Chemical Plant Utilities

UNIT I

WATER

Water Resources
Life is possible on earth due to the presence of water. Nearly three-
fourths of the earth's surface is covered with water. Water is also
found below the earth's surface. It is present in air in the form of water
vapour. About 70 per cent of the human body is water. The bodies of
all plants and animals contain water.
Sources of Water:
Rainwater, oceans, rivers, lakes, streams, ponds and springs are
natural sources of water. Dams, wells, tube wells, hand-pumps,
canals, etc, are man-made sources of water.
Rain Water:
Rain water collects on the earth in the form of surface water and
underground water
Surface Water:
Water present on the surface of the earth in the form of oceans, rivers,
lakes, ponds and streams is called surface water. The water in rivers
and lakes comes from rain and melting of snow on mountains. Rivers
flow into the sea.
Underground Water:
Some of the rainwater seeps through the soil on to the non-porous
rocks below. This is underground water. Sometimes due to high
pressure, this water sprouts out in the form of springs. It can be
obtained by digging wells, sinking tube wells, etc.

Water Treatment
Drinking water sources are subject to contamination and require
appropriate treatment to remove disease- causing agents. Public
drinking water systems use various methods of water treatment to
provide safe drinking water for their communities. Today, the most
common steps in water treatment used by community water systems
(mainly surface water treatment) include:
Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulation and flocculation are often the first steps in water

treatment. Chemicals with a positive charge are added to the water.
The positive charge of these chemicals neutralizes the negative
charge of dirt and other dissolved particles in the water. When this
occurs, the particles bind with the chemicals and form larger
particles, called floc.

Sedimentation
 During sedimentation, floc settles to the bottom of the water supply,
due to its weight. This settling process is called sedimentation.

Filtration

Once the floc has settled to the bottom of the water supply, the clear
water on top will pass through filters of varying compositions
(sand, gravel, and charcoal) and pore sizes, in order to remove
dissolved particles, such as dust, parasites, bacteria, viruses, and
chemicals.

Disinfection
 After the water has been filtered, a disinfectant (for example,
chlorine, chloramine) may be added in order to kill any remaining
parasites, bacteria, and viruses, and to protect the water from germs
when it is piped to homes and businesses.

Flocculation

Flocculation is stimulation by mechanical means to agglomerate

destabilized particles into compact, fast settleable particles (or flocs).
Flocculation or gentle agitation results from velocity differences or
gradients in the coagulated water, which causes the fine moving,
destabilized particles to come into contact and become large, readily
settleable flocs. It is a common practice to provide an initial rapid (or)
flash mix for the dispersal of the coagulant or other chemicals into the
water. Slow mixing is then done, during which the growth of the floc
takes place.

Rapid or Flash mixing is the process by which a coagulant is rapidly

and uniformly dispersed through the mass of water. This process
usually occurs in a small basin immediately preceding or at the head of
the coagulation basin. Generally, the detention period is 30 to 60
seconds and the head loss is 20 to 60 cms of water. Here colloids are
destabilised and the nucleus for the floc is formed.

Slow mixing brings the contacts between the finely divided destabilised
matter formed during rapid mixing.
 Settling

Solid liquid separation process in which a suspension is separated into

two phases –

Clarified supernatant leaving the top of the sedimentation tank

(overflow).
Concentrated sludge leaving the bottom of the sedimentation tank
(underflow).
Purpose of Settling

To remove coarse dispersed phase.

To remove coagulated and flocculated impurities.
To remove precipitated impurities after chemical treatment.
To settle the sludge (biomass) after activated sludge process /
tricking filters.

Principle of Settling

Suspended solids present in water having specific gravity greater

than that of water tend to settle down by gravity as soon as the
turbulence is retarded by offering storage.
Basin in which the flow is retarded is called settling tank.
Theoretical average time for which the water is detained in the
settling tank is called the detention period.
Types of Settling

Type I: Discrete particle settling - Particles settle individually

without interaction with neighboring particles.
Type II: Flocculent Particles – Flocculation causes the particles to
increase in mass and settle at a faster rate.
Type III: Hindered or Zone settling –The mass of particles tends to
settle as a unit with individual particles remaining in fixed positions
with respect to each other.
Type IV: Compression – The concentration of particles is so high
that sedimentation can only occur through compaction of the
structure.

Types of Settling Tanks

Sedimentation tanks may function either intermittently or

continuously.The intermittent tanks also called quiescent type
tanks are those which store water for a certain period and keep
it in complete rest. In a continuous flow type tank, the flow
velocity is only reduced and the water is not brought to complete
rest as is done in an intermittent type.
Settling basins may be either long rectangular or circular in
plan. Long narrow rectangular tanks with horizontal flow are
generally preferred to the circular tanks with radial or spiral
flow.

Long Rectangular Settling Basin

Long rectangular basins are hydraulically more stable, and flow

control for large volumes is easier with this configuration.
A typical long rectangular tank have length ranging from 2 to 4
times their width. The bottom is slightly sloped to facilitate
sludge scraping. A slow moving mechanical sludge scraper
 continuously pulls the settled material into a sludge hopper from
where it is pumped out periodically.

A long rectangular settling tank can be divided into four different

functional zones:
Inlet zone: Region in which the flow is uniformly distributed over
the cross section such that the flow through settling zone follows
horizontal path.
Settling zone: Settling occurs under quiescent conditions.
Outlet zone: Clarified effluent is collected and discharge through outlet
weir.
Sludge zone: For collection of sludge below settling zone.

Design Details

1. Detention period: for plain sedimentation: 3 to 4 h, and for

coagulated sedimentation: 2 to 2.5 h.
2. Velocity of flow: Not greater than 30 cm/min (horizontal flow).
3. Tank dimensions: L:B = 3 to 5:1. Generally L= 30 m (common)
maximum 100 m. Breadth= 6 m to 10 m. Circular: Diameter not
greater than 60 m. generally 20 to 40 m.
4. Depth 2.5 to 5.0 m (3 m).
5. Surface Overflow Rate: For plain sedimentation 12000 to 18000
L/d/m2 tank area; for thoroughly flocculated water 24000 to
30000 L/d/m2 tank area.
6. Slopes: Rectangular 1% towards inlet and circular 8%.

FILTRATION

The resultant water after sedimentation will not be pure, and may
contain some very fine suspended particles and bacteria in it. To
remove or to reduce the remaining impurities still further, the
water is filtered through the beds of fine granular material, such
as sand, etc. The process of passing the water through the beds of
such granular materials is known as Filtration.
How Filters Work:
Filtration Mechanisms
There are four basic
filtration mechanisms:
sedimentation : The mechanism of sedimentation is due to force of
gravity and the associate
settling velocity of the particle, which causes it to cross the
streamlines and reach the collector. Interception :
Interception of particles is common for large particles. If a
large enough particle follows the streamline, that lies very
close to the media surface it will hit the media grain and be
captured.
Brownian diffusion : Diffusion towards media granules occurs for
very small particles, such as
 viruses. Particles move randomly about within the fluid, due to
thermal gradients. This mechanism is only important for particles
with diameters < 1 micron.
Inertia : Attachment by inertia occurs when larger particles move
fast enough to travel off their streamlines and bump into media
grains.

Filter Materials

Sand: Sand, either fine or coarse, is generally used as filter media.

The size of the sand is measured and expressed by the term called
effective size. The effective size, i.e. D10 may be defined as the size of
the sieve in mm through which ten percent of the sample of sand by
weight will pass. The uniformity in size or degree of variations in
sizes of particles is measured and expressed by the term called
uniformity coefficient. The uniformity coefficient, i.e. (D60/D10) may
be defined as the ratio of the sieve size in mm through which 60
percent of the sample of sand will pass, to the effective size of the
sand.

Gravel: The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which permits

the filtered water to move freely to the under drains, and allows the
wash water to move uniformly upwards.

Other materials: Instead of using sand, sometimes, anthrafilt is used

as filter media. Anthrafilt is made from anthracite, which is a type of
coal-stone that burns without smoke or flames. It is cheaper and has
been able to give a high rate of filtration.

Types of Filter

Slow sand filter: They consist of fine sand, supported by gravel. They
capture particles near the surface of the bed and are usually cleaned by
scraping away the top layer of sand that contains the particles. Rapid-
sand filter: They consist of larger sand grains supported by gravel and
capture particles throughout the bed. They are cleaned by
backwashing water through the bed to 'lift out' the particles.
Multimedia filters: They consist of two or more layers of different
granular materials, with different densities. Usually, anthracite coal,
sand, and gravel are used. The different layers combined may provide
more versatile collection than a single sand layer. Because of the
differences in densities, the layers stay neatly separated, even after
backwashing.

Principles of Slow Sand Filtration

In a slow sand filter impurities in the water are removed by a

combination of processes: sedimentation, straining, adsorption,
and chemical and bacteriological action.
During the first few days, water is purified mainly by mechanical
and physical-chemical processes. The resulting accumulation of
sediment and organic matter forms a thin layer on the sand
surface, which remains permeable and retains particles even
smaller than the spaces between the sand grains.
As this layer (referred to as “Schmutzdecke”) develops, it
becomes living quarters of vast numbers of micro-organisms
which break down organic material retained from the water,
converting it into water, carbon dioxide and other oxides.
Most impurities, including bacteria and viruses, are removed
from the raw water as it passes through the filter skin and the
layer of filter bed sand just below. The purification mechanisms
extend from the filter skin to approx. 0.3-0.4 m below the
surface of the filter bed, gradually
 decreasing in activity at lower levels as the water becomes
purified and contains less organic material.
When the micro-organisms become well established, the filter
will work efficiently and produce high quality effluent which is
virtually free of disease carrying organisms and biodegradable
organic matter.
They are suitable for treating waters with low colors, low
turbidities and low bacterial contents.

Rapid sand filter

• The movement of water into the ground and through soil particles,
which helps in filtering the groundwater, and this principle is
applied to water treatment.
• In almost all cases, filtration is performed by a rapid sand filter.
• As the sand filter removes the impurities, the sand grains get dirty
and must be cleaned.
• The process of rapid sand filtration therefore involves two
operations:

1. filtration and
2. backwashing.

Figure shows a cutaway of a slightly simplified version of the rapid

sand filter.
Water from the settling basins enters the filter and seeps through
the sand and gravel bed, through a false floor, and out into a clear
well that stores the finished water. Valves A and C are open
during filtration.
 • The cleaning process is done by reversing the flow of water through
the filter.
• The operator first shuts off the flow of water to the filter, closing
valves A and C, then opens valves D and B, which allow wash
water (clean water stored) in an elevated tank or pumped from
the clear well) to enter below the filter bed.
• This rush of water forces the sand and gravel bed to expand and
pushes individual sand particles into motion, rubbing against
their neighbors.
• The light colloidal material trapped within the filter is released and
escapes with the wash water.
• After 10 to 30 minutes of washing, the wash water is shut off and
filtration is resumed.

Sand Filters vs. Rapid Sand Filters

Base material: In SSF it varies from 3 to 65 mm in size and 30
to 75 cm in depth while in RSF it varies from 3 to 40 mm in
size and its depth is slightly more, i.e. about 60 to 90 cm.
Filter sand: In SSF the effective size ranges between 0.2 to
0.4 mm and uniformity coefficient between 1.8 to 2.5 or 3.0.
In RSF the effective size ranges between 0.35 to 0.55 and
uniformity coefficient between 1.2 to 1.8.
Rate of filtration: In SSF it is small, such as 100 to 200
L/h/sq.m. of filter area while in RSF it is large, such as 3000
to 6000 L/h/sq.m. of filter area.
Flexibility: SSF are not flexible for meeting variation in demand
whereas RSF are quite flexible for
 meeting reasonable variations in demand.
Post treatment required: Almost pure water is obtained
from SSF. However, water may be disinfected slightly to
make it completely safe. Disinfection is a must after RSF.
Method of cleaning: Scrapping and removing of the top 1.5 to
3 cm thick layer is done to clean SSF. To clean RSF, sand is
agitated and backwashed with or without compressed air.
Loss of head: In case of SSF approx. 10 cm is the initial loss,
and 0.8 to 1.2m is the final limit when cleaning is required.
For RSF 0.3m is the initial loss, and 2.5 to 3.5m is the final
limit when cleaning is required.

