 3. because of, as a result of 4. During/All through the be used to introduce a chain of
train because of the rail strike. and due to are followed by a summer we got a lot of events
Many of the deaths of older noun or a noun phrase. visitors. 4. during, all through and
people are due to heart attacks. Notice: due to means “caused It rained heavily throughout throughout are followed by a
by” or “resulting from”. the night. noun or a noun phrase

6.3 Words expressing purpose 6.6 Words expressing

condition
1. We came to the countryside 1. We can use the infinitives to 1. Even if you are born rich, 1. even if, as long as and
to find some peace and quiet. (do), in order (not) to (do), so life is very difficult. unless + clause can be used
Handle the flowers carefully as (not) to (do) to express You can borrow the car as before or after he main clause
in order not to manage them. purpose. long as you are careful with it! Notice unless means “if …
2. He chose this university so Notice: in order to, so as to You can’t come with me not”
that/in order that he could are more formal. unless you promise to keep 2. whether + clause usually
study Physics. 2. so that, in order that + quiet. comes after the main clause
clause (often with the verbs 2. I don’t know whether you and is often used in indirect
can could, might, would in the have met him or not. questions with … or not
clause). a. They discussed whether a. Certain verbs (e.g. discuss)
they should attend the Games. can be followed by whether
b. It depends on whether the but not if
6.4 Words expressing contrast government takes any action. b. After prepositions and
The organizers will decide before to infinitives use
whether to impose lines. whether but not if.
1. Although/Even if/Even 1. although, even if, even 3. Take this umbrella in case it 3. in case + clause usually
though the car is old, it is still though + clause can come rains. comes after the main clause.
reliable. before or after the main clause. In case of emergency break Notice: In case of +
2a. Despite/In spite of the Notice: even though is more the glass. noun(often used in formal
rain, I went for a walk. informal written notices.
2b. We enjoyed our walking 2a. despite or in spite of + a
holiday despite/in spite of the noun or noun phrase + the –
fact that it was lining. ing form
3a. Buying a house is 2b. despite the fact that, in
expensive. It is, however, a spite of the fact that + clause
good investment.
4. John is very rich
3a. however can come at the
beginning, in the middle or at
6.7 Words expressing
but/while/whereas his friends the end of a sentence additional information or
are extremely poor. 3b. though is more informal
5. On the one hand, these and comes at the end of a reinforcing a point
computers are expensive. On sentence
the other hand, they are 4. but, while, whereas are 1a. I don’t really want to go 1a. besides, in addition (to
exactly what we wa usually placed in the middle of out tonight. Besides there is a that) and furthermore can be
two main clauses expressing good film on TV. used at the beginning of a
contrasting ideas We are still waiting for the sentence following the first
5. on the one hand and on the goods we ordered three statement made. Notice:
other hand can be used at the months ago. Furthermore we besides is less formal;
beginning, in the middle or at have been overcharged for our furthermore is more formal
the end of two sentences last order. 1b. moreover can be used at
expressing contrasting ideas. 1b. This theory about the the beginning or in the middle
Notice: on the other hand is origins of the universe is new. of the sentence which gives
often used at the beginning of It is, moreover, extremely additional information
the second sentence. interesting. 2a. not only … but also/as well
2a. The painting is not only can link to sentences, phrases
valuable but also a work of art. or words to give additional
She not only writes novels but information. Notice: but also
(she) lectures as well. are used together when there is
The house was not only no sentence subject pronoun
6.5 Words expressing time large but (was/it was) also
modern.
and a verb in the second part
of the sentence, but … also are
1. When/While/As I was 1. when, while, as and after + 2b. Not only is the restaurant separated when there is a verb
driving along the road, I saw a clause can come before or superb but it is also expensive. in the second part of the
terrible accident. after the main clause. 3. They robbed a bank as well sentence.
He went out after he’d 2. whenever, everytime + as a post office. 2b. not only can come at the
finished work. clause often come before the As well as being sent to beginning of the first part of
2. Whenever/Everytime I see main clause for added prison, they were lined 2.000 the sentence to emphasize
him, he’s driving a different emphasis.
car. 3. first, then, later etc. can be
pounds. What the speaker is saying. In
4. They like Indian food. I like this case it is necessary to
Indian food too/as well. change the order of the subject 7.4 should
