Class 9th Mathematics

Module 1/1
Introduction to Euclid’s Geometry

by
Saibaba lakkaraju,aecsmum2.
➢ Euclidean Geometry is the study of Geometry based on definitions,
undefined terms,(points, line and plane) and the assumptions of the
mathematician Euclid(330BC)
➢ Euclidean geometry is the study of flat space.
➢ Euclidean text Elements was the first systematic discussion of
geometry. While many of Euclid’s findings had been previously stated by
earlier Greek mathematicians, Euclid is credited with the developing of
the first comprehensive deductive system. Euclid`s approach to
geometry consisted of proving all the theorems from a finite number of
postulates and axioms.
➢ The concept in Euclid`s geometry remained unchallenged until the
early 19th century. At that time , other forms of geometry started to
emerge, called non-Euclidean geometry. It was no longer assumed that
Euclid’s geometry could be used to describe all physical space.
 Basic Concepts and Important Points

➢ Postulates: The basic facts which are taken, for granted, without proof and
which are specific to geometry are called postulates.

➢ Axioms: The basic facts which are taken for granted, without proof and which
are used throughout in the mathematics are called axioms.

➢ Theorem: The conclusions obtained through logical reasoning based on

previously proven results and some axioms constitute a statement known as a
theorem or a proposition.

➢ Point: A point is represented by a fine dot made by a sharp pencil on a sheet of

paper.
➢surface
Plane: The surface of a smooth wall or the surface of a sheet of paper or the
of a smooth black board are close examples of a plane.
➢ Line: A line is breathless length e.g.. if we fold a piece of paper, the crease in
the paper represents a geometrical straight line. The edge of a ruler, the edge of
the top of a table, the meeting place of two walls of a room are some examples
of a geometrical straight line.
➢ Incidence Axioms:
Axiom 1: A line contains infinitely many points.
Axiom 2: Through a given point, infinitely many lines can pass
through.
Axiom 3: In given two points A and B, there is one and only one line
that contains both the points.
➢ Collinear Points: Three or more points are said to be collinear, if
there is a line which contains all of them.
➢ Concurrent Lines: Three or more lines are said to be
concurrent, if there is a point which lies on all of them.
➢ Intersecting Lines: Two lines which meet at one point are said
to be intersecting lines. The common point is called the ‘point of
intersection’.
Note: Two distinct lines cannot have more than one point in
common.
➢ Parallel Lines: Two lines l and m in a plane are said to be
parallel lines, if l ∩ m = ϕ. If l and m are two parallel lines in a
plane, we can write l ‖ m.
➢ Parallel Axiom: If l is a line and P is a point not on line l, there is one and
only one line m which passes through P and is parallel to l.

➢ Two lines which are both parallel to the same line, are parallel to each
other.
➢ If l, m, n are three lines in the same plane such that l intersects m and n ‖
m, then l intersects n also.
➢ If l, m, n are three lines in the same plane such that l intersects m and n ‖
m, then l intersects n also.
➢ If land m are intersecting lines, l ‖ p and q ‖ m, then p and q also
intersect.
➢ If lines AB, AC, AD and AE are parallel to a line l, then points A, B, C, D
and E are collinear.
➢ Line Segment: In given two points A and B on a line l, the connected
part (segment) of the line with end points at A and B, is called the
line segment AB.
➢ Interior Point of a Line Segment: A point P is called an interior point
of a line segment AB, if P ε AB but P is neither A nor B.
➢ Congruence of Line Segments: Two line segments AB and CD are
congruent, if the trace-copy of one can be superposed on the other
so as to cover it completely and exactly.
➢ Line Segment Length Axiom: Every line segment has a length. It is
measured in terms of ‘metre’ or its parts.
➢ Congruent Line Segment Length Axiom: Two congruent line
segments have equal length and conversely, two line segments
of equal length are congruent,
i.e., AB ≌ CD ⇔ l (AB) = l (CD).
➢ Line Segment Addition Axiom: If C is any interior point of a line
segment AB, then

➢ Line Segment Construction Axiom: Given a point O on a line l

and a positive real number r, there are exactly two points P1 and
P2 on l, on either side of O such that
l (OP1) = l (OP2) = r cm.
➢ Distance between Two Points: The distance between two points P
and Q is the length of the line segment joining them and it is
denoted by PQ.
➢ Betweenness: Point C is said to lie between the two points A and B,
if, (a) A, B and C are collinear points and
(b) AC + CB = AB.

➢ Mid-point of a Line Segment: Given a line segment AB, a point M is

said to be the mid-point of AB, if M is an interior point of AB
such that AM = MB.

Line through M, other than line AB is called the bisector of the

segment AB.
➢ Opposite Rays: Two rays AB and AC are said to be opposite rays if they
are collinear and point A is the only common point of these two rays.
Note: Two rays or two line segments or a line segment and a ray (line)
are said to be parallel, if the lines containing them are parallel.
➢ Euclid’s Five Postulates:
(a) A straight line may be drawn from any one point to any other point.
(b) A terminated line can be produced indefinitely.
(c) A circle can be drawn with any centre and any radius.
(d) All right angles are equal to one another.
(e) If a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles
on the same side of it, taken together less than two right angles, then the
two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which the
angles are less than two right angles.
➢ Some Euclid’s axioms:
(a) Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another.
(b) If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal.
(c) If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal.
(d) Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another.
(e) The whole is greater than the part.
(f) Things which are double of the same things are equal to one another.
(g) Things which are halves of the same things are equal to one another.
➢ A system of axioms is called consistent, if it is impossible to deduce from
these axioms a statement that contradicts any axioms or previously
proved statement.
Some worked out examples:-
1. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?
Give reasons for your answers.