DISINFECTION

The filtered water may normally contain some harmful disease

producing bacteria in it. These bacteria must be killed in order to
make the water safe for drinking. The process of killing these bacteria
is known as Disinfection or Sterilization.

Disinfection Kinetics

When a single unit of microorganisms is exposed to a single unit

of disinfectant, the reduction in microorganisms follows a first-
order reaction.
dN/dt=-kN N=N0e-kt

This equation is known as Chick’s Law:-

N = number of microorganism
(N0 is initial number) k =
disinfection constant
t = contact time
Chlorine Chemistry

Chlorine is added to the water supply in two ways. It is most often

added as a gas, Cl2(g). However, it also can be added as a salt, such
as sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) or bleach. Chlorine gas dissolves in
water following Henry's Law.
Cl2(g) Cl2(aq) KH =6.2 x 10-2

Once dissolved, the following reaction

occurs forming hypochlorous acid (HOCl):
Cl2(aq)+H2O HOCl + H+ + Cl-
Hypochlorous acid is a weak acid that dissociates to form hypochlorite
ion (OCl-).

HOCl OCl- + H+ Ka = 3.2 x 10-8

All forms of chlorine are measured as mg/L of Cl2 (MW = 2 x

35.45 = 70.9 g/mol) Hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion
compose what is called the free chlorine residual. These free chlorine
compounds can react with many organic and inorganic compounds to
form chlorinated compounds. If the products of these reactions posses
oxidizing potential, they are considered the combined
chlorine residual. A common compound in drinking water systems that
reacts with chlorine to form combined residual is ammonia. Reactions
between ammonia and chlorine form chloramines, which is mainly
monochloramine (NH2Cl), although some dichloramine (NHCl2) and
trichloramine (NCl3) also can form. Many drinking water utilities use
monochloramine as a disinfectant. If excess free chlorine exits once all
ammonia nitrogen has been converted to monochloramine, chloramine
species are oxidized through what is termed the breakpoint reactions.
The overall reactions of free chlorine and nitrogen can be represented
by two simplified reactions as follows:

Monochloramine Formation Reaction. This reaction occurs rapidly

when ammonia nitrogen is combined with free chlorine up to a molar
ratio of 1:1.

HOCl +NH3 NH2Cl + HOCl

Environmental protection
Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural
environment on individual, organizational or governmental levels,
for the benefit of both the environment and humans. Due to the
pressures of overconsumption, population and technology, the
biophysical environment is being degraded, sometimes permanently.
This has been recognized, and governments have begun placing
restraints on activities that cause environmental degradation. Since the
1960s, activity of environmental movements has created awareness of
the various environmental issues. There is no agreement on the extent
of the environmental impact of human activity and even scientific
dishonesty occurs, so protection measures are occasionally debated.
Academic institutions now offer courses, such as
environmental studies, environmental management and environmental
engineering, that teach the history and methods of environment
protection. Protection of the environment is needed due to various
human activities.ref. Waste production, air pollution, and loss of
biodiversity (resulting from the introduction of invasive species and
species extinction) are some of the issues related to environmental
protection. Environmental protection is influenced by three interwoven
factors: environmental legislation, ethics and education. Each of these
factors plays its part in influencing national-level environmental
decisions and personal-level environmental values and behaviors. For
environmental protection to become a reality, it is important for
societies to develop each of these areas that, together, will inform and
drive environmental decisions.

Drinking water supply and sanitation in India continue to be

inadequate, despite longstanding efforts by the various levels of
government and communities at improving coverage. The level of
investment in water and sanitation, albeit low by international
standards, has increased in size during the 2000s. Access has also
increased significantly. For example, in 1980 rural sanitation coverage
was estimated at 1% and reached 21% in 2008. Also, the share of
Indians with access to improved sources of water has increased
significantly from 72% in 1990 to 88% in 2008.[7] At the same time,
local government institutions in charge of operating and maintaining
the infrastructure are seen as weak and lack the financial resources to
carry out their functions. In addition, only two Indian cities have
continuous water supply and according to an estimate from 2008 about
69% of Indians still lack access to improved sanitation facilities.
A number of innovative approaches to improve water supply and
sanitation have been tested in India, in particular in the early 2000s.
These include demand-driven approaches in rural water supply
since 1999, community-led total sanitation, a public-private
partnerships to improve the continuity of urban water supply in
Karnataka, and the use of microcredits for water supply and sanitation
in order to improve access to water and sanitation.

Policy and regulation

The responsibility for water supply and sanitation at the central and
state level is shared by various Ministries. At the central level three
Ministries have responsibilities in the sector: The Ministry of
Drinking Water and Sanitation (until 2011 the Department of Drinking
Water Supply in the Ministry of Rural Development) is responsible for
rural water supply and sanitation; the Ministry of Housing and Urban
Poverty Alleviation and the Ministry of Urban Development share the
responsibility for urban water supply and sanitation. Except for the
National Capital Territory of Delhi and other Union Territories, the
central Ministries only have an advisory capacity and a limited role in
funding. Sector policy thus is a prerogative of state governments.
National Urban Sanitation Policy. In November 2008 the government
of India launched a national urban sanitation policy with the goal of
creating what it calls "totally sanitized cities" that are open-defecation
free, safely collect and treat all their wastewater, eliminate manual
scavenging and collect and dispose solid waste safely. As of 2010, 12
states were in the process of elaborating or had completed state
sanitation strategies on the basis of the policy. 120 cities are in the
process of preparing city sanitation plans. Furthermore, 436 cities
rated themselves in terms of their achievements and processes
concerning sanitation in an effort supported by the Ministry of Urban
Development with the assistance of several donors. About 40% of the
cities were in the "red category" (in need of immediate remedial
action), more than 50% were in the "black category" (needing
considerable improvement) and only a handful of cities were in the
"blue category" (recovering). Not a single city was included in the
"green category" (healthy and clean city). The rating serves as a
baseline to measure improvements in the future and to prioritize
actions. The government intends to award a prize called Nirmal
Shahar Puraskar to the best sanitation performers.

Water Quality

The raw or treated water is analysed by testing their physical, chemical

and bacteriological characteristics:

Physical Characteristics:

Turbi
dity
Colo
ur
Taste and
Odour
Temperatu
re

Chemical Characteristics:

pH
Aci
dity
Alkali
nity
Hardn
ess
Chlori
des
Sulph
ates
Iron
Solids
Nitrat
es

Bacteriological Characteristics:

Bacterial examination of water is very important, since it indicates the

degree of pollution. Water polluted by sewage contain one or more
species of disease producing pathogenic bacteria. Pathogenic
organisms cause water borne diseases, and many non pathogenic
bacteria such as E.Coli, a member of coliform group, also live in the
intestinal tract of human beings. Coliform itself is not a harmful group
but it has more resistance to adverse condition than any other group.
So, if it is ensured to minimize the number of coliforms, the harmful
species will be very less. So, coliform group serves as indicator of
contamination of water with sewage and presence of pathogens.

Water Distribution Systems

The purpose of distribution system is to deliver water to consumer

with appropriate quality, quantity and pressure. Distribution system is
used to describe collectively the facilities used to supply water from
its source to the point of usage.

Requirements of Good Distribution System

 1. Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes.
2. It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places
with sufficient pressure head.
3. It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water
during fire fighting.
4. The layout should be such that no consumer would be without
water supply, during the repair of any section of the system.
5. All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one metre away
or above the sewer lines.
6. It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to leakage to the
minimum.

Layouts of Distribution Network

The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements,
and as such their layouts generally follow the layouts of roads. There
are, in general, four different types of pipe networks; any one of
which either singly or in combinations, can be used for a particular
place. They are:

Dead End

System

Grid Iron

System

Ring

System
Radial

System
Distribution Reservoirs

Distribution reservoirs, also called service reservoirs, are the

storage reservoirs, which store the treated water for supplying
water during emergencies (such as during fires, repairs, etc.) and
also to help in absorbing the hourly fluctuations in the normal water
demand.

Functions of Distribution Reservoirs:

to absorb the hourly variations in demand.

to maintain constant pressure in the distribution mains.
water stored can be supplied during emergencies.

Location and Height of Distribution Reservoirs:

should be located as close as possible to the center of demand.

water level in the reservoir must be at a sufficient elevation to
permit gravity flow at an adequate pressure.

Types of Reservoirs

1. Underground reservoirs.
2. Small ground level reservoirs.
3. Large ground level reservoirs.
4. Overhead tanks.

Storage Capacity of Distribution Reservoirs

The total storage capacity of a distribution reservoir is the summation of:

 1. Balancing Storage: The quantity of water required to be stored
in the reservoir for equalising or balancing fluctuating demand
against constant supply is known as the balancing storage (or
equalising or operating storage). The balance storage can be
worked out by mass curve method.
2. Breakdown Storage: The breakdown storage or often called
emergency storage is the storage preserved in order to tide over
the emergencies posed by the failure of pumps, electricity, or any
othe mechanism driving the pumps. A value of about 25% of the
total storage capacity of reservoirs, or 1.5 to 2 times of the
average hourly supply, may be considered as enough provision
for accounting this storage.
3. Fire Storage: The third component of the total reservoir storage
is the fire storage. This provision takes care of the requirements
of water for extinguishing fires. A provision of 1 to 4 per person
per day is sufficient to meet the requirement.

The total reservoir storage can finally be worked out by adding all the
three storages.
 Reuse and Conservation

of Water. Conserving our

water resources is important

Our ground water and surface water supplies are at risk of overuse
in many areas. The demand can be greater than the amount supplied
by rain and snowmelt. Water conservation, wastewater recycling,
and reuse is becoming more important due to increases in:
Demand on potable water resources,
The cost of treating wastewater,
Regulations requiring greater flows for streams and rivers, which
reduces irrigation sources, and
The demand for sustainable building options.
Keep in mind that it is often cheaper, easier, and safer to use less
water in the first place than to recycle or reuse wastewater.
However, there are many ways for homeowners and water system
managers to conserve water.

Water recycling is also important

By design, on-site sewage systems, also known as septic
systems, naturally recycle wastewater by recharging ground
water with appropriately treated effluent. To ensure on-site
sewage systems are
 treating waste effectively and not polluting the ground water,
building and home owners must make sure their systems are working
properly.
On-site sewage systems (OSS) with design flow of less than
3,500 gallons per day (individual homes and small buildings)

Description: A type of on-site sewage system designed to treat

residential-strength wastewater so
that the treated wastewater (effluent) can be used for subsurface
irrigation of plants.
A subsurface drip system is an efficient pressurized wastewater
distribution system that can deliver small, precise doses of
effluent to shallow subsurface dispersal fields.
Benefits:
Uses all the wastewater from a building.
Produces healthy, fast-growing plants.
Gives you the ability to put water exactly where it's needed
and keep paths and areas between plants dry. This reduces both
waste and weeding.
The amount of wastewater used during irrigation can be
controlled precisely so that nearly all of it remains in the root zone
where the plant can use it the most.
Delivers equal amounts of water to plants over a wide area.
 UNIT II

COMPRESSORS AND
VACUUM PUMPS 2
.COMPRESSORS
FUNCTION OF THE COMPRESSOR
Considered the heart of the refrigeration systems
Compressors are vapor pumps
Responsible for increasing the pressure on the discharge side of the
system
Responsible for maintaining the flow

COMPRESSION RATIO
Compares pumping conditions for compressors
Defined as the high side pressure (psia) divided by the low side
pressure (psia)
High compression ratio can lead to overheated compressor oil
 High compression ratio leads to reduced refrigerant flow through the
system
Reduced refrigerant flow reduces system capacity