They aren’t very generous and verb. In sentences like 1. I should really help my Should is used to express
people. They haven’t got any these the subject pronoun and mother with the dishes (but I 1. an obligation (which you
friends either. verb in the second part of the won’t) may not carry out)
sentence are usually 2. I should study harder 2. advice
mentioned and but … also are 3. We should be taking off in a 3. something that will almost
separated. few minutes certainly happen as long as
4. I/We should be most nothing unexpected prevents it
grateful if you could send us a 4. conditional sentences in
7. Modals copy of the agreement more formal/written style with
Will, shall, would, should, may, might, can, could, must, have 5. I should have told you but I I and we
(got) to, ought to, need forgot 5. (with the perfect infinitive)
an obligation which was not
carried out
7.1 will
1. It’ll be raining tomorrow. Will is used to express;
2. Nothing on TV. I’ll go to 1. a prediction about the future
the cinema instead. 2. a decision made while you 7.5 may and might
3. Will you sit down, please? are speaking
I won’t go with you. 3. a request or a refusal
1. He may/might be the new May and might are used to
4. I’ll take you to the cinema. 4. a promise
teacher express:
5. Could you lend me one 5. willingness
2. He may/might be late this 1. a possibility now
pound? 6. an order
evening 2. a possibility in the future
Of course I will. 7. determination
3. May/might I ask a question? Notice: might is rather less
6. You will start work at 8 on
4. They may/might have been certain than may in meaning
Monday.
held up in the traffic 3. asking for permission
7. I will not be treated in this
Notice: may is more common
way.
than might and can is often
used instead of may
4. (with the perfect infinitive)
7.2 shall a possible explanation for
something in the past
1. We hall send you the Shall is used to express:
information as soon as 1. the future (in the same way
possible as will but only with I and we) 7.6 can
2. Shall we go out for a meal 2. a suggestion
tonight? 3. an offer 1. I can ski/drive a car Can is used to express
3. Shall I carry the case for 4. Notice: shall is occasionally 2. I’m there tomorrow. I can 1. knowing how to do
drive you to the airport. something
you? used in very formal (written)
4. No pupil shall enter the orders. 3. Can I go now? 2. being able to do something
library without the permission 4. Can you come to the party? 3. asking for permission (used
5. You can’t be tired! You’ve informally instead of may)
of a teacher.
been asleep all morning. 4. a possibility
6. You can’t have been 5. an unlikely explanation for
7.3 would pleased when you realized
what he had done!
something now; It’s
impossible for you to be tired
1. I’d like to go. Would is used to express: 6. (with the perfect infinitive)
I wish you wouldn’t smoke 1. a wish (sometimes an unlikely explanation for
so much. suggesting annoyance or something in the past: It
2. I would move house if I had disapproval) wasn’t possible for you to be
the money. 2. the “result” part of a pleased
3. Would you type this for me, conditional sentence
please? 3. a polite request
4. I’d rather have tea than 4. a preference with rather
coffee. 5. the reporting of will 7.7 could
5. Will you ring me? 6. a habit in the past
He asked if I would ring 1. When I was six I could play Could is used to express:
him. the piano. 1. knowing how to do
6. He would sing at the top o 2. When I was younger I could something in the past
his voice in the shower. drive around for our without a 2. being able to do something
break. in the past
3. Could I use your phone? 3. asking for permission (used
4. Could he be right? informally instead of may but
5. They couldn’t have phoned rather more polite than can) 8. The passive
her! She hasn’t got a phone! 4. a possibility (rather less
strong than can)
5. (with the perfect infinitive)
an unlikely explanation for 8.2 Most common forms
something in the past: It
wasn’t possible for them to
phone her IT Is
Has been done
Will be seen
Was reported
7.8 must
1. I must wash my hair Must is used to express: This toy is made in Japan. The passive is formed by using
tonight. 1. a personal obligation A strange object has been seen a form of be (is, has been, will
2. The work must be done 2. what you consider to be in the night sky. be, was etc.) + the past
before tomorrow. someone else’s obligation Further information will be participle of the verb (made,
3. You must not smoke in 3. (with not) what is not given in our next bulletin. seen, given, prepared).
here. allowed This report was prepared by a Notice: when the person or
4. You must be exhausted after 4. a reasonable conclusion team of experts. thing responsible for the action
all that work. made about something now (the agent) is mentioned, use
5. You must have been 5. (with the perfect infinitive) the preposition by.
surprised when she said she a reasonable conclusion about
was getting married. something in the past