(i) Only one line can pass through a single point.

(ii) There are an infinite number of lines which pass through two distinct
points.
(iii) A terminated line can be produced indefinitely on both the sides.
(iv) If two circles are equal, then their radii are equal.
(v) if AB = PQ and PQ = XY, then AB = XY.
Solution: (i) False
There can be infinite number of lines that can be drawn through a
single point. Hence, the statement mentioned is False
(ii) False
Through two distinct points there can be only one line that can be
drawn. Hence, the statement mentioned is False
(iii) True
A line that is terminated can be indefinitely produced on both sides
as a line can be extended on both its sides infinitely.
Hence, the statement mentioned is true.
(iv) True
The radii of two circles are equal when the two circles are equal. The
circumference and the centre of both the circles coincide; and thus, the
radius of the two circles should be equal. Hence, the statement
mentioned is True.
(v) True
According to Euclid’s 1st axiom- “Things which are equal to the same
thing are also equal to one another”.
Hence, the statement mentioned is true.
2. Give a definition for each of the following terms.
Are there other terms that need to be defined first? What are they, and
how might you define them?
(i) parallel lines (ii) perpendicular lines
(iii) line segment (iv) radius of a circle (v) square
Solution:
Yes, there are other terms which need to be defined first, they are:
Plane: Flat surfaces in which geometric figures can be drawn are known
are plane. A plane surface is a surface which lies evenly with the straight
lines on itself.
Point: A dimensionless dot which is drawn on a plane surface is known
as point. A point is that which has no part.
Line: A collection of points that has only length and no breadth is known
as a line. And it can be extended on both directions.
A line is breadth-less length.
(i) Parallel lines- Parallel lines are those lines which never intersect each
other and are always at a constant distance perpendicular to each
other. Parallel lines can be two or more lines.
(ii) Perpendicular lines- Perpendicular lines are those lines which
intersect each other in a plane at right angles then the lines are said to
be perpendicular to each other.
(iii) Line Segment- When a line cannot be extended any further because
of its two end points then the line is known as a line segment. A line
segment has 2 end points.
(iv) Radius of circle- A radius of a circle is the line from any point on the
circumference of the circle to the centre of the circle.
(v) Square- A quadrilateral in which all the four sides are said to be equal
and each of its internal angle is right angles is called SQUARE.
3. Consider two ‘postulates’ given below:
(i) Given any two distinct points A and B, there exists a third point C
which is in between A and B.
(ii) There exist at least three points that are not on the same line.
Do these postulates contain any undefined terms? Are these
postulates consistent? Do they follow from Euclid’s postulates?
Explain.
Solution:
Yes, these postulates contain undefined terms. Undefined terms in the
postulates are:
There are many points that lie in a plane. But, in the postulates given
here, the position of the point C is not given, as of whether it lies on the
line segment joining AB or not.
On top of that, there is no information about whether the points are in
same plane or not. Yes, these postulates are consistent when we deal
with these two situation: Point C is lying on the line segment AB in
between A and B.
Point C does not lie on the line segment AB. No, they don't follow from
Euclid’s postulates. They follow the axioms.
4. If a point C lies between two points A and B such that AC = BC,
then prove that AC = 𝟏/ 𝟐 AB.
To prove:
If a point C lies between two points A and B such that
AC = BC, then prove that AC = 𝟏/𝟐 AB.
Solution :-
Given that, AC = BC
Now, adding AC both sides.
L.H.S + AC = R.H.S + AC
AC + AC = BC + AC
2AC = BC + AC
We know that, BC +AC = AB (as it coincides with line
segment AB)
∴ 2 AC = AB (If equals are added to equals, the wholes are
equal.)
⇒ AC = 𝟏 /𝟐 AB.
5. Why is Axiom 5, in the list of Euclid’s axioms, considered a
‘universal truth’?
(Note that the question is not about the fifth postulate.)
Solution:
Axiom 5 : The whole is always greater than the part. For Example:, A
cake. When it is whole or complete, assume that it measures 2 pounds
but when a part from it is taken out and measured, its weigh will be
smaller than the previous measurement. So, the fifth axiom of Euclid is
true for all the materials in the universe. Hence, Axiom 5, in the list of
Euclid’s axioms, is considered a ‘universal truth’.
 6. How would you rewrite Euclid’s fifth postulate so that it would
be easier to understand?
Solution:
Euclid’s fifth postulate:
If a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles
on the same side of it taken together less than two right angles, then
the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on
which the sum of angles is less than two right angles. i.e., the Euclid’s
fifth postulate is about parallel lines. Parallel lines are the lines which do
not intersect each other ever and are always at a constant perpendicular
distance apart from each other. Parallel lines can be two or more lines.
A: If X does not lie on the line A then we can draw a line through X which
will be parallel to that of the line A. B: There can be only one line that
can be drawn through the point X which is parallel to the line A.
Thank you
Saibaba lakkaraju,aecsmum2