TWO-STAGE COMPRESSION
Lowers the compression ratio
Utilizes two compressors
One compressor discharges into suction of the other
Also referred to as compound compression
single compressor system exceeds 10:1
Often used in low-temperature commercial and industrial storage
applications
TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
Reciprocating
Fully welded, hermetic compressors
Semi-hermetic compressors
Open-drive compressors
Belt-driven and direct-drive compressors
Screw compressors
Rotary compressors
Centrifugal compressors
Scroll compressors (spiral compressors)
Reciprocating compressors
 Reciprocating or Piston compressors are the most common machines
available on the market.
 They are positive displacement compressors and can be found in
ranges from fractional to very high horse powers.
Positive displacement air compressors work by filling an air
chamber with air and then reducing the chamber’s volume.
Reciprocating compressors work in a very similar manner as does
as internal combustion engine but basically in a reverse process.
They have cylinders, pistons, crankshafts, valves and housing blocks.
WELDED HERMETIC RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
Motor and compressor contained in a welded shell
Cannot be field serviced
Typically a “throw-away” compressor
Considered to be a low-side component
Cooled by suction gas from the evaporator
Lubricated by the splash method
SEMI-HERMETIC COMPRESSORS
Bolted together, can be field serviced
Housing is made of cast iron
Has a horizontal crankshaft
Smaller compressors are splash lubricated
Larger compressors use pressure lubrication systems
Often air cooled
Piston heads are located at the top of the compressor
OPEN DRIVE COMPRESSORS
Can be direct drive or belt-driven compressors
Must have a shaft seal to prevent leakage
 Bolted together, can be field serviced
Belt-driven compressors have the compressor and motor shafts
parallel to each other
Belt-driven compressors use belts and pulleys
Direct drive compressors have the compressor and motor shafts
connected end to end
BELT-DRIVE MECHANISMS
Motor pulley is called the drive pulley
Compressor pulley is called the driven pulley
Pulleys can be adjusted to change compressor speed
Drive size x Drive rpm = Driven size x Driven rpm
Shafts must be properly aligned
Pulleys with multiple grooves must used matched sets of belts
DIRECT-DRIVE COMPRESSOR CHARACTERISTICS
Direct drive compressors turn at the same speed as the motor used
Motor shaft and compressor shaft must be perfectly aligned end to end
Motor shaft and compressor shafts are joined with a flexible coupling
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR COMPONENTS
Crankshaft
Transfers motor motion to the piston
Creates the back and forth motion of the piston
Connecting rods
Connects the crankshaft to the pistons
Pistons
Slide up and down in the cylinder
 Used to compress and expand the refrigerant
Refrigerant cylinder valves (suction)
Durable, flexible steel
Located on the bottom of the valve plate
Open when refrigerant is introduced to the pump
Refrigerant cylinder valves (discharge)
Durable, flexible steel
Open when refrigerant is discharged from the pump
Located on the top of the valve plate

Suction line

Head
Valve plate
Suction valve
Discharge line Discharge valve
Rings

Piston

Connecting Rod

Crankshaft

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR COMPONENTS

• Compressor head
– Holds the top of the cylinder and its components together
 – Contains both high and low pressure refrigerant
• Mufflers
– Designed to reduce compressor noise
• Compressor housing
– Encases the compressor and sometimes the motor
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCY
• Determined by initial compressor design
• Four processes take place during the compression process
– Expansion (re-expansion)
– Suction (Intake)
– Compression
– Discharge
COMPRESSION PROCESS – EXPANSION
• Piston is the highest point in the cylinder
• Referred to as top dead center
• Both the suction and discharge valves are closed
• Cylinder pressure is equal to discharge pressure
• As the crankshaft continues to turn, the piston moves down in the
cylinder
 Suction valve closed
Pressure of the refrigerant in the cylinder is equal to the
discharge pressure

Discharge valve closed

Refrigerant trapped in the cylinder

Piston moving downward in the cylinder

COMPRESSION PROCESS – SUCTION

• As the piston moves down, the pressure decreases
• When the cylinder pressure falls below suction pressure, the suction
valve opens
• The discharge valve remains in the closed position
• As the piston continues downward, vapor from the suction line is
pulled into the cylinder
• Suction continues until the piston reaches the lowest position in the
cylinder (bottom dead center)
• At the bottom of the stroke, suction valves close
 Suction valve open
Pressure of the refrigerant in the cylinder is equal to the suction
pressure

Discharge valve closed

Suction gas pulled into the compression

cylinder

Piston moving downward in the cylinder

COMPRESSION PROCESS – COMPRESSION

• Piston starts to move upwards in the cylinder
• The suction valve closes and the discharge valve remains closed
• As the piston moves upwards, the volume in the cylinder decreases
• The pressure of the refrigerant increases
• Compression continues until the pressure in the cylinder rises just
above discharge pressure
 Suction valve
closed
Pressure of the refrigerant in the cylinder is equal to the suction
pressure

Discharge valve
closed

Volume is decreasing, compressing the

refrigerant

Piston moving up in the cylinder

COMPRESSION PROCESS – DISCHARGE

• When the cylinder pressure rises above discharge pressure, the
discharge valve opens and the suction valve remains closed
• As the piston continues to move upwards, the refrigerant is discharged
from the compressor
• Discharge continues until the piston reaches top dead center
 Suction valve open
Pressure of the refrigerant in the cylinder is equal to the discharge pressure

The gas leaving the compressor is very warm.

Discharge valve
closed
Discharge gas pushed from the compression
cylinder

Piston moving up in the cylinder

LIQUID IN THE COMPRESSION CYLINDER

• If liquid enters the cylinder, damage will occur
• Liquids cannot be compressed
• Liquid slugging (entering of liquid refrigerant or liquid refrigerant
and oil) can cause immediate damage to the compressor components
 • Common causes of liquid slugging include an overfeeding metering
device, poor evaporator air circulation, low heat load, defective
evaporator fan motor and a frosted evaporator coil
SYSTEM MAINTENANCE AND COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCY
• High suction pressures and low discharge pressures keep the
compression ratio low
• Dirty evaporators cause suction pressure to drop
• Low suction reduces compressor pumping capacity
• Dirty condensers increase head pressure
• Compression ratio is increased by dirty or blocked condenser and
evaporator coils
2.4.9 OTHER COMPRESSOR TYPES
• Screw compressor
– Used in large commercial/industrial applications
– Uses two matching, tapered gears, and open motor design
• Scroll compressor
– Uses a matched set or scrolls to achieve compression
– Becoming more popular for their ability to handle liquid
refrigerant without compressor damage
• Centrifugal compressors
– Used extensively for air conditioning in large structures
• Rotary compressor
– Used in residential and light commercial applications –
primarily in domestic refrigerators
Screw compressor
• Screw compressors use a pair of helical rotors.
• As the rotors rotate they intermesh, alternately exposing and closing
off interlobe spaces at the ends of the rotors.
• When an interlobe space at the intake end opens up, refrigerant is
sucked into it.
• As the rotors continue to rotate the refrigerant becomes trapped inside
the interlobe space and is forced along the length of the rotors.
• The volume of the interlobe space decreases and the refrigerant is
compressed.
• The compressed refrigerant exists when the inter lobe space reaches
the other end inside a sealed chamber.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
• Centrifugal compressors use the rotating action of an impeller wheel
to exert centrifugal force on refrigerant inside a round chamber
(volute).
• Refrigerant is sucked into the impeller wheel through a large circular
intake and flows between the impellers.
• The impellers force the refrigerant outward, exerting centrifugal force
on the refrigerant.
• The refrigerant is pressurized as it is forced against the sides of the
volute.
• Centrifugal compressors are well suited to compressing large
volumes of refrigerant to relatively low pressures.
• The compressive force generated by an impeller wheel is small, so
chillers that use centrifugal compressors usually employ more than
one impeller wheel, arranged in series.
• Centrifugal compressors are desirable for their simple design and few
moving parts.
ROTARY COMPRESSORS
• In a rotary compressor the refrigerant is compressed by the rotating
action of a roller inside a cylinder.
• The roller rotates eccentrically (off-centre) around a shaft so that part
of the roller is always in contact with the inside wall of the cylinder.
• A spring-mounted blade is always rubbing against the roller.
• The two points of contact create two sealed areas of continuously
variable volume inside the cylinder.
• At a certain point in the rotation of the roller, the intake port is
exposed and a quantity of refrigerant is sucked into the cylinder,
filling one of the sealed areas.
• As the roller continues to rotate the volume of the area the refrigerant
occupies is reduced and the refrigerant is compressed.
• When the exhaust valve is exposed, the high-pressure refrigerant
forces the exhaust valve to open and the refrigerant is released.
• Rotary compressors are very efficient because the actions of taking in
refrigerant and compressing refrigerant occur simultaneously.

• There are three main types of rotary compressors: slide vane, lobe
and liquid seal ring, all of which have their own variations and
design facets to suit different purposes.
SLIDE VANE ROTARY COMPRESSOR
• The slide vane rotary compressor -- usually referred to as a rotary
vane compressor -- is one of the more common rotary compressor
designs in non-industrial sectors.
• It functions as air enters through a compartment of the vane housing at
a pressurized rate, which drives the mechanism into a rotary
 movement.
• This causes the vane housing shaft to turn and its individual vanes to
slide in or out, while ensuring they are in contact with the cylinder
perimeter to create an air-tight seal.
• This tool requires compressed air as its function drive, and is favored
more for home or smaller- scale use rather than for industrial needs.
• As they are best suited to low- to moderate-pressure applications,
they are generally long-lasting and durable models.
ROTARY LOBE COMPRESSOR
• Rotary lobe compressors are suitable for industrial uses.
• The rotary lobe compressor combines two separate lobe design rotors
within a single encasement.
• These are gear-driven, non-contact rotors that reduce the cavity size
created by the lobes as they rotate.
• This affects the compression of the enclosed vapor, a process which
continues until the pressurized vapor is dispersed through the exit
portal.
• Rotary lobe compressors are typically used for industrial and
municipal purposes, and are also utilized in the chemical and food
processing industries.
LIQUID SEAL RING COMPRESSOR
• The liquid seal ring compressor is a vane compressor design that
disperses fluid from an inclined and open impeller.
• While the impeller rotates, centrifugal force causes the liquid to
gather at the outer edge of the cavity and form an air-tight seal.
• This compressor operates free of dust and oil, and is one of least
cost-effective rotary compressors to operate and maintain.
• Liquid seal ring compressors can be single or multi-stage systems,
depending on the application required.
• Typically, this type of compressor is utilized in specialized processes
and for work involving corrosive and dangerous gases, and is a
common feature in nuclear power plant operations.
 VACUUM PUMPS
• Vacuum Pumps are those devices which remove gas molecules from a
sealed environment or chamber.
• This creates a partial vacuum in that environment
• Types of Vacuum Pumps
• There are broadly 3 types of vacuum pumps. They are:
2.10.1.Positive Displacement Pumps –
These pumps expand a cavity and allow the gases to flow out of the
sealed environment or chamber.
Then they seal the cavity and cause it to exhaust it to the atmosphere.
These pumps are most useful for creating low vacuums.
Examples are: Diaphragm Pump, Piston Pump, and Scroll Pump.
• Momentum Transfer Pumps or Molecular Pumps –
These pumps use high speed dense fluids or high speed rotating
blades to remove gas molecules from the sealed environment or chamber.
 These pumps are often used along with Positive Displacement Pumps
to create high vacuum chambers.
 Examples are: Turbomolecular Pump and Diffusion Pump.
• Entrapment Pumps –
These pumps catch gases in either a solid or in an absorbed state.
These pumps are used along with Positive Displacement Pumps and
Molecular Pumps to create ultra high vacuum chambers.
Examples are: Ion Pumps and Cyropumps.
APPLICATION OF VACUUM PUMPS
• Due to their specific functions, different types of vacuum pumps find
their uses and applications in a variety of industrial environments.
These are:
• The production of electric lamps and vacuum tubes where the device
is left evacuated and is then re-filled with a specific gas or a mixture
of gases.
• Medical processes needing suction.
• Analytical instrumentation to analyze solid, liquid, gas, surface and
bio materials.
• Vacuum coating.
• Electron Microscopy
• Mass spectrometers to create ultra high vacuum levels between the ion
source and the detector.
• Trash compacting.
• Ophthalmic Coating.
• Sewage systems.
• Automobile industries.
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF PUMPS
• The fluid quantities involved in all hydraulic machines are the flow
rate (Q) and the head (H), whereas the mechanical quantities
 associated with the machine itself are the power (P), speed (N), size
(D) and efficiency (h ).
• Although they are of equal importance, the emphasis placed on certain
of these quantities is different for different pumps.
 • The output of a pump running at a given speed is the flow rate
delivered by it and the head developed.
• Thus, a plot of head and flow rate at a given speed forms the
fundamental performance characteristic of a pump.
• In order to achieve this performance, a power input is required which
involves efficiency of energy transfer.
• Thus, it is useful to plot also the power P and the efficiency h against
Q.
• Over all efficiency of a pump (h ) = Fluid power output / Power
input to the shaft = rgHQ / P