7.9 have (got) to 8.2 Use

I’ve got to/have got to be on Have (got) to is used to 1. Five policemen have been The passive is used:
time tomorrow. express killed in Northern Ireland. 1. when the agent is unknown
We haven’t got to/don’t have What is or isn’t necessary The weather was heated and (we may not know who killed
to go if we don’t want to. a solution of chemicals was the policemen) or not
prepared. important. Notice: the passive
2. A description of the is often used in newspaper
7.10 ought to gunman was issued by the reports and in scientific
1. I really ought to go and see Ought to is used to express: police. experiments or processes.
her. 1. an obligation (which you 3. A charity record has been 2. to make the object of the
2. I ought to have gone to see may or may not carry out) made by many famous names active verb more important
her but I was busy. 2. (with the perfect infinitive) in the world of pop music. (attention is drawn to the
an obligation which you did description of the gunman
not carry out rather than who issued it)
Notice: ought to is rather 3. when the description of the
stronger than should agent is very long (many
famous names in the world of
poo music)

7.11 need 8.2 Points to remember

1. You needn’t shout. I can 1. needn’t is used here as a 1. The painting should be 1. Use be + past principle after
hear you modal verb finished by next week. should and other modals
You needn’t bring anything 2. There is also a question 2. The decoration should have 2. Use been + past participle
to the party. form, constructed in the same been finished but I ran out of after would have, should have
2. Need I take anything to the way as questions with can, paint. etc.
party? must and other modals. 3. Mother Teresa was awarded 3. Verbs with two objects
Need you ask that 3. Needn’t with the perfect the Nobel Peace Prize. which can form two types of
question? infinitive expresses the idea The Nobel Peace Prize was active sentence can form two
3. You needn’t have phoned. I that something in the past was awarded to Mother Teresa. types of passive sentence.
already knew you were not necessary but it was done. 4. I got stuck in a traffic jam. 4. get + past participle is often
coming. Compare the ordinary verb She is getting married next used instead of be with passive
need: month. meaning.
You don’t need to shout. I can 5a. It is thought that he started 5. The passive is used in
hear you. the fire deliberately. constructions with verbs like
Do I need to take anything to 5b. He had got his hair cut think, believe, say, consider,
the party? yesterday. feel, find, know, understand
You dindn’t need to phone. I 6. This job needs/wants doing.
already knew you were
coming.
 a. after the introductory if
b. before an infinitive
6. have/get something done 9.3.2 Verb + adverb + preposition
expresses the idea of
a. arranging for or paying + object
somebody to do something for We dropped in on the Sniths. Even if the object is a pronoun
you. Notice: get is more We dropped in on them. it must come after the adverb
informal. + preposition.
b. experiencing something
7. After need, want, the –ing
form can be used with passive
meaning
9.4 Ordinary verbs + preposition
The boy ran over the bridge. The object must come after the
He stepped over the puddle. verb + preposition, even when
9. Phrasal verbs He stepped over it. it is a noun.

9.1 What is a phrasal verb? 10 Prepositions

1. A phrasal verb consists of a verb plus one or two words like on,
up, into etc.
2. The words which come after the verb are usually adverbs, 10.1 among
although sometimes a phrasal verb can consist of verb + adverb +
preposition. 1. Divide these sweets among the Use for a group of things to
3. When an ordinary is followed by a preposition, the meaning of children. express:
the verb will be clear from the meanings of the individual parts of 2. The workers talked among 1. “with a share for each of”
the verb. In the case of a phrasal verb, however, the parts of the themselves as if they waited to 2. with one another”
phrasal verb together have one basic meaning which may be see the boss. 3. “in the group/company of”
completely different from their individual meanings. 3. He was the only one among all
my friends who supported me.
Ordinary verbs + Phrasal verbs
prepositions The police are looking into the
murder. 10.2 all
I looked into the mirror. We ran out of money on
holiday. 1. The train left at midnight/8.30 Use to express:
She ran out of the room crying. Notice: these verbs change p.m. 1. an exact point of time
their meaning when adverbs 2a. I’ll meet you at the corner of 2a. an exact position or place
and prepositions are added. the street. 2b. with the name of a city,
E.g. look into (a murder) = 2b. The train stops at town or village, if we are
investigate; run out of (money) Birmingham. interested in a particular point
= have none left. I studied at London. of activity in it rather than the
3. Look at this new car. whole place
Aim at the centre.
9.2 Phrasal verbs which can be
separated

9.2.1 Verb + adverb + object Used expressions

1. He looked a word up in the 1. If the object is a noun, it can At all At hand At peace/war At work
dictionary. come before or after the costs/events At home/the At present Astonished at
He looked up a word in the adverb. At any rate office At sea Bad at
dictionary. 2. If the object is a pronoun At church/the At last At a time Clever at
2. He looked it up. (e.g. it) it must come before hairdresser’s/ At least (when) Good at
the adverb. school At a loss/ a At the same Shocked at
At Christmas/ profit time (as) Shoot at
Easter At lunch At times Shout at
9.3 Phrasal verbs which cannot At ease At night At the Smile/laugh at
At first (sight) At once weekend Surprised at
be separated

9.3.1 Verb + adverb (no object)

They called in to see us. You cannot separate the two
The plans fell through. parts of the verb. You cannot
They turned up unexpectedly. say “They called to se us in”.

We walked for several miles

 Miles 4. Are you for or against 3.distance
nuclear weapons? 4. “in favor of”
10.3 between 5. What did you do that for? 5. reason
6. Let’s go out for a meal. 6. purpose + noun
7. They left for America this 7. movement towards.
morning.
1. The bank is between the post Use to express:
office and the baker’s. 1. a position in the middle
2. The ferry sails between (which things or people on two Useful expressions
Dover and Ostend. sides)
An agreement was made 2. bringing two or more things Forever Once and for Anxious for Pay for
between the three super- or people together For goodness’ all As for Reason for
powers. 3. sharing something together sake For a while/ Ask for Responsible
3. Just between you and me, I (a secret) For heaven’s time Care for for
think he’s awful. 4. either one thing or another sake Search for
4. I can’t choose between these
three dresses.