• Specific speed of pump, nS = NQ1/2 / (gH)3/4 (it is a

dimensionless number) Characteristic curves
• Pump action and the performance of a pump are defined interms of
their characteristic curves.
• These curves usually supplied by pump manufacturers are for water
only.
• These curves usually shows the following relationships:
a) A plot of capacity versus differential head.
b) Differential Pressure-pressure between the suction and discharge.
c) The pump efficiency as a percentage versus capacity.
d) The horsepower of the pump versus capacity.
e) The net positive suction head (NPSH) required by the pump versus
capacity. The required NPSH for the pump-determined by the manufacturer.
LUBRICATION IN COMPRESSORS
• Nearly all compressors require a form of lubricant to either cool, seal
or lubricate internal components.
• Only static jet compressors (ejectors) and late 20th- and early 21st-
century oil-free machines with rotors suspended in magnetic or air
bearings are exempt from the need for some type of lubrication.
Key Components
• Compressors have a few key components that require a
coolant/lubricant: gears, bearings and seals.
• To date, the majority of dynamic compressors continue to utilize oil
film-lubricated seals.
• On the more conventional liquid- lubricated seals, the bearing and
sealing lubricant are often the same.
 Traditional compressor seal

LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM OPERATION

• The lube oil system supplies oil to the compressor and driver
bearings and to the gears and couplings.
• The lube oil is drawn from the reservoir by the pumps and is fed
under pressure through coolers and filters to the bearings.
• Upon leaving the bearings, the oil drains back to the reservoir.
• The reservoir is designed to permit circulation of its entire fluid
volume between eight to 12 times per hour.
• Oil reservoirs often have thermal sensors for monitoring temperature
levels during start-up and constant operations.
• Reservoirs also often have oil temperature controls that provide for
preheating during cold start-up conditions and cooling to prevent
overheating during peak operating cycles.
• An auxiliary pump serves as a standby. These two pumps generally
have different types of drive or power sources.
• When both are driven electrically, they are connected to separate
supply feeders.
 • Relief valves protect both pumps from the effects of excessively high
pressures. Check-valves prevent reverse flow of oil through the
stationary pump.
• Heat generated by friction in the bearings is transferred to the
cooling medium in the oil coolers. Air-cooled oil coolers may be
employed as an alternative to water-cooled oil coolers.
• Filters clean the lube oil before it reaches the lubrication points and a
differential pressure gauge monitors the degree of fouling (flow
restriction) of the filters.
• The flow of oil to each bearing is regulated individually by orifices,
particularly important for lubrication points requiring different
pressures.
• Temperatures and pressures are often recorded on the suction and
discharge sides of each compression stage to offer the operator a
sense of the health of the system.
• The readings can be taken locally or transmitted to a monitoring
station.
Compressor Lubricants
• The overwhelming majority of compressors are best served by
premium-grade turbine oils with ISO viscosity grades of 32 or 46.
 • However, there are many different types of compressors and each
manufacturer is likely to recommend lubricants that have been used
on a test stand and at controlled user facilities.
• Premium-grade ISO VG 32 turbine oils are used more often than the
heavier viscosity grades.

• Oxidation stability should exceed 5,000 hours and the flash

point should be 206ºC, or 403ºF. These lubricants must provide the
following:
• Long life without need for change-out
• Prevention of acidity, sludge, deposit formation
• Excellent protection against rust and corrosion, even during shutdown
• Good demulsibility to shed water that enters the lubrication system
• Easy filterability without additive depletion
• Good foam control
• It is not uncommon to operate these systems for many years on the
initial fill of lubricant, in some cases beyond 30 years.
• These long-term lifecycles are associated with premium-grade
product selection, large sumps, reasonably good contamination
control.
Compressor Seals
• In general, the mechanical contact or oil face seal employs a spring-
loaded stationary carbon ring in sliding contact with a rotating ring
manufactured from high-quality material with a special finish.
• This type of seal is also effective when the compressor is at standstill
and the oil pumps have been shut down.
• The main components of oil bushing seals are two stationary, but
radially free-to-move (floating ring) breakdown bushings with small
diametral clearances opposite a shaft sleeve.
 • The floating ring clearance controls the flow of the seal liquid cooling
the seal.
Seal Oil System Operations
• The seal oil, or seal liquid system supplies the mechanical contact
and floating ring seals with an adequate flow of seal liquid at all
times, correctly ensuring proper function.
 • The seal oil system may be combined with the lube oil system if the
gas does not adversely affect the lubricating qualities of the oil.
• There are two methods of combining lube oil and seal oil systems:
booster or combined systems.
• In the booster system, the oil pressure is raised to the pressure
required for lubrication purposes and then part of it is raised further
to the pressure needed for sealing.
• Alternatively, in the combined system, all the oil is initially raised to
the required pressure and flow, then reduced to system component
requirements.
AIR RECEIVERS

An air receiver is probably the most common type of unfired pressure

vessel. However, due to minimum size inspection thresholds employed by
the vast majority of jurisdictions, many of the smaller air receivers will not
qualify for a mandatory inservice inspection. The typical inspection
threshold sizes referenced in jurisdictional regulations are 5 cubic feet or
15 cubic feet in volume as long as the maximum allowable working
pressure (MAWP) does not exceed 250 psi, or 1-½ cubic feet in volume as
long as the MAWP does not exceed 600 psi. The inspector must review the
jurisdiction's inspection requirements to ensure compliance
with the appropriate size and
pressure limitations.

Air receivers are typically constructed in accordance with ASME Section

VIII, Div. 1, and stamped with either the ASME "U" or "UM" symbol.
Manufacturers who specialize in air receivers will construct a large
number of these vessels in an assembly line process. The Manufacturer's
Data Report, for "U" stamped vessels, and the Manufacturer's Certificate
of Compliance, for "UM" stamped vessels, may include multiple vessels.
This practice is described in ASME Section VIII, Div. 1, paragraph
UG-120(a).
While most air receivers are of simple design consisting of a shell and two
dished heads, some are designed to incorporate a filter or separator
element within the vessel. These vessels may be "T" shaped with one
bolted flat head which provides access to the filter or separator element.
These uniquely shaped vessels are commonly found in use
with large industrial air compressors.

Air receivers will be installed in any facility requiring a reservoir of

compressed air. Compressed air uses include:
Tire Inflation
Air-Powered Tools
Pneumatic Cylinders or Pistons
Sand- or Shot-Blasting
Painting
 Cleaning
Air Motors
Conveying Systems
Pneumatic Controls
Breathing Air

The design of a compressed air system is dictated in part by the pressure,

volume, and air quality (including cleanliness and dryness) needed in any
given industry or process. The size of the air receiver in the system is
normally based on the volume of air produced by the compressor and the
user's desire for a stated capacity in cubic feet per minute (cfm) at a
specified pressure. The air receiver helps in maintaining a constant
pressure in the system by minimizing the fluctuations of a compressor
cycling on and off..

Since air receivers are typically constructed out of carbon steel, they are
subject to internal corrosion from water which has condensed from the
compressed air. ASME Section VIII, Div. 1, paragraph UG-25(f), requires
a suitable drain opening in such vessels.

Air receivers with integrally mounted compressors and motors should be

installed as recommended by the manufacturer. Since there is usually some
vibration produced by a reciprocating-type compressor/motor unit, many
manufacturers provide spring-loaded or elastic compound dampers to
mount between the floor and the air receiver base.
 PIPING SYSTEM

Within industry, piping is a system of pipes used to convey fluids (liquids

and gases) from one location to another. The engineering discipline of
piping design studies the efficient transport of fluid.
Industrial process piping (and accompanying in-line
components) can be manufactured from wood, fiberglass, glass, steel,
aluminum,plastic, copper, and concrete. The in-line components, known as
fittings, valves, and other devices, typically sense and control thepressure,
flow rate and temperature of the transmitted fluid, and usually are included
in the field of Piping Design (or Piping Engineering). Piping systems are
documented in piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs). If necessary,
pipes can be cleaned by the tube cleaning process.
"Piping" sometimes refers to Piping Design, the detailed specification of
the physical piping layout within a process plant or commercial building. In
earlier days, this was sometimes called Drafting, Technical drawing,
Engineering Drawing, and Design but is today commonly performed by
Designers who have learned to use automated Computer Aided Drawing /
Computer Aided Design (CAD) software.,
Plumbing is a piping system with which most people are familiar, as it
constitutes the form of fluid transportation that is used to provide potable
water and fuels to their homes and businesses. Plumbing pipes also remove
waste in the form of sewage, and allow venting of sewage gases to the
outdoors. Fire sprinkler systems also use piping, and may transport non
potable or potable water, or other fire- suppression fluids.
Piping also has many other industrial applications, which are crucial for
moving raw and semi-processed fluids for refining into more useful
products. Some of the more exotic materials of construction are
Inconel, titanium, chrome-moly and various other steel alloys.
 UNIT –III
REFRIGERATION

Refrigeration is defined as the process of extracting heat from a

lower-temperature heat source, substance, or cooling medium and
transferring it to a higher-temperature heat sink. Refrigeration
maintains the temperature of the heat source below that of its
surroundings while transferring the extracted heat, and any required
energy input, to a heat sink, atmospheric air, or surface water.

The vapor compression refrigeration cycle is a common method for

transferring heat from a low temperature to a high temperature.

The above figure shows the objectives of refrigerators and heat pumps.
The purpose of a refrigerator is the removal of heat, called the cooling
load, from a low temperature medium. The purpose of a heat pump is
the transfer of heat to a high temperature medium, called the heating
load. When we are interested in the heat energy removed from a low
temperature space, the device is called a refrigerator. When we are
interested in the heat energy supplied to the high temperature space, the
device is called a heat pump. In general, the term “heat pump” is used
to describe the cycle as heat energy is removed from the low
temperature space and rejected to the high temperature space.

The performance of refrigerators and heat pumps is expressed in terms

of coefficient of performance (COP), defined as
 COPR COPHP

Desired output Required input

Desired output
Required input

Cooling effect Work input

Heating effect Work
input

QL Wnet ,in

QH Wnet ,in

Both COPR and COPHP can be larger than 1. Under the same operating
conditions, the COPs are related by

COPHP
COPR 1
Refrigeration systems are also rated in terms of TONS of refrigeration.
One ton of refrigeration is equivalent to 12,000 Btu/hr or 211 kJ/min.

REVERSED CARNOT REFRIGERATOR AND HEAT PUMP

Shown below are the cyclic refrigeration device operating between two
constant temperature reservoirs and the T-s diagram for the working
fluid when the reversed Carnot cycle is used. Recall that in the Carnot
cycle heat transfers take place at constant temperature. If our interest is
the cooling load, the cycle is called the Carnot refrigerator. If our
interest is the heat load, the cycle is called the Carnot heat pump.

The standard of comparison for refrigeration cycles is the reversed

Carnot cycle. A refrigerator or heat pump that operates on the reversed
Carnot cycle is called a Carnot
refrigerator or a Carnot heat pump, and their COPs are

COPR,Carnot
T

1 TL
/T 1 T T

COP
H L H L

1 TH

HP,Carnot

1 T/T T T
L H H L

Notice that a turbine is used for the expansion process between the high
and low temperatures. While the work interactions for the cycle are not
indicated on the figure, the work produced by the turbine helps supply
some of the work required by the compressor from external sources.
 THE VAPOR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE

The vapor compression refrigeration cycle has four components:

evaporator, compressor, condenser, and expansion (or throttle) valve.
The most widely used refrigeration cycle is the vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle. In an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle,
the refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor and is cooled
to the saturated liquid state in the condenser. It is then throttled to the
evaporator pressure and vaporizes as it absorbs heat from the
refrigerated space.

The ideal vapor compression cycle consists of four processes.