10.4 beyond 10.8 from

1. The farm lies beyond that Use to express 1. We traveled from Vienna to Use to express
field. 1. “further than” (distance) Paris by train. 1. place of origin
2. His story is beyond belief. 2. “outside the understanding 2. He works from 9 to 5. 2.a starting point in time
She is beyond help. or the reach of” 3. Prices start at 5 pounds. 3. a starting point in quantity
3. The success of the plan was 3. “more or better than” 4. I can’t tell one from the other 4. separation
beyond anything we had hoped
for.

10.5 by Useful expressions

1. This book was written by Use to express From A to Z From morning Away from Prevent from
Charles Dickens. 1. who does/did/will do an From to night Apart from (doing)
2. This model was made by action beginning to From time to Hear from Suffer from
hand. 2. how something is/was/will end time
3. The bank is just by the Post be done From head to
Office. 3. closeness or nearness to toe
4. By next year I’ll have 4. “not later than”
fnished this book.

Useful expressions 10.9 in

By accident By all means By post Amazed by1 1. They’re in the kitchen. Use to express
By airbus/ car/ By chance By sight Astonished 2. We got married in 1. place
plane/sea/ship/ By day/night By surprise by1 March/winter/1985. 2. a point during a longer period
train (and By (doing) By yourself Impressed 3. I’ll be back in an hour. of time – weeks, months,
other means of By far (alone) by1 4. He’s in banking/the local seasons, years and centuries
transport) By mistake Surprised by1 police force/a mess. 3. “within a certain time”
Upset by1 4. a job/profession/situation

10.6 except Useful expressions

1. All the boys had pens except Use to express In all In general In particular In time
one. 1. “excluding” In any case In half In prison In turn
2. The holiday was excellent 2. “apart from” + noun In bed In hurry In private In a way
except for the rain. 3. “apart from the fact that” + In common In ink/pencil In public In a sense
3. He’s a good student, except clause In danger In love In secret Dressed in
that he’s always late. In debt In a loud In sight Get in
In difficulties voice In spite of Interested in
In the end In the In shock Succeed in
10.7 for In fact morning In tears Take part in
1. This is for you. Use to express: In my opinion
2. We’ve lived here for three 1. “intended to belong to” In other words
years. 2. length of time

1
= or at
10.10 into 10.14 out of
Hey came into the room. Use to express movement 1. She ran out of the house. Use to express
towards 2. Two out of five children have 1. movement away from
learning problems. 2. “from among” (with ratios)
3. I copied the recipe out of the 3. place of origin
Useful expressions newspaper. 4. the material something is
Bump into Jump into 4. The dress was made out of a made from
Crash into Run into lace curtain.
Get into (trouble) Throw into
Go into Walk into

10.11 of Useful expressions

1. The cover of this book is Use to express Out of breath Out of date Out of the Out of reach
attractive. 1. “belonging to” Out of control Out of order question Out of stock
2. He’s one of my best friends. 2. “from among” Out of danger Out of (impossible) Out of work
3. a ton bricks 3. measure practice
a pint of milk 4. cause
a pound butter 5. description
4. He died of starvation.
5. a man of 40/the City of
10.15 since
London/made of gold
1. I haven’t seen him since Use to express
1978. 1. a starting point for actions
Useful expressions 2. Since he had flu, he decided and situations which continue to
Ahead of Enough of In front of Proof of not to go to work. the moment of speaking
Because of Everyone of Instead of Remind 2. “because”
By means of Example of Lack of someone of
Cure Explanation On account Several of
someone of of] of Think of 10.16 to
Die of Hundreds of On behalf of Typical of 1. We’re going to Paris. Use to express
Dozens In case of Out of 2. It’s a quarter to 12. 1. “in the direction of”
of 3. We’ll be in the office from 9 2. “before” (in time)
to 5. 3. until
4. He won by 2 games to 3. 4. comparison
10.12 off I prefer sleeping to working.
1. A tile has come off the roof. Use to express
2. Our house is off the High 1. movement away from
Street. 2. “at a distance from” Useful expressions
According to Owing to
In addition to In order to
Useful expressions Due to So as to
Off duty Get off (the bus)
Off limits Take off (your coat)
Off work 10.17 under
1. The box in under the stairs. Use to express
2. Please don’t sweep the dust 1. “beneath”
10.13 on under the carpet. 2. “beneath´(with movement)
1. The book is on the table. Use to express 3. The bridge is under repair. 3. “in the process of”)
2. I’ll see you on Saturday 1. contact (on the surface of)
morning/Christmas Day/your 2. time – a particular day
birthday. 3. what entertainment is being
3. What’s on TV tonight? offered
Useful expressions
There’s a good film on at the 4. what something is about Under control Under orders
cinema. Underneath (preposition) = Under oath (in a court of law)
4. He’s written a book on under
insects.

Useful expressions 10.18 until

On business On foot On sale Congratulate 1. I’ll keep the ring until we Use to express
On duty On the other On the whole someone on meet again. 1. Up to a certain time
on purpose hand Agree on Have an Stir the mixture until it thickens. 2. “up to a point or degree
On time On holiday Depend on effect on when”
10.19 up 11.1.2 Leaving out the pronoun
in defining relative clauses
Don’t run up the stairs. Use to express movement to a The man (who/whom/that) I was The relative pronoun can be left
He went up in the next class. higher place meeting was an important client. out when it refers to the object
of the verb in the clause. Notice:
the relative pronoun cannot be
Useful expressions left out when it refers to the
Up-to-date (modern) Ups and downs (good times subject of the verb in the clause
uphill and bad times) (e.g. The man who came to meet
Fed up (bored or unhappy) me was an important client)

10.20 with/without 11.1.3 Prepositions used with

relative pronouns in defining
clauses
1. Be patient with the children Use to express 1. The man who/that I was 1. The preposition comes at the
2. He hit the burglar with a 1. “as regards talking to is my uncle. end of the clause in informal
hammer. 2. instrument 2a. The person to whom I was speech or writing.
3. You’ll have to go with 3. accompanying/not addressing my comments does 2a. The preposition comes at the
/without me. accompanying not seem to be listening. beginning of the clause in
4. A room with/without a view 4. having/not having 2b The problem about which we formal speech and writing.
had so much discussion has 2b. Notice: the relative pronoun
been solved. cannot be left out in sentences
Useful expressions like these even though it is the
With best Angry with Disgusted Trembling object of the verb of the clause.
wishes Do without with with fear
With/without Filled with Impressed (what’s)
difficulty Green with with wring with 11.2 Non-defining relative
Without any envy Pleased with (?)
fuss Shivering clauses
With love Have with (cold) I’ve just met Mrs Watts who These clauses give further
With pleasure difficulty wants to buy my car. information, which could be left
Agree with with out, about the sentence.
Commas are used.

11. Relative clauses

11.1 Defining relative clauses 11.2.1 Relative pronouns in non-
Is that the man who wants to
buy your car?
Thee clauses are necessary in
order to complete the meaning
defining clauses
of a sentence. They identify
somebody or something. No
commas are used.
1a. The members of the These relative pronouns are
expedition, who had been away used
11.1.1 Relative pronouns in for six months, said they were 1. for people
proud of their achievements. a. who – as the subject of the
defining relative clauses 1b. The candidates, who/whom verb in the clause
1a.The person who deals with These relative pronouns are we met for the first time b. who/whom/that – as the
that isn’t hear at the moment. used yesterday, are all preparing their object of the verb in the clause
The person who interviewed 1. for people speeches for the debate c. whose – meaning “belonging
me was a nice sort of fellow. a. who/that – as the subject of tomorrow. to”
1b. The person who/whom/that the verb in the clause 1c. A car manufacturer, whose 2. for things
you want is out of office. b. who/whom/that – as the name I have forgotten, has a. which – as the subject or
1c. The man whose address object of the verb in the clause invented an electric car. object of the verb in the clause
you’ve asked for has left the ( whom is more formal) 2a. The report, which was b. which – to give further
firm c. whose meaning “belonging drawn up by a special information about the whole
2a. The instructions which to” committee, states that more main sentence
come with this machine are 2. for things needs to be done in the inner
impossible to follow. a. which/that – as subject or city areas.
2b. He had been in prison, Notice: the relative pronoun
which was a fact nobody had cannot be left out in non-
realized. defining clauses and that 12.1.2 No changes
cannot be used to replace the
relative pronoun.
Some verbs used in directed speech do not change in reported
speech. The “reporting” verb is often in the present tense.
11.2.2 Prepositions used with
Direct speech Reported speech
relative pronouns in non- The verbs do not normally
change when
defining clauses 1. reporting a present state of 1. The reporter says/said that the
The organization, to which we Prepositions usually come at affairs – e.g. “The cost of living cost of living here is high.
owe so much, has announced a the beginning of the clause as here is high”.
further contribution for our the use is rather formal. 2. reporting things which are 2. Mary says it’s always cold at
appeal. always true – e.g. “It’s always this time of year.
cold at this time of year”.
3. reporting something which 3. The union representative said
11.3 Participle phrases we believe (or someone that they are going to sack 300
believes) will happen – e.g. workers next week.
In participle phrases the relative pronoun and the auxiliary verb(s)
“They’re going to sack 300
are left out.
workers next week”.
1. The boy (who is) sitting in These phrases can be
4. they are the modal structures 4. She said (that) he might be
that corner has been here all 1. defining
would, could, might, ought and mistaken.
morning.
should – e.g. “You might be
The bricks (which have
mistaken”.
been) used to build the church or
were specially made.
2. Simone de Beauvoir (who 2. non-defining
was) wellknown for her fight 12.2 Reported statements
for the women’s rights died in
1986.