Ideal Vapor-Compression
Refrigeration Cycle
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat rejection in the
condenser 3-4 Throttling in an expansion
valve
4-1 Constant pressure heat addition in the
evaporator
The P-h diagram is another convenient diagram often used to illustrate
the refrigeration cycle.

The ordinary household refrigerator is a good example of the application

of this cycle.
 Results of First and Second Law Analysis for
Steady-Flow Component Process
First Law Result

Compressor s = Const.
Condenser P = Const.

W in m (h2 h1 )
Q H m (h2 h3 )

Throttle Valve s>0 h4

W net 0
Q net 0

h3

Evaporator P = Const.

Q L m (h1 h4 )

COP

Q L

h1 h4
 R
W
h h

COP
net ,in

Q H

2 1

h2 h3

HP
W
h h
net ,in 2 1

ACTUAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION

CYCLE
 CASCADE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

Very low temperatures can be achieved by operating two or more

vapor-compression Systems in series, called cascading. The COP of a
refrigeration system also increases as a result of cascading.

Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems

 GAS REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

The power cycles can be used as refrigeration cycles by simply

reversing them. Of these, the reversed Brayton cycle, which is also
known as the gas refrigeration cycle, is used to cool aircraft and to
obtain very low (cryogenic) temperatures after it is modified with
regeneration. The work output of the turbine can be used to reduce the
work input requirements to the compressor. Thus the COP of a gas
refrigeration cycle is

COPR

qL qL
w w w
net , in comp, in turb, out
 ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

Another form of refrigeration that becomes economically attractive

when there is a source of inexpensive heat energy at a temperature of
100 to 200oC is absorption refrigeration, where the refrigerant is
absorbed by a transport medium and compressed in liquid form. The
most widely used absorption refrigeration system is the ammonia-water
system, where ammonia serves as the refrigerant and water as the
transport medium. The work input to the pump is usually very small,
and the COP of absorption refrigeration systems is defined as

COPR

Desired output
Required input

Cooling effect QL
Work input Q W

QL
Q
gen pump,in gen
 THERMOELECTRIC REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

A refrigeration effect can also be achieved without using any moving

parts by simply passing a small current through a closed circuit made
up of two dissimilar materials. This effect is called the Peltier effect,
and a refrigerator that works on this principle is called a
thermoelectric refrigerator.
 EVAPORATIVE COOLING

Evaporative cooling is a process that uses the effect of evaporation as a

natural heat sink. Sensible heat from the air is absorbed to be used as
latent heat necessary to evaporate water. The amount of sensible heat
absorbed depends on the amount of water that can be evaporated.

Evaporative cooling can be direct or indirect; passive or hybrid. In

direct evaporative cooling, the water content of the cooled air increases
because air is in contact with the evaporated water. In indirect
evaporative cooling, evaporation occurs inside a heat exchanger and
the water content of the cooled air remains unchanged. Since high
evaporation rates might increase relative humidity and create
discomfort, direct evaporative cooling can be applied only in places
where relative humidity is very low.

Where evaporation occurs naturally it is called passive evaporation. A

space can be cooled by passive evaporation where there are surfaces of
still or flowing water, such as basins or fountains. Where evaporation
has to be controlled by means of some mechanical device, the system is
called a hybrid evaporative system.

Evaporative cooling is based on the thermodynamics of evaporation of

water, i.e. the change of the liquid phase of water into water vapor.
This phase change requires energy, which is called latent heat of
evaporation- this is the energy required to change a substance from
liquid phase to the gaseous one without temperature change. When non-
saturated air (i.e. air that does not contain liquid water but only water
vapor) comes in direct contact with water evaporation occurs. It is
obvious that during this process the moisture content of air is increased.
This process is represented on the psychometric chart by a
displacement along a constant wet bulb line, AB. The air to be cooled
is initially at point A. The air, as a result of the direct evaporative
cooling process, reaches point B. This is a constant wet bulb
temperature process and therefore line AB is parallel to the
wet bulb temperature lines.
When evaporation occurs in the primary circuit of a heat exchanger,
while the air to be cooled circulates in the secondary circuit, the air
temperature decreases but its humidity ratio remains constant. It must be
noted that since the air temperature drops, its relative humidity will
increase, but less than during the direct evaporative cooling process.
Since the humidity ratio of the air does not change, this process is
represented on the psychometric chart by a displacement along a
constant humidity ratio line CD. In this figure, the air to be cooled,
initially at point C is sensibly cooled by the indirect evaporative cooler
until it reaches point B.

direct evaporative cooling"

indirect evaporative
cooling"
 STEAM JET REFRIGERATION

This system uses the principle of boiling the water below 1000 C.
If the pressure on the surface of the water is reduced below
atmospheric pressure, water can be made boil at low temperatures.
Water boils at 60 C, when the pressure on the surface is 5 cm of Hg and
at 100 C, when the pressure is 6.5 cm of Hg. The very low pressure or
high vacuum on the surface of the water can be maintained by throttling
the steam through jets or nozzles. The general arrangement of the system
is shown in the Fig.6.8. Consider a flash chamber contains 100 kg of
water. If suddenly 1 kg of water is removed by boiling, as pressure is
reduced due to throttling of steam through nozzles. Approximately 2385
kJ of heat will be removed from the water, which is equivalent to heat
of evaporation of water. The fall in temperature of the remaining water
will be,
Evaporating one more kg of water reduces the remaining water
temperature by 5.7 degree C further. Thus by continuing this process,
the remaining water can be made to freeze. Water is the refrigerant used
in the steam jet refrigeration system. As water freezes at 0 degree C,
then either refrigeration has to be stopped or some device is required to
pump the ice. Operation: High pressure steam is supplied to the nozzle
from the boiler and it is expanded. Here, the water vapor originated
from the flash chamber is entrained with the high velocity steam jet and
it is further compressed in the thermo compressor. The kinetic energy of
the mixture is converted into static pressure and mass is discharged to
the condenser. The condensate is usually returned to the boiler.
Generally, 1% evaporation of water in the flash chamber is sufficient to
decrease the temperature of chilled water to 60 C. The chilled water in
the flash chamber is circulated by a pump to the point of application.
The warm water from the load is returned to the flash chamber.
The water is sprayed through the nozzles to provide maximum surface
area for cooling. The water, which is splashed in the chamber and any
loss of cold water at the application, must be replaced by makeup
water added to the cold water circulating system.

Advantages: a) It is flexible in operation; cooling capacity can be

easily and quickly changed. b) It has no moving parts as such it is
vibration free. c) It can be installed out of doors. d) The weight of the
system per ton of refrigerating capacity is less. e) The system is very
reliable and maintenance cost is less. f) The system is particularly
adapted to the processing of cold water used in rubber mills,,
distilleries, paper mills, food processing plants, etc. g) This system is
particularly used in air-conditioning installations, because of the
complete safety of water as refrigerant and ability to adjust quickly to
load variations and no hazard from the leakage of the refrigerant.
Disadvantages: a) The use of direct evaporation to produce
chilled water is usually limited as tremendous volume of vapor is to be
handled. b) About twice as much heat must be removed in the
condenser of steam jet per ton of refrigeration compared with the vapor
compression system. c) The system is useful for comfort air-
conditioning, but it is not practically feasible for water temperature
below 40 C.

PRODUCTION OF CRYOGENIC TEMPERATURES

There are essentially only four physical processes that are used to
produce cryogenic temperatures and cryogenic environments: heat
conduction, evaporative cooling, cooling by rapid expansion (the Joule-
Thompson effect), and adiabatic demagnetization. The first two are
well known in terms of everyday experience. The third is less well
known but is commonly used in ordinary refrigeration and air
conditioning units, as well as cryogenic applications. The fourth
process is used primarily in cryogenic applications and provides a
means of approaching absolute zero
 Heat conduction is familiar to everyone. When two bodies are in
contact, heat flows from the higher temperature body to a lower
temperature body. Conduction can occur between any and all forms of
matter, whether gas, liquid, or solid, and is essential in the production
of cryogenic temperatures and environments. For example, samples may
be cooled to cryogenic temperatures by immersing them directly in a
cryogenic liquid or by placing them in an atmosphere cooled by
cryogenic refrigeration. In either case, the sample cools by conduction
of heat to its colder surroundings.

The second physical process with cryogenic applications is

evaporative cooling, which occurs because atoms or molecules have
less energy when they are in the liquid state than when they are in the
vapor, or gaseous, state. When a liquid evaporates, atoms or molecules
at the surface acquire enough energy from the surrounding liquid to
enter the gaseous state. The remaining liquid has relatively less energy,
so its temperature drops. Thus, the temperature of a liquid can be
lowered by encouraging the process
of evaporation. The process is used in cryogenics to reduce the
temperature of liquids by continuously pumping away the atoms or
molecules as they leave the liquid, allowing the evaporation process to
cool the remaining liquid to the desired temperature. Once the desired
temperature is reached, pumping continues at a reduced level in order
to maintain the lower temperature. This method can be used to reduce
the temperature of any liquid. For example, it can be used to reduce the
temperature of liquid nitrogen to its freezing point, or to lower the
temperature of liquid helium to approximately 1K (-458°F [- 272°C]).

The fourth process, adiabatic demagnetization, involves the use of

paramagnetic salts to absorb heat. This phenomenon has been used to
reduce the temperature of liquid helium to less than a thousandth of a
degree above absolute zero in the following way. A paramagnetic salt
is much like an enormous collection of very tiny magnets called
magnetic moments. Normally, these tiny magnets are randomly aligned
so the collection as a whole is not magnetic. However, when the salt is
placed in a magnetic field by turning on a nearby electromagnet, the
north poles of each magnetic moment are repelled by the north pole of
the applied magnetic field, so many of the moments align the same way,
that is, opposite to the applied field. This process decreases the entropy
of the system.

REFRIGERANTS, COOLING MEDIA, AND LIQUID

ABSORBENTS Refrigerants. A refrigerant is the primary working
fluid used for absorbing and transmitting heat in a refrigeration
system. Refrigerants absorb heat at a low temperature and low
pressure and release heat at a higher temperature and pressure. Most
refrigerants undergo phase changes during heat absorption—
evaporation—and heat releasing— condensation.
Cooling Media. A cooling medium is the working fluid cooled by the
refrigerant to transport the cooling effect between a central plant and
remote cooling units and terminals. In a large, centralized system, it is
often more economical to use a coolant medium that can be pumped to
remote locations where cooling is required. Chilled water, brine, and
glycol are used as cooling media in many refrigeration systems. The
cooling medium is often called a secondary refrigerant, because it
obviates extensive circulation of the primary refrigerant.
Liquid Absorbents. A solution known as liquid absorbent is often used
to absorb the vaporized refrigerant (water vapor) after its evaporation
in an absorption refrigeration system. This solution, containing the
absorbed vapor, is then heated at high pressure. The refrigerant
vaporizes, and the solution is restored to its original concentration for
reuse.
Lithium bromide and ammonia, both in a water solution, are the liquid
absorbents used most often in absorption refrigerating systems.
 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS

Leakage Detection: Refrigerant leakage should be easily detected.

Leakage of refrigerant from the refrigeration system is often detected by
the following methods:

Halide torch: When air flows over a copper element heated by a methyl
alcohol flame, the vapor of halogenated refrigerant decomposes and
changes the color of the flame (green for a small leak, bluish with a
reddish top for a large leak).

Electronic detector: This type of detector reveals a variation of electric

current due to ionization of decomposed refrigerant between two
oppositely charged electrodes.