12. Reported speech 12.2.1 Verb (+ that)

Please tell Mr. Watt I’ve put Mrs. Green phoned. (e.g. say, claim, admit, explain, insist, agree, complain, deny, reply)
the paper in the post. Oh what did he say?
He said he’d put the papers in “I’m an art student”. She said that she was an art
the post. student.
“I don’t know you”. He claims he doesn’t know me.
“I was lying”. She admitted she had been
12.1 Tenses lying.
“I’m hot”. He explained (that) he was hot.

12.1.1 Changes
Verbs used in direct speech will change their tense in reported Notice admit and deny can also be followed by –ing forms
speech, especially when the “reporting” verb is in the past (e.g.
said)
Direct speech Change Reported speech
1.”I’ll put the letters in 1. will 1. He said he would
the post”. to put the letters in the 12.2.2 Verb + pronoun/noun (+
would post.
that)
2. “I work for an 2. work 2. She said she “I’m an art student”. She told him (that) she was an
insurance company”. to worked for a art student.
worked insurance company.
3. “We can’t borrow
anymore money from
the bank”.
3. can’t
to
3. They said they
couldn’t borrow
12.2.3 Verb + infinitive
couldn’t anymore money (e.g. offer, refuse, agree, promise)
4. “We’ve moved in a from the bank. I’ll take you to the dance. He offered to take her to the
bigger house” 4. have moved dance.
to 4. They said they
had moved had moved to a
bigger house. 12.2.4 Verb – for + -ing form
5. “I must pay the gas 5. must 5. She said she had
bill”. to to pay the gas bill. (e.g. apologize, thank)
had to
“I’m sorry I trod on your foot” He apologized for treading on 4. Some words like please and 4. He asked her to come in.
his foot. now disappear – e.g. “Please She asked him what he wanted
“Thank you for doing the He thanked her for doing the come in”. “Now what do you to talk about.
shopping”. shopping. want to talk about?”

12.3 Reporting requests and 13. Tense forms

orders
“Close the door, please”. He asked me to close the door.
“Please don’t shout”. He asked them not to shout.
“Sit, Flover”. The boy told his dog to sit. 13.1 Present forms
Don’t move”. The policeman ordered the
burglar not to move.
Attack. The captain ordered his
soldiers to attack.
13.1.1 Present simple
1. We go out every Saturday Use
night. 1. for something which happens
12.4 Reporting questions He never gives me presents. regularly or which is a habit
Remember to change the word order in a reported question to 2. He lives in Greece. (often with adverbs of time like
subject followed by verb. The earth travels round the always, usually etc.)
“what time is it”? He asked what time it was. sun. 2. for something which remains
“How much money do you She asked how much money I 3. Jane: I don’t like big cities. true for a long period of time or
need? needed. They smell of cars. for a scientific fact
Remember to use if or whether f there is no question word. Peter: I know what you 3. With verbs not normally used
“Are you tired?” He asked if I was tired. mean. with any of the progressive
“Do you want the car or not?’ She wondered whether I 4. First you check the gear and forms (believe, understand,
wanted the car or not. the handbrake, then you switch imagine, suppose, hear, see,
on the engine. taste, look, haste, need, want,
5. A gorilla goes into a bar and prefer, see, appear, belong,
12.5 Reporting suggestions asks for a drink…
The Pope visits Tokyo today.
deserve). Notice feel can be
used either with the simple or
Suggest can be followed by an –ing form or that + should + progressive form: e.g. I feel ill/I
infinitive am feeling ill
“Let’s go home.” He suggested going home. 4. to give instructions (more
He suggested that they should friendly and personal than the
go home. imperative Check switch on
etc.)
5. to describe events in jokes,
12.6 Other points to notice events and news items to make
about reported speech them seem more dramatic