Bubble method: A solution of soup or detergent is brushed over the

seals and joints where leakage is suspected, producing bubbles that can
be easily detected.
 UNIT IV
AIR CONDITIONING AND VENTILATION
INTRODUCTION:
In order to maintain required conditions inside the conditioned space,
energy has to be either supplied or extracted from the conditioned space.
The energy in the form of sensible as well as latent heat has to be supplied
to the space in winter and extracted from the conditioned space in case of
summer. An air conditioning system consists of an air conditioning plant
and a thermal distribution system as shown in Fig below, the air
conditioning (A/C) plant acts either as a heat source (in case of winter
systems) or as a heat sink (in case of summer systems). Air, water or
refrigerant are used as media for transferring energy from the air
conditioning plant to the conditioned space. A thermal distribution system is
required to circulate the media between the conditioned space and the A/C
plant. Another important function of the thermal distribution system is to
introduce the required amount of fresh air into the conditioned space so that
the required Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) can be maintained.
 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS:
Selection of a suitable air conditioning system depends on:
1. Capacity, performance and spatial requirements
2. Initial and running costs
3. Required system reliability and flexibility
4. Maintainability
5. Architectural constraints
The relative importance of the above factors varies from building owner to
owner and may vary from project to project. The typical space requirement
for large air conditioning systems may vary from about 4 percent to about 9
percent of the gross building area, depending upon the type of the system.
Normally based on the selection criteria, the choice is narrowed down to 2
to 3 systems, out of which one will be selected finally.
CLASSIFICATION OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS:
Based on the fluid media used in the thermal distribution system, air
conditioning systems can be classified as:
1. All air systems
2. All water systems
3. Air- water systems
4. Unitary refrigerant based systems
All air systems:

As the name implies, in an all air system air is used as the media that
transports energy from the conditioned space to the A/C plant. In these
systems air is processed in the A/C plant and this processed air is then
conveyed to the conditioned space through insulated ducts using blowers
and fans. This air extracts (or supplies in case of winter) the required
amount of sensible and latent heat from the conditioned space. The return
air from the conditioned space is conveyed back to the plant, where it
again undergoes the required processing thus completing the cycle. No
additional processing of air is required in the conditioned space. All air
systems can be further classified into:
1. Single duct systems, or
2. Dual duct systems
The single duct systems can provide either cooling or heating using the
same duct, but not both heating and cooling simultaneously. These systems
can be further classified into:
1. Constant volume, single zone systems
2. Constant volume, multiple zone systems
3. Variable volume systems

The dual duct systems can provide both cooling and heating simultaneously. These systems can be
further classified into:
1. Dual duct, constant volume systems
2. Dual duct variable volume systems

Single duct, constant volume, single zone systems:

Figure shows the classic, single duct, single zone, constant volume
systems. As shown in the figure, outdoor air (OD air) for ventilation and
recirculated air (RC air) are mixed in the required proportions using the
dampers and the mixed air is made to flow through a cooling and
dehumidifying coil, a heating coil and a humidifier using a an insulated
ducting and a supply fan. As the air flows through these coils the
temperature and moisture content of the air are brought to the required
values. Then this air is supplied to
the conditioned space, where it meets the building cooling or heating
requirements. The return air leaves the conditioned space, a part of it is
recirculated and the remaining part is vented to the atmosphere. A
thermostat senses the temperature of air in the conditioned space and
controls the amount of cooling or heating provided in the coils so that the
supply air temperature can be controlled as per requirement. A humidistat
measures the humidity ratio in the conditioned space and controls the
amount of water vapour added in the humidifier and hence the supply air
humidity ratio as per requirement.

This system is called as a single duct system as there is only one supply
duct, through which either hot air or cold air flows, but not both
simultaneously. It is called as a constant volume system as the volumetric
flow rate of supply air is always maintained constant. It is a single zone
system as the control is based on temperature and humidity ratio measured
at a single point. Here a zone refers to a space controlled by one
thermostat. However, the single zone may consist of a single room or one
floor or whole of a building consisting of several rooms. The cooling/
heating capacity in the single zone, constant volume systems is regulated by
regulating the supply air temperature and humidity ratio, while keeping the
supply airflow rate constant. A separate sub-system controls the amount of
OD air supplied by controlling the damper position. Since a single zone
system is controlled by a single thermostat and humidistat, it is important
to locate these sensors in a proper location, so that they are indicative of
zone conditions. The supply air conditions are controlled by either coil
control or face-and-bypass control.
In coil control, supply air temperature is controlled by varying the flow
rate of cold and hot water in the cooling and heating coils, respectively.
As the cooling season gradually changes to heating season, the cooling coil
valve is gradually closed and heating coil valve is opened. Though coil
control is simpler, using this type of control it is not possible to control
the zone humidity precisely as the dehumidification rate in the cooling
coil decreases with cold water flow rate. Thus at low cold water flow
rates, the humidity ratio of the conditioned space is likely to be higher than
required.
In face-and-bypass control, the cold and hot water flow rates are
maintained constant, but the amount of air flowing over the coils are
decreased or increased by opening or closing the by-pass dampers,
respectively. By this method it is possible to control the zone humidity
more precisely, however, this type of control occupies more space
physically and is also expensive compared to coil control.
Applications of single duct, single zone, constant volume systems:
1. Spaces with uniform loads, such as large open areas with small external
loads e.g. theatres, auditoria, departmental stores.
2. Spaces requiring precision control such as laboratories
The Multiple, single zone systems can be used in large buildings such as
factories, office buildings etc.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR
WATER SYSTEMS Dry-bulb
temperature (DBT)
The dry-bulb temperature is the temperature indicated by a thermometer
exposed to the air in a place sheltered from direct solar radiation. The term
dry-bulb is customarily added to temperature to distinguish it from wet-
bulb and dewpoint temperature. In meteorology and psychrometrics the
word temperature by itself without a prefix usually means dry-bulb
temperature. Technically, the temperature registered by the dry- bulb
thermometer of a psychrometer. The name implies that the sensing bulb or
element is in fact dry.
Wet-bulb temperature (WBT)
The thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature is a thermodynamic property of
a mixture of air and water vapor. The value indicated by a wet-bulb
thermometer often provides an adequate approximation of the
thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature.
The accuracy of a simple wet-bulb thermometer depends on how fast air
passes over the bulb and how well the thermometer is shielded from the
radiant temperature of its surroundings. Speeds up to 5,000 ft/min
(~60 mph) are best but it may be dangerous to move a thermometer at that
speed. Errors up to 15% can occur if the air movement is too slow or if
there is too much radiant heat present (from sunlight, for example). A wet
bulb temperature taken with air moving at about 1–2 m/s is referred to as a
screen temperature, whereas a temperature taken with air moving about
3.5 m/s or more is referred to as sling temperature.
A psychrometer is a device that includes both a dry-bulb and a wet-bulb
thermometer. A sling psychrometer requires manual operation to create
the airflow over the bulbs, but a powered psychrometer includes a fan for
this function. Knowing both the dry-bulb temperature (DBT) and wet-bulb
temperature (WBT), one can determine the relative humidity (RH) from the
psychrometric chart appropriate to the air pressure.
Relative humidity
The ratio of the vapor pressure of moisture in the sample to the saturation
pressure at the dry bulb temperature of the sample.
Dew point temperature
The saturation temperature of the moisture present in the sample of air, it
can also be defined as the temperature at which the vapour changes into
liquid (condensation). Usually the level at which water vapor changes into
liquid marks the base of the cloud in the atmosphere hence called
condensation level. So the temperature value that allows this process
(condensation) to take place is called the 'dew point temperature'.
Humidity
Specific
Humidity
Specific humidity is defined as the proportion of the mass of water vapor
per unit mass of the moist air sample (dry air plus the water vapor); it is
closely related to humidity ratio and always lower in value.
Absolute humidity
The mass of water vapor per unit volume of air containing the water
vapor. This quantity is also known as the water vapor density.
Specific enthalpy
Analogous to the specific enthalpy of a pure substance. In psychrometrics,
the term quantifies the total energy of both the dry air and water vapour per
kilogram of dry air.
Specific volume
Analogous to the specific volume of a pure substance. In psychrometrics,
the term quantifies the total volume of both the dry air and water vapour
per kilogram of dry air.
Psychrometric ratio
The psychrometric ratio is the ratio of the heat transfer coefficient to the
product of mass transfer

coefficient and humid heat at a wetted surface.

The psychrometric ratio is an important property in the area of
psychrometrics, as it relates the absolute humidity and saturation humidity
to the difference between the dry bulb temperature and the adiabatic
saturation temperature.
Mixtures of air and water vapor are the most common systems
encountered in psychrometry. The psychrometric ratio of air-water vapor
mixtures is approximately unity, which implies that the difference
between the adiabatic saturation temperature and wet bulb temperature of
air-water vapor mixtures is small. This property of air-water vapor
systems simplifies drying and cooling calculations often performed using
psychrometic relationships.
Humid heat
Humid heat is the constant-pressure specific heat of moist air, per unit
mass of the dry air.[8]
Pressure
Many psychrometric properties are dependent on pressure concept:
 vapor pressure of water;
atmospheric pressure at the location of the sample.

TRANSPORT AIR CONDITIONING

How the air conditioning system with expansion valve works For
controlling the climate in the vehicle interior, refrigerant circuit as well as
coolant circuit are required. A mixture of cold and warm air allows the
generation of the desired climate conditions - completely independently
from outer conditions. As a result, the air conditioning system becomes an
important factor for safety and driving comfort. The individual components
of the refrigerant circuit are connected by tubes and/or aluminium pipes
and thus form a closed system. Refrigerant and refrigerant oil circulate in
the system, driven by the compressor. The circuit has two sides:
_ The section between the compressor and the expansion valve is the high
pressure side (yellow/red).
_ The section between the expansion valve and the compressor is the low
pressure side (blue).
The gaseous refrigerant is compressed by the compressor (thereby
significantly increasing its temperature) and pressed under high pressure
through the condenser. This removes heat from refrigerant - it condensates
and changes its state from gas to liquid. The filter dryer, the next unit,
removes contaminants and air from the liquid refrigerant as well as
humidity. This ensures system effectiveness and protects the components
from damage caused by contaminants. Condenser fan Compressor Filter
dryer Evaporator Expansion valve Interior fan Condenser
 EVAPORATIVE CONDENSERS:
In evaporative condensers, both air and water are used to extract heat from
the condensing refrigerant. Figure below shows the schematic of an
evaporative condenser. Evaporative condensers combine the features of a
cooling tower and water-cooled condenser in a single unit. In these
condensers, the water is sprayed from top part on a bank of tubes carrying
the refrigerant and air is induced upwards. There is a thin water film
around the condenser tubes from which evaporative cooling takes place.
The heat transfer coefficient for evaporative cooling is very large. Hence,
the refrigeration system can be operated at low condensing temperatures
(about 11 to 13 K above the wet bulb temperature of air). The water spray
countercurrent to the airflow acts as cooling tower. The role of air is
primarily to increase the rate of evaporation of water. The required air
flow rates are in the range of 350 to 500 m3 /h per TR of refrigeration
capacity.
Evaporative condensers are used in medium to large capacity systems.
These are normally cheaper compared to water cooled condensers, which
require a separate cooling tower. Evaporative condensers are used in
places where water is scarce. Since water is used in a closed loop, only a
small part of the water evaporates. Make-up water is supplied to take care
of the evaporative loss. The water consumption is typically very low,
about 5 percent of an equivalent water cooled condenser with a cooling
tower. However, since condenser has to be kept outside, this type of
condenser requires a longer length of refrigerant tubing, which calls for
larger refrigerant inventory and higher pressure drops. Since the condenser
is kept outside, to prevent the water from freezing, when outside
temperatures are very low, a
heater is placed in the water tank. When outside temperatures are very low
it is possible to switch-off the water pump and run only the blowers, so
that the condenser acts as an air cooled condenser.
Another simple form of condenser used normally in older type cold
storages is called as atmospheric condenser. The principle of the
atmospheric condenser is similar to evaporative condenser, with a
difference that the air flow over the condenser takes place by natural
means as no fans or blowers are used. A spray system sprays water over
condenser tubes. Heat transfer outside the tubes takes by both sensible
cooling and evaporation, as a result the external heat transfer coefficient is
relatively large. The condenser pipes are normally large, and they can be
either horizontal or vertical. Though these condensers are effective and
economical they are being replaced with other types of condensers due to
the problems such as algae formation on condenser tubes, uncertainity due
to external air circulation etc.
COOLING TOWER PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION
A cooling tower is a special type of heat exchanger in which the warm
water and the air are brought in direct contact for „evaporative cooling’. It
provides a very good contact of air and water in terms of the contact area
and mass transfer co-efficient of water vapor while keeping air pressure
drop low. Enthalpy of air is lower than enthalpy of water. Sensible heat
and latent heat transfer take place from water drop to surrounding air.
Schematic of heat transfer from water drop to surrounding air is presented
in Figure below
Thus, cooling is accomplished by sensible heat transfer from water to air
and evaporation of a small portion of water. A generalized cooling tower
system is shown in Figure below . The hot water which is coming from
heat exchanger is sprayed at the top of the cooling tower. Air enters
through the louvers at the two opposite walls of the cooling tower. During
cooling process of water, around 2% water is evaporated. Make water is
used to compensate the water loss due to evaporation. Blowdown is there
to drain a part of water containing solid deposit. The exit cold water from
the cooling tower is used in the heat exchanger or other unit operation.
 Factors govern the operation of cooling tower
i. The dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of air
ii. Temperature of warm water
iii. The efficiency of contact between air and water in terms of volumetric
mass transfer coefficient ( ) a k y/
iv. Contact time between air and water
v. The uniformity of the distribution of the phases within the tower
vi. Air pressure drop
vii. Desired temperature of cooled water
Atmospheric Towers
It is a big rectangular chamber with two opposite „louvered‟ walls. Tower
is packed with a suitable „tower fill‟. Atmospheric air enters the tower
through louvers driven by its own velocity. Direction and velocity of
wind greatly influence its performance. Figure below shows the schematic
of the atmospheric cooling tower.
 Natural Draft Towers
A natural draft cooling tower has a large reinforced concrete shell of
hyperbolic shape (also called
„hyperbolic tower‟). Natural flow of air occurs through the tower; hence it
is called natural draft . Factors responsible for creating natural draft
(a) A rise in temperature and humidity of air in the column reduces its
density
(b) Wind velocity at the tower bottom

Fan is used to enhance the air flow rate in fan assisted natural draft tower.
The typical diameter of tower is 150 m and capacity is 5,00,000
gallon/minute.