Direct speech Reported speech

1. The pronoun often changes 1. She said she had washed the
– e.g. “I’ve washed the dishes. 13.1.2 Present progressive
dishes”. 2. He said he would do it the
2. Words like tomorrow following day/the next day. 1. Look, they are coming out of Use
change to words not directly the cinema now. 1. for an event in progress in the
related to present time – e.g. The standard of living in the present time
“I’ll do it tomorrow”. country is slowly rising. 2. with always to show surprise
a. today a. the same day/that day 2. She’s always borrowing or disapproval when an action is
b. yesterday b. the day before/the previous money from me. repeated
c. next week/year etc day It’s always raining here. 3. to set the scene in a joke or a
d. last week/year etc. c. the following week/year 3. A man is standing on the story and describe events which
e now d. the previous week/year pavement when suddenly a have already begun but which
f. here e. then spaceship lands. are not
g. this (in the expression) e.g. f. there
this year, this week g. that (e.g. that year, that
3. Other changes are: week) 13.1.3 Present perfect
a. “this, these, that, those” (as 3a. the
adjectives) 3b. it, they, them 1. I’ve seen that film. Use
b. “this, these, that, those” (as I’ve just seen him. 1. for an event which happened
pronouns) I haven’t finished yet. at an indefinite time in the past.
I’ve never been there. Compare: I saw that film last
2. She’s been a widow for week when the time reference
about six months/since last is definite
year Notice: adverbs which express 13.2.2 Used to and would
3a. I can’t write because I’ve indefinite time are often used: 1a. I used to smoke cigars but Used to only exists in the past
broken my arm. already, just, yet, often, never, now I prefer cigarettes. form. Use it to express:
3b. Look at the mess you’ve so far, still etc. He used to be very fat, but 1a. a habit or state in the past
made. 2. for an event which began in he’s lost a lot of weight. 1b. something which did not
4. This is the third time he’s the past and is still going on 1b. I didn’t use to go to the happen in the past but which has
taken his driving test. now. Notice: we use for to talk theatre but I try and go once a now become a habit or state.
about the length of time month now. Notice the negative form (e.g. I
3. for an event which I never used to like him but used not to go to the theatre) is
3a. is finished but which still I do now. becoming less common in
affects the present. Compare; 1c. Do you use to do sports at speech but is still found in
The President died and The school? formal or written English.
President has died (so we must Didn’t you use to be much 1c. an inquiry about a habit or
make various arrangements) thinner? state in the past
3b. has a result which can be Compare the expressions be/get
seen in the present (Compare: used to:
e.g. What have I drawn? To I’m used to getting up early.
what did I draw? I was used to getting up early.
4. after expressions like You’ll soon get used to drinking
first, second tea!
This best, worst … I soon got used to working so
That is the most interestin hard.
It only … Notice after be/get used to we
use the verb + -ing
13.1.4 Present perfect 2. He would keep telling me Use would
progressive what to do 2. for a habit or repeated event
in the past which is now
1a. We’ve been living here for Use finished and which shows the
six years/since 1981. 1. for an activity which began speaker’s attitude to the event
1b. We’ve been standing in in the past and is still going on ((anger, irritation etc.)
this bus stop for half an hour in (to emphasize the length of
the pouring rain. time taken by that activity)
2. I’ve been staying with my b. (Notice it often shows
cousin for the last week.
3. Look at the mess you’re in!
anger, surprise etc.)
2. to describe a temporary
13.2.3 Past progressive
What on earth have you been arrangement which may still
doing? be going on or which may just 1a. I was driving along the Use
I can see that you’ve been have finished motorway when I had a 1a. for an event which was in
decorating. The house looks 3. for an activity which was puncture. progress when another event
lovely! going on, which has now 1b. It was six o’clock and happened
finished and the result of darkness was falling. 1b. to set the scene and provide
which is still evident. (This, 2. I was digging the garden the background for a story
too, often shows anger, while John was painting the 2. for two (or more) events
surprise etc.). kitchen. which were in progress at the
3. He was coming to dinner but same time in the past
he had to go away on business. 3. for an event which had been
arranged but which did not
13.2 Past forms happen