HEAT PUMPS
Heat flows naturally from a higher to a lower temperature. Heat pumps
reverse this natural flow, extracting heat energy from a cool source, such as
the ground, and delivering it to a hot system, such as a building‟s heating
system. In the same way that a fridge uses refrigerant to extract heat from
the inside, keeping your food cool, a heat pump extracts heat from a range
for sources, and uses it to heat your home and hot water An ideal heat
source for a heat pump has a high stable temperature during the heating
season. Ground source, water source and air source are common in the
domestic setting.
The gas in the refrigeration circuit inside the heat pump has an extremely
low boiling temperature. So when the liquid comes in from the garden
circuit, that liquid transfers its heat to the colder liquid refrigerant in the
evaporator. This causes the refrigerant to turn to vapour and passes
upwards to the compressor. Electricity is used to drive the compressor . It
squashes the vapour and this increases its temperature, as increasing the
pressure raises the temperature. The vapour then moves onwards to the
condenser heat exchanger. Water coming from the building‟s heat
distribution system passes up the other side of the heat exchanger and this
water absorbs the heat from the refrigerant coming from the compressor.
The refrigerant condenses back to liquid form like steam on a window It
passes through an extremely small opening in the throttling device and
undergoes a large drop in pressure with an associated drop in temperature.
This cold liquid is let into the bottom of the evaporator heat exchanger
where the whole process is repeated. The key to any heat pump is that the
energy required to concentrate (make it useful) is less than the energy
required to provide the heat directly.

“Natural ventilation” covers uncontrolled inward air leakage through

cracks, windows, doorways and vents (infiltration) as well as air leaving
a room (exfiltration) through the same routes. Natural ventilation is
strongly affected by weather conditions and is often unreliable.
Mechanical or forced ventilation is provided by air movers or fans in the
wall, roof or air-conditioning system of a building. It promotes the supply
or exhaust air flow in a controllable manner
Purposes of Ventilation
Ventilation in a building serves to provide fresh and clean air, to maintain a
thermally comfortable work environment, and to remove or dilute airborne
contaminants in order to prevent their accumulation in the air. Air-
conditioning is a common type of ventilation system in modern office
buildings. It draws in outside air and after filtration, heating or cooling and
humidification, circulates it throughout the building. A small portion of the
return air is expelled to the outside environment to control the level of
indoor air contaminants. The efficiency of a ventilation system can be
evaluated through investigation of environmental factors such as the quality
of supply air, the thermal comfort conditions of the occupied space and the
level of airborne contaminants therein.
 UNIT V
STEAM
STEAM GENERATION IN CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANTS
Steam is a principle energy source for chemical industrial processes. It
provides energy for process heating, pressure control, mechanical
drives, and component separation, and is also a source of water for many
industrial operations and chemical reactions. The popularity of steam as
an energy source stems from its many advantages, which include low
toxicity, transportability, high efficiency, high heat capacity, and low
production costs relative to other energy transport mediums. [Steam
Source Document DOE]
A process steam system consists of the four categories listed below:
• generation
• distribution
• end use
• recovery
Generation
Steam is normally generated in a boiler or waste heat recovery device
by transferring heat from hot combustion gases or other hot process
streams to water. The water absorbs the heat, facilitating the phase
change necessary to produce steam. The steam is then transferred under
pressure from the boiler to the distribution system. In general, two types
of boilers are used to generate steam.
• Firetube boilers—Combustion gases pass through tubes,
transferring heat to boiler water flowing over the tubes on the shell side.
Benefits of this type of boiler include low initial costs as well as
efficiency and durability. The boilers are limited, however, to lower
pressure steam production temperatures, generally not exceeding 300
psig, due to the steam being contained in the shell.
• Water tube boilers—Boiler water passes through tubes while hot gases
contained on the shell side circulate over the outside of the tubes,
transferring heat. The fact that the steam is contained in the tubes and not
the shell allows for much higher pressure steam production, on the order
of up to 3000 psig is practical. For this reason, and due to their high
efficiency, water tube boilers are ideal for applications that require
saturated or superheated steam, especially those applications insisting on
dry, high pressure, high heat energy steam. About 60% of the steam
produced in the chemical industry lies in the range of 300 to 1000 psig.
[Steam Assess DOE]

The two boiler types listed are both fuel-fired boilers; in addition, heat
recovery devices such as waste heat recovery boilers (WHRB), heat
recovery steam generators (HRSG), superheaters, and economizers are
used in industry to generate steam.
Distribution
The distribution system is critical because it carries the pressurized
steam produced in the boilers to the end-use operations. Systems often
have numerous take-off lines that operate at different steam pressures,
which are achieved by using isolation valves, pressure regulating
valves, and, in some cases, back pressure turbines to separate take-off
lines from the original headers. The goal of any distribution system is to
deliver to the end-user sufficient quantities of steam at a specified
temperature and pressure. An efficient system requires proper pressure
balance and regulation, good condensate drainage, and proper insulation.
[Steam Source DOE] Typical steam distribution system components
include:
• piping
• proper insulation
• valves or turbines
• steam separators, accumulators, and traps
End Use
Steam end-use equipment transfers steam energy into other useful forms
of energy that can then be used further in process applications .
The most common operational end uses employed by chemical
manufacturers include: [Steam Asses DOE]
• stripping
• fractionation
• power generation
• mechanical drive
• process heating
• quenching
• dilution
• vacuum draw
• pressure regulation
• injection
• source of process water
 Stripping
Steam is often used to facilitate the separation of components. In
stripping towers, steam pulls unwanted contaminants from a process
fluid. The steam used in these applications is not directly returned
because the effluent has too many unwanted substances.
Fractionation
In fractionation towers, steam is used to assist in the separation of
chemical products that contain components with different boiling points.
Steam is injected in the bottom of the towers along
with a feedstock. The steam helps carry the more volatile products up the
tower where they condense on trays that are maintained at the
condensation temperature of the desired products. The steam provides a
mass transport medium, helps prevent deposition on hot surfaces, and
provides favorable viscosity properties of the product within the tower.
Power Generation
In power generation, steam is often used to drive turbines, which, in turn,
spin electric generators. Many chemical plants meet their electric power
needs with a mixture of purchased power and on-site generation. The
ratio between purchased power and self-generated power depends on
several factors, including cost of electricity, availability, and capacity
of on-sited power generation, anonymous on-sited demand for steam.
Steam and Its Properties
Steam is the gaseous phase of water. It utilizes heat during the process
and carries large quantities of heat later. Hence, it could be used as a
working substance for heat engines. Steam is generated in boilers at
constant pressure. Generally, steam may be obtained starting from ice or
straight away from the water by adding heat to it. Steam exists in
following states or types or conditions.
(i) Wet steam (saturated steam)
(ii) Dry steam (dry saturated steam)
(iii) Superheated steam
(iv) Supersaturated steam water, which is one of the Pure Substance, exists
in three phases:
(i) Solid phase as ice (freezing of water)
(ii) Liquid phase as water (melting of ice)
(iii) Gaseous phase as steam (vaporization of water)
Water could be used as coolant and water vapor is used as a working
fluid for the operation of Steam Engines and Steam Turbines.

Dryness Fraction of Saturated Steam (x or q)

It is a measure of quality of wet steam. It is the ratio of the mass of dry
steam (mg) to the mass of total wet steam (mg +mf), where mf is the
mass of water vapor.
X=
mg
mg +
mf
Quality of Steam
It is the representation of dryness fraction in percentage:
Quality of Steam = x X 100 Wetness Fraction
It is another measure of quality of wet steam. It is the ratio of the mass
of water vapor (mf) to the mass of total wet steam
(mg +mf)
Wetness fraction in
mf = (1-x) mg +mf

Priming
It is the representation of wetness
fraction in percentage. Priming = (I -
x) 100
Note: Quality + Priming = 100%

Density of Steam (p), kg/m3

It is the mass of steam per unit of volume of steam at the given pressure
and temperature. It is the reciprocal of the specific volume.
P= 1/v
Internal (True) Latent Heat (internal Energy of Steam) (U), kj/kg
It is the energy required to change the phase. Hence, it is the actual heat
energy stored in the steam above O'C. It may be calculated by subtracting
the external work of evaporation from the enthalpy. U=h-E

External Work of Evaporation (E), kj/kg

It is the fraction of the latent heat of vaporization which does an external
work in moving the piston at constant pressure due to increase in
volume.

Enthalpy (h), kj/kg

It is the total amount of heat received by 1 kg of water from O"C at
constant pressure to convert it to desired form of steam. It is the sum of
the internal energy and work done at constant pressure process, which is
equal to change in enthalpy.
Let U Internal energy, dU = Change
in internal energy h Enthalpy (heat
received), A = Change in enthalpy
Q Heat supplied, dQ = Change
in heat supplied P Pressure, dP =
Change in pressure
v Volume, du = Change in volume
Then by definition Enthalpy Internal
energy + Work done h = U + PV
From 1st Law of thermodynamics, dQ = dU + d(Pv)
= dU + V dP + P dv
= dU + d(Pv) - v dP
= d (U + Pu) - v dP
since, for a constant pressure
process, dP = 0 dQ = d(U +
Pv)

BOILERS AND POWER GENERATION EQUIPMENTS

A boiler or steam generator is a device used to create steam by
applying heat energy to water. Although the definitions are somewhat
flexible, it can be said that older steam generators were commonly
termed boilers and worked at low to medium pressure (1–300 psi or
6.895–2,068.427 kPa) but, at pressures above this, it is more usual to
speak of a steam generator.
A boiler or steam generator is used wherever a source of steam is
required. The form and size depends on the application: mobile steam
engines such as steam locomotives, portable engines and steam-powered
road vehicles typically use a smaller boiler that forms an integral part of
the vehicle; stationary steam engines, industrial installations and power
stations will usually have a larger separate steam generating facility
connected to the point-of-use by piping. A notable exception is the
steam-powered fireless locomotive, where separately-generated steam
is transferred to a receiver (tank) on the locomotive.
Steam generator (component of prime mover)

The
steam generator or boiler is an integral component of a steam engine
when considered as a prime mover. However it needs be treated
separately, as to some extent a variety of generator types can be
combined with a variety of engine units. A boiler incorporates a firebox
or furnace in order to burn the fuel and generate heat. The generated heat
is transferred to water to make steam, the process of boiling. This
produces saturated steam at a rate which can vary according to the
pressure above the boiling water. The higher the furnace temperature, the
faster the steam production. The saturated steam thus produced can then
either be used immediately to produce power via a turbine and
alternator, or else may be further superheated to a higher temperature;
this notably reduces suspended water content making a given volume of
steam produce more work and creates a greater temperature gradient,
which helps reduce the potential to form condensation. Any remaining
heat in the combustion gases can then either be evacuated or made to
pass through an economiser, the role of which is to warm the feed water
before it reaches the boiler.