13.2.1 Past simple 13.2.4 Past perfect

1. Last night I went to a USE: 1. I went back because I’d Use:
concert. 1. when a definite point in time forgotten my keys. 1. for an event which happened
Last time I saw Maria was is mentioned when talking I was sure I hadn’t seen him before another in the past (first I
three years ago. about the past before. forgot my keys, later I went
2. Jane: Did you have a nice 2. when the event took place at By 1986 Bob Geldof had back home)
time in Paris? a time the speaker is aware of raised millions of pounds for 2. with scarcely/hardly + when
Peter: Yes, we did. but does not mention charity. or no sooner + than. Notice
3. The thief went into the 3. for a number of events 2. I had scarcely/hardly put these words (scarcely, hardly,
bank, pulled out a gun and which took place one after the phone down when the bell no sooner) are often put at the
pointed at the chashier. another in the past rang. beginning of the sentence to
4. When I was at school, I got 4. to describe a past habit No sooner had I left the emphasize that one event
up at seven o’clock. house than it started to rain. happened almost immediately
 after the other (notice the word
order)
14. Wishes, regrets and
13.2.5 Past perfect progressive preferances
They’d been studying for Use
hours when they suddenly to emphasize the continuous
realized it was midnight. nature of an action or activity 14.1 Wishes and regrets
He knew they hadn’t been which happened before 1. I wish I were rich! 1. These examples express
paying attention during the another in the past. If only we could see each wishes (often suggesting that the
lesson. other more often! speaker is sorry about
I wish we didn’t live in this something – I’m sorry I’m not
terrible place. rich)
13.3 Talking about the future 2. I wish you wouldn’t make so Notice the “past” form of the
I’m gong to wash my hair. Be going to much noise! verbs (were, could see, didn’t
It’s going to snow. Future simple If only they would stop that live) after I wish and if only as
I’ll see you tomorrow. Present simple terrible noise! when with conditional 2.
Term starts on Monday. Present progressive I wish it would stop raining! 2. These examples express verbs
I’m meeting the boss at 10. Future perfect 3. I wish I had never married for a change in the future and
This time tomorrow I’ll be Future perfect progressive him! often suggest that the speaker is
sitting my exam. Be about to or be on the point If only I had studied harder angry or dissatisfied about (or
I’ll have finished it by 4 of at school. tired of) the present situation
o’clock. 1. Use be going to for I wish you hadn’t told me 3. These examples express
We’ll have been living here a. an intention your secret. wishes or regrets about the past
for ten years next spring. b. an indication that something (I wish I had studied harder but
They’re about to announce is probable I didn’t).
the election results. 2. Use future simple (will/ Notice the past perfect is used in
He’s on the point of changing shall) to make a prediction the same way as conditional 3
his job. about the future. sentences
1a. I’m going to write some Notice shall is only used for I
letters and we
1b. Look at those black clouds. 3. Use present simple for
I think it’s going to rain. future events on a timetable or
The work is not going to a fixed programme. Notice
be easy. when ca be used with the
2. Tomorrow will be fine and present simple for an event in
sunny. the future
We shall expect you next 4. Use present progressive for
week. a definite arrangement, plan or
3. Easter is early this year. appointment 14.2 Preferences
The match begins at 3.30. 5. Use future progressive for
When he comes, I’ll tell an event which will be in
you. progress at a certain time in the 1a. I like the summer better than 1a. like … better than … and
4. We’re flying to Spain next future the winter 1b. prefer … to … express
week. 6. Use future perfect for an 1b. I prefer soft drinks to general preferences
I’m taking my driving test event which will be over no alcohol. 2a. ‘d rather + infinitive without
tomorrow. later than a certain time in the 2a. I’d rather have a snack than to … than … expresses either a
5. This time next week I’ll be future a take-away meal. general preference or a
swimming in the 7. Use future perfect 2b. I’d rather not go to the preference for a particular
Mediteranean. progressive for something football match, if you don’t occasion (e.g. I’d prefer (to
6. They’ll have done their which is which is still in mind. have) a glass of wine now)
homework by tomorrow. progress but which will be 3. I would rather you stayed at 2b. ‘d not + infinitive without to
7. He’ll have been working complete not later than a home tonight. I think it’s going expresses the fact that you
for the bank for 3 years next certain time in the future (often to snow. would prefer not to do
summer. used to emphasize the length I’d rather you didn’t see him something which has been
8. The plane is on the point of of time involved) again. suggested
taking off. 8. Use be about to or be on the 3.would rather + (you etc.) +
Nick was just about to put point of for an event which is past tense suggests that you
the money in his pocket. or was just going to take place. could be happier if someone did
or didn’t o something.
Notice the “unreal” present is
expressed by a “past” form of
the verbs stayed, didn’t see
15. Words that cause 15.2 do and make
difficulties
15.2.1 Meaning of do and make
Have, make and do 1. What are you doing? 1. do can mean “perform an
I’m doing a puzzle. action in general” and “solve or
2a. I’m making a cake. put together”
15.1 have This firm makes TV sets. 2. make can mean
2b. The car journey made him a. “create” or “construct”
sick. b. “cause to happen”
15.1.1 Three basic uses of have 2c. They made him work very
hard.
c. “force”

1. She has bought a new car. Have can be used

He said he had seen the 1 as an auxiliary verb
film. 2. to express what is or isn’t
2. I have (got) to be ready at necessary. Notice have got to 15.2.2 Other expressions using
6.30. can be used to express the
You don’t have to (haven’t same idea as have to. do and make
got to) do it if you don’t want 3. to express the idea of DO MAKE
to. arranging for or paying
Do I have to (Have I got to) somebody to do something for - a course - History, - rrangements Money
go? you. Notice the object of the - a favour Maths, an attempt A noise
3. They’re having the house sentence comes between have - homework Science (as The beds An offer
redecorated. and the past participle. - military subjects) A decision A phone call
Did he have his hair cut 4. with got to express a service - work or jobs An effort A profit
yesterday? condition or state (less - something/ in general (the An excuse A speech
I didn’t have the curtains common in the “past” tense nothing/ cleaning/ Love A suggestion
made. I mad them myself. and often suggesting the idea anything gardening A mistake trouble
4. I’ve got a headache. of “possession”). Notice have etc.)
Have you got a big family? got is now more common n
I haven’t got any brothers or statements than than the rather Notice there are meny phrasal verbs with do and make
sisters. formal I have four brothers,
but question forms and
negatives with do and have are
commonly used (e.g. Do you
have a big family? I don’t have
any brothers or sisters)

15.1.2 Other expressions using

have
1. I’ll have the chicken/some Have in these examples means
tea, please. 1 “eat” or “drink”
2. He’s having a shower/ 2. “taste”
bath/ test. 3. “give birth to”
3. She’s just had a little girl. 4. “wear”
4. She had an enormous hat 5. “experience”
on. 6. In these examples and others
5. We’ve had a marvelous like them, have means the
holiday. same as the word it is used
We didn’t have any trouble with (e.g. try, quarrel)
with the car.
6. Have a try!
Did they have a quarrel?

15.1.3 had better

You had better decide quickly. Had better is used to give
You’d better not have any strong advice (= ought)
more to drink!