Type of steam generator unit used in coal-fired power plants

There are virtually infinite numbers of boiler designs but generally they fit
into one of two categories:
Fire tube or ―fire in tubeǁ boilers; contain long steel tubes through which
the hot gasses from a
furnace pass and around which the water to be converted to steam
circulates. Fire tube boilers, typically have a lower initial cost, are more
fuel efficient and easier to operate, but they are limited generally to
capacities of 25 tons/hr and pressures of 17.5 kg/cm2.

Water tube or ―water in tubeǁ boilers in which the conditions are

reversed with the water passing through the tubes and the hot gasses
passing outside the tubes . These boilers can be of single- or multiple-
drum type. These boilers can be built to any steam capacities and
pressures, and have higher efficiencies than fire tube boilers.
 STEAM ENGINE
Steam from the boiler enters the steam chest and is admitted to the front
end of the cylinder by the valve slide (illustrated in blue). The high
pressure steam presses the piston backward, driving the engine wheels
around one half turn

At the end of the piston stroke the valve shifts, allowing the expended
steam to escape through the exhaust port (underneath the blue valve
slide).
At the same time, the valve slide begins admitting high pressure steam
to the back end of the cylinder. This presses the piston forward, pulling
the engine wheels around another half turn.
At the end of the forward stroke, the steam is released from the rear portion
of the cylinder
Rankine Cycle
Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high
pressure, as the fluid is a liquid at this stage the pump requires
little input energy.
Process 2-3: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is
heated at constant pressure by an external heat source to become a
dry saturated vapor.
Process 3-4: The dry saturated vapor expands through a turbine,
generating power. This decreases the temperature and pressure of
the vapor, and some condensation may occur.
Process 4-1: The wet vapor then enters a condenser where it is
condensed at a constant pressure and temperature to become a
saturated liquid. The pressure and temperature of the condenser is
fixed by the temperature of the cooling coils as the fluid is
undergoing a phase-change.
Rankine Cycle
 STEAM TURBINES
A Turbine is a Form of Engine Requires a suitable working fluid in
order to function- a source of High Grade Energy and a Sink for Low
Grade energy. When a Fluid Flows through the Turbine ,Part of Energy
Content is Continuously Extracted and Converted in to Useful
mechanical Work.
Steam turbine depends completely upon the dynamic action of the steam.
According to Newton‘s second law of motion, the FORCE is
proportional to the rate of change of MOMENTUM (mass x velocity). If
the rate of change of momentum is caused in the steam by allowing a high
velocity jet of steam to pass over curved blade, the steam will impart a
force to the blade. If the blade is free, it will free off (rotate) in the
direction of force.

The steam from the boiler is expanded in a passage or nozzle , where

due to fall in pressure of steam is converted into Kinetic energy of steam
& this KE of steam is converted into work moving blade

Types of turbine
On the basis of principle
of operation Impulse
turbine
Reaction turbine
Impulse- Reaction turbine

Impulse Turbine ..
In impulse the drop in pressure of steam takes place only in nozzle & not
in moving blades. This is obtained by making the blade passage of
constant cross section area it may be noted that energy transformation
takes place only in nozzles. Moving blades only cause energy transfer

Reaction turbine:-
Pressure drop take place in rotor (M.B.). Energy transformation takes place
in rotor. Energy transfer only in rotor.

Impulse- Reaction turbine:-

In this turbine drop in pressure of steam takes place in fixed blade as
well as moving blade. It may be noted that energy transformation occur
in both fixed blade & moving blade. The rotor blade cause energy
transfer & energy transformation.

THE STEAM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The steam distribution system is the essential link between the

steam generator and the steam user.
The most important components of a steam distribution system can be
given as follows:
Pipes
Drain points
Branch lines
Strainers
Filters
Separators
Steam traps
Air vents
 There are various methods to carry steam from a central source to the
point of use.
The central source might be a boiler house or the discharge from a
co-generation plant.
Whatever the source, an efficient steam distribution system is
essential if steam of the right quality and pressure is to be supplied,
in the right quantity, to the steam using equipment.
Installation and maintenance of the steam system are important
issues, and must be considered at the design stage.

A typical Steam circuit

Pipes
Pipe material
Pipes for steam systems are commonly manufactured from
carbon steel (0.12% to 2% C).
The same material may be used for condensate lines,
although copper tubing is preferred in some industries.
For high temperature superheated steam mains, additional
alloying elements, such as chromium and molybdenum, are
included to improve tensile strength and creep resistance (any
kind of distortion) at high temperatures.
Typically, pipes are supplied in 6- meter lengths.

Carbon Steel Pipes

Oversized pipe-work will result in
Pipes, valves, fittings, etc. will be more expensive than
necessary.
 Higher installation costs will be incurred, including support
work, insulation, etc.
More steam trapping is required or more wet steam is to be
delivered to the point of use.
Undersized pipe-work will result in
There is a greater risk of erosion, water hammer and noise
due to the inherent increase in steam velocity.
Drain points
In normal operation, steam may flow along the main at speeds of
up to 145 km/h, dragging condensate along with it.
The drain point must ensure that the condensate can reach the
steam trap (device to discharge condensate).
Careful consideration must therefore be given to the design and
location of the drain points.
Gravity will ensure that the water (condensate) will run along
sloping pipe work and collect at low points in the system.
Steam traps should therefore be fitted to these low points.

Improper draining pipe

Proper draining pipe

Branch Lines
 Branch lines are normally much shorter than steam mains.
As a general rule, branch line is not more than 10 metres in length,
and the pressure in the main is adequate.
If the sizing of the branch pipe on a velocity of 25 to 40 m/s, the
problems due to pressure drop in the line can be avoided.

A branch line

Branch line connections

Branch line connections taken from the top of the main line, carry the
driest steam.
If connections are taken from the side, or even worse from
the bottom, they can accept the condensate and debris from
the steam main.

Strainers
In steam and condensate systems, damage to plant is frequently
caused by pipeline debris such as scale, rust, joining compound,
weld metal and other solids, which may find their way into the
pipeline system.
Strainers are devices which arrest these solids in flowing liquids
or gases, and protect equipment from their harmful effects, thus
reducing downtime and maintenance.
A strainer should be fitted upstream of every steam trap, flow meter
and control valve.
 Strainers can be classified into two main types according to their
body configuration; namely the
Y-type and the basket type.
 Basket type strainer

Filters
Filters are used to remove smaller particles.
Required in the clean steam applications
Typical one is made up of sintered stainless steel.
Always there will be a strainer operation before the filtration
operation in the steam line.
 Separators
Separators are used to remove suspended water droplets from steam.
Reduction of the water in the steam can improve the quality of the
steam.
The presence of water in steam can cause a number of problems:
As water is an extremely effective barrier to heat transfer,
its presence can reduce plant productivity and product
quality.
 Water droplets traveling at high steam velocities will
erode valve seats and fittings, a condition known as
wiredrawing. The water droplets will also increase the
amount of corrosion.
Increased scaling in pipe work and heating surfaces from
the impurities carried in the water droplets.
Erratic operation of control valves and flow meters.
Failure of valves and flow meters due to rapid wear or water
hammer
Steam traps
This is the most important link between the steam line and
the condensate loop because it connects steam usage with
condensate return.
A steam trap simply 'purges‗ (removes) condensate, (as well
as air and other incondensable gases), out of the system,
allowing steam to reach its destination in as dry a
state/condition as possible to perform its task efficiently and
economically.
Steam traps operates at a varying range of pressures ranging from
vacuum to 200 bar.

Thermostatic (operated by changes in fluid temperature).

The temperature of saturated steam is determined by its
pressure. In the steam space, steam gives up its enthalpy of
evaporation (heat), producing condensate at steam
temperature.
As a result of any further heat loss, the temperature of the
condensate will fall.
A thermostatic trap will pass condensate when this lower
temperature is sensed. As steam reaches the trap, the
temperature increases and the trap closes.
Mechanical (operated by changes in fluid density). This range of
steam traps operates by
sensing the difference in density between steam and condensate.
These steam traps include 'ball float traps' and 'inverted bucket
traps'.
 In the 'ball float trap', the ball rises in the presence of
condensate, opening a valve, which passes the denser
condensate.
With the 'inverted bucket trap', the inverted bucket floats
when steam reaches the trap and rises to shut the valve.
Both are essentially 'mechanical' in their method of operation.
Thermodynamic (operated by changes in fluid dynamics).
Thermodynamic steam traps rely partly on the formation of flash
steam from condensate.
Mostly Disc or Impulse types.
Air Vents
Air is present within steam pipes and steam equipment at start-up and
shut down.
Signs of air are:
A gradual fall off in the output of any steam heated
equipment
Air bubbles in the condensate
Corrosion
Condensate recovery
An effective condensate recovery system, collecting the hot
condensate from the steam using equipment and returning it to the
boiler feed system, can pay for itself in a remarkably short period
of time.
Reasons for the condensate recycle
Quality of the feed water
Economic Operation
Maximizing the boiler efficiency
Insulation
A thermal insulator is characterized by a low thermal conductivity.
Insulation materials are porous and contain a large number of dormant
air cells.
A large amount of heat energy may be lost without insulation
or if insulation is inefficient or improperly installed.
Benefits
Reduction of fuel consumption.
Better process control by maintaining process temperatures at a
constant level.
Corrosion prevention by keeping the exposed surface of system of
operation above dew point
Types of insulation
Up to 90 oC – Low temperature
90 to 325 oC – medium temperature
 More than 325 oC – high temperature
Selecting insulating materials
Important factors that should be considered when choosing insulating
materials are:
Operating temperature of the system
Resistance of the materials to heat, weather and adverse conditions
Thermal conductivity of the material
Thermal diffusivity of the material
Ability of the material to withstand the various conditions,
such as thermal shock, vibration and chemical attack
Resistance of the material to flames/fire
Permeability of the material
Total cost, including material purchase, installing and maintenance
 STEAM ECONOMY
Steam economy, which is defined as the mass of water vapor
generated per mass of steam is the process parameter most
significant in evaluating the performance of multiple effect
evaporators

ELECTRIC POWER DISTRIBUTION IN PROCESS PLANTS

The loads of a big city are primarily residential complexes,

offices, schools, hotels, street lighting etc. These types of
consumers are called LT (low tension) consumers. Apart from this
there may be medium and small scale industries located in the
outskirts of the city. LT consumers are to be supplied with single
phase, 220 V, 40 Hz. We shall discuss here how this is achieved in
the substation receiving power at 33 kV.

Typical Power
distribution scheme.

Power receive at a 33 kV substation is first stepped down to 6 kV

and with the help of under ground cables (called feeder lines),
power flow is directed to different directions of the city. At the last
level, step down transformers are used to step down the voltage
form 6 kV to 400 V. These transformers are called distribution
transformers with 400 V, star connected secondary. You must have
noticed such transformers mounted on poles in cities beside the
roads. These are called pole mounted substations. From the
secondary of these transformers 4 terminals (R, Y, B and N) come
out. N is called the neutral and taken out from the common point of
star connected secondary. Voltage between any two phases (i.e., R-
Y, Y-B and B-R) is 400 V and between any phase and neutral is
230 V(=4003 . Residential buildings are supplied with single
phase 230V, 50Hz. So individual are to be supplied with any one of
the phases and neutral. Supply authority tries to see that the loads
remain evenly balanced among the phases as far as possible.
Which means roughly one third of the consumers will be supplied
from R-N, next one third from Y-N and the remaining one third
from B-N. The distribution of power from the pole mounted
substation can be done either by (1) overhead lines (bare
conductors) or by (2) underground cables. Use of overhead lines
although cheap, is often accident prone and also theft of power by
hooking from the lines take place. Although costly, in big cities and
thickly populated areas underground cables for distribution of
power, are